PUThAJI'S IHOME CYCLOPEDIA.
HEAND-BOOK
OF
~HRONOLOGY AND HISTORY
~)e ~arlhs ~9rtngress,
A DICTIONARY OF DATES:
WITH TABULAR VIEWS OF GENERAL HISTORY, AND A
HISTORICAL CHART.
EDITED BY
GEORGE P. PUTNAM.
NEW-YORK:
GEORGE P. PUTNAIM
1852.
ENTERED, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1850, by
GEORGE P. PUTNAM,
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court for tlhe Scuthern District
of New-York.
JOHN F. TROw,
Printer and Stereotyper,
49, 51 and 53 Ann-st., N. Y.
iPREFA CE.
4'-rILE revising a chronological manual, in compiling which I had,
It the age of fifteen,* employed many midnight hours, I have found
3iaterial assistance in the tables prepared by my late friend, ID. A.
Talboys, publisher, of Oxford, England, usually called the Oxford
ironological Tables. In the alphabetical part of the volume, the
comprehensive and useful Dictionary of Dates, by HIaydn,t has been
incorporated almost entire, with such additions relating to the United
3tates as were necessary to its completeness, and with continuations
o the present year.
The contemporary tables which I had formerly prepared, had
)st much diligent application, and I was glad to find on collating
hem with the more recent works, that some slight additions only
vere needed to make them as full and complete as was desirable for
the purpose in view, viz.: a convenient and portable volume for reference, not over-burdened with details, but indicating to the intelligent
reader all the great landmarks of history in their order of succession;
tend showing also what was going on at the same time in different
countries. To render this glance more comprehensive and clear,
many of the details in the former tables are now omitted, as they
are given more at large in the alphabetical part of the volume.
To a reader of history the utility of such a glance at contemporary persons and events, is too obvious to need illustration: but while
the more elaborate and ponderous works of Blair, Talboys, and
* Ckron0logy-An Index to Universal History, &c. 12mo. Leavitt, NewYork, 1833. The volume has been long out of print.
t Fourth edit. 8vo. Lond., 1817. That work needs no praise here.
iV PREFACE.
others, are available to the historian or the merely literary man, they
are usually repulsive to the general reader, for the very reason
that they contain too mzuch for ordinary purposes; their very elaborateness serves to puzzle and to mystify.
What is here aimed at is simply to indicate, in brief and sugges.
tive terms, the succession of the prominent occurrences and of the
governments in the chief nations of the world-enough merely to
recall to the reader of history the full pictures of these events, and
to enable him to classify them correctly in his memory.
The alcnirbetical part of the volume gives, in most cases, more
full and ample references to the same historical facts; but still th,
whole work is but an index to the sources of knowledge-a Dictionary of Dates. It has been planned so as to facilitate access to thil
largest amount of useful information in the smallest possible
compass.
There are some discrepancies among the authorities, as to name,;
and dates-especially in the Middle Ages-and in somie instance
the dictionary varies from the tables; but these instances are no.
numerous or important.
The Biographical List at the close of the volume will contribute,
it is presumed, to render the contemporary tables far more variously
useful than would be at first supposed. By ascertaining from it
the dates of birth and death of any eminent person, the tables will.
show at a glance what events happened, and what other eminent persons lived during the life-tilne of that individual.
It would be superfluous to say more by way of explanation. That
such a volume can be quite free from imperfections is not to be
supposed; but the compiler trusts that it will be found to answer all
reasonable expectations, as a compact manual of reference to the
World's Progress in Arts, Literature, and Social Life, as well as in
Politics and Government. G. P..P.
CONTENTS.
TABULAR VIEWS OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY,
IN CONTEMPORARY COLUMNS,.
I. ANCIENT IIISTORY.?ERIOD I.-The Antediluvian (1656 years)...?ERIOD II.-Dispersion of Mankind (427 years).-The Deluge to Abraham 4?SRIOD III. —The Abrahamic or Patriarchal (430 years).-Abraham to Moses. 6?ERIOD IV.-The Mosaic or Tlleocratic (396 years). —Moses to Saul. 8
PERIOD V.-The Monarchical (489 years).-Saul to Cyrus.. 14?ERIOD VI.-The Persian (322 years).-'-Cyrus to Alexander. 2]?eRIOD VII. -The Grecian (184 years).-Alexander to the Fall of Greece 26
ERInOD VIII. —The Roman (146 years). —Fall of Greece to the Christian Era. 38
I. MODERN IIISTORY.
PERIOD 1.-(306 years).-From the Christian Era to the reign of Constantine.. 48
PEROD II. —(170 years.)-Constantine to Odoacer..... 58
lrERmoo III.-(146 years.)-Odoacer to Mahornet. 62
PERIOD IV.-(178 years.) —Mahomnet to Charlemagne, 68
P'RIoD V.-(266 years.)-Charlemagne to William the Conqueror. 72
PErsIoD VI.-(233 years.)-William the Conqueror to Othman I... 86
PEarIoD VII.-154 years.)-Othman to the Fall of the Eastern Empire. ~ 102
PERIOD VIII.-(145 years.)-Fall of Eastern Empire to the Edict of Nantes. 112
PERIOD IX.-(120 years.)-Edict of Nantes to the death of Charles XII., of Sweden 122
R'ERIOD X. —(97 years.)-Charles XII. of Sweden to the Fall of Napoleon ~ 134?ERIOD XI.-(35 years.)-Napoleon to the year 1850..146.:I. DICTIONARY OF DATES.. 145
[II. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY...... 609
IV. HEATIIEN DEITIES, &c.. 648
y: BIOGRAPHICAL INDIEX...657
EXPLANATION OF THE CHART OF HISTORY:
tpr-esenting, in a Chronological Series, the Rise, Revolutions, and Fall J the
principal Empires of the World.
ON THE PLAN OF DR. J. PPRIESTLEY.
It is necessary to notice, that the space allotted'o each country is rather according to its relative
litical importance, than to its geographical extent.
The spaces between the vertical lines which cross the chart, represent tisne, viz., each a cen-:y or 100 years; those between the horizontal lines represent countries, the names of which are
pressed at the end of the chart.
By examining the vertical columns, we ascertain the contemporary state of different nations at
period we fix upon. - For instance: about 1500 years before Christ, we see states forming in'eece; the Israelites in Egypt (from whence they depart nine years after); the Egyptian, Assy-.n, Persian, Chinese, and other kingdoms had been founded several centuries previous-but their;tory uncertain and obscure. At the time of Christ, we find the Roman Empire spread over a
eater part of the then known world, but the Parthians, Britons, and Germans, as yet unsubdued
them. 700 years after, this empire exists only in Turkey, and its former territories are under
rbarians: the Ileptarchy in England; the Lombards in Italy, the Franks in Gaul; the African
ovinces, and a large part of Asia under the Saracens. In 1500 we find the Eastern or Greek
npire fallen under the Turks; the Tartars powerful in Asia: many of the modern states of
trope founded; America discovered by the Europeans, &c. &c.
On the other hand, the revolutions of each country may be seen in continuation by looltng
ng the chart horizontally: the Persian empire is founded in remote antiquity; united with that
the Medes, about 600 B. c.; is extended by Cyrus into Assyria, Asia Minor, and Egypt, 536; falls
turn, under the Macedonians, Parthians, Saracens, Turks, and Tartars, successively.-The
-aelites in Egypt from 1706 to 1491 B. c.; in Canaan 1451; under the Judges about 1300; under
ngs, 1095; Ten Tribes separated, 975; they are conquered, 721, and Judah, 588, by the Assyrians;;tored by the Persians, 535; under the Macedonians, 330; restored to independence by the Macbees, 150; conquered by the Romans, 63; by the Saracens, A. D. 622; afterwards by the cruiers, Mamelukes, and Turks, successively.-England subdued by the Romans in the first cenry; relinquished by them, A. D. 410; subdued by the Saxons, 500; by the Danes, 860; by the
)rmans (receiving French territories), 1066; united with Ireland, 1170; with Wales, 1280; with
otland, 1600.-Italy in antiquity possessed by several petty tribes; by the Romans from 300-200
c. to 480 A. D., then by the Herulii, Ostrogoths, Lombards, and Franks, successively;-in modern
aes, divided into several small republics and principalities; joined to the French empire about
30, and now divided chiefly between Austria, the Grand Dukes of Tuscany, Modena, &c., the
)pe, and the King of Naples.
" They are rather melancholy reflections which the view of such a chart of history is apt to
cite in the minds of persons of feeling and humanity. What a number of revolutions are
nrked upon it! What torrents of human blood has the restless ambition of mortals shed, and in
tat complicated distress has the discontent of powerful individuals involved a great part of
etr species l " —Priestley.
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
PART I.!ABULAR VIEWS OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY.
ANCIENT CHRONOLOGY-fi'om the Creation to the Birth of Christ-4004 years.
MODERN CHRONOLOGY-fi'om the Birth of Christ to the present time-1850 years.
1. ANCIENT CHIRONOLOGY.
DIVIDED INTO EIGHT PERIODS.
B.C.*
From the Creation, 4004
to the Deluge, 2348........1656 years.........The Antediluvian Period.
From the Deluge, 2348
to the Call of Abraham, 1921..... 427 years.......The Dispersion Period.
From the Call of Abrahan, 1921
to the Exode from Egypt, 1491.. 430 years........The Patriarchal Period.
From the Exode, 1491
to the Kingdom of Saul, 1095........ 396 years.........The Theocratic Period.
From Saul, 1095
to the Captivity of Israel, 588. 507 years.........The Monarchical Period.
From the Captivity, 588
to Alexander the Great, 330....... 258 years......The Persian Period.
From Alexander, 330
to the Subjugation of Greece, 146...... 184 years......... The Grecian Period.
From the Subjugation of Greece, 146
to the Birth of Christ, 0........ 146 years.........The Roman Period.
From the Creation to the Christian era, the dates are reckoned B. a.BEFORE CIIRlST. They are then chalged to A. D. —the Year of our Lord.
THE WVORLD'S PROGRBESS. 3
FIRST PERIOD-(the Antediluvian)-1656 years.
C.
)04 THE CREATION OF THE WORLD.-(Hebrew Peztateuch.) [Hales places it 5411 B. C.*
The fall of man, and the promise of a Saviour.
The birth of Cain, the first-born of woman-a husbandman.
I75 The death of Abel, the first subject of death. He was a shepherd.'74 Seth born, the third son of Adam. Enoch born, the first son of Cain.t
/69 Enos born. Cain builds a city, which he calls Enoch..Te iatroduces the use of weights and measures. —Josephus. Tytler.
79 Cainan born. Irad.
09 Mahalaleel born. Mehlujael.
44 Jared "l Methusael.
82 Enoch IC Lamech-polygamy introduced.:17 Methuselah " (lived 969 years.) Jabal, Jubal. Tubal-cain. Naamah.;30 Lamech " The first to He invent- He discov- She introi74 Death of Adam, aged 930 years. build a Tent ed the Hlarp ed the mode duced the
1i7 Enoch translated. for habita- and the Or- of preparing artsof Spin4S Noah born, tion, and to gasz,or wind and using ning and
68 The building of the Ark commenced. usecattlefor and stringed iron, brass,V Weaving.
48 THE DELUGE. [Hales places it 3154 purposes of instruments and other
B. c.] husbandry. of music. MlIetals.
a * See alphabetical portion of this volume for the various dates of the chronologists. The,Saoaritan Pentateuch places the Creti.ion B. c. 4700; the Septuagint, 5872; Josephus, 4658; the'olonudists, 5344; Scaliger, 3950; Petaviuzs, 3984; and Dr. Hales, 5411. The last named enuerates above 120 various opinions on this subject, the difference between the latest and remotest:te of which is no less than 3268. The Hebrew account is followed by Usher, and is here adopted
the most generally received standard.
t No dates are assigned in Scripture to the names here placed in the right-hand column.-They
e however contemporary with those in the other column.
REMARKS. —The Antediluvian Period was nearly as long as the whole period that has elapsed
ace the birth of Christ. Of the progress of knowledge and the arts, during that period, nothing
known beyond what is given above, except that ship-building, calking, and the use of pitch, or
tint, of measures by cubit, &c., and of doors and windows, were known. They imply, in their
Laptation to the use of man, other arts, anrd a considerable advance in science and the mechanical
nwers.
=- THE TABULAIR VIEWS ARE CONTINUED ACROSS TWO PAGES AT THE
SAME TIME.
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
SECOND PERIOD-(Dispersion of Mankin.) —
SACRED HISTORY.
B.C. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY AND THE ARTS.
2347 WCine made by Noah from the grape. 2347. The descendants of Noah dispersed
through the earth: those of Shem probably
in Asia, of Ham in Africa, and of Japhet ir
Europe.
2347. The curse pronounced upon the descend.
ants of Ham.
2247 Bricks made, and cement used to unite them. 2247. The building of Babel.*
Confusion of languages at Babel.
2245. BABYLON founded by Nimrod, son of
Cush, and Grandson of Ham.
NINEVEH founded by Ashur, son of
Shem.
2234 Astronotical observations begun at Babylon.
2122_ Athotes (son of Menes) invents hieroglyphics.
2100 Sculpture and Painting employed to commemorate the exploits of Osymandyas.
2095 Pyraooids and Canals in Egypt. The science
of Geometry begira, to be cultivated.
1998 Ching Hong teaches the Chinese the art of
Husbandry, and the method of making
Bread from wheat, and wine from rice.
1996. Abraham born.
1921. The call of Abraham.
* The chronology here adopted is that of the HIebrew Pentateuch. The Samaritan placc:
Babel 531 years after the deluge.
THE WORLD 7S PROGRESS. 5
127 years. —The Delugte to Abrahaln.
PROFANE IIISTORY. —(In this period traditional and uncertain.)
B. c. ASIA. AFRICA. EUROPE.
207 CHINA. The first imperial
dynasty of lia begins. Fohi
(who is perhaps Noah himself) is mentioned as the first
Chinese monarch.
2188. Misraim (Menes), the son
of Ham, builds Memphis, in
EGYPT, and begins the Egyptian monarchy.
24IBelus reigns in BABYLON.- gyptian monarchy.
[Some suppose Belus to be
the Nimrod of Scripture. If
so, there is a discrepancy of
121 years between the sacred
and profane chronologies.]
The origin of the kingdoms 2111. THE BE S founded by
of Babylon and Nineveh, and Busiris.
of the Assyrian empire, is 2100. Osymandyas, the first
variouslystated by the chron- warlike king, passes into
ologists. See Sacred Hist.] Asia, and conquers Bactria.
2089. SICYON, the first kingdom of GREECE, founded
by Egialus, or Inachus.
2085. Egypt conquered by the
shepherd kings of Phenicia,
who hold it 260 years.
169 Ninus, son of Belus, reigns in
Nineve. 2048 A colony of Phenicians
)59 He establishes the ASSYRIAN land in Ireland. (9)
2042. Uranus arrives in Greece.
)17 Semiramis enlarges and embellishes Babylon, and makes it
the seat of empire. [By others
placed 2107 B. o.]
375 Semiramis invades Lybia,Ethiopia, and India.
1938. Lake Moeris constructed.
337 The Arabs seize Nineveh. (3)
Revolt of the Titans.
War of the Giant.
6 THE WORLD7S PROGRESS.
THIRD PERIOD-(The Abrahamic or Patriar'chal.)SACRED IISTORY.
B.C. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY AND THE ARTS. B. C. THE JEWS.
1921. Abraham called.
1920 Gold and silver first mentioned as money. 1920. -goes into Egypt.
1912. -delivers Lot fiom captivity, and r
ceives the blessing of Melchizedec.
1909. Ishmael born.
1897. Sodom and Gomorrah destroyed.
God renews his covenant with Abrahal
1896. Isaac born.
1891 Letters first used in Egypt by Syphoas.
1871. Abraham commanded to offer Isaac
sacrifice.
1856. Isaac married.
1836. Jacob and Esau born.
1824. Abraham dies, aged 172.
1822 Memnon invents the Egyptian alphabet.
12 emnaphabet. 1759. Jacob marries Leah and Rachel.
1739. His name changed to Israel.
1729. Joseph sold into Egypt.
1715. Is made governor under Pharaoh.
1706. Jacob and his family settle in Egypt.
1702. End of the seven years' famine.
1699. Death of Jacob.
1635. Death of Joseph.
1588 Atlas, the astronomer.
1582 The chronology of'the Arundelian marbles
begins.
1580 The cymbal used at the feasts of Cybele. 1577. Israelites persecuted in Egypt.
1574. Aaron born.
1571. Moses born.
1534 Dancing to music introduced by Curetes.
Book of Job written about this time.
1531. Moses flees into Midian.
1513. The supposed era of Job.
1506 Theflute invented by Hyagnis, a Phrygian.
1497 Amphictyon gives interpretation to dreams
and draws prognostics from omens.
1494 Ericthoneus teaches the Athenians husbandry.
1491. God appears to Moses in a burning bL
at Horeb, and sends him to Egypt to deli)
the Israelites.
The Ten Plagues in Egypt.
Institution of the Passover.
The EXODUS of the Israelites fri
Egypt.
THE WVORLD'S PROGiLESS. 7
Abrahcan to llioses. —(430 yecars.)
PROFANE HE-ISTOrIY.-(Stil fabulous or uncertainz.)
ASIA. A FRICA. EunopE.
1856. Inachus, the Phenician
plants a colony in ARGOS.
1807. Phoroneus reigns in
Argos.
1764. Ogyges reigns in Baeotia.
766 China. The 2d Imperial dy- 1707. Apis, king of Argos.
nasty begins. 1732. The Ogygean Deluge in
Attica.
1711. The city of Argos built
by Argus, the son of Niobe.
1710. A colony of Arcadians
emigrate into Italy under
]Enotrus.-C-Enotria afterwards called Magna Grecia.
1641. Criasus succeeds his
father, Argus.
1618. Sesostris reigns in Egypt.
1556. Rameses-Miamum reigns 1556. ATHENS founded by
in Egypt. Cecrops.
1552. Triopas. king of Argos.
The kingdom divided, Polycaon reigning in Messenia.
1546. TROY founded by Scamander.
1529. Deluge of Deucalion in
Thessaly.
1520. Corinth founded.
1516. Sparta founded, and the
kingdom of Laconia, or Lacedemon.
1507. The Areopagus establish.
ed in Athens.
1506. Crotopas succeeds to the
throne of Argos.
1504. Deucalion arrives in Attica.
The kingdom of Messe.
nia commenced by Polycaon.
1493. THEBES in Bceotia,
founded by Cadmus, a Phe
nician, who introduces the
alphabet into Greece.
8 THE'WORLD'S PROGRESS.
FOURTH PERIOD.-( The Mosaic or Theocratic)SACRED HISTORY.
B. C. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY AND THE ARTS. THE JEWS.
1491. Departure of the Israelites from Egyi
The law given at Mount Sinai.
1490 Crockery made by the Egyptians and Greeks.
1486 Ericthonius introduces the first chariot.
The fabulous or traditionary Hermes. Trismegistus placed about this period. 1471. Rebellion of Korah, Dathan, and Abira
1453. Aaron dies.
1451. Moses writes the Pentateuch, and die
1451. Israelites enter Canaan urder Joshua.
Bacchus, god of wine.
1453 Olympic Games first celebrated in Greece.
Apollo, god of music and poetry.
1443. Joshua dies.
1405. Othniel judges Israel.
1390. The tribe of Benjamin almost extinct
1370 Bucklers used in single combat invented by
Prcetus and Acrisius of Argos.
1356 Eleusinian mysteries instituted by Eumolpus.
1343. Eglon, king of Moab, enslaves Israel.
1325. Ehud kills Eglon, and delivers Israel.
1317. Shamgar kills 600 Philistines with
ox goad.
1305. Israel subdued by Jabin, king of Canat
1285. Deborah and Barak defeat the Canat
ites-Sisera killed by Jael.
1284 Orpheus and Linus, sons of Apollo, skilled
in music.
1263 The temnple of Apollo at Delphi built by the
council of Amphictyons.
1263 Jason leads the Argonautic expedition; the
first naval expedition on record.
1252. Israel enslaved by the Midiantes.
1249. Gideon, with 300 men, defeats the I
dianites.
Musceus, a poet.
1240 The axe, wedge, swimble and lever, also masts
and sails for ships invented by Dwedalus of
Athens.
1224 The game of Backgammon invented by Palamedes of Greece. 1209. Abimelech judges Israel.
1206. Tola judges Israel.
1183. Jair, judge of Israel.
THE WORLD'S PIROGRESS. 9
96 years.-Moses to Saul.
PROFANE IIISTORY.-(Still uncertain.)
c. AAIA. AFROIA.'EUROPE.
1491. Pharaoh and his army
drowned in the Red Sea.
1485. Egyptus reigns, ant Sthenelus reigns in Argos.
gives name to the country.
80 Dardarnus, Iking of Troy, builds
Dardania. 1474. Danaus usurps the kingdom of Argos.
1463. Damnonii invade Ireland.
1457. The kingdom of Mycene
begins under Perseus, late
kcing of Argos.
1453. Olympic games first ce49 Erictllonius reigns in Troy. lebrated at Elis.
1438. Pandion begins to reign
at Athens.
13 Cushanlishathaim, king of 1400. Minos reigns in Crete.
Mesopotamia. (See Scrip- 1397. CORINTH becomes a
ture.) kingdom under Sisyphus.
30 Teucer, king of Troy. 1383. Ceres arrives in Attica.
1376. Sethos:eigns in Egypt. 1376b The Isthmian games instituted.
1356. Eleusinian mysteries ini4 Troas, king of Troy. troduced.
L4 Ilus, son of' Troas, founder of
Ilium.
1283. JE-geus reigns in Attica.
1266. CEdipus, iking of Thebes.
1263. The Argonautic Expedition.
1257. Theseus unites the cities
of Attica under one government.
1243. The Arcadians conducted;0 Laomedon, king of Troy. by Evander into Italy.-Mui9 Phenicia: TYRE founded. seus, a poet.
1239. Latinus reigns in Italy
i2 Second Assyrian Dynasty:
Mithreaus or Ninus II..0 Troy taken by the Argonauts.
1233. Cartlage founded by the
Tyrians!5 Hercules arrives in Phrygia.
C2 Argon, a descendant of Hercu- 1225. First Theban War.les. first king of LYDIA. Euristhenes and Procles,!0 Priam, king of Troy. kings of Lacedemon.
5 Tautanas king of Assyria. 1222. Hercules celebrates the
Olympic Games.
1216. War of the Epigonii, or
2d Theban War.
1213. Helen carried off by
4 The TROJAN WAR begins. Theseus, is recovered by
q I The TR begins. ~Castor and Pollux, and mar4 Troy taken, 408 years before ries Menslaus.
the Ist Olympiad.
3 Treutaus, king of Assyria. 1204. Helen elopes with Paris.
l2 Trojans migrate into Italy. 1182. Eneas lands in Italy.
1176. Salamis founded by
Teucer.
1170. Epirus: Pyrrhus Neoptolemus.
10 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
Fourth Period.-( The Mosaic or Theocratic.) —
SACRED HISTORY.
B.C. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY AND THE ARTS. THE JEWS.
1161. Israel enslaved by the Philistines and
Ammonites.-Samson born.-Eli judges a
portion of Israel.
1143. Jephtha defeats the Ammonites, and
becomes judge of a part of Israel.
1136. Samson slays 1000 Philistines with the
jawbone of an ass.
1117. Death of Samson and Eli.
1116. Samuel, the last judge of Israel.
lllr, Mariner's compass said to be known in
China. (?)
1100 A standard dictisonary of the Chinese containing 40,000 characters, completed by Pa-outshe. (X)
1096. The Philistines defeated at Ebenezer.
1095. Establishment of the HEBREW MO.
NARCHY.-Saul anointed king of Israel.
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 11
96 years. —(Continued.l)-/Moses to Saul.
PROFANE HISTORY.-(Still fabulous or uncertain.)
C. ASIA. AFRICA. EUROPE.
1152. Alba-Longa built by
Ascanius.
1 Temple of Ephesus burnt by
the Amazons.
39 Thineus, king of Assyria.
1124. AEolian migration.
THEBES, the Capital of.2 China:-3d dynasty;-Tchcoo. Bceotia, founded.
9 Dercylus, king of Assyria.
1104. Return of the IIeraclidwe.
-End of the kingdom of
Mycene.
i~
12 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
FIFTH PERIOD.-(The lIooncarchical.)SACRED HISTORY.
B.C PROGRESS OF SOCIETY AND THE ARTS. THE JEWS.
1095. Saul, King of Israel.
1085. David born.
1062. David kills Goliath.
1055. Death of Saul. David reigns in Hebro
over Judah; Ishbosheth reigning in MahE
naim, over eleven tribes.
1048. Ishbosheth slain. David made kin
over all Israel.
1043. David subdues the Philistines, Moaites, Syrians, and extends his dominions t
the Euphrates, on the East, the Red Sea, o
the South, and Lebanon, on the North.
1036. Solomon born.
1023. Revolt and death of Absalom.
1014. Conspiracy of Adonijah.
1015 Minos gives his laws to Crete. 1015. Solomon crowned in the presence e
David.
1016. David dies.
1012. Solomon lays the foundation of tl
temple.
1004. DEDICATION OF SOLOMON:
TEMPLE.
1000. Solomon extends his commerce, in co
nection with Hiram, king of Tyre, to Indi
via Red Sea, and to the shores of the Atla
tic, via Straits of Gibraltar: builds Ta
mor (Palmyra) in the desert, Baalbec, at
other cities.
985. He is seduced into idolatry by his wive
975. -dies, and is succeeded by Rehoboam.
JUDAH. ISRAEL.
975. Rehoboam, king. Jeroboam, king.
971. Shishak plunders
the temple.
958. Abijah, king.
955. Asa, king.
954. Nadab, king.
953 Baasha, king.
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 13
07 years.-Saul to Cyrus.
PROFANE HISTORY.
C. ASIA. AFRICA. EUROPE.
1088. End of the kingdom of
Sicyon.
1070. Heremon, from Gallicia1
conquers Ireland.
1069. Codrus devotes himself
for Athens.
1060. Athens governed by
Archons.
44 The Ionian emigrants settle
in Asia Minor.
Alliance between Solomon and Alliance between Solomon and
Hiram, king of Tyre. Pharaoh.
6 Samos built. 986. Utica built.
978. Sesac, (Shishak in Scripture, and supposed Sesostris,) king of E~gypt. 976. Capys reigns in Alba
Longa., Shishak plunders Jerusalem.
14 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
Fifth Period.-( Th.e Monar chical.)SACRED HISTORY.
B. C. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY AND THE ARTS. THE JEWS.
JUDAH. ISRAEL.
942. Asa defeats Zerah, king of Ethiopia, with a million
of men.
941. -makes a league
with Benhadad, king
of Syria. 930. Elah, king.
929. Zimri, king.
Omri, king.
918. Ailab, king.
937 Breastplates invented by Jason.
914. Jehoshaphat,
king.
907. Benhadad, king of
Syria, besieges Sa898., Jehoshaphat as- maria but is resists Ahab. pulsed.
894. War with Moab.
889. Jehoram, king.
897. Ahaziah, king.
896. Jehoram, king.
895. Elijah translated.
884. Ahaziah, king. 884. Jehu, king.
886 Homer's poems brought into Greece. Athaliah, queen
884 Lycurgus reforms the constitution of Sparta. usurps the throne. 856 Jehoahazking.
869 Gold and silver coined by Phidon, tyrant of 878. Jehoash, king.
Argos.
Prophecies of Jozoah. The Prophet Jo. 841. Jehoash, king.
nab. 825. Jeroboam, king.
839. Amaziah, king. 784. Interregnum.
810. Azariah, king. 773. Zachariah, king.
Shallumrn, king.
800 Carpets in use for tents. 772. Menahem, king.
786 The Corinthians employ trirernes or vessels 770. Pul invades Iswith three banks of oars. rael and is bribed
to depart with 1000
talents.
772 Sculpture first mentioned in profane history- 762. Pekahiah, king.
an Egyptian art. 759. Pekah, king.
Interregnum.
758. Jotham, king. Hoshea, king.
742. Ahaz, king.
721 The first eclipse of the moon observed by the1. CAPTIVITY OF
Chaldeans at Babylon.
717. Iezekiah, king.
The Buddha religion introduced by Gautama 712. Sennacherib ininto India. vades Judah.
711. His army (185,.
710 Roman Calendar reformed. The year divided, 000) destroyed by a
12 months instead of 10 as before. pestilence.
Augurs instituted by Numa. 696. Manasseh, king.
685 Iambic verse introduced by Archilocus, Tyrteus, and Evander, poets.
680 Chess invented.
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 15
507 years.-Saul-to Cyrus.-(Continued.)
PROFANE HISTORY.
B. C. ASIA. AFRICA. EUROPE.
V HIomer born.
935. Bacchus, king of Corinth.
916. Calpetus, king of Alba.
903. Tiberinus, king of Alba.
895. Tiberinus drowned in the
river Albula, which is thence
called the Tiber.
864. Romulus, king of Alba
Longa.
869. Dido arrives in Africa, 845. Aventinus, king of Alba.
840 Jonah preaches to the Nine- and builds Byrsa.
vites. 825. The dynasty of the Tanites in Egypt; begins with
820 Arbaces, king of Assyria. —
Media revolts. 814. The kingdom of MACE797 Ardyssus, 1st king of LYDIA. DON founded by Caranus.
808. Procas, king of Alba.
794. Numitor, ":
771 Pul, king of Nineveh. 794. Amulius,"
781. The dynasty of the Saites
767 Sardanapalus, king of Nine- in Egypt.
veh. Olam Fodla, king in IreMedia subjected to Assyria. land. (?)
761 Alyattes, king of Lydia. 769. Syracuse founded by
747 ERA OF NABONAZZAR.- Archias of Corinth.
Assyrian empire destroyed. 753. BUILDING OF ROME
— Meles, king of Lydia. begun.
744 Pharnaces, king of Cappado. Catania founded by a cocia. lony from Chalcis.
736 Tiglath-Pileser conquers Sy- 747. Union of Romans and
ria and part of Israel. Sabines.
735 Candaules, king of Lydia. 743. 1st Messinian War.
721,Shalmanezer king of;Nine- 737. Sebacon invades Egypt.
veh, takes Samaria, and carries the Ten Tribes into
captivity. 716. Romulus murdered by the
713 Gyges usurps the throne of senators.
Lydia. 715. Numa Pompilius.
717 Sennacherib, king of Nineveh. 713. Gela in Sicily founded.
710 MEDIA becomes a kingdom
under Dejoces. 703. Corcyra built by the Co709 Ecbatana founded by Dejoces. rinthiars.
685. 2d Messinian War..680 Babylon and Nineveh under
Esarhaddon.
16 THE WORLD S PROGREISS.
Fifth.Period. —(The llIonarchical.) —
SACRED IJISTORY.
B.C PROGRESS OF SOCIETY AND THE ARTS. THE JEWS.
677. Manasseh carried to BaLylon, is afterwards rekored.
660 Attempt to discover the primitive language of
mankind; Interpreters instituted by Psammeticus; children educated in the language
and manners of Greece.
651 Se-Matsien's history of China begins.
640 The Spherical form of the earth and the true 640. Anlmon, king of Ju'lah.
cause of lunar eclipses taught by Thales, 641. Josiah. king of Judah.
who discovers the electricity of amber.
629 Periander encourages learning at Corinth.
621 Draco frames his bloody code of laws at
Athens. Josiah killed at Megiddo, by Pharaoh. Neo
cho.
610 Pharaoh-Necho begins a canal between the
Mediterranean and Red Sea. The lives of
120,000 men lost in the attempt. He sends 609. Jehoahaz, king, deposed and carried to
out a Phoenician fleet which, sailing through Egypt.
the Straits of Babelmandel, returned the Jehoiakim, king.
third year by the Straits of Gibraltar, thus
circulmnavigating Africa.
606 Sappho, Alcalus, Pittacus, Bius, Chilo, My- 606. CONQUEST OF JERUSALEM by
son, Anacharsis,.Bsop, Ilychis, Theognis, Nebuchadnezzar.
Stesichorus, Phocylides, and Cadmucs (of
Miletus), flourish at this time.
601 Thales' prediction of a solar eclipse accomplished.-(See Asia.)
598. Jehoiachin, king, reigns three months,
594 Solon's legislation in Athens, supersedes that and is carried captive to Bahylon.
of Draco. Zedeliah, king.
691 The Pythian Games at Delphi. 591. Ezekiel begins to prophesy in Chaldea.
588. CAPTIVITY OF JUDAH completed.
JERUSALEM DESTROYED-the term.
ple burnt.
Obadiah prophesies.
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 17
507 years. —nSaul to Cyrus.-(Continued.)
PROFANE HISTORY.
B. C. ASIA. AFRICA. EUROPE.
Ardysus II., king of Lydia.
678. Argmus, 1st king of Macedon.
672. Tullus IHostilius, king ol
676 Holofernes, Assyrian general. Rome.
668. Messina in Sicily founded.
665. Alba destroyed.
660. Psammetlcus, king of 664. Sea fight between the
Egypt.-MRemphis becomes Corinthians and Corcyreans.
the capital of the kingdom.
658 Phraortes, king of Media. 658. BYZANTIUM founded.
648 Saracus, king of Babylon and
Nineveh.
647 Phraortes conquers Persia, 640. Ancus Martius. —The port
Armenia, &c. of Ostia built.-The Latins
conquered by the Romans. —
634 Cyaxares, king of Media. Philip, 1st king of Mace631 Sadyattes, king of Lydia. don.
626 Nabopolassar revolts from Sa- 629. Periander rules at Coracus. rinth.
624 The Scythians invade Lydia
and Media.
619 Alyattes II., king of Lydia.
61i2 Nineveh a second time destroy- 616. Tarquinius Priscus, king
ed. of Rome.
Nabopolassar, king of BabyIon.
610. Pharaoh-Necho, king of
Egypt.
606 Pharaoh-Necho defeated by
Nebuchadnezzar at Circesium, on the Euphrates.
604 Nebuchadnezzar, king of Ba- 602. iropus, king of Macebylon. don, conquers Illyria.
601 Daniel interprets the king's 6
dream. 600. Psammis, king of Egypt.
A solar eclipse predicted by
Thales-separates the Medes
and Lydians in battle. (New.ton's Chhron., 585.)
599 Birth of Cyrus.
596 Astyages of Media drives out
the Scythians. 594. Pharaoh-Hophra, king of 594. Solon, Archor of Athensa
Egypt.
18 TIHE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
SIXTH PERIOD. —( The Persian.)B.C PROGRESS OF SOCIETY. JEWS. ASIA.
585
582. Nebuchadnezzar invades
Elam-takes Susa.
578 Money coined at Rome by Servius Tullius.
572. Tyre taken by Nebuchadnezzar.
569. Nebuchadnezzar losing
his reason is deposed.
New Tyre founded.
568 Depoenus and Scyllis open a
school of statuary at Athens.
Naucrates given to the Greeks
by Egypt as a factory.
Egypt possesses 20,000 inhabited cities.
562 First comedy acted at Athens 562. Croesus, king of Lydia.
on a cart, by Susarion and Solon and Esop at his court.
Dolon. 561. Evil-Merodach, king of
Dials invented by Anaximan- Babylon.
der of Miletus. o 559. Handwriting on the wall 559. Neriglissar or Belshazzat
Anaxinlenes, Cleobulus. at Belshazzar's feast. killed in the night.
Cyaxares It. (Darius'
king of Media.
Cyrus the Persian assists
him.
Asia Minor subjected to Crce
sus.
546. Sardis taken by Cyrus.540 The Corinthian order of ar- Crcesus made prisoner.chitecture invented by Cali- THE LYDIAN KINGDOM ENDmachus. ED.
Zoroaster, the Persian Philo- 538. BABYLON TAKEN by
sopher. Cyrus..Simonides, Anacreon, poets.
536. Edict of Cyrus for the RE- 536. PERSIAN EMPIRE
TURN of the JEws. founded by CYRUS, comJoshua, Zerubbabel. posed of Assyria, Media and
535 Thespis performs the first Persia.
tragedy at Athens. 535. Rebuilding of the temple begins.
Zechariah, Haggai. 529. Cambyses, king of Persia.
527 Learning encouraged at Athens.-First public library
founded.
522 Confucius the Chinese philo- 522. Darius Iystaspes, king
sopher.
The Daric issued by Darius. Persia.
516. Dedication of the second
temple.
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 19
258 years. —Cyrus to Alexander the Great.
B. C. AFRICA. GREECE. ROME, ETC.
585. Death of Periander, tyrant
of Corinth.
582. Corinth becomes a repub581 Egypt invaded by Nebuchad- lic.
nezzar. 578. Servius Tullius, king of
Rome.
571 Apries taken prisoner, and
strangled in his palace.
-569 Amasis, king —connection between Greece and Egypt. 567. Conquest of the Etrurians
by Rome.
565. First census of Rome:
84,700 citizens.
560. Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens.
549. Temple of Apollo at
Delphi burnt by the Pisistratidme.
547. Amyntas, king of Macedon.
539. The Phocians emigrate to
Gaul and build sMassilia
(now Marseilles).
536 Pythagoras visits Egypt.
534. Tarquinius Superbus,
king of Rome.
530. CADIZ built by the Car.
thaginians (near the ancient
527. Pisistratus dies. Tarsish).
525 Psammenitus, last king of
Egypt.-Invasion of Cambvses, who defeats the
Egyptians at Pelusium, and
takes Memphis. 522. Polycrates, tyrant of SaEGYPT BECOMES A PERSIAN mos.
PROVINCE. 521. Hippias and Hipparchus
reign in Athens.
510. The Pisistratldea expelled.
-Democracy established at
Athens.-Statues erected to
Harmonius and Aristogiton,
leaders in the revolution.
20 THE WVORLD'S PROGRESS.
Sixthi Period.-( The Persian.)B. 0. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY. THE JEWS. ASIA.
509 Abolition of the Regal Government, and establishment of 508. Darius conquers India.
Republic at Rome.
507 Heraclituzs, Th/eano, Protagoras, A2naxagoras, philosophers.-Corinna, poetess.
500 The Phmenician letters carried
to Ireland from Spain.
Pythagoras teaches the doctrine of celestial notions.
The temple of Minerva built.
498. The enians revolt from
Persia and burn Sardis.
491. Darius sends an army of
500,000 men into Greece.
487. Artabazes, king of Pontus.
486. Xerxes, king of Persia
483 The Etrusrians excel in music, 483. Joaclim, High Priest.
481. The expedition of Xerxes
the drama and architecture. into Greece.
480. The family of Archeanactes, from Mytilene, settle
3479 Xschlyluss, Pindar, poets. in Bosphorus (now Circas.
479 Jscrlylus, Pindar, poets. sia.)
478. Death of Confucius.477 Simonides, of Cos, obtains the China distracted by interna
prize at Olympia, for teach- wars.
ing a system of Mnemonics,
which he had invented.
473 Empirics instituted by Acron,
of Agrigentum.
468 Sophocles, the tragic, and
Plato, the comic poet.
466. Persians defeated by -ra
and land.
465. Xerxes assassinated.
464. Artaxerxes I. (Longina.
nuis,) king of Persia.
460 Voyage of the Carthaginians
to Britain for tin. 458. Esther.
457. Ezra goes to Jerusalem,
collects th'e Jewish Scriptures: and
453. -writes the Chronicles.
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 21
258 years.- Cyrus to Alexander'.-(Continued.)
D3.C. AFRICA. GREECE. ROME AND ITALY.
509. The Tarquins expelled
from Rome.
BRUTUS AND COLLATINUS
first CONSULS of Rome.
507. Second census of Rome,
130,909 citizens.
The Capitol finished.-War
505. Lacedemonian War. against the Tarquins and
504. Lemnos taken by Milti- their ally Porsenna.
ades.
498. Titus Lartius, first Dicta.
497. Alexander lst, king of tor.
Macedon. Tribunes of the people.
Hippocrates, tyrant of 496. Posthumius, Dictator.
Gela.
491. Invasion of the Persians 491. Coriolanus banished.
under Datis and Artaphernes.
490. Battle of MARATIION.
488. Miltiades imprisoned. 488. At the request of his
487 Eigypt revolts —is subduet by mother, Coriolanus withXerxes. -draws the Volsci from Rome.
485. Gelon, tyrant of Syracuse.
483. Aristides banished. 483. Quaestors appointed.
480 IlHamilcar killed in battle. 480. Battle of Thermopylae. 480. The. Carthaginians de.
Athens burnt by Xerxes. feated by Gelon.
Battle of Salamis.
479. Mardonius a second time 479. Syracuse'governed by
takes Athens. Hiero,.
Defeat of the Persians at
Platea and Mycale on the
same day.
477. The 300 Fabii slain.
476. Themistocles rebuilds
Athens.-The Piraeus built.
470. Cimon son of Miltiades. —
Themistocles banished.The kingdom of the Odrysee
extends over the most of
Thrace.
467. Thrasybulus succeeds
466. The Persians twice de- Hiero, and is expelled for
feated at the Eurymedon by his cruelty.
Cimon. Democracy in Syracuse.
465. 3d Messinian War.
461. Ostracism of Cimon.- 461. Earthquake at Rome.
PERICLES rises to great
460 Egypt, under Inarus, revolts power.
from Persia. 459. Athens assumes to be the
head of Greece.
456. Cimon recalled. 456. Cincinnatus Dictator.
455 All Egypt reduced by Megabysus.
22 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
The Sixth Period. —(The Persian.) —
B. C PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. THE JEWS. ASIA.
450 The Britons inflict punishment of death by drowning 449. Persians defeated at Sain a quagmire. lamis in Cyprus.
Peace with Greece.
445 Herodotus reads his history in 445. Walls of Jerusalem built
the Athenian council.-Em- by Nehemiah.
pedocles, Parmenides, Aris- Sect of Samaritans.
tippus, and Antisthenes,
philosophers.-Phidias the
finest sculptor of antiquity. 438. Spartacus takes posses.
-Euripides, tragic poet. sion of the Bosphorus.
441 The Battering Ram invented
by Artemones.
434 Aristophanes, prince of ancient comedy.
432 llfeton begins his lunar cycle.
Socrates, the greatest of heathen moralists.
Hippocrates, of Cos, the father
ot medicine.
Thucydides, Ctesias, historians.
Democritus, the laughing philosopher.
425. Xerxes II. k. of Persia.
424. Darius II. k. of l'csl.a.
414 An eclipse of the sun causes
the defeat of the Athenians
at Syracuse
410 Thucydides' history ends, and
Xenophon's begins.
404. Artaxerxes II. (>inemon.)
king of Persia.
THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 23
258 years.- Cyrus to Alexander.-(Continued.)
B. C. AFRICA. GREECE. ROMIE ETC.
454. Perdiccas, II., king of Macedon. 451. Decemviri —the laws of
the 12 tables.
449. Cimon makes peace with Virginia killed by her
Persia. father.
448. First Sacred War.
447. Athenians defeated at Cheroncea. 446. Syracuse reduces Agrigentum.
445. Military Tribunes.
444. Office of Censor instituted.
440. Pericles takes Samos. 440. Famine in Rome.
437. Amophipolis planted by 437. The Veii defeated.
Athenians.
436. Corinth at war with Corcyra.
434. War with the Tuscany.
433. The temple of Apollo dedicated.
431. The Equi and Volsci de432. Revolt of Potidmea from feated.
the Athenian confederacy.
431. The Peloponnesian War.
Invasion of Attica.
430. The Plague at Athens.
429. Pericles dies, having governed Athens 40 years.
425. An earthquake separates
the peninsula of Eubcea
from the main land.
424. Exile of Thucydides.
Campaign of Brasidas in
Thrace.
420. The 90th Olympiad.
Alcibiades effects a treatv
between the Athenians and
Argives.
416. Nicias, general of the
Athenians.
War in Sicily.
414 Amyrtmus, king of Egypt, 414. The Atheniansalarmed by
shakes off the yoke of Per- an eclipse, are repulsed besia. fore Syracuse.
413. Archelaus, king of Macedon.
412. Athens governed by the
400.-Alliance of Sparta
with Persia.
411. Alcibiades at the court of
Tissaphesnes.
410. Alcibiades defeats the
Spartans.
407 The Carthaginians send 300,000 men into Sicily.
408. Capture of Byzantium.
405. Lysander defeats the
Athenians - takes Athens,
and establishes the 30 tyrants.
End of the Peloponnesian
War.
Death of Alcibiades.
24 THE WORLDS PROGRESS.
The Sixth Period. —(The Persian.)B. C. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. THE JEWS. ASIA.
401. Cyrus the younger defeated.-Retreat of the 10,000
under Xenophon.
400. The city of Delhi found
ed.
399 Cataqpulte invented by Dionysius.
396 Cynics, sect of philosophers
founded by Antisthenes.
388 Plato, the philosopher.
Philoxenes, the poet. 387. The Greek cities of Asia
tributary to Persia.
383 BITIIYNIA becomes a
kingdom.
Mithridates lst, king of
PONTUS.
380 Treatise on conic sections by
Aristcus.
377 Diogenes, the cynic; Isocrates
and Iseeus, orators.
368 A celestial globe brought into 366. Jeshua slain by JohanGreece from Egypt. nan in the inner court of the
temple, for which a heavy 362. Ariobarzanesking ofPon,
fine is laid on the daily sacri- tus.-evolt of the Persian
fices. governor in Asia Minor.
361. Darius Ochus, or Artaxerxes III. king of Persia.
360 Philippics of Denosthenes. 360. CAPPADOCIA becomes
a kingdom under Ariarathes 1.
Commerce of Rhodes with
Africa and Byzantium
TIHE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 25
258 years.- CyrLes to Alexander.-(Continued.)
D1.C. AFRICA. GREECE. ROME AND ITALY.
401. Thrasybulus expels the
30 tyrants.
Death of Socrates.
400. Siege of Veii begun.
399. Amyntas II., kIing of Macedon.
397. Lake Alba drained.
396. Agesilaus goes into Asia.
395. Corinthian War begun.Battle of Coronea. 391. CAMILLUS, Dictator, takes
Veii, after a siege of ten
years.
390. Rome taken and burnt by
the Gauls, under Brennus.
-The Capitol besieged. —
Camillus delivers his country.
386. Damon and Pythias.
384. M. Manlius Capitolinus
thrown from the Tarpeian
382. Thebes taken by Phcebi- rock.
das.
380. Thebes delivered by Pelo379 The Carthaginians landl in pides and EPAMINONDAS. 379. The Volsci defeat the
Italy. 100th Olympiad. Romans.
377. Spartan fleet defeated at
Naxos.
376. Lucius Sextus, first ple372. Ellice and Bula in the Pe- beian consul.
loponnesus. swallowed up Camillus, the fifth time
by an earthquake. Dictator.
371. Battle of Leuzctra. 371. The curule macistrates
Alexander II., king of Ma- appointed.
cedon.
Pr7edonsinance of Thebes.
370. Perdiccas III., king of
Macedon.
364. Pelopidas killed in-battle.
932 Tachos, king, of Egypt. 362. Battle of Mantinea, death 362. Curtius leaps into a gulf
Agesilaus, the Spartan, of Epaminondas. in the Forum.
aids the Egyptians.
DECLINE OF GRECIAN
REPUBLICS.
360 360. Philip II., king of MaceVoyages of the Carthaginians don. defeats the Athenians
under Hanno. at Methone.
The Macedonian phalanx.
WVar of the allies against
Athens.
358. Philip takes Amphipolis
and loses his right eye by an
arrow friom Astor.
357. The 2d Sacred War. 357. Dionysius, the younger,
356. Philip conquers Thrace expelled from Syracuse.
and Illyria.
The Temple of Diana at
Ephesus burnt.
ALEXANDE R" the
Great " born.
26 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
SEVENTH PERIOD. —(The Grecian.) —
B.. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. THE JEWS. ASIA.
343 Aristotle. the logician and phi.
losopher, founder of the Peripatetics; Jschines, orator.
Demosthenes; lcetas, of Syracuse.
342 The Lyceum built in Attica.
336 Alexander spares the house of 336. Mithridates II., king of
Pindar. Pontus.
The revolution of eclipses first
calculated by Calippus, the
Athenian.
335 Caustic painting or the art
of burning colors into wood
or zvary, invented by Gau- 334. Battle of the Granicus.
sias, a painter of Sicyon. 333. Battle of Issus.-Parthia,
Bactria, Hyrcania,Sogdiana
and Asia Minor, conquered
by Alexander.
332. Tyre subdued after seven
months' siege.
Damascus taken. —Gaza
surrenders.
Alexander enters Jerusa- 331. Battle of Arel.he
lem.-On seeing Jaddus, the 331. Battle of Arbela. —High Priest, clad in his Persianarmytotally defeat
robes, he declares he had. CONQUEST of the PERseen him in a vision, invit- 330. CONUEST of the PER-EMPIRE.
ing him to Asia, and pro- 329. Thalestris, queen of tey
mising him the Persian em- Amazons, visits Alexander,
pire. He goes to the Tem- with a train of 300 women.
pie offers sacrifices to Jeho- 328. Alexander extends his
328 The voyage of Nearchus from vah, and departs. conquest to the Ganges.
the Indus to the Euphrates. 323. Alexander dies at BabyApelles, the painter; Cali's- lon.
thenes, philosopher. 322. Perdiccas talkes CappaIlenander, the inventor of the docia.
new comedy.
Lysistratus invents moulds
from which to cast wax
figures.
320 First work on mechanics, writ- 320. Ptolemy carries 100,000 320. Eumenes defeated by Anten by Aristotle. —Diving Jews into Eypt. tigonus.
Bell first mentioned. Onias I.
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 27
184 years.-Alexandc er to the Fall of Greece.
B. C. AFRICA. GREECE —MACEDON. ROME, ETC.
354. Dion put to death, and
353. The Phocians defeated by Syracuse usurped by ty-.39 Darius Ochus conquers Egypt, Philip. rants.
and pillages its temples.
348. End of the Sacred War.
Philip talres Olynthus.
346. Philip admitted to the
Amphictyonic,Council.
345. Duras buried by an earth- 345. Twelve cities in Campa.
quake. nia buried by an earthquake.
343. Thrace tributary to Mace- 343. Samnian War, which condon. tinues 53 years.
Aristotle appointed tutor
to Alexander.
341. Philip makes war upon
Athens.
340 The Carthaginians defeated by 340. -lays siege to Byzantiunl. 340. P. Decius devotes him.
Timoleon. Timoleon recovers Syra- self for his country.
cuse, expels Dionysius, the All Campania Is subdued.
tyrant, and defeats the Carthaginians at Agrigentum.
338. Philip defeats tie Greeks
at Cheronea.
336. Philip is murdered by
Pausanias.
ALEXANDER III., surnamed the Great. —Te ravages Greece, destroys Thebes,
sparing the house of Pindar.
335. -is chosen generalissimo
of Greece against Persia.
334. -invades Persia, and after
several great battles (see
"Asia") subdues the Persian empire and Egypt, and
marches into India.
332 Egypt conquered by Alexan- 332. The Caledonian moder. narchy (Scotland) founded
Alexandria built. by Fergus I.
330. 2Eschines, the orator,
banished.
325. Demosthenes banished. 325. Papirius Cursor, Dictator.
323 Ptolemy I. (Soter, sonof La- 323. Death of Alexander.gus.) The Grecian cities revolt
from Macedon.-Demosthenes recalled.
322. The Greeks defeated by
sea and land near Cranon.
Death of Demosthenes.
321. Antipater, regent. 321. The Samnites make the
Romans pass under the yoke.
320. The Samnites defeated at
319. Polysperchon succeeds Luceria.
Antipater, and proclaims. liberty to the Grecian cities
28 TIE W\ORLID S PROGRESS.
The Seventh/ Period. —(The Gr'ecian.)B. C. |PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. THE JEWS. ASIA.
317 Commerce of Macedon with
India, through Egypt.
312 The Appian Way constructed. 312. SYRIA. Seleucus, Nicatos.
-The Gnomon invented to
measure altitudes.
311. Judea subject to Al:tlgo. 311. Seleucus Nicator retakes
nus. Babylon.
Era of the Seleucide.
310 Aqueducts and baths in Rome. 310. Eumeles usurps the
throne of Bosphorus, putting
to death all his bronIhrs.
After a reign of six years, is
murdered.
305. War in India, against
Sandrocottus.
301. Judea under the domi- 301. Battle of Ipsus.-Antigo.
nion of the Ptolemies. nus killed.
300 Euclid, of Alexandria, the ALEXANDER'S i,,.
celebrated mathematician.- PIRE DIVIDED in four
Zeno, founder of the Stoics; parts. - Ptolemy, Seleucus,
-Pyrrho, of the Skeptics; Cassander. Lysimachus.
Epicurus, of the Epicu- Mithridates III., king of
reans.-Bion, of Borysthe- Pontus.
nes, philosopher.
The great Chinese Wall built.
293 The first sun-dial erected at
Rome by Papirius Cursor, 291. Seleucus founds Antioch,
and the time first divided Edessa, and Laodicea.
into hours.
290 Fabius Introduces painting at
Rome.
The Colossus of Rhodes
built by Chares, of Lindus.
285 Theocrites, the father of pas. 285. The Scythians invaf
toral poetry. Bosphorus
Dionysius, the astronomer at
Alexandria, begins his era.
Iie found the solar year to
consist of 365 days, 5 hours,
and 49 minutes.
284 The Septuagint translation of 284. The sect of the Sadducees.
the Old Testament, begun at
Alexandria, by order of Ptolemy Philadelphus.
THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 29
84 years. —(Continued.)
aCl AFRICA. GREECE. ROME, ETC.
318. Phocion put to death by
the Athenians.
317. C a s s a n d e r assumes 317. Syracuse and Sicily usurpthe government of Macedon. ed by Agathocles.
Demetrius Phalerius governs Athens.
315. Cassander rebuilds Thebes,
and founds Cnssandria.
312. Epirus: P y r r h u s II., 312. War with the Etruscans.
the grleatest hero of his time.
310. The Cartllaginians defeat
Agathocles, and besiege Syracuse.
308. Fabius Maximus
307 Afathocles is defeated by the defeats the Samnites.
306 Peoce beuween Sicily and Car- 306. Democracy established at
tlPace b lAthens by Demetrius.
thage.
304. Athenians repulsed from
Rhodes.
303. Desmetsris Poliorcetes. 303. Establishment of the
general of the Grecian States. Tribus Urbanpe.
300. Restoration of Democracy 300.First Plebeian High Priest.
at Athens.
291. Death of Cassander.Alexander and Antipater
succeed.
296. Siege of Athens, by Demetrilus.
294. Demetrius murders Alexander, and seizes the throne
of Macedon. 290. End of the Samnite War.
287. Athens revolts from DeJI et.ius.
92;. Pyrrhus expelled from 286. Law of Hortensius, by
-Macedon. which the decrees of the
people had the force of those
of the senate.
284. The Achtean Republic.
30 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
The Seventh Period.-( The Grecian.)B. 0. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. THE JEWS. ASIA.
The Pharos built at Alexandria, the first light-house on
record.
283 Philetaerus, of Pergamus, patron of the arts, especially
Architecture. 282. The kingdom of PERAlexandria, the resort of the GAMUS founded by Philelearned, and centre of trade. tMarus.
281 Chariots armed with scythes, 281. Lysimachus defeated:nd
andforti3ied camnps, in use. killed by Seleucus.-Antio
chus Soter succeeds Seleucus.
276 First society of critics formed.
267 Ptolemy makes a:anal from
the Nile to the Red Sea.
266 Silver money first coined. 266. Ariobarzanes III., ki-'r (;
Pontus.
264 The Parias Chronicle composed.
Gladiators first exhibited at
Rome. 262. Antiochus Soter defeate&
at Sardis.
256 Berosses, the historian of Ba- 256. Kingdom of PARTIPI
bylon. founded by Arsaces.
255 The armillary sphere invented 255. The fourth imperial'
by Erastosthernes, who made nasty of China begins.
the first attempt to determine
the length of a degree.
252. Mithridates IV., besiege,;
in his capital by the G-.als.
Greece instructs the Romans
in the arts and sciences.
248. Onias II.: high priest.
THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 31
184 years.-(Continued.)
B.C. AFRICA. GREECE. ROME, ETC.
283 Ptolemy Philadelphus king of 283. Lysimachia destroyed by 283. The Gauls and EtruEgypt. an earthquake. rzains subdued.
281. Lysimachus defeated and 281. The Tarentine War.
slain by Seleucus.
The AchEean League of
12 states, under Aratus, of
Sicyon.
280. The Tarentines seek the
alliance of Pyrrhus, who
conquers the Romans at
Pandosia, and at
279. trrruption of the Gauls 279 — Asculum.
under Brennus.
278. -they are defeated near 278. Sicily conquered by PyrrDelphi. hus.
277. Antigonus Gonatus, king
of Macedon.
275. Curius defeats Pyrrhus,
and compels him to leave
274. Pyrrhus invades Mace- Italy.
don, defeats Antigonus, and
is proclaimed king.
272. Pyrrhus besieges Sparta 272. Fall of Tarentum.
and Argos-is slain, and Antigonus is restored.
269 Egypt first sends ambassadors
to Rome. 268. Athens taken by Antigonus Gonatus.
Second incursion of the
Gauls into Macedon.
266. Rome mistress of all Italy:
census of the city 292,224.
264. The first PUNIC WAR.
-Appius Claudius drives
Hiero from Syracuse.
260. D u i 1 u s gains a victory over the Carthaginian
fleet.
256. R e g u l u s gains ano256 Reulus invades Africa, and is ther victory.
defeated by Xantippus, a 255. A n t i g o n u s liberates 255. The Lacedemonians asSpartan general. Athens. sisting Carthage. - XantipAthens joins the Achaean pus defeats Regulus, and
league. takes him prisoner.
254. Palermo besieged by the
Romans. -About this time
251 Metellus defeats Asdrubal. 251. Sicyon joins the Achwean the EIuns are first heard of,
league. governed by Teuman.
250. The Romans begin to resort to Greece for improvement in knowledge. - Par- 249. Naval fight at Drapanum.
thia revolts from Macedon.
32 THE WORPLD'S PROGRESS.
The Seventh Period.-( The Grecian.)B. C. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. THE JEWS. ASIA.
246. Antiochus II. poisoned by
his wife.
Agrarianism attempted in
Sparta, but is put down.
241. Attalus I., king of Pergamuls.
240 Comedies first acted at Rome,
those of Livius Andronicus.
237. Simon II., High Priest.
233 The original MSS. of AJschylus, Euripides and ASophocles, lent by the Athenians
to Ptolemy, on a pledge of 15
talents.
226. Seleucus III., k. of Syria.
225 Fabius Pictor, the first Roman
historian.
Appollonius Rhodizes, poet.Chrysippus, Stoic philosopher.
224 Archimedes, the mathemati- 224. The Colossus of Rhodes
cian, demonstrates the pro-thrown down.
perties of the lever, and
other mechanical powers,
also the art of measuring
solids and surfaces.and conic
sections-constructs aplanetariumn.
219 The art of Sur'ery introduced.
An eclipse of the moon observerL in Asiu Minor.
213. Chi Hong Ti destroys the
records of the Chinese empire.
211. Antiochus the
G r e a t, king of Syria.
T1'E W\ORLD S PROGRESS. 33
184 years.-(Continued.)
3 C. | AFRICA. GREECE. ROMIE, ETC.
247 Iamilcar Barcas, general of 247. Hamilcar defeats the Rothe Carthaginians. mans at Liliboeum.
246 Ptolemy Eurgetes subdues Syria.
243. Corinth taken by Aratus.
242. Demetrius II., of Macedon.
241. Agis, king of Sparta, put 241. End of the first Punic
to death for attempting to es- War.
tablish an Agrarian law.
240. Cleanthus, the Stoic,
starves himself.
238 End of the Libyan War.
237 Hamilcar with Hannibal, passes into Spain.
232. Philip III., of Macedon.
231. Sardinia and Coreicaconquered by Rome.
228. Roman ambassadors first
appear at Athens and Co227 Carthagena in Spain, built by rinth.
Asdrubal. The fortress of the Athenaeum built.
226. Cleomenes, king of Sparta, defeats the Achwaans.Lyscades lilled. —The Agrarian law restored.
225. The Romans send another 225. The Gauls repulsed in
embassy to Greece. They Italy.
are admitted to a share in
the Isthmian games, and
granted the fieedom of Athens. 224. The Romans first cross
the Po.
223. Cleomenes talces Megalo- 223. Colonies of P 1 a c e n -
polis. tia and Cremola.
222. Battle of Sellasia. 222. Insubria (Milan) and Ligu221 Ptolemy Philopater, king of ria (Genoa) conquered by
Egypt. Rome.
220. The Social War.
219 Conquests of Hannibal, -Philip, of Macedon, as- 219. Hannibal takes Sagunthe Carothainian, in Spain; sists the Achweans.-Cleome- tum, and crosses the Alps.
He crosses the Alps. polies dies in Eyypt.-Agesipolis and Lycurgus elected
kings of Sparta.
218. Acananla ceded to Philip. 218. The Second P v N I C
W A R.-The Romans defeated by Hannibal at T icinis and Trebia.
217. Flaminius defeated
at Thrasymene.
216. earro at C an n ae to215. Aratus poisoned at totally defeated by Hannibal.?Egium. Fabius Maximus,
214. First Macedonian War, Dictator.
212. Syracuse and Sicily conquered by Marcellus.
-Archimedes killed.
211. Alliance of Philip with 211. The Carthaginians driven
Hannibal. from Capua.
34 THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
The Seventh Period. -(The Grecian.)B.C. PROGRESS OF SOCIETT, ETC. THE JEWS. ASIA.
207 Ennius, of Calabria, poet;
Sotion, of Alexandria, a
grammarian.
206 Plautus, of Umbria, the co- 206. The dynasty of II a n in
mic poet; Appollonius, of China.
Perga, mathematician; Zeno, of Tarsus, the philosopher.
Gold coined at Rome.
203. JUDEA CONQ.UERED SY
ANTIOCHUS THE GREAT.
202 The art of printing in China.
201. Onias III., High Priest..
200 Aristonymus 4th, librarian of 200. Jesus, the son of Sirach,
Alexandria. writes Ecclesiasticus.
Caius Leliuss, the Roman
orator.
198 Books, with leaves of vellum, 198. The Jews assist Antiointroduced by Attalus, king chus in expelling Scopas and
of Pergamus, in lieu of rolls. the Egyptian troops from
Jerusalem. 197. Eumenes, king of Perga.
First mention of a Senate or innus.
Sanhedrim. 196. Hannibal joins Antiochus,
who seizes the Thracian
Chersonese.
192. Syria at war with Rome.
190. Scipio Asiaticus defeasia
Antiochus at Magnesia.
188 A total eclipas of the sun at
Rome.
Asiatic luxuries brought to 187. Antiochus killed in the
Rome. temple of Jupiter Belus.Syria becomes a
Roman province.
186. The city of Artaxata (it
Armenia) built.
185. Seleucus IV., king of S,
ria.
183 A comet visible 80 days. 183. Pharnaces I., king of Por
Bion and Moschus, comic tus, conquers S i n o p e.
poets.
180 Statius Cmcilius, comic poet.
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 35
184 years.-(Continued.)
B.C. AFRICA. GREECE. ROME, ETC.
210. Scipio takes New
208. Battle of Lamia, near Elis. Carthage, and conquers As-Philip, of Macedon, de- drubal.
feats the XEtolians.
207. Nero and Livy defeat Asdrubal at Metaurus-Asdrubal killed.
206. BATTLE of MANTINEA: 206. The Carthaginians driven
Philopce men, the Prae- out of Spain.
205 Ptolemy Epiphanes, king of tor of Achaia, defeats the
Egypt. Spartans.
204E The RomangeneralScipiobe- r 204. Scipio carries the war
sieges Utica, and takes in into Africa.
one day the camps of Asdrubal and Syphax.
Hannibal recalled. —Sophonisba poisoned by Masinissa.
202 Hannibal defeated at Z a m a.
-End of the 2d Punic War.
201. Scipio carries Syphax in
triumph to Rome.
200. The Rhodians defeat the
Macedonian fleet near Chios.
-Siege of Abydos.-Second
Macedonian War begins.
199 Treaty of Carthage with Masinissa, king of Numidia.
198 Egypt loses her Syrian posses- 198. The Achteans and Sparslons. tans join the Romans against
Macedon.
197. Philip III. defeated at Cy- 197. Fiaminius victorious in
nocephalme by the Romans, Macedon.
under Flaminius.
195. Flaminius, the Roman, 195. C a t o in Spain.
quarrels with Nabis, king of
193 Masinissa harasses the Cartha- Sparta.
ginians, and injures their
commerce.
190. War with Antiochus, of
Syria, who is totally defeat.
189. Epirus declared free by ed by L. C. Scipio, and
the Romans.
188. Philopcemen abrogates 188. Syria is made a Roman
the laws of Lycurgus in province.
Sparta. 187. Scipio Africanus banished from Rome.
183. Philopeemen defeated and 183. Cato, the elder, censor.
killed by Dinocrates, king of
Messinia. 181. Plague at Rome.
180 Ptolemy Philometer, king of 180. Death of Scipio AfricaEgypt. nus.
179. Numa's books found in a
stone coffin at Rome.
36 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
Th/e SeventhA Period.-(The Gr-ecian.)B. C. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. THE JEWS. ASIA.
176. Heliodorus in Jerusalem.
175. Jason obtains the high
priesthood by corruption.
172. Jason defeated by Mene- 172. Antiochus IV. (Epipha.
laus. nes) king of Syria.
171 -declares war against Ptolemy Philomater.
17D Paper invented in China. 170. Jerusalem and the temple 170. An irruption of Tartars
169 Polybius, historian of Greece plundered by Antiochus into China.
and Rome. Epiphanes, who attempts to
The comedies of Terence per- abolish the Jewish religion,
formed. and commits great cruelties.
168 An eclipse of the moon, which
was predicted by Q. S. Gallus.
167 The first library opened at 167. Matthias, High Priest.
Rome, consisting of books 166. Prusiags king of 1 ithynia.
brought from Macedon.
The Roman treasury is so rich 165. JUDAS MACCABEUS exthat the citizens pay no pels the Syrians, and puritaxes. fies the temple.
162 Hipparchus of Nice fixes the
first degree of longitude and
latitude at Ferro, whose 164. Antiochus Epiphanes
most western point was died.
made the first general meri- 162. Demetrius Soter, kin- of
dian-lays the foundation of Syria.
Trigonometry. Mithridates Philopater,
161 Philosophers and rhetoricians 161. Judas kills Nicanor-is king of Cappadocia.
banished from Rome. succeeded by Jonathan.
First treaty with the Romans.
158. Jonathan compels the Bacchides to withdraw-is mur159 The clepsydra or water clock dered by Tryphon.
invented by Scipio Nascia. 157. Mtithridates V., king of
Pontus.
153. Ariarathes VII., king of
Cappadocia.
150 Hipparclus, of Rhodes, astro- i50. Jews take Joppa. 150. Alexander Bala kills Denomer. - Aristarchus, of metrius,and takes the throne.
Alexandria, grammarian.
149. Prusias, of Bithynia, killed by his son Nicomedes.
THE WORLD'S PROGRtESS. 37
184 years.-(Continued.)
CL. O. AFRICA. GREECE. ROMsE, ETC.
17,. Perseus, king of Macedon.
174 Cato's embassy to CarthagS.
171. Third Macedonian War.
170. Tiberius and Caius
Gracchus.
168. Perseus defeated at Pydna, by Paulus Emilius.MACEDON 1BECOMES A ItOMAN PROVINCE. 167. Census 327,032.
165. Romans enter Achaia.
155. Embassy of Diogenes, 155. Romans unsuccessful in
Carniades, and Critolaus to Spain.
Rome.
152 Massinissa defeats the Cartha- 152. Andriscus usurping the
ginians. government of Macedon, is
151 Joint reign of Philomater and conquered by Metellus. 151. Defeat of Galba.
Physcon in Egypt.
149. THIRD PuNIC WAR,
147. Metellus defeats the AchMans in Greece.
146 CARTHAGE TAKEN -and 146. Corinth taken and de- Conquest of Carthage and
destroyed. stroyed by Mummius. — of Corinth.
GREECE becomes a RO- Greece annexed to the
MAN PROVINCE under Roman empire,
the name of Achaia.
38 THE WORLD7S PROGRESS.
EIGHTH PERIOD. —(The Roman.)B. G. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. THE JEWS. ASIA.
146 Alexandria, the centre of commerce.
143 Hipparchtes begins his new
cycle of the moon. 142. Simon, High Priest.
140 Toothed wheels applied to the
clepsydra by Ctesibius.
137 Learning and learned mnen 137. Antiochus IV., (Sidetes,)
liberally patronized by Ptol- king of Syria.
emy Physcon.
Diodorus and Satyrus, peripatetics; Nicander. physician and poet; Lucius Ac- 135. End of the Apocrypha.cius, tragic poet; Arislobu. Jerusalem besieged by Anlus, the Jewish peripatetic. tiochus IV.
134. Antiochus invades Judea.
133 Equestrian order, a distinct
class.
130 Revival of learning in China. 130. John Hyrcanus delivers 130. Antiochus IV. defeated
Judea from the Syrian yoke: and killed in a war with Par-reduces Samaria and Idu- thia.
mea. 129. Demetrius II. (Nicator)
regains Syria.
123. Mithridates the Great,
120 The theory of eclipses known king of Pontus.
to the Chinese.
[16 L. Ccelius Antipater, historian; Lucillius, the first
Roman satirist; Apollodorus, of Athens, chronologist;
Castor, of Rhodes, chronologist; Anthemon, philosopher. 11. Mthridates conquers Scy.
110 First sumptuary lawe at Rome. thia, Bosphorus, Colchis,
108. Hyrcanus destroys Sama- &c.
ria.
107. -succeeded by his son
Aristobulus, who first assumes the title of king.
10.5. Alexander Janneus at
war with Egypt-takes Ga.
za. —Rebellion excited by
the Pharisee.s
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 39
146 years.-Fall of Greece to the Christian Era.
B. C. AFRICA. ROMAN EMPIRE.
146 Commerce of the world cen- Ie the East. In Europe.
tres at Alexandria.:45 Ptolemy Physcon becomes
sole king of Egypt by the
death of Philomater.
141. Numantian War.
140. The Picts from the north
of England settle in the south
of Scotland.
135. Servile var in Sicily.
133. PERGAMUS, a R o man 133. Numantia destroyed by
Province. Scipio: SPAIN BECOMES A
ROMAN PROVINCE.
Death of Tiberius Grac.
chus.
129 Ptolemy Physcon driven from
his throne lbr his cruelty.
128 Pestilence in Egypt.
123 Carthage rebuilt. 123. Tribunate of C a i u
118 Death of Micipsa, king of 118. DALMA.TIA, a Roman Gracchus.
Numidia, and the assassina- P r o vi n ce.
tion of Hiempsal by Jugurtha.
116 Ptolemy Lathyrus, king of
Egypt. 113. First great mnigration of
112 Jugurthine War. the German nations.
109. War of the Teutoni and
Cimbri.
107 Alexander I., king of Egypt.
105 Jugurtha is defeated and sur- 105. Numidia becomes a Rorenders Numidia to the Ro- mas, province by the dejeat
mans. of Jugurtha.
104 The Teutoni defeat 80,000
Romans on the banks of the
Rhone.
102. M a r-i u s victorious
over the Teutonl and Ambrones at Aqu.e Sextie.
101. Marius and Catullus defeat the Cimbri.
100. Marius buys his sixth consulate.
Banishment of Metellus.
40 TEIE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
The Eighth Period.-( The Romzan.)B.C PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. THE JEWS. ASIA.
98. China still submits to the
IIHan dynasty; Semat:
zi n, Emperor.
97. Mithridates conquers Cappadocia.
95. Cappadocia declared free
by Rome., - Ariobarzanes
elected king.
94. Antluochus, king of Syria,
defeated y Seleucus.
93. Tigranes, king of Arme.
nia.
89. Pontus at war with Rome.
86 Libraeries of Atess sent to 86. Mithridates takes Bythi.
82 Decline of Agriculture in Syria.
Italy; corn supplied from
the provinces.
79 Posidonius calculates the 79. Alexandra, widow of Janheight of the atmosphere to neus, governs Judea.
be about 800 stadia.
78 Zeno, of Sidon, the Epicurean;
Apellicon of Athens; Alex.ander Polyphistor,the grammarian; Photius Gallus, 75. By the death of Nicomerhetorician; Q. Valerius des Bythinia becomes a
Anltias, Roman historian; province.
Q. Holrtensius, orator.
74 The cherry tree brought to
Europe from Asia by Lucullus.- Terentius Vorro
writes three boolts on agriculture.
The Romans possess gold
mines in Asia Minor, Macedonia, Sardinia and Gaul;
and productive silver mines
in Spain.
70 The first water nzill described 70. Hyrcanus II., High Priest, 70. Damascus possessed by.
near a dwelling of Mithri- deposed by his brother Aris- the Romans.
dates. tobulus. 69. Mithridates and Tigranes
67. Aristobulus and Hyrcanus defeated by Lucullus.
66 Ebony introduced at Rome by appeal to Pompey, who en- 66. Mithridates defeated by
Pompey. ters Judea and takes Jerusa- Pompey.
Vikranzaditya, king of Ozene, lem, and restores Hvrcanus
in India, patron of literature to the priesthood. 65. Antiochus XII. defeated
-at his court flourish Ame- by Pompey.-The race of
ra Sinka, lexicographer; the Seleucidae becomes exVararuchi, grammarian tinct. - Ariobarzanes II.,
Kalidasa, poet. king of Cappadocia. -An
earthquake in Bosphoru~
lays in ruins several towns.
64. Dejotarus, king of Galatia,
seizes Armenia Minor.
63. JUDEA A ROMAN PRO- 63. Pharmaces, king of Pontus.
VINCE.
THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 41
146 years.-(Continued.)
o. c. AFRICA. ROMAN EMPIRE.
In Asia and Africa. In E-urope.
99. L u s it a n i a conquered
by Dolabella, and becomes
a Roman province. —Birth
of Julius Cwesar.
97 By the death of Ptolemy 97. Annexation of Cyrene.
Apion, CYRENE becomes a
Roman province.
91. Social War in Italy.
89. illithridatic War; Sylla
commands the Roman army.
88. The Athenians seek as- 88. Sy 11 a defeating the
sistance from Mithridates Marsi and Peligni, puts an
against Rome. end to the Social Wgr.
86. Athens, reduced by famine, Civil War between Mais taken by Sylla. rius and Sylla.
83. Second Mithridatic War.
82 Revolt in Upper Egypt.- 82. Sylla plunders the temple 82. Sylla defeats Marius, and
Thebes destroyed. of Delphi. is createdperpetual dictator.
81 Alexander 11I., king of Egypt.
SO. JULIUS C_.ESAR'S FrIsT
79. P o m p e y defeats Do- CAMPAIGN.
mitius in Africa.
77. Sertorius revolts in Spain
and defeats Metellus and
75. Bythinia a Roman Pompey.
Province.
74. Third Mithridatic War
under Lucullus.
73. War of Spartacus, the gladiator.
71. Spartacus defeated by Cras
70. Pompey and Crass u s Consuls.
69. Census 450,090.
66. Metellus subdues Crete.
Pontus becomes a
Roman Province.
65 Ptolemy Auletes, king of 65 y r i a, a R o m a n 65. M. T. CICERo, Consul.
Egypt. Province.
163. Cataline's Conspiracy detected and supI pressed by Cicero.
42 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
T/ze Eighth Period. (The Roman.) —
B. C. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. THE JEWS. ASIA.
62 Magrificert houses of the
nobles; marble theatr-e of
Scaurus, to hold 30,000 spectators.
60 Cicero, statesman and orator;,Sallust, historian; Lucretius and Catullus, poets;
Apollonius, of Rhodes, rhetorician; Aristomedes, of
Crete, grammarian; Andronicus, of Rhodes, peripatetic philosopher.
55 Iron chain cables used by the
Veneti.
53. Crassus plunders the tem- 53. Parthian War.-The Rcpie of 10,000 talents. mans defeated. - Crassus
slain.
50 A water mill on the Tiber at
Romne.
49. The era of Antioch.
48. Antipater, the Idumean, is
made lieutenant in Judea by
Caesar.
47 The Alexandrian library (400,- 47. Battle of Zela.-Pharnacea
000 vols.) burnt.
000 vols.) burnt.: conquered by Caesar.
46 The year of confusion -so
called because the calendar
was altered by Sosigenes.
45 Ceesar reforms the Calendar,
by introducing the solar instead of the lunar year.First Julian year. - Vitruvius, the greatest Roman architect.
chitect. 44. A comet seen in China.
43 Cornelius Nepos, historian; 43. Judea oppressed by CrasDiodorus,Siculus, histo- SUs.
rian. Malichus poisons Antipater.
40. Herod the Great, son of
Antipater, defeats his rival, 39. The Parthians, under PairAntigonus, and Parcorus, corus, defeated by Venti.
the Parthian-takes Jerusa- dius.
lem-marries Mariamne-is Darius, king of Pontus.
made king by the Romans. 38. Ariobarzanes dethroned by
Marc Antony.
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 43
146 years. —(Continued.)
B. C. AFRICA. ROMAN EMPIRE.
East. West.
60. First Triumvirate:Pompey, Crassus, and Julius
Caesar.
Sciold, first king of Denmark.-Boh, a fierce son
of Odin.
58 Ptolemy goes to Rome, Bere- 58. Clodius prcures the ban
nice reigns in his absence. ishment of Cicero. - The
Helvetii defeated by Julius
Caesar.
57. Cicero recalle. - S a 11 u s t expelled from the
senate.-Gylf, king of Sweden.
55. Caesar passes the
Rhine, defeats the Germans and Gauls, and INVADES BRITAIN.
54. Caesar's second invasion
53. Crassus defeated and killed of Britain.
in Parthia.
52. Pompey, sole consul.
51. Caesar completes the conquest of' Gaul, which becomes a Roman province.
49. Caesar passes the
Rubicon, and in sixty
days makes himself master
of Italy-marches into Spain
and forces Pompey's troops
to surrender.
48. Thessaly becomes the seat 48. Battle of Dyrrhachium.
of war.-The Athenians declare for Caesar against Pompey.
Battle of Phasa7ia:-Pompey, defeated by Caesar, flees
46 The African War. - Scipio into Egypt, and is slain there.
and Juba defeated at Thap- 47. Caesar takes Alexandria,
sus. -Cato kills himself at and conquers Egypt.-CaeUtica. —Ptolemy Dionysius sar victorious at Zela, in
drowned in the Nile. Asia.
45 Caesar rebuilds Carthage. 45. Corinth rebuilt by Caesar. 45. C ae s a r p e r p e t u a 1
dictator-he subdues
the two sons of Pompey, and
acquires the sole power.
44. Caesar assassinated in the
Senate House.
43 Cleopatra poisons her brother 43. Second Trisumv'irate:and reigns alone. Octavius Caesar, Marc Antony, and Lepidus.-Cicero
proscribed ad murdered.
42. 7The Battle of Philippi:Antony and Octavius defeat
Brutus and Cassius.
44 THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
Thie Eighth Period.-( The Roman.)B. C. PROGRESS OF SOCGETY, ETC. THE JEWS. ASIA.
34. Antony takes possession
of Armenia, which becomes
a Roman province- leads
an inglorious expedition
against Parthia.
Golden age of Roman literature.
30 The revenue of the empire 30. Herod kills Mariamne.
amounts to about 40 millions
sterling.-First standing army in Rome.-Direct trade
of Rome with India.-Silk
and linen manufactories
in the empire.
29 Temple of Janus at Rome
closed-there being now a 29. E p e s u, next to
general peace. Alexandria, the chief place
of trade in the Roman empire.
27 Treasures of Egyptian art
brought to Rome.-The Pantheon built.
25 HORACE, VIRGIL, Tibullus,
Propertius, poets; Varru-s
and Tucca, critics; Livy,
historian; Masscenas, minister of Augustus, patron of
literature; Strabo, geographer;.nmilisus AIlacer, of
Verona, poet; Agrippa, warrior, and patron of the arts.
Woaship of Isis at Rome.
22 Pantotniznic dances introduced on the Roman stage.
20. Porus, king of India, soli19 Aquteducts constructed by 19. The Temple rebuilt by cits an alliance with Rome.
Agrippa. Herod-he also builds Cy- Parthians defeated by Tipron, Antipatris, Pharselis, berius.
17 Dedications of btanks first in- and the tower of Phas&el in
troduced. Jerusalem.
14. Polemon colnquers Bosporus.
12 The legions distributed over
the provincos in fixed camps,
which soon grew into cities
-among them were Bonn
and Mayence.
8 The calendar corrected by
Augustus.
5 Dionysiuzs, of tIalicasrnassus,
historian; and Dionysizss, 5. Cyrenius taxes Judea.
geographer.
4 BIRTH OF OUR SAVIOUR, JESUS CHRIST, 4 years before the Vulgar Era.
3. Archelaus succeeds Herod
with the title of Ethnarch.
THE WQORLD S PROGRESS. 45
146 years. —(Continued.)
B. C. AFRICA. ROMIAN EAIPIRE.
East. West.
36 Cleopatra obtains from An- 36. Sextus Pompey defeated
tony a grant of Phcenicia, in Sicily.
Cyrene and Cyprus.
34 -receives all Asia from the
Mediterranean to the Indus. 32. Antony quarrels with Oc31 Cleopatra and Marc Antony 31. By the BATTLE OF AC.
def31. By the BATTLE OF ACAdecateti by Octavius, at TIUM Octavius acquires
the empire.
30 Alexandria taken by Octavius. 30. THE REPUBLIC BE-Antony and Cleopatra de- COMES A MONARCHY.
stroy themselves.
Egypt becomes a Roman province.
29. Octav lis s 3 days triumph
at Rome.
Temple of Janus shut.
Rome contains 4,101,017
citizens.
27. The titles of Augustus and
Emperor conferred on Octavlus for 10 years.
23. Agrippa in Spain.
22. Conspiracy of Murmna.
21. Athens finally subjected to 21. Augustus visits Greece
Rome. - and Asia.
20. CXCth Olympiad. 16. Lollius defeated by the
Germans.
15. Cantabria, Austria, Rhebia, Vindelencia and Moesia
become Roman provincesbeing conquered by Dr usus.
13. Augustus assumes the
title of Pontifex Maximus.
12. Pannonia, conquered by
Tiberius, becomes a Roman province.
11. Germany subdued by Ger
manicus.
8. Tiberius at Rhodes.
5. Q. Varrus appointed govel-nor of Syria, and Cyrenius governor of Judea.
4. Cymbeline, king of Britain.
PARTT II.
O0DERN CHRONOLOGY,
FROM THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE PRESENT TIME.
Epochas or Periods.
I. Fronm the Christian Era Period of the Ten Persecutiow, of
to the Reign of Constantine the Great, A. D. 306 Christians.
II. 76 Northern Invasions.
Extinction of the Western Empire, " 476 Nohernnasions.
ir" Justinian and Belisarims.
" Flight of Mahomet, " 622
IV.
" Crowning of Charlemagne at Rome, " 800 aracen Empire.
v. "10661 i' New Western 2E mpoire.
" Battle of Hastings, "1066 New Western Empire.
VI Founding of the Turkish Empire, " 1299 The Crsades.
vain cc C; Tamerlane, Wickli e andHuss.. Taking of Constantinople, " 1453 ffe, and Hs
VIII. " The Reformation; Discoveries
Edict of Nantes, " 1598 and Inventions.
IX. # " The English Commonwealth
Death of Charles XII. of Sweden, "1718 and Wars of Louis XIV.
~~~~~~~~X. ~~ ) "c American and French Revolu.
Battle of Waterloo, "1815 tions.
Xi. tm " European Revolutions, Litera" present time, (1850.) tare and the Arts.
48 THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
MODERN CHRONOLOGY.-PERIOD lst.-(TfLe Ten Persecsutions.)A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. SACRED.
The BIRTH OF CHRIST:-(see p. 44.)
Herod Antipas being at this time tetrarch
of Galilee.
8. Christ reasons with the doctors.
9 Celsus, the physician; Phcdrsus, the- fabulist; Fellius Paterculus, Roman historian.
25. Pontius Pilate, governor of Judea.
26 The Druids in Germany. 26. John the Baptist begins his ministry.
27. Christ baptized by John
28. -at the marriage in Cana.- Matthew
called.
29. Twelve disciples sent abroad, "two and
two."
30 Philo, Alexandrian Jew, disciple of Plato. 30. CRUCIFIXION of our SAVIOUR, FriSeneca, moral philosopher. day, April 3, at 3 P. M.; Resurrection,
Sunday, April 5; Ascension, Thursday,
May 4.
33 Valerius Maoxinmus, historian. 33. St. Peter baptizes Cornelius.
34. St. Paul converted to Christianity.
37 Appion, of Alexandria, grammarian, called
the " Trumpet of the World." 39. St. Matthew writes his gospel.
40. The disciples first called Christians at
Antioch.
41. Herod's persecution; St. Peter imprisoned.
44. St. llIark writes his gospel. —Death of
St. James.
45. Barnabas and Paul preach in Cyprus.
48 A census being taken by Claudius, the emperor and censor, the inhabitants of Rome
are foiund to amount to 6,900,000.-( Univ.
Hist.)-[More than three times the number
of London at present.]
50 Columella, born in Spain; left twelve books 50. Paul preaches in the Areopagus, at Athens.
on husbandry.
52. Council of the Apostles at Jerusalem.
55. Paul preaches at Ephesus, and at Coesarea.
57. -pleads before Felix.
59. -pleads before Festus, and appeals to
Ceesar.
TIE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 49
306 years.-Fros t/he CAIs7istian Erac to thte reign of ConstatieWe.
-. D. IROMAN EMPIRE.
East. liVest.
1 Caius Cwsar makes peace with thle Parthians. Tiberius returns to Rome.
3. Cinna's conspiracy detected.
— Caius Coesar dies.
6. Q. Varrus encamped on the Weser. governs Lower Germany like a Roman province.
9. The Germans, under Arminiuts, defeat and
kill Varrus.
Ovid is banished to Tomos.
14 Augustus dies at Nola, aged 76, and is
succeeded by
Tiberius.-.
17 Germanicus conquers Cappadocia.
19 Germanicus poisoned at Antioch. 19. The Jews banished from Rome. -The
Marcomanni conquered by Drusus.
21. The theatre of Pompey destroyed by fire.
26 Thrace becomes a Roman province. 26. Tiberius retires to Capraea.
31. Sejanus disgraced and put to death.
33. Conquest of Mauritania.
37. Tiberius dies, aged 78.
-~ C (aliguI la, a
(noted for his profligacy and folly.)
41. Caligula assassinated by Chereas.
Claudiussucceeds to the throne.
43. -invades Britain with his general, Plautius.
45. Vespasian. general in Britain.
48. Census of the city, 6,900,000.
51. Caractacus, the chief of the Britons, conquered and brought to Rome.
Gq4.- - Ne ro,,
a profligate and bloody tyrant.
55. -poisons Britanicus.
56. Rotterdasn built.
59. Nero's mother, Agrippina, put to death by
his order.
50 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Modern: Period 1.-306 yeanr.
A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. SACRED AND ECCLESIASTICAL.
59. Paul is shipwrecked on the Island
Melita (Malta).
60. Paul imprisoned at Rome
63. Paul set at liberty.
64 Nero's golden palace built; of great extent, 64. The first persecution of Christians 0r
inclosing fields, &c. The buildings in Nel o.
Rome more regular after the fire.
63 to 66. Paul visits Jerusalem, and travels
through the greater part of the known
world.
66 Pliny, the elder, author of the first naturcal 66. Pope Linus.*
history;. Quintius Cusrtius, historian; Per. The Jews at war with the Romans, and
stius, satirist. Paul beheaded.
St. Peter crucified.
67 Josephus, the Jewish historian. 67. The Jews massacred by Florus.-Josephus,
governor of Galilee.
Pope St. Clement.-Gamalie'.
68. Vespasian invades Judea.
69 The Coliseumn of Vespasian.
70. The destruction of Jerusalem, by T;dus.
77. Pope St. Cletus
78 The Capitol rebuilt.
Circumnavigation of Scotland.
79 Destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii.
80 Very beautiful paintings in the Baths of
Titus; the group of the Laocoon.
81 Quintillian, orator; Valerius Flaccus, poet;
Martial, Epigrammatist; Apollonius, Pythagorean philosopher; Epictetus, stoic;
Dio Chrysostom, Greek rhetorician and philosopher; Ph'ilo By tius; Ignatius and Pa- 83. Pope Anacletus.
pias, two of the fathers of the church.
95. Second persecution of the Christians -by
Domnitian.
St. John writes his Gospel and Alpca.
lypse, and is banished to the isle of Patimos.
96 Tacitucs, historian; Juvenal, satirist; *Sta. 96. Pope Evaristus.
tiues, poet; Aul. Gelliss, Latin grammarian; Plsutarch, moralist and biographer;
the youngere Pliny. I
the younDer Pussy. 97. Timothy stoned.
St. John returns from exile.
98 The Ulpian library; Public schools in all 98. Christian assemblies prohibited by Trajan.
the provinces; Jurisprudence flourishes;
the city adorned with the Forum; Pillar
of Trojan, and baths; bridge built over * The word Pope is used in accordance
the Danube. with the Roman Catholic usage, though the
name was not adopted by their Pontiffs tipi
several centuries after...
-' —-C/rLstias Erac t Costa:CtltirCe.] THE WORLD'S P!'OG GRESS. 51
A D. D ROMAN EBPIRE.
Nast. WVest.
60 Corbulo subdues Armenia.
61. Revolt of the Britons under queen Boadicea; they burn London. The queen, defeated by Suetoniuss, poisons herself.
64. Nero sets Rome on fire, and accuses the
Christians of the crime.
65 Tiridates placed on the throne of Armenia by -persecutes the Christians-Seneca, LaNero. cian, and others put to death.
68. -- Galb a,p@
reigns 9 months, and is put to death by
69. —--- O t h o -
(2 months) defeated and killed by
V itelli usts,
who is defeated by the army of
70 Judea subdued and Jerusalem destroyed by 70. - V e s p a s i a n. -
Titus.
73 Vespasian conquers Lycia, Rhodes, Thrace,
Cilicia, Byzantium and Samos.
77 Revolt of the Parthians. 77. A great plague at Rome, 10,000 dying in
one day.
79. T i t u s,
(beneficent.)
Herculaneum and Posnpeii destroyed
by an i? rruption of Vesuvius.
80. Julieus Agricola, conqueror and governor
of Britain, reduces Wales, enters Caledonia.
81. —-D o m i t i an,
( a cruel tyrant.)
86. Dercebal, leader of the German hordes,
defeats Domitian, and compels him to pay a
yearly tribute.
88. Capitoline and secular games.
War with Dacia 15 years.
96. Domitian put to death by Stephanus.
(well intentioned but enfeebled by age.,
98. -- T r aj an,
(a great sovereign and a warrior.)
The Roman nEmpire at its greatest extent.
J. Severus, general in Britain.
-1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
5i2 THE TVORLD'S PRiOGRESS. [Modernb: Period I.-306 yectz
A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY. ETC. ECCLESIASTICAL.
100. St. John dies at Ephesus, met. 94.
107 The first credible historian among the 107. Third persecution of the Christians
Chinese. Traj an.
104, St. Ignatlus devoured by wild beasts.
Pope Alexander I.
118. Fourth persecution of the Christians b!
Adrian.
120 The great buildings of Pallyra.-Temple of 119. Pope Sixtus I.
the Sun at Baalbec.
The Roman mnosaics.
126. Quadratus, bishop of Athens.
127. Pope Telesphorus.
130. Heresy of Prodicus, chief of the Adamnites.
132 Jurisprudence improved by the publishment
of Adrian's pepetual code.
Ptolemy,-the celebrated Egyptian astronomer
and geographer -Arrian, Appians, AMaxim7us, Lysius and Pausanius, Greelc histo
rians; Lucian, a satirical writer; Herzogenles, rhetorician of Tarsus. 134. Heresy of Marcion, who acknowledges
three Gods.
L35. Polycap and Aristides, Christian fathers
139. Pope Hygenus.
142. Pope Pius 1.
Heresy of Valentine.
150. Pope Anicetus.
Canon of Scripture fixed about this tin'(
154. Justin Martyr publishes his apology fo
the Christians.
162. Pope Soter.
166 Tschang Henzg, the Chinese astronomer. 167. Polycarp and Pionices martyred in Asia
169 Galen, Greek physician; Athamneus, a grammarian; Diogeies Laertius, Greek historian. 171. Pope Eleutherus.
177. The Christians persecuted at Ly as.Theophiltus, Tatian, and.Moztanas.
180 The equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius.
185. Pope Victor I.
St, Irenoaus.
-Ci'.';',isl'i,'e to C;slst'e?2titee.J THE WORLD'S PROGIRESS. 53.D. nROMIAN EMPIREn.
Bast. W/est.
100. The Huns emigrate westward.
101. Trajan reduces Dacia.
102 Pliny, proconsul in Bithynia, sends Trajan his
account of the Christians.-Great victories
of Trajan.
114 Trajan's expedition against the Parthians.
115. Massacre of the Greeks and Romans by
tihe Jews of Cyrenoe.
1161 Seizure of Ctesiphon.
117 Armlenia Major again governed by its own 117. A d r i a n,
kings dependent upon ornome.
120 Nicomedia and other cities destroyed by an 120. -nakes t progress through all the
earthquake. 121. provinces -visits Britain. builds there
a wall from the Tyne to Solway Frith.-A
wail built from the Rhine, to the Danube.
1261 Adrian in Asia Minor for seven years.
130 Adrian rebuilds Jersusalem, under the name of,Elia Capitolina, and erects there a temple
to Jupiter.
132 The rebellion of tile.ews crushed after a war
of five years.-The Jews banished fiom
Judea.
13. —An ton inu s Pius,
(eminent for his virtues and love of peace.)
140. Lollitus Urbicus extends the Rotman dominion in Britain, and erects a second rampart, calledl the Wall of Antooninus.
145. Anmonirnms defeats the Moors, Germans,
antl Dacianss.
1461. -introduces the worship of Serapis into
Itoisse.
152. — stopl)s thie persecution of the Christians.
160 E mbassy sent by Antoninus to China.. 161.- I ra 1 cuS Aureliu s,. (Antonsinus,)
(the stoic philosopher.)
Escape of the thundlering legion.
158. Plague over the whole known world.
168 War with the Parthians, lasts 3 years.
169. The Marconmanlid at war with Rome.
180. The enmpe:or (lies at Siriium: succeedel Iby
C Co mm o dus,
(profligate and cruel;) mnakes peace
with the Germans.
GOTIIS in Dacia.
54 TIIHE WORLD7S PROGRESS. [Moderln: Period 1.-306 yJewea.
A.D. itoCEltasSS OF SOCIsTY, ETC. ECCLESIASTICAL.
197. Pope Zephyrinus.
202. Fifth persecution of the Christians utnder
208 Papzsiacn, the gleatest civil lawyer of anrl- Severuls.-Tesrtlullizam, an able defender of
quity-Jrelius Africamts, chronologer. Christianity.-Clemeens. of Alexandria, and
Mlsisutius Felix, C. F.*
215 Crac'rslla grants the right of Roman citizenship to ail the provinces, that tthey may be- 217. Pope Calixtus I.
come liable to the taxes, irsheritas scea;, &c. The Septuagint found in a cask.'2f.3. Pa!)Te lUrban 1.
2'34. Pop)e Pontianus.
235 Aomzmonius, founder of a new school of Pla- 235. AnteruS.
tonic sphlitosoplly at Alexanria. Origen. C. F.
Dio Cassius, Greek historian. Sixth persecution of the Christians, under
Miaximinus. in whichl L.aosidas, rfrene2ts.
Victor, Perpetua, and Felicilas are martyred.
242 Ceesoriaus, a critic antl grammarian.
2-l4. Greary Thazs t2cms guss, andl Dtionty.q)st
of Alexandria, C. F.
249 Ilerodiao, Greek historian.
250. Pope St. Cornelius.
250 Loangizses, plhilosopher and critic. Seventh persecution of the Christians
* Christian Father.
— Christ ias Era to Constantine.] THE VWORLD'S PROGtRESS. 55
A.D. ROMAN EDIPIRE.
East. W;Vest.
189 The SARACENS defeat the Romans. 189. The Capitol of Rome destroyed by light.
191. Rome nearly destroyed by fire.
192. Comrnodus assassinated by Martia and
Laetus.
193. Pertinax, -- -
proclaimed by the Prwetortan guardsmurdered after a reign of 3 nmonths.-The
empire bought by Didits Jtulianus, who
is put to death by order of the senate.
— Septimus Severus, -
(governs with vigor.)
-defeats his competitors, Niger and Albinus.
194. -besieges Byzantium.
202. -persecutes the Christians.
203 -his sons Caracalla and Geta go to Britain, wlhere 50,000 Roman troops died of
plague.
Tl'he wall of Severus between the Forth
and the Clyde built.
211. Severus dies at York, itl Britain.
-Caracalla and Geta. ---
Caracalla murders Geta.
212.'-visits the provinces along the Danube.
-Wars with the Catti and Alemanni.
217. Caracalla is assassinated.
M- acrinus,
put to death by the soldiers.
218.- Heliogabalus, -
(a monster of vice and cruelty.)
222.-Alexander Severu s,.
(a beneficent and enlightened prince.)
23 PERSIA; the new kindlom begun by Artax- The onans aee to py an aual trierxes; (the dynasty of the Sassasitd), bute to the Goths, to prevent them firo
molesting the empire.
226 Parthia tributary to Persia. 226. The victory of Severus over the Persians
at Tadmor.
235. Severus murdered in a mutiny of the
army; succeeded by
Maxim inus, - _who defeats the Dacians and armatians.
236. Maximinus assassinated by his troops
near Aquilea.
-B a lbinus and Gordian, --
241. The FRANKS first mentioned in his242 Cordian defeats the Persians under Sapor. tory; they invade Gaul.
244. -are repulsed at Moguntiacum.
Gordian put to death by
-P hi 1 i p,(the Arabian,) —---
who makes makes peace with Sapor.
247.'The secular games restored.
2,49. -Decius i
persecutes the Christians.
250. —slain by the Goths, who invade the
empire by crossing the Danube.
56 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Modern?; Period 1. —306 years.
A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. ECCLESIASTICAL.
251 Ptotines. 251. St Cy/prian, bishop of Carthage. —lIoOdi~n in Scandinavia. nastic life originates about this time.
Dispute between the churches of Rome
and Africa about baptism.
259. Pope Dionysius.
262. Paul, bishop of Samosatia, defies the
divinity of Jesus Christ
26S Paulus, a Roman poet.
270 Longinus at the court of Zenobia.
269. Pope Felix I.
272. Ninth persecution under Aurelian.
274 Rome surrounded with a wall. 274. Pope Eutychianes.
Longinus dies. rManes originates the heresy of the Manichlaans-rejects all the sacraments; refuses
allegiance to temporal sovereigns, &c.
276 Porphyry, the Greek philosopher and opposer
of Christianity.
277 Extraordinary naval expedition of the Thracian Franks in t.o Mediterranean and
Northern Seas.
283. Pope Caius.
The Jewish Talsnud and Targum conm
posed.
Paul, the Theban, the first hermit.-Religious ceremonies multiplied.-Pagan rites
imitated by the Christians.
284 Diocletian's Orientalform of governmenst —
the monarchy considered hereditary-nomination of Casars as co-rulers. 286. Hierax, chief of the Hieraxians; asserts
Diocletian's baths, containing 3,000 benches that Melchizedec was the Holy Ghost, and
of white marble, while the walls were denies the resurrection.
adorned with paintings.
:-C/LriStratL Er'a to Constamtife.] THE WVORLD S PROGIESS. 57
A D. ROnIIAN EIMPIIZE.
East. West.
251 HUNS on tile Caspian Sea. 251. —-- G a I I u s; -
purchases a peace with the Goths. —Confederacy of the Franks between the Rhine
and Elbe.
-a great pestilence prevails in the empire.
253. - Emilianu s.
254.- Valerian. X-is successful against the Germans and
Goths.
256 —69. Four great piratical expeditions of the
The Persians victorious in Asia Minor. Goths into Asia Minor and Greece.
259 Persia:-Sapor's victory over the Itoman 2.59. Valerian defeated and taken prisoner and
arms. flayed alive by the Persians.
260 )The temple of Diana at Ephesus burnt. A
26i Sapor, the Persian, takes Antioch, Tarsus and G a 11 i e n u s.
Coesarea. Period of the 30 tyrants.
The Persians penetrate to Ravenna.
264 Odenatus, king of Palmyra —he is succeeded 264. Alliance with Odenatus.
by his wife. 267. Cleodamus and Athenius defeat the Goths
Ze teatobi a, who reigns with the titles of and Scythians.' Augusta,' and' Queen of the East.' 268. Gallienus killed at Milan.
- Claudius II. Xdefeats an army of 320,000 Goths.
269. -dies at Sirmium.
270. -A urelian,
- (a great warrior.)
271. -defeats the Goths and Alemanni.
269 Zenobia conquers Egypt, a part of Armenia,
and Asia Minor.
273 Zenobia defeated at Edessa, by Aurelian, who 273 -reduces Palmyra after an heroic resist.
destroys her magnificent capital, and carries ance, and takes queen Zenobia prisoner.
her to Rome. 274. France, Spain, and Britain reduced to
obedience.
The Temple of the Sun at Rome burnt.Dacia riven up to the barbarians.
275. Aurelian killed near Bvzantium.
An inlter1egtnucsn of 6 ionthls.
-— T Tacitus, -
(a descendant of the historian,)
reigns with wisdom 6 months.
277. —— Probus, u - -
(a warlike prince.)
-obtains several victories over the barba280 The Persians lefeated by Probus. rians.-The Franks peinmitted by Probus to
settle in Gaul.
282. Probus slain by his soldiers.
- - - Carus Cr
kIilled by lightning.
Carinus and Numerianus,*
(effeminate and cruel.)
288. Fingal, king of Morven, dies.
284. - Diocletian --
sends ambassadors to China.
"The Era of Diocletian," or of "the
martyrs," August 29.
287. Britain usuiped by Carausius, who reigns
7 years. The empire attacked by the rlorthern barbarians, and several provinces
usurped by tyrants.-Maximianus, a colleague of the Emperor.
3*
58 THE WORLDD'S PROGRESS. [Modern: Period I.-306 years.
A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY. ETC. I ECCLESIASTICAL.
290 The Gregsorian code.
296..Ionks in Spain and Egypt.
Pope Marcellinus.
303. Tenth Persecution of the Christians.
304 Gregory and Ilermogenes, lawyers; Elicus, 304. Arnobius, of Africa, C. F., converted
Spartiansus, and Vopiscus, historians; Tre- from idolatry.
bellius Pollo.
MODERN: PERIOD SECOND. —170 years. —
306. Persecution of the Christians stopped by
Constanti us.
310. Pope Eusebius.
Arius excommunicated.
311. Pope Malchiades.
312 The preatorian guard broken up by Constantine. 314. Pope Sylvester I.
319. Toleration of Christianity by Constantine
the Great.
323 Foundation of Constantinople by Constantine
the Great.-Celebrated dome of St Sophia: 325. The Council of Nice (from June 19th;
the splendor of the court so great that it 325 to August 25th) consisting of 318 bishops,
cost more than the legions. who condemn Arianism. -Eusebius, bishop
330 Constantinople becomes the seat of art and of Caesarea, C. F., and ecclesiastical histoliterature. rian. - Lactantius, Athanasius, Arius.Ephraim and Basil, C. F., flourish in the
reign of Constantine.
336. Pope Marcus.
337. Pope Julius.
Eleventh persecution. —Saints invoked,
the cross reverenced, and incense used by
the Christians.
340 Ossian, the Caledonian bard, supposed to
have flourished about this time. 341. Christianity propagated in Ethiopia by
Frumaintius.
356. Pope Felix II.
357 Eutlropius and Mlarcellhzus, historians; Jam- St. Hilary and Gregory Nazianzen, of
blicus and Eunsnpius, Greek historian. Constantinople, an eminent writer, C. F.-.Elius Donatuss, bishop of Carthage.Cyril, bishop of Jerusalem.-Monasteries in
Thebais.
-tf/ristian Em-' to Constantine.] THE WOJRLD S PROGRESS. 59
s.. DROMAN EMPIRE.
East. Wi/ est.
291. The Franks make themselves masters of
Batavia and Flanders.
293. The Franks expelled from Batavia.!-l Nlsrses, Icing of Persia, loses Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyrla.
296. Britain restored to the emperor.
2 )6 Alexandria taken by Diocletian.
)301 Hormisdas, II., king of Persia, builds Ormus.
304. Diocletian and Maximian resign the Empire to
Constantius and Galerius.
PIrone Constantine to Odoacer.
306.- CONSTANTINE THE GREAT, - -
(first Christian emperor.)
Licinieus, Maximian, and AMaxentius, his
three colleagues.
Constantine defeats the Franks.
312. Maxentius defeated and killed.
314. Civil war with Licinius.
319. Constantine favors and tolerates Christianity.
32l. -appoints the observance of Sunday.
322. -defeats and banishes Licinius, and becomes sole emperor.
325 The first general council at Nice. 325. -abolishes the combats of gladiators and
assemblies.
328 The seat of government removed to Constantinople, which was solemnly dedicated on
May l cth, 330. 331. Constantine orders all the heathen temM pies to be destroyed.
333 Great famine and pestilence in Syria.
334 Revolt of Sarmatian slaves, 300,000 are dispersed over the empire.
337 Death of Constantine, and tile accession of his three sons,
- C- oConstantius, Constans, and Constantlne.1- -— a
340 150 Greek and Asiatic cities destroyed by an 340. Constantine, the younger, defeated and
earthquake. killed by Constans at Aquilea.
350 Hermanric, king of the Ostrogoths, founds an 350. Constans killed in Spain by Magnentius.
extensive empire.
354 Gallus put to death by Constantius.
357. Six German kings defeated by Julian at
Strasburg.
361 Constantius dies at Tarsus. 361.- J u I i a n, the Apostate,
-attempts in vain to rebuild t e temple
at Jerusalem.
A disadvantageous peace with the Persians. 363. -is slain in a war with the Persians.
Jovian. -
364. Death of Jovian, and the accession of
Valentinian and Valens, under whom the
EMPIRE is DIVIDED:
EASTERN EMPIRE WESTERN EMPIRE,
extending from the lower Danube to the con- extending fioom the Caledonian ramparts
fines of Persia. to the foot of Mount Atlas.
60 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [M11odler'n: Period II.-170 yeer-.A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCiETY, ETC. ECCLESIASTICAL.
373. The Bible translated into the Gothic lan
guage.
379. The prerogatives of the Roman See much
330 Aurelius Vzctor, author of lives of celebrated enlarged.
Romnans. 381. The second general Council of Constantinople.
334. Symachus pleads in the Roman Senate
for Paganism against St. Ambrose.
385. Pope Syricius.
392 Prsudentius and Ausonius, Latin poets; 392. St. CIhrsysostom, patriarch of Constan.
P es and e, of Alexandria, mahe- tinople; St. Ambrose, archbishop of Milan;
aplin. St. Jerome, St. o1artin, and St. Augustine,
maticians.'Christian Fathers.'
Imnage worship. —The Christian hierarchy begins.
395 Claudian, Latin poet. 401. Pope Innocent I.
412 Mac s, Plato. hilosoher 412. Cyril, bishop of Alexandria; Isidore and
Socrales, ecclesiastical historians; Orosius,
a Spanish disciple of St. Augustine; and
Pelagius, a British monk, who denied original sin, &c.
416. The Pelagian. heresy condemned by the
African bishops.
417. Pope Zozimus.
418. Pope Boniface I.
422. Pope Celestine I.
425 Theodosius establishes publi schoo00ls, and attempts the restoration of learning.
429..Nestorias, bishop of Constantinople, acknowledges two persons in Jesus Christ.
431. Third general Council at Ephesus.
432. Pope Sixtus III.
St. Patrick preaches the Gospel in Ireland.
135 The Tlheodosian code published. 435. Neslorianisem prevails in the East.
440. Pope Leo I. (the Great).
443. The Viaic,7rreaa books burned at Rome.
445. Flavias, patriarch of Constantinople.
* —From ConstntIWe to Odoacer.] THE WVORLD S PROGRIESS. 61
A.D. EASTERN EMPIRE. WVESTERN EMIPIRE.
364 - Valens. - - 364.- Valentinian I. - -
elected by the army.
368. The Saxons invade Britain, but are defeated by Theodosius.
375. -- Gratian
376 tHUNGARY, (ancient Pannonia,) invaded by gains a victory over the Germans; sucthe Huns, fiom whom it is named.-The ceeds to the eastern empire on the death of
Goths expelled by the Huns, are allowed by Valens; MIaximus is proclaimed emperor.
Valens to settle in Thrace. -Gratian killed at Lyons.
378 Valens defeated and slain by the Goths near
Adrianople.
379 -- T h e o d o s i u s the Great, - 379. The LOIMBARDS first leave Scandinaa zealous supporter of Christianllly. via, and defeat the Vandals.
383. -V alentini an II.- -
-is dispossessed by Maximnus, but is restoied by Thieodosius; miakes Treves his
capital.
3S4. -is strangled at Vienna by Arbogastes, a
Gaul, colnlallder of the arrty.
3,38 Theodosius de feats Maxinmus, the tyrant of tile. western empire.
392 -T h e o do s ti us -s
becomes sole emperor of the East and West.
Complete down fall of Paganism.
394 Theodosins defeats Eugenius, the usur per of the West, and Arbogastes, the Gaul.
Final division of the empire be tween the sons of Theodosius.
395 A r c a d u s. o ono rius. s A.
401. Europe overrun by the VISIGOTItS.
A.; - - 403. Alaric defeated by Stillicho.
408 — T h e o d o s i u s I I. 1406. The Vandals permitted to settle in Spain,
a child; Athenius, minister. Gaul, &c.
410. Rome sacked and burned by the Goths
under A 1 a r i c.
412 Beginning of the Vandal power in Spain.
413. Burugndian kindclom begun in Alsace.
414 Regency of the emperor's sister, Pulcheria. 414. The Visigoths plant themselves in Toulouse.
417. The Alani defeated and extirpated by
the Goths.
420 Persian ar. 20. FRANKS:-P h a r a m o n d, their
first king, on the lower Rhine.
424.- V a l e n t i n i a n I II. -
426. Britain evacuated by the Romans.
427. Pannonia recovered from the Huns.
423. JEtius, the Roman general, defeated by
the Franks and Goths.
431 Armenia divided between the Persians and Franks:-Clodion, king, extends his conRonmans. quests to the river Somme.
433 A great part of Constantinople destroyell by 433. A t t i 1- a, "The scourge of God," forms
fire. an immense empire from China to the Atlantic.
437 Pannonia, Dalmatia and Noricum gained from 437. Etius defeats the Goths.
the western empire. 439. The kingdom of the V a n d a ls i n
Africa, under Genseric, who
takes Carthage and plunders Italy.
441. The Roman territories invaded by the
lIuns, Persians and Saxons.
445. Tho famous embassy from Britain, soliciting aid against the Picts.
62 TIUE WORLD')S PROGRESS. [M0odern: Period lI.-170 year,.
A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. ECCLESIASTICAL.
447. Eutyches asserts the existence of onl,
one nature in Jesus Christ.
449. Ibus, bishop of Edessa; and.Eusebius,
bishop of Doryleum, deposed.
450 Zozisnus and Olymnpiodosrs, Greek histo- 450. Sozosren and Theodoret, ecclesiastical
rians. historians.
451. The fourth general Council at Chalcedon,
at which Eutycheanism and Nestorianism
are solemnly condemned
461. Pope Hilarius.
465. Pope Simplicius.
468 The principle established that every accused
person shall be tried by his peers, or equals.
Oligarchy of the bishops of Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and JeruLegislation of the Visigoths in Spain —Eric salem —all striving for the supremacy.being Ikingr, and founder of the Gothic rno- The church now begins to assume a politi.
narchy. cal aspect.
476 The tottering empire of the west was finally
overthrown by Odoacer's sack of Rome, the
great event which precedes the middle or
"dark ages." The fobrm of the old
Roman government remained-the senate,
the consuls, &c.-but Italy, ravaged by a
succession of wars, plagues, famines, and
every form of public tyranny and domestic
slavery, was nearly a desert.
: —tFionl. Constantine to Odocer'.] TIIE WORLDnS PIPOGIPESS. G3
A.D. EASTERN EMPIRE. WESTERN EMPIRE.
448. Franks: —Merovceus lst, king of the Me.
rovingians.
ZEtius clefeats the Ituns.
450 M a r c i Mar a an,
a Thracian, refuses to pay the annual
tribute to the Iuns. 451. The arrival of the Saxons
in B r it a i n, under Hengist and Horsa.
452. The city of VENICE founded.
455. Valentinian assassinated by
-Petronius Maximus. ( --
A vitus. -
457 — L e o I., (the Thracian,) U- 457. —- Ma jorian.
first emperor ever crowned by the patriarch. 458. Franks: —Childceric I., conquers as far
War with the Goths. as the Loire and takes Paris.
461 Peace with the Goths; Theodoric is received 461. S e v e r u s.
from them as a hostage. s.
467. Athenius. In
(The last three emperors slain by
Ricimer.)
468- Spain:-The Visigoths, under Eric, establish their kingdom.
472. — Olybius. S
Eruption of Vesuvius, seen at Constantinople.
473. -- Glycerius.6
474 Zeno. 474.- Juli us Nepos. -
a turbulent reign: debauc eries and conspiracies.
475 Theodoric becomes chief of the Ostrog oths, 475.- R o m u 1 u s A u g u s t u l u s.
and invades the empire. tIe ravages 476. ROME taken by ODOACER, king of
Thrace. the Herulii:
END of the WESTERN EMPIRE,
1228 years after the building of Rome; and
commencement of the kingdom of Italy under Odoacer.
64 THE WORLDIS PROGRESS.
MODERN: PERIOD III.-146 ycars.
A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. ECCLESIASTICAL.
483. Pope Felix III.
-excommunicated by Acacius, bishop of
Constantinople.
484. Christians persecuted by IIuneric, king
of the Vandals.,p6 Rise of the feudal system in France, under
Clovis.
492. Pope Ge~asius I.
493 Theodoric introduces the architecture of
Greece to improve the buildings of Italy. 494. The 1eomzan Poenti' asserls his supre.
496. Christianity introdulced into France.
498 Publication of the Gemara or Talmud of Babylon.
501 Burgundian laovs published, being a collection of the rights and customs of the Burgundians.
511 The Salic lawz established in France.
513 Boethius, the Roman poet and philosopher. 513. Christianity embraced by the Persian
king, Carbades.
514 Use of burning glass in warfare at Constan- 514. Pope Hormisdas.
tinople.
516 The Christian Era proposed and introduced
by Dionysius, a mnonk.
519. The orthodox bishops restored by Justin.
52-3. Pope John I.
525. The Arian bishops deposed.
526. Pope Felix IV.
Extsremse Unction introduced.
529 The schools of Athens suppressed. 529. The Order of Benedictine monks instituted at Monte Cassino, near Naples.
530 The fables of Pilpay translated into Pers an. 530. Pope Boniface 1I.
531 Chess introduced into Persia from India.
533 oJustinian's pandects and code of lasws. 533. Pope John II.
535. Pope Agapetus.
536. " Sylvester I.
Separation of the A7smenians from the Gree,
church.
539 Architecture: the church of St. Sophia built 538. Pope Vigilius.
at Constantinople.
Proslus, a learned Platonist.
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 65
— Od.acer' to MTIhonfz et. [The "Mliddle or Da~kl Ages" begin here.]
A.D. EASTERN EmPIgaE. EuRopc, generally. -
480 An earthquake, lasting 40 days, destroys the
greater part of Constantinople.
481 Zeno makes Theodoric general and consul. 481. FRANCE:-C o v i s I., fonder
of the French monarchy.
484. Alaric II., king of the Visigoths in Spain.
485. France:-Battle of Soissons
gained by Clovis.
487. Britain:-The Saxons defeated by Prince
A r t h u r and Ambrosius.
490:-Italy:-ravaged by the barbarians.
Britain:-kingdom of Sussex.
491 - A n a s t a s u s I. 491. France:-Clovis subdues Thuringia.
49l1
The Green and Blue factions.
The emperor's persecution of the Catholics, and protection of the Manichweans, oc- 493. I t a y:-c o n q u e r e d b y Th e o -
casions a rebellion headed by Vitalianus. d o r i c, kitl of the Ostrogoths. —Odoacer put to death.
499. France:-Clovis concludes a peace with
Theodoric in Italy.
500. - Burgundy becomes his tributary.
502 The empire ravaged and the imperial army
destroyed by Carbades, king of Persia.
507 Long walls built to protect Constantinople 507. — Clovis defeats Alaric near Poictiers.
from the 1ultarians.
foth Bugaia.510. IFrance:-Clovis maltes Paris his capital.
511 A great insurrection in Constantinople, 10,000 511. France: —Clovis dies.
killed.
Childebert I. -
512. The HERULII settle in Thrace.
514 Constantinople besieged by Vitalianus, whlose
fleet is consumed by the burning glass of 516. The Christian Era adopted.
Proclus. 516. The Christian Era adoptel.
517. Gete ravages Illyricum, Macedon, &c.
518 Anastasius killed by lightning.
Justi n _I.,- _519. Britain:-Prince Arthur defeated at
18- Briista peawsatt of Dalmatia. Charford by Cerdic, who begins the third
-- period of the Byzantie empire. Saxon kingdom of Wessex.
522. Spain:-Amalaric, the. first Gothic king,
who establishes his court in Spain-his capital, Seville.
527 - J US T I N I A N.
celebrated for his code of laws and the
victories of his generals, Belisarius
and Noarses.
529 Belisarius defeats the Persians under Chosroes. 530. Britain:-kingdom of Essex.
531. Spain:-Theudis succeeds Amalaric.
532 -quells a conspiracy in Constantinople. 532. Burgundy conquered by Childebert.
53s1 -defeats the Vandals in Africa.
535 -subdues Sicily. 536. Vitiges, king of the Ostogroths, surren..,se I —tak}es Naples. cders his possessions in Gaul to the French
Iring.
537 -takes Rome, defeats the Ostrogroths in 537. Italy conquered by Belisarius.
Italy.
538 -the Huns in Thrace, and
66 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [Modern~: Period 111.-146 years.
A.D. PROGRESS OF SOC1ETY, ETC. ECCLESIASTICAL.
540. The Monothelites, who acknowledged
but one will in Jesus Christ.
551 The manstfacturle of sille introduced from
China by the monks. 552. The Fifth general Council at Constanti
nople.
555. Pope Pelagius I.
557. The church of St. Germain de Pres, built
555 Procopieus, a Roman historian —the last of the at Paris.
classic writers.
559 The Sawon lawos; the king's authority limited by the Witlenagemot.
Three orders; the noble, the free, and the 560. Pope John III.
servile. —Trial by ordeal. The Tritheists acknowledge three Gods,
anti deny the resurrection.
565 Christianity introduced among the Picts by
Columbi.
568 The old Roman municipal system in Italy
overthrown by the invasion of the Lombards
-and the feudal system established.
Written lawes compiled among the nations of
German origin-first by the Visigoths in 573. Pope Benedict I.
Spain.
Semei-circular arches introduced in the archi- 575. The first monastery founded in Bavaria.
tecture of churches, with much grotesque Great increase of niracles.
sculpture.
578. Pope Pelagius II.
580 The Latin language ceases to be spoken in
Italy, while it supersedes the Gothic in
Spain.
584 The origin of fiefs.
586 The Roman Catholic faith established in
Spain.
588 Gregory of Tours, the father of French history. 590. Pope Gregory I. called The Great.
The doctrine of purgatory first taught.Mass introduced.
596 Bretwalda, king of England, converted to
Christianity.
597 Agathus, a Grecian historian.
Gildas, the first British historian. 598. St. Azegustine, first archtlshop of CatnEvagrias, ecclesiastical historian.-Cassiodo- terbury, introduces Christianity into Britain.
ruus, the historian of Ravenna, tutor to 604. Pope Sabianus, or Sabinian.
Theodoric. 606. Pope Boniface III. made supreme head
The Saxons, having conquered England, it of the church by Phocas.-The title of Unirelapsed, in a great measure, into the state versal Bishop assumed.
of barbarism, from which it had been par- The Waldenses refuse submission to
tially raised by the Romans. Rome.
— FroIm Odoacer to Malsomeac.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 67
A.D. EASTERN EmPIRE. EUROPE, GENERALLY.
539. Italy: War, fatnine, and pestilence.
~540 Vitilrles at cRatvenna. — North Africa, Cor- The City of Milan ravaged by the Goths.
sica and Sardinia, annexed to the Eastern
empire.
542 Plague at Constantinople- during three 542. Britain:-Prince Arthur murdered in
months from 5,000 to 10,.000 die daily. Cornwall.
54S The Lombards settle il Pannonia. -The
Tulrktish monarchy founded in Asia.
549 Siege of Petra.
550. POLAND a dukedom-Lech, its first
duke and legislator. tIis brother, Zech,
552 Narses defeats and kills Totila. first dulce of Bohemia.
554 Italy governed by Greek exarchs. T re Greeks form settlements on thle
Spanish coast, from the Straits to Valencia.
556. Civil wars in France.
558 A plague extending over Europe and Asia, 558. France:-C 1 o t a i r e I.
and lasting nearly 50 years.
559. Britain:-t h e S a x on IIe p t a r
cihy comnmences.
560. Britain: —the kingdom of Northumbria,
formed by the union of Bernicia and Deira.
— Ethelbelrt, king of Kent, subdues most of
the Saxon kings.
56tl Belisarius disgraced by Justinian. 561. France: —C hi a r i b e r t I.
562 " restored:-he quells a conspiracy.
563 Great fire in Constantinople-the city nearly
destroyed.' 565 Justinian dies. 555. Europe ravaged by a pestilence.
-------- J u stin II.'
Belisarius dies in prison. 568. Italy conquered by the Lombards, under
Alboin. He fixes his capital at Pavia.
5i9 The TURKS first mentioned in history.They send emlbassies to Justin, and form 571. Britain:-Bretwalda II., king ofWessex.
an alliance.
574 Tiberius associated with Justin in the govertmmnent. 575. East Anglia formed into a Icing.
576 Justin deleats Chosroes. king of Persia. an called Ageland whence the o
578 - - -— ~ — T i b e 1 H i u s _II., _ gin of the name England.
5382 Maurice. the Cappadocian, king; under his
reign the empire extends to the Araxes, and 583. Spain: —the Suevi subdued by the Visi.
almo-st to the Caspian Sea. goths.
France:-C lotaire II. -
5S. Britain: —the kingdom of Mercia founded.
Spain:-Recared, kling.
588. The city of Paris dlestroyed by fire.
7:1- T'rhe Avars flouriset under Baiati-invade the 589. Rdme inundatted by the Tiber.
buS Eastern ermpire, and spread over Hungary, 591. Britain:-Ethelbert, king of Kent, gains
Poland, and Prussia. the pre-emninence, and becomes Bretwalda
Il.
Italy:-the Lornbards, under Autharis,
successlfu against the Greeks and Franks.
595. Istria, Bohemia, and Poland invaded by
the Sclavonians.
596. France:-Thlierry II., king of Burgundy.
597. Britain: —Christianity introduced by St.
S' Augrustine.
502 -P h o c a s, — a centturiot, elected inog. 600. Italy rayvaged by the Sclavonians.
The enlpire invaded by the Persians.
607. Britain: —Supremacy of the Pope acknowledged.
68 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [Modern: Period 111.-146 years.
A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. ECCLESIASTICAL.
The aristocracy acquire great power in
France, somewhat restrained by the mayors 606. Pope Boniface TII.
of the palace. 607. Pope Boniface IV.
Rites and ssuperstitions increase in all Europe. The Pantheon at Rome dedicated to God,
-Relics sought for, and worshipped. —Lita- the Virgin, and the Saints.
nies addressed to the Vig-isn.-The burning 609. The Christians massacred by the Jews Pt
of canzdles by day. —Exorcismss, &c. Antioch.
Hereditary fiefs.-Aristocrratic class.
615 Srcundus, historian of the Lombards.
617 Elhelbert publishes the first code of lawos in'England. 618. Pope Boniface V.
MODERN: PERIOD IV.-178 years.
PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. ECCLESIASTICAL.
620 Isodorus, historian of Spain, grammarian and
philosopher.
625. Pope Ilonorius I. He had a taste for
splendid cathedrals and processions.
Monks and monasteries increase.
Africa and Asia, with the churches of
632 Islamisn, and the power of the Caliphs esta- Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Antioch lost to
blished in the East. In the Caliphs were the Christian world by the progress of Mounited the highest spiritual and regal autho- hamnmeclanism.
rity.
640. Pope Severinus.
640. Pope John IV.
636 Christianity introduced into China.
In England, somte improvetment in ecclesiaslical architectulre; circuelar arches introduced; churches built at Canterbury, Glastonbury, St. Albans, Witnchester, &c.
In civil architecture, forts and castles-Conisborough Castle in Yorkslhire; Castletown 642. Pope Theodorus. Ile assumes the title
in Derbyshire, &c. of " Sovereign Pontiff:"
644 University of Ccastlbridge founded, 644. Pope Martin I. Ie ordains celibacy of
the clergy.
Separation between the Greek antl
Some of the nzonasteries of Europe continue Roman churches.
to be the repositories of learnC1bisg and the
arts. 654. Pope Eugenius.
Celibacy of the clergy enjoined.
657. Pope Vitalian. HTe established the universal use of the Latiz Inanguage i li, te
service of the chutrcsh.
672. Pope Adeodatus.
-fs b'?o. Odoace' loa MAlf'homeL.] TH6E WOLI) S PH OCGIRES 9
A,D. EASTERN EMPIRE. EUROPE, GENERALLY.
604. Britain: —St. Paul's Churchl founded by
Ethelbert, king of Kent.
610 Heraclius takes Constantinople, kills Phocas,
and makes himself king.
612 MAEIOMET publishes his Koran. 612. Britain: —Ethelfrith, king of NorthulnSyria ravaged by the Arabs. bria, defeats the Britons, and destroys the
614 Jerusalem taken by the Persians. monastery of Bangor.
615. War between Lombardy and Ravenna.
617. Britain:-St. Peter's (now Westminster
618 Constantinople taken and pillaged by the Abbey) founded by Sabert, king of Kent.
Avari. Britain:-Bretwald IV.
-F'om? Malhomet to C/lar'lemantg'e. [Dar-k Ages, contintled.]
EAsTERN EmPIRa, ASIA, &C. EUROPE, generally.
622 The HEGIRA; or Mahomet's Flight from
Mecca to Medina.
Erra of the Malhomnetanos.
lHeraclius defeats the Persians under Chos- 628. France:-D a g o b e r t I. -— He
roes. builds the clhurch of St. Deny, ie burial
place of the French kings.
631. Samo, a merchant of France, makles
632 Death of Mahornet. himself king of Bohemia.
A b u b e k e r succeeds him as caliph of the 633. Britain: - Bretwald V.; he embraces
Saracens. Christianity.
q33 0 m a r, caliph.
634 [ " takes Jerusalem, which is held 634. Britain:-Bretwald VI.
by the Saracens 463 years.
6 0 m a r takes Alexandria, and destroys
another famous library.
638. France -— C l o v i s II. 5 years old.
The kingdom divided, Sigebert, (18 years
s;41] C o n s t a n t i n e I I I. - old,) being king of Austrasia.
-C o n s t a n s II. 642. Britain:-BretwaldVII.
(11 years of age.)
0 644. Britain:-The University of Cambridgs
547 The Saracens become masters of Africa and founded by Sigebert, king of E. Anglia.
Cyprus.
650. Britain: - Mercia converted to ChrisC 3 The Saracens take Rhodes, and destroy the tianity.
Colossus.
Persia becomes a part of the empire of the 656. France:-C 1 o t a i r e II I.
Caliphs.
659 The Saracens obtain peace from Constans, by
agreeing to pay him 100,000 crowns yearly. 660. France: —C h i I d e r i c I I.
661 Constans goes to Rome, and plunders the
Treasury.
MIoawiah, caliph, makes Damascus his capi- 663. Lombardy conquered by Grimoald. duke
tal. of Beneventura.
68 C onstantine IV.. invades Sicily.
670 Grand Cairo founded. 672. The Saracens driven from Spain, by
673 Siege of Constantinople by the Saracens, Wamba, king of the Goths.
whose fleet is destroyed by the Greek fire of
Callinicus. The caliph compelled to purchase a peace of thirty years, by paying a
yearly tribute.
a 0 TIIE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Modern: Period IV. 178 years:'
A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY. ETC. ECCLESIASTICAL.
674 Stolne bilidings and glass come into use in
England.
676. Pope Domnus.
The abbey of W~hitby, and the monastery of The popes become independent of the
Gillin fobunded. Greek emperor.
The Anglo-Saxons advance in civilization 679. Pope Agatho.
and polwer, by the introduction of Chrlis- 1680. The sixth general Council at Constantinoliaunity. pie, called by the emperor Constantine, who
In France, the Teustonic languzage supersedes presides.
the Latin. —National assemblies established, 682. Pope Leo II. He usurps the right of inthough confined to the aristocracy. vestiture.
684. Pope Benedict II.
In Persia, the Magian religion gives way to 685.. John V.
the Mohammedan. 686. " Conon.
687 Severe persecution of the Jews in Spain. 687. " Sergius.
691 Jeulian, of Toledo, historian and moralist.
697 The venerable Bede, Ecc. historian.
698 A king first elected in Poland.
Adleelis, the first British writer in prose and
verse. 701. Pope John ~.
Sclavonian replZblics in Bohemia. 704. The first province given to the pope.
705. Pope John VII.
708. " Sissinius (20 days).
Christianity greatly extended among the Ger- 703. " Constantine.
man nations and other people in the north
of Europe; but almost exterminated in
Africa, by the progress of Mohammedanism.
709
711. Custom of lkissing the Pope's feet intro.
duced.
714. Pope Gregory II.
716 The art of making paper brought from Samarcand by the Arabs.
George Syncellus, a Grecian chronologist.
718 Glastonbury Abbey rebuilt by Ina.
Leo (Eastern Emperor) attempts to procure the assassination of the Pope. TIle
Romans defend him.
— From Mahomet to Charle-magne.] THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 71
A.D. EASTrERN EMPIRE, ASIA, &C. EURoPE, generally.
673. France:-Thierry I.
675. Spain: —Vamba gains a naval victory
over the Arabs, who attempt to invade his
kingdom.
630 The kingdom of Bulgaria founded.
Yezid, caliph of the Saracens.
682. Spain: — Wamba abdicates and turns
C'33 Moawiah II., caliph. monk.
634 Abdallah, caliph.
683 -- 1 Justinian II..
Abdulmelek, caliph. He discontinues the
tribute to the Greek emperor
690. France: —P epin d' Heristel,
mayor of the Palace and duke of Austrasla,
aefeats Thierry, and becomes king.
691. France: —Covis III.695 Justinian II. deposed, and his nGse cut off by 691. France-C v is I
Leonitius, who is also deposed by 695. -C h i d e b e r I I
697 Absimerus Tiberius.
Armenia and the provinces between the Black 698. Poland:-Cracow founded.-An elective
and Caspian Seas subdued by Caliph Abdul- monarchy established.
melek. Venice: —Luc Anafetto first Doge.
698 Carthage rased, and the north coast of Africa
completely subjugated. 700. Britain: —Anglo-Saxon Octarchy.
France:-Aquitaine, Burgundy and Provence become separate dukedoms.
705 Justinian II. restored. 705. Britain:-Alfred the Wise, in NorthSyria recovered, 200,000 Saracens slain. umlbria.
709 Africa subdued by the Saracens.
710. Spain:-R ode r ic, king, (the
last of the Goths.)
711 Justinian put to death by Philip Bardanes,
who reigns under the name of Philippicus. 711. France:-D a g o b e rt I I.7131 Anastasius II. - 713. Spain conquered by the
S a r a c e n s under Muca. By the marriage of Abdallah, the Moor, with the widow
of the Gothic king, the two nations are
united in interest.
714 - T h e o d o s i u s I I 1. — pro- 714. France: —Charles Martel, duke of Ausclaimed by the revolted army of Anastasius. trasia.
715. France:-C h ild e r i c II. -
7,16 - L e o I I I., (the Isaurian0,) -son 716. Britain:-Ethelbald, king of Moercia.
of a shoemaker.
718. Spain:-Pelagius founds the kingdom of
Asturias.
720. France:-T h i e r r y I I. --
72 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [Modern: Period IV.-178 years.
A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. ECCLESIASTICAL.
Increasing Dark
power, period 726. Image worship being forbidden by the
spiritual of emperor Leo, causes great disturbance.
andl European 727 Peter's p)ence first collected in England.
temporal literature. 728. Leo orders the pope to ba, seized.
of the
Popes. 730. Gregory excommunicates the emperor.
The Iconoclasts, or image breakers.
731 Winoifr7ed, an Anglo-Saxon, preaches the gos. 731. Pope Gregory III.
pel to the Frisons.
735 The venerable Bede dies-a grammnarian, philosopher, historian, and theologian. 736. The images throughout the empire de740 The Abassidae, caliphs of the Saracens, en- stroyed by order of the emperor.
courage learning. Monks persecuted.
741. Pope Zachary.
7,2 Freclegaire, a French historian.
748 Virgilius, a priest, is condemned as a heretic,
for believing in the existence of antipodes. 752. The Pope dethrones Childeric, king of
France, by a papal decree.
752. Pope Stephen III. at war with the Lombards, assisted by Pepin.
7A5. -he journeys to Pepin to implore his
protection.
755. Commencement of the Pope's
temporal power under the auspices
of Pepin, who bestows on Stephen the exarchate of Ravenna.
757 An orgaon sent by Constantine to France. 757. Pope Paul I.
7650 Joh/zn of Dalnsacus, a founder of the scholastic philosophy.
Fredegaire continues the history of Gregory
of Tours.
The schools of Baigdad, Cufa, Alexandria,
Fez, and Cordova, promoted by the Abas- 768. Stephen IV.
sidae caliphs. 769. Council of the Lateran.
770. The Eastern monasteries dissolved by the
emperor.
772. Pope Adrian I., on whom the Ecclesias.
Ignorance, profligacy, and misery, character- tical state is conferred by Charlemagne.
ized the age preceding Charlemagne.
779. Ilposition qf Tithes enforced by Char783 The first palm-tree planted in Spain. lemagne, for the support of the clergy.
churches, schools, and the poor.
785 Golden period of learning in Arabia, under the 785. Forcible conversion of the Saxons by
caliph Haroun al Raschid. Charlemagne.
787. The seventh general Coszcil at Nice, m1
788 Pleadings in courts of justice first practised. which the doctrine of the Iconoclasts was
793 Foundation of schools in monasteries and condemned.
cathedrals, by (tharlemagne.
The Gregorian chant.
91The S1yno1d of Frankfort. 794. Pope Leo III. sends to Charlemagne for
George, the monk. confirmation.
Masses saidfosr snoney.
-From Jlaliomet to Chacrlcmagnc g]e.] THE WOUtLD'S PROGRESS. 73
A.D. EASTERN EMIPIsE, ASIA, &C. EUROPE, generally.
The Arabs invest Constantinople bhyland with 725. France:-Charles Martel crosses the
120,000 men, and by sea with IS00 ships. Rhine, and subdues Bavaria.
The city is saved by the Greek fire-tile
Arab fleet being almost entirely destroyed. 727. Britain:- -Ia, king of Wessex, begins the
Leo confiscates Calabria and Sicily. tax called Peter's pence, to support a college at Inome.
The Greek possessions in Italy are lost in consequence of the edict Jorbidding image worship.
732. France:-Charles Mlartel gains a great
victory over the Saracens near Tours.
740. Spoletto taken by the Normans, but re741 Constantine V. (Copronymnus). covred by the Pope.
742. France:-C h ild e r i c III. -'16 The Arabs defeated by Constantine. —Rhodes,
Cyprus, and Antioch captured.
752. France: —End of the Merovingian line
of French kings.
Pepin le Bref, -
first of the Carlovingian line.
753. Pepin le Bref aids the Pope with a large
army against the Lombards.
Italy: —Ravenna a dukedom.
756. Spain:-Separated from the Caliphate:
A b d e rh an a.
761. Spain:-Froila, grandson of Pelagius,
762 Almanzor, caliph; builds Bagdad and makes builds Oviedo, and mnakes it the seat of his
it his capital. kingdom.
766 Asia Minor ravaged by the Turlks.
768. France:-CHARLEMAGNE, or Charles
the Great, reigns with his brother, Carloman, until 771.
774 Great victory over the Bulgarians. 774. Charlemagne invades Italy; defeats
Ars ( -L e o Didier, king of Lombardy, and annexes
-Leo IV. ~ Italy to his empire.
End of the Lombard kingdom.
778. A part of Charlemagne's army defeated
at Roncesvalles.
779 Charlemagne conquers Navarre, Sardinia,
781 Constantine VI. (Porphyrogenetus). and the Saxons.
Irene (Queen mother) restores image worship. Charlemagne conquers the Avari.
785 Tlhe empire is invacded by H a r o u n a I -attempts to unite the Rhine and the
R a s c h i dl, caliph of' Bagdad. Danube
786 Constantine imprisons his mother, Irene, for
her cruelty. 787. Britain:-First recorded invasion of the
Danes: —The Sea Kings cand Vikings.
788 - — I r e ne puts him to death,
and assumes the sole power.
793 -proposes to marry Charlemagne.
-is dethroned by Nicephorus. 794. Charlemagne extirpates the Huns.
The Saracens ravage Thrace. Sweden conquered by Iva Viafamo.
74 TIIE WOORLD 7S PROGRESS.
PERIOD. V.-Thte Middle A3ges.-266 years
A.D. I PROGRESs OF SOCIETY. ECCLESIASTICAL. NEW WESTERN EMPIRE.
800 Agriculture and horticul- 800. The Popeseparatesfromn 800. NEW EMPIRE of the
ture encouramed by Charle- the Eastern Emzpire, and WEST' founded by Charlemagne; both flourish in becomoes supremne Bishop of mnagne, who is crowned at
Spain under the caliphs. the WYestern. Rome, by the pope, king of
Italy, Germany, and France.
Gold faizes worked in Spain.
801 Pautl lVarefredus (Diaconus) Charlemagne reforms the
the historian. church.
802 iHaroun al Raschid, courting 802. Charlemnagne receives vrn
his alliance, presents Charle- embassy from Nicepjhorus,
magne with a striking clock. Many bishoprics founded. and from Haroun at Ras.
This clock was adorned with -Great increase of monastic chid.
automaton figures, which institutions.
moved and played on various musical instruments.
Fine Arabian breed of horses
introduced into Spain.
804 Alcuin, of York, a pupil of
Bede, forms schools at Tours 806. Ch a r ] e m ag n e d i.
-patronized by Charle- vides the empire be0
in ane. tween his three sons.
808. First descent of the NOR
Transient revival of learning MANS upon France.
under Charlemagne.
Eginhard, historian, secretary to Charlemagne.
813 The reignofMamun (caliph) 813. Insurrection at Rome 813. Charlemagne dies, Jan.
is regarded as the Augustine 3
age of Arabian literature, against the pope.
814. -Louis I.
(Debonaire) an in rions
816. Pope Stephen V. and turbulent reign.
817.'L Paschal I. 817. Louis divides the empire
The College of Cardinals between his three sons.
founded. 820. Invasion of the Normans.
824. Pope Eugenius II.
Christianity in Denmark
and Sweden.
827. Pope Valentine.
828 St. Mark's Church at Venice 828. " Gregory IV.
built. Missionaries sent from
829 Turpin, archbishop, to whom France to Sweden.
is attributed the famous 831. Paschasius Radbertus, a 833. Lothaire, a fourth son of
"De Vita Caroli Magni et monk of Corbey, father of Louis, associated in the govRolandi." the doctrine of transub- ernment.
stantiation. This doctrine
disowned by the English 840.-L ot h a i r e. --
Church. 841. -defeated by his brot ers,
Ratramnus and Scotus En-i- JLouis and Charles, in the
gena, theologians, holding battle of Fontenoy.
much the same opinions as Division of the empire.
Luther. A
France: —Charles I.
-(the Bald).
Ger.:-Lou is I.
__surnamed the German.
Italy:-Lot haire s
-with imperial dignity.
The Normans plu.nder
Rouen, and advance to Pa.ir
THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 75
(A. D. 800-10G.) —CtrcirZemgt nsLe to Williael, the Cos7qteror.
A.D. EIASTERN EMPIRE. ENGLAND. THE WORLD, elsewhere
801. DENMARK become a
kingdom under Gotricue
0 The Saracens ravage Asia
Minor. capture Cyprus, and
compel Nicephorus to pay a
tribute.
811 M i c h a e I.. —
(Caropaltes); at war with
the B ulgari.
813 - L e o V. -- (the 813. Egbert, king of Wessex,
Armenian). defeats the Britons.
816 Earthqualkes, famitle, fire, &c.
ravage the empire.
818. Al Mamun (caliph) a patron of learning.
~ll —><chae TI.[~ — 820. First dismemberment of
S21 -M i c h a e 1 I I. - the Arabian monarchy. The
(Balbus or the Stammerer). dynasty of the Taherites
822 Constantinople besieged by founded at Khorassan.
the Saracens. The Bulga- 826. The Danish prince, Harians raise the -siege. The rold, is baptized at IngelSaracens obtain possession heim.
of Crete, and name it Can- 827. The seven kIingdia. doms of the Heptarchy united by Eg829 -T h e o p h i I u s. bert, Icing of Wessex,
under the name of ENG- 833. I\otassim, caliph. I-IHe
LAND, or the Land of the builds Saumora, which he
Angles. makes the seat of govern.
ment.
-Egbert.. —
Invasion of the Danes.
838. -Ethelwolf, --
a weak prince.
842 -M i c h a e I I I II. - Scotland:a-Kenneth, king
(the Drunkard). of the Scots, defeats and extirpates the Picts, and becomes sole monarch.
The Danes return, and
ravage the country unmolested, and burn the city. of
Lorndon.
Ethelwolf makes a pilgrimage to Rome.
76 THE WORLD'S PROGtLESS. [Period V.-(A. D. 800-1066.) —266 years.,
A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY. ECCLESIASTICAL. FRANCE, SPAIN, G(ERMANY.
814. Pope Sergius III. (Bucca
Porci).
The aristocratic Feutdal sys: Ignatius, patriarch of
tein in all its power. Here- Constantinople.
ditary ezobility. which, with Persecution of the Christhe clergy, was the dorni- tians in Spain.
nant order in the state. 847. Pope Leo IV.
The barsons independenst of
the king. Gradual intro- 850.'Christianity propagated
duction of the _Romasn and by Auscharius in Denmark
conznon law, and Sweden.
855. Pope Benedict III. 855. Lothario retires to a rmonastery and dies.
New division of the empire at Mersen.
856. Germ.:-Louis II.s
-has Italy with the i.'lperial dignity.
-establishes his court at
Pavia.
First inclosure of lands at 858. Pope Nicholas I. 858. France invaded by Louis
Spalding, where Richard de First coronation of a pope. the German, who is finally
Rules does much to improve 859. Eulogius, archbishop of compelled to retire.
agriculture. Cordova, martyred.
860. The schism of the Greeks
begins.
864. The Bible translated into
Slavonian.
867. Pope Adrian II.
8th Council at Constantinople.-Photius, patriarch 868. Lorraine annexed to
of Constantinople, deposed. France.
872 Cloclcs brought to Constanti- 872. Pope John VIII.
nople fiom Venice.
The Faroe Isles, and Iceland 87
discovered in this century. 877. Fr.:-L o u i s I I.
(the Stammerer).
879. Louis III. and
Carloman. —.
882. Pope Martin II. reign jointly.
884. " Adrian III..
884. France:-C h a r 1 e s?
the Fat, an usurper.
S85. " Stephen VI. 885. Paris besieged by t j.
Normans; gallantly defern.
ed by archbishop Goslin.
886. Charles makes a disgraceful peace with the Norlnans.
887. Germany: —A r n o I d,
emperor,2. (the imperial dignity transferred
fiom France to Germany).
888. France:-E u d e s.
-Ch/ea'levsitag'e to TWilliam I.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 77
A.D. EASTERN EMPIRE. ENGLAND. THE WORLD, elsewhere.
044 Decline of the Caliphate begins.-.Jews and Cthristians 845. The Normlans plunder
persecuted.-Frequent wars Hamburg, and penetrate into
between the Greeks and Sa. Germany.
racens. 846. The Saracens destroy the
Venetian fleet, and besiege
Rome.
849. Alfred the Great, born. S49. -defeated by the Pope's
allies.
851 B a z i I I. 6 - 851. Sardinia and Corsica ra —
(the Macedonian), defeats 852. Ethelwolf defeats the vaged by the Saracens.
the Saracens. Danes in the Isle of Thanet.
856. The coasts of Holland
plundered by the Normans.
857. Ethe bald and E thelCrete and the Sicilies reco-:
vered friom the Arabs. b e r t -reign jointly
increase Lhe influence of the
clergy.
860. Gorm the Elder, (descended from Odin,) unites Jutland and the Datnish Isles,
and becomes king of Denmark.
861. Iceland discovered by the
Normans.
862. RUSSIA:- Ruric, first
grand Prince, builds the city
866. -E t h e 1 r e d of LaCoda.
867 Basil commences the Mace- 867. The Danes conquer Nordoniann dynasty. thumberland. 868. Egypt throws ofits de868 Publication of the Basilica.
6 pend(ence on the caliphs, under Ahmed.
872. ALFRED TlHE GREATIB 874. Iceland, a republic, found- defeats the Danes. ed by the Normans.
875. NORWAY — Harold
Harfrage, first king.
879. Alfred abandoned by his
subjects, retires to the Isle of
Athelney, but soon draws
together his friends and conquers the Danes.
656 -Leo V- I. _: - &886. The Scythians seize Cro(the philosopher).
889. Hungary: - Arpad lays
the foundation of the kingdom.
78 THE vWORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period V.-(A. D. 800-1066.)-266 yea?-a-.
A.D. PInOGnESS OF SOCIETY. ECCLESIASTICAL. FRANCE, GERMANY, &C.
890 O/brrdt Unives-sity found- 890. Arnold, emperor of Ger.
ed.-Alfred the Great esta- 891. Pope Formosus. many, takes Rome.
blishes a reaular mnilitia 896. " Boniface VI.
and nzavy, andc the mode of " Stephen VII.
trial byjsury; institutesfairs 898. " John IX. r'
and mearkets. - Jolannes Veneration for saints and 898. Fr.:-C h a r 1 e s I I l.
scotues BErigena, a learned a passion for relics prevail. (the Simsple).
philosophical writer. C
899. Ger.:-Louis III uN
900 England divided into coun- 900. Pope Benedict IV. Invasion of the 1:un8lt
ties, hund-ereds, and tithlings.
The county courts, held, Contests between the nomonthly, become the great 903. " Leo V. bles and bishops
safeguard of the civil rights
of Englishmen.
Heied troops substituted for 905. " Sergius III.
tile feudlal.
912. The Normans in France 912. France:- o b e r t, duke
embrace Christianity. of Normandy.
The Normans, under
R o 1 l o, establish themselves in Normandy.
914. Pope John X.
Ger.:-Conrad I.a
- (the empiie becomes
elective).
915 Thee University of Cansbrid-ge founded.
919 Gier.: —I e n r y I. u -
(the Fowler). first of the
Saxon line.
921. The Bohemians embrace 921. France:- Robert I. do
Christianity. Ieated and killed by his
The Anglo-Saxon monarchv brother at SoiSSons.
rises into importance. 923. France:-ludlolph electmel dukle.
Italy: —Hugo, count of
Provence, oppresses the aristocracy, who call to thleir aid
Berenger.
Fiance:Civil wars.
929 Azophi, Arabian astronoomer. 929. " Stephen VIII. F929.s Chals
ESutles, sssoskt of Cluni. prisoner at Peronne.
931. Pope Jothn XI.
Mere children elevated to
the hig-hest offices in the
933 Printing invented amolng the church.
Chinese (.)
936. Pope Leo VII. 936. Ger.:-O t h o I. -
(the Great).
939 Cordova, in Spain, becomes 939. " Slephen IX.
the seat of Arab learning, Fr.:-L o u i s I V.
science, indlustry, and com- (the Stranger).
rnerce. Its celebrated schools
of geornetry.astronomy, chemistry and medicine, together with its equally celebrated poets and phitlosophliers, reinder it famnous
throuOhout the world.
Luitprand, the historian.
9410 Mints established in Kent or 940. Burgundy, a fief of the
Wessex. 943. Pope Martin III. empire.
'-Cg'arlemagne to Williaam I.] THE WOBRLD S PROGRESS. 79
A.D. EASTERN EisPIRE. ENGLAND. THE WORLD, elsewhere.
890 Southern Italy subject to the
Greek empire. 891. Invasion of the Danes.
897 War with the Bulgarians, The first land tar.
Lombards, and Saracensthe latter take the island of'
Samos.
900. Scotland: — Constantine
III.
901. - E d w a r dA - 901. Italy: —The r e p ublics
(the Ilder), the first who of V e n i c e and G e n o a
904 Rtssian expedition under talkes the title of "Rex An- founded.
Oleg, against Constantino- gloruln."
pie. War with the Danes.
908. The race of Fatimites in
Egypt.
910 -Constantine VII. - 910. Spain: —Kingdom ofLeon
associates his four sons, so founded by Garcia.
that there are five emperors. 912. Spain:-Abderrahman III
the greatest Arab prince of
Spain-builds the splendid
city and palace of Zehra.
914. Spain:-Ordogno II., king
of Oviedo, makes Leon his
capital.
Commencement of the
917 Constantinople besiegedby the heroic age in Spain.
B ulgarians.
919 Romanus, general of the fleet,
usurps the empire, with his
three sons, Christopher, Ste- 921. Poland:-Lesko IV.
phen, and " -zemormyel.
-Constantine V I I I. - 923. Spain: —Fruela, king of
Leon.
924. -A t h e 1 s t a n. - 924. " — Alphonzo IV.
927. " -Ramiro II.
930. Denmarl: —Harold VI.,
first Christian king.
932. 4rnolf of Bavaria, defeatel near Verona.
933. Norway: —Eric, king —
934. -by the victory of Bru- his cruelty leads the people
nanbureh, he becomes Ling to revolt.
9 R.omanus gains a naval victory of all Britain.
over the Russians, who, led
by Igor, enter the Black
Sea with 10,000 ships or canoes.. 940. — E d m u n d I. 4 — 940. Spain:-Ramiro, king of
942 Naples annexed to the empire. Leon, defeats the Moors, under Abtlerrahman, in the bat9-15 The empress Helen usurps the tie of Simancus.
throne.
80 THE WOILD'S PROGRESS. [Period V.-(A. D. 800-1066.) —266 yecars.
A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY. ECCLESIASTICAL. FRANCE, GERMANY, &C.
The mercantile character
raised by a law of Athelstan,
that a umerchant who made
three voyages over the high
seas with a ship and cargo
of his own, should enjoy the
rank and privileges of a
thane.
9i1 The fig-t6res of arithmetic
brought into E urope by the 946. Pope Agapetus II.
Saracens.
Silver mines in the'Hartz 950. Germany:-Bohemia be
Mountains. comes tributary to Otho.
Manufactories of linzens and 953. The Hungarians subwoollens in Flanders, which dued.
becomes the seat of western
commerce. 954. Fr.:-L o t h a i 1 e I. O
955. Baptism ofOlga, and con. -confers the dukedoms oi
version of Russia to Chris- Burgundy and Aquitaine on
tianity. Hugih the Great.
956. Pope John XII.
Quarrel with the emper- 957. Germany:-Otho defeats
ors respecting investiture. the Slavonians in Saxony.
959. St. Dunstan, archbishop
of' Canterbury, attempts to
reform the church-enforcing clerical celibacy.
The influence of the
961 Geber, Arabian astronomer. monks greatly increased.
Suidas, grarnmarian and lexicographer.
Rhazes, Arabian physician. 963. Pope Leo VIII. elected by
Roman citizens.
961. Benedict V. elected by a 964. Italy united to the empire
The Saoxonfleet, consisting of council. of Germany.
360 sail, in three squadrons, 965. John XIII. Tuscany becomes a dukemakes the circuit of the Poland receives Christianity dom.
island, under the command under Miecislus.
of kinc Edgar.
972. Pope Benedict VI..
973. Boniface VII.: deposed 973. Ger.:-O t h o II.
and banished fbr his crimes. subdues the Bohemians.
974. Domnus II.
975. Benedict VII.
978 Abbo, monk and astronomer.
979. Otho at war with Lothaire.
981 Albirunius, Arabian geographer. -
982 Greenland discovered by the 983.-O t II.
Norwegians. 984. Pope John XIV. (3 years of age).
986. John XV. 986. Fr. -Louis V.,*
Ainoiin, historian. (" the Slothful,") last of the
Carlovingian race.
Dublin much frequented for 988. Fr.: u g C a p t
trade, also many places on 989. Christianity propagated -9.fo ndet: of tl e tlird c
the Baltic. in Russia -by Waldimir- Capetinan inee of French
they hold to the Greek kings.
church.
— Cc'rlenzagne to WVilliam. I.] TIIE WOItLD S PROGGRESS. 81
A.D. EASTERN EMIPIRE. ENGLAND, &C. THIE WORLD, elsewhere.
946. —E I d r ed
governed by Dunstan, abbot
of Glastonbury. 950. Spain:-Ordono III., king
952. Scotland: - Malcolm I., of Leon.
king.
Constantine[lI. retires into a king.
cloister.
955. Scotland:-Inlulf, kinn. 955. Spain:-Sancho I., king
of Leon.
955. -E d wof Leon.
insulted by Dunstan, and
deposed-his queen, Elgiva,
put to death.
953. Italy: —,War between tht
959[ —R o m a n u s I I -. __959.-Edga Norsnans and Saracens
rn an u, Normans and Saracens.
poisoned by his wife, T'heo- marries the beautiful Elphano. frida, after the violent death
of Athelwold, her lover.
960. Scotland: —Duff, king.
Wolves expelled fiom 961. Candia recovered from
963 -Nice pEngland and Wales, in con- the Saracens.
963 — Nicephorus II. sequence of a reward being 962. Poland:-Miecislas estaoffered for the purpose by blishes Christianity.
the king.
Violent disputes between
the monks and the clergy.
967 -he recovers Cyprus and An- 967. Spain:-Raniro III., king
tioch from the Saracens. of Leon.
968. The Northmen devastate
96j3-is murdered by Galicia, but are defeated and
almost exterminated.
-John Zimisces.
973. Hungary: - St. Stephen,
first hereditary king, extends
t7, _E t wathe kingdom eastward; gives
975 Basil and Const'antine 975. -E d w a r d" l it a constitution and written
(the martyr), murndered by laws.
9751BasIII al his stepmother, Elfrida. 976. Spain:-Hixem, caliph
Vl. of Cordova.
Almansor, regent, obtains
many victories over the
978. -E t h e l r e d I I, Christians.
(" the Unready.")-Dunstan
980 Apulia and Calabria recover- still minister.-The people 960. Russia: —Waldimlr I;
980 Apuia nd itCaabohe empire. become discontented. marries Anna, sister of the
ed and united to the empire. emperor Basil H.
963. Italy:-Venice distracted
by violent commotions.
985. Danish invasion, under 985. Sweyn I., or Sweno, king
Sweyn. of Denmark, invades EngThe king purchases their land.
retreat.
82 TIIE WORtLD'S PROGRESS. [Period V.-(A. D. 800-1066.)-266 year's.
A.D. PROGItESS OF SOCIETY. ECCLESIASTICAL. FRANCE, GERMANY, &C.
993. First caezonizatio;s of
sauints.
Venice and Genoa carry on a
flourishing trade between
Asia and Western Europe. 996. Pope Gregory V. 995. Fr. -11 o b e r t I
997 Stephen, duke of Hunga- 997, " John XVI. -(the Wise,) succeeds his
ry, propagates Christianity father Hugh.
among his subjects.
998. -is excommunicated Ib,
999, Pope Sylvester II. the pope for marryilng his
cousin Bertha.
Hungary a fief of the
Romish church.
1002 Paper made of cotton?ags. 1002. Ger.:-H en r y I.,
-(duke of Bavaria).
Italy:-Ardoin, margrave
of Ivrea, elected king.
1003. Pope John XVIII.
Spain, the seat of Arabian and 1004. Italy:-Henry invited by
Jewish learning. the German party -Ardoin
loses most of Italy and resigns. - Pavia burnt in a
quarrel between the troops
1009. Pope Sergius. and people.
1012.' Benedict VIII.
Churches first built in the
Gothlic style.
Foundation of the House of Persecution of the AlbiWisdom at Cairo. genses in Languedoc. 1015. Germany:-The empeThe French language first be- ror receives an annual trigins to be writtess. bute from Poland.
Leo, the grammarian.
The arts Iaintly revive in Italy
-paintings in fresco and
mosaic.
Literature, the arts and sciences,and commerce flourish
at Ghizni.
iO24 Musical scale, consisting of six 10,24. Pope John XIX. He 10124. Ger.:-C o nr a d II.
notes, invented by Guido gained his election by bribe- -(the Salic,) first of t
Aretino. ry. He was not of the clergy, Franconian line.
Avicenna, a famous Arabian but consul and senator of 1025. Expedition into Italy.
chemist and physician. Rome.
Glaber Rad, historian.
Campanes, of Navarro, astronomer. 1029. War with the Poles.
IHermannus Contractuzs,mnonk
and mathematician. 1031. Fr.:-H e n r y I -
1032. Burgundy annexed to
1033. Pope Benedict IX., (ten the empire.
years old).
"Peace of God," published by the bishops.
-Cl/carlema ag1ne to Williamt I.] THE WORLD) S PROGRlESS. 83
A.D. EASTERN EIMPIRE. ENGLAND, &C. TI-IE WORLD, elsewhere.
994. Scotland: — Constantine
IV. slain by
995. Kenneth IV., (the Grim). 995. Norway: —Olaf I.
Christianity introdluced.
997. Drontheim founded.
Mahlmud Sultan of Ghizni, adds Transoxiania, Cabul, and part of India to his
dominions; patronizes literature.
998. Spain:-Division of the
Mohamlmedan kingdom of
Cordova.
1009 Basil drives the Bulgarians 1000. Sancho III., (the Great,)
king of Navarre, takes the
frli~~~~om The~ssar~ly. ~title of emperor.
1000. Savoy:-independent un1002. Dreadful imassacre of der Bervald, its first count.
all the Danes in England- Poland: - Boleslas I.,
upon which Sweyn lands a (the Lion-hearted).
large armament, and brings
war and all its miseries upon
the country.
1003. Scotland:- Malcolm II.,
an able, renowned prince.
1006. Pestilence in Europe for
three years.
1012. Spain: —Suleiman, ca1012. An annual tribute pro- liph.
mised to the Danes.
1013. The Danes, unler Sweyn,
become masters of England. 1014. Denmark:-Harold III.,
king.
I. 1015. Norway:-Olaf II.
1016.-E d nm u n d I I., _1016. Denmark:-Canute II.,
(Ironsides.) fights six battles (the Great).
with Canute. king of Denmarlr, with whom le finally
divides the kingdom.
1016. - Canute -
the Great, patronizes litera1018 Bulgaria again reldunad to a ture and the church.
Grecian province. 1019. Norway conquered by
Canute.
Venicc, Gcnoa, and Pisa
rise into importance.
1025. Poland:-M-Iiecislas II.. 1027. Ireland:-Brian Boru,
1028 — Romanus IsIoIl.. — sole monarch.
(Argyrus).
1031 -expels the Saracens from 1031. Canute penetrates into
Syria. Scotland-subdues Malcolm.
— poisoned by his wife Zoe.
1032. -performs a pilgrimage
to Rome.
10534 -— M i c h a e 1 I V. — 1034. Scotl'd:-Duncan, king.
1035. -H a r o 1 d I * t. -1035. Spain: —Ramiro I., king
(Harefoot) cruel and un- of Arra-on.
popular —ruled by Earl 1037. Ferdinand I., of Castile,
Godwin. in right of his wife succeeds
to Leon; successful against
the Mohammedans.
1036. Denmark: - Hardicanute III.
1037. Norway:-Magnus I.,
(the Good).
84 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Per'iod V. -(A. D. 800-1066.) —266 ySecars.
A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. ECCLESIASTICAL. FRANCE, GERMMANY, &YC.
1038. The Pope, for his scan-
dalous conduct, driven from 1039. Ger.:-H en r y III.
Rome, but re-established by -defeats the Bohemialns
the emperor, Conrad. and Hungarians-claims the
right of nominating to the
papal chair.
Ferdusi, the Persian Homer. 1044. — again driven from the
throne, and succeeded by 1046. France:-Dispute be.
Sylvester III. After three tween William the ConFranco, mathematician. months Benedict is restored queror and William of
by the Counts of Tusculum. Arques, for the duchy ol
But finding the people will Normandy.
George Cedrenus, historian. not tolerate his crimes, he
sells the papal chair to Gregory.
-deposed for simony, by
a council called by Henry
III.
1046. Pope Clement II.
1048. Damascus II., 23 days.
" Leo IX., the first who
kept a regular army.
1053. -is defeated and taken 1053. Germany: —Henry III.
prisoner by the Normans. causes his son, Henry, to be
1054. The papal chair vacant proclaimed king of the Roone year. mans. This ti le was apExcomnmunication ofthe plied, for several centuries
Patriarch of Constantinople, to the king's eldest son.
and the Greeks.
1055 Michael Psellus, a celebrated 10.55. Pope Victor II.
Greek philosopher and his- Hildebrand. the real
torian. head of the church from the
time of Leo IX. The church
improving in piety and disEnglish parents prohibited by cipline. Gel.:-H e n r y I V I N
law from selling their chil- -(the Great), aged six yearl
dren. 1057. Pope Steplen IX. under the tutelage of his
mother.
1038. Niclolas II. 1058. Roger, duke of Apulia,
First age of scholastic philoso- Benedict X., (antipope). becomes a vassal of the
phy. The election of pope pope.
transferred to a conclave of
cardinals.
1059. Quarrel between the
popes and the German etr - 100. r.: —P hilip I.eperors. respecting investi-
tlures and nomination to the
Holy See.
1061. Pope Alexander II.
1062. Berenger, a celebrated
Fretnchl ecclesiastic.
Alexander forbids the
massacre of the Jews.
1066. Alexander deposes IHarold, and gives England to
William the Conqueror.
dukle of Normandy.
— Clactremn agve to Williacn LI THE WORLD7S PRoOGRESS. 85
A.D. EASTERN ESmPIRE. ENGLAND, &C. Tii V WORLD, elsewhere.
1038 Earthquakes and famnine at
Colnstalntilnople. 1039. -HI a r d i c a nu t e.l -.-111 -— Rt ichael vScot'd.:-Macbeth mur011 -M i c h a e I V., ders Duncan, and usurps the
(Calaphales). throne.
The Saxon line restored
1042 o-Z o e d o r a. &- unde r d o
1042. — E d w a r d 1012. Denmark: - Mag nus
1042 -Cons tan tine X..- (the Confessor). The coun- (the Good,) of Norway, king.
(Monomarchus). try prospers under his mild
First invasion of the Seljuk sway.
Turks.
1013 The Russians invade Thrace
with 100,000 men, and are
repeatedly deleated by the
Greeks.
1047. Denmarkl:-Sweyn Estritson, or Suenon I.
1050. The Pisans and Genoese
1051. Rebellion of Earl God- take Sardinia and Corsica
win and his sons. from the Saracens.
William, duke of Normandy, visits Edward.
1053. The Dane-gelt abolished.
Earl Gordwin dies
The Welch and the Irish
several tines invadle England, but are repressed by
1W1-l<hoo, Harold, son of Godwin.
1054 - Theodo-ra~, 1054. Macbeth defeated and 1055. The Turks reduce Bagthe last of Macedonian dy- killed at Largfanan, by dad, and overturn the emnasty. Siward, earl of Northum- pire of the caliphs.
-0514 The Greek church becomes berland.
independent.
10561 — Mich ael VI. -
(9tra iotichus).
0A57 -I s a. a c _ 1057. Scotland:-Malcolm III.
(Comnenus). 1059. Sweden: -Ineeldus or
Ingo I., the first Cihristian
king.
1060. Robert Guiscard, the
Norman, is created by the
pope, dulke of Apulia.
105'3 1 - o s ant in e1012. 70,000 Europeans are
1059 -Constantin 3z e X I:. killed, or made prisoners by
_-(lDucas).'the Turks in Palestine.
1065. Jerusalem taken by the
Saracens.
1. 1065. Castile and Leon: Al1066. -Harold 11., I pionso, king.
elected king; killed at the
BATTLE of HASTINGS.
-— WILLIAM I --
duke of Normandy, styled
"the Conqueror."
End of the AngloSaxon dynasty.
Edgar Atheling flies to
Scotland.
86 THE WORLLD S PRFOGRESS.
PERIOD. VI. —T/e Mlliddle Ages.-(Cotntinucd.)A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. ECCLESIASTICAL. FRANCE, GERMANY, & SPAIN.
1066. William, Duke of Normandy, claims the crown of
England, and makes war
upon Harold to obtain it.
Popery at the height
Feudal System introduced in
England by the Normans.
supreme dos7inion, teamporal onzd spiritual, over 1071. Philip engages in a
all the states of Christen- war with Robert, count of
Holland.
i072 Surnames first used amlong 1072. Henry IV. of Germany,
the English nobility, summoned before the pope,
for selling the investiture of
bishops. Treats the mandate with contempt.
1073 Knsights errasnt in Spain. 1073. P o p e r e g o r y VI I., 1073. -summoned again by
(Ilildebrand,) who attempts Gregory VII.
to free all tlhe clergy from
Ingulphus, historian, secre- the civil jurisdiction. He
tary toi William the Con- quarrels with the emperor.
queror.
1074. Simony and celibacy
forbidden.
Marianucs Scotus. 1075. The pope sends legates
to the various courts of Europe.
Booksellers first heard of. 1076. -sends an ambassador to
to depose the pope-is excom municated by Gregory. Goes
barefoot to his holiness, makes humble submission, and kisses
London Bridge and Westmin- his feet.
ster HI-3all built. 1076. Tuscany and Genoa be queathed to the Holy See by
the Empress Matilda.
1076. Spain:-The Cid.
1078. The pope sets up Ru dolph, of Bavaria, as antiemperor. Rudolph dies in
1080. Ger.:-Henry IV. de10811 Lalft-anc, archbishop of Coan- grades Gregory for his in trigues against him, and make:J
terbhury. an expedition into Italy, and procures another pope to be
Doomsday Boole compiled by elected. The war continues till
order of William the Co- ove Greoy, who does to So 1084, when Henry triumphs
querorover Gregory, who flees to Sa lerno, and dies in exile in 1085.
queror.
104W WilliastZ of pires, mathema- 1084. The order of the Carthutician. sians instituted by Bruno.
A rigid police established in 1085. Spain:-Toledo takeri
Englandl.-The curJew. from thb Moorse, by Don
Noormnan French taught in all Rodrigo, the Cid, assisted by
the schools, and made use of Raymond, count of Touin all legal proceedings. louse.
Literature patronized in the 1086. Pope Victor III. 1086. Spain:-The battle of
East by Melek Shah. Zalaca.
1087. France: - War with
1088. " Urban II. England: Robert, duke of
1090 Fortress of Newcastle, and of Normandy, opposes Wil1092 Carlisle built. liam Rufus.
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 87
1066-1299.-[ Williamn the Conqueor to 0//ncmae? I.
h.D. EASTERN EMPIRE. ENGLAND & SCOTLAND. THE WORLD, elsewhere.
1066. -WILLIAM I.
10v67 -- - Eudocia.- " TIHE CONQUEROR," first of 1067. Poland - Boleslas II.,
z She mawrries the Noerman, line. -he conquers Russia.
- Romanus Ill., -
(Diogenes.) He valiantly
but vainly opposes the
Turks - is defeated and 1068. Edgar Atheling, heir of 1068. Poland l-Romanus Diotaken prisoner by Alp Ars- the Saxon line, takes refuge genes.
lan, Emir of Omrah. in Scotland. IIis sister,
q0z i ""cSMargaret, marries Malcolm
1071 Michael VII., III.
(Parapinaces). 1070. The feudal system in- 1070. Norway: — Bergen built.
troduced by the king. All
___- Andronicus I.t - Cthe offices of the government
placed in the hamtIls of Normans. The Norman languare introduced.
-Conustantinse XII. _- Malcolm III. of Scotland,
ravages Durham.
1072. Peace between the Normans and the Scots
1074 Syria and Palestine subdued 1074. Syria:- Melek Shah,
by Melek Shah. (Emir,) extends his dominions from the Jaxartes to the
Mediterranean.
1076. Robert, the king's son, 1076. Denmark:-Ilarold IV.
raises a rebellion in Nor.
mandy. Palestine invaded and
subdued by Melek Shahl.Jerusalem taken.
1077. Hungary: -Ladislas I.
10()0 Nicephorus, - 1079. Poland:-Stanislas, bi(Botoniates). shop of Cracow, murdered.
3-1 AlexiuseI. -(Cons The king excommunicated
[U$1 - Alexius I.Q -- -(Com.- and dethroned.
nenus). T'he empire in- 1079. Poland:-Uladislas I.
vaded by Robert Guiscard,
the Norman, who defeats
Alexius at Durazzo.
1083. Italy: - Rome taken
after a siege of two years,
by Henry IV.
1084. BOHEMIA erected into
a kingdom by the empereor
Henry IV.
After the capture of Jerusa- 1087. William invades France,
lem, by the Turks, the Chris- and is killed at Mantes.
tian pilgrims are insulted,
robbed and oppressed. which,t07. -- W i iai I I.
gives rise to the crusades. (Rufts).
— Great struggle between
Revolt of the Norman 1090. Sicily conquered by
Christianity and Mohamme- nobles. Roger the Norman, after a
danism. war of thirty years with its
masters, the Saracens.
88 TIlE WORLD'S PROGRIESS. [Period VI. —T/Ae AMiddle Ares.
A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. ECCLESIASTICAL. [IRANCE, GERMIANY & SPAIN.
1093. Conrad, son of the em
peror, rebels.
The popes continue to struggle against the empire.
1094. Sp ain: —Pedro I., t.
-of Navarre and Arraron.
1095 The Crusades:-Peter, the Hermit, preaches against the Turks in all the countries of
Christendom. ITHE COUNCIL OF CLERMONT. I
1096 The FIRST CRUSADE; — P e t e r t h e H e r m i t, and Walter, the Pennyless, ser
out with a vast rabble, 300, 000 of whom perish before the warriors are ready to start.
The chieftains of the first crusade were,
1. G o d fr e y of Bcu.-illoi
or lBoulogne.
2. Hugh of Vermandois.
3. R o b e r t of Normnandy
4. Robert of Flanders.
5. Stephen of Chartres.
Nathan Bens Jechiel, learned 86. Raymond of Toulouse.
Jew. 7. Boihemond.
S. Tancred.
600,000 warriors, 100,000
cavalry.
1099 Knights of,St. Jolhn insti- 1099. Pope Paschal II.
tuted.
Anna Comnena, daughter of
Alexius I., Eastern emperor,
historian.
1100 Williamn of Poitou, first troubadour.
1104. Spain:-Alfonzo I., king
of Navarre and Arragon.
1106. Ger.: —Ien r y V.
-maintains the right of investiture.
Abelard, French scholas tic. t
Jeffrey of Mosnmouth, histo- 1 108. Fr.:-L o u i s VI.
rian. -Le Gros. Abb6 Sugar,
minister.
1109. Germany:-Henry enters Italy, talies the pope
prisoner, and compels him
to crown him.
1114. Henry V. marries Matilda, of England.
1118 The Knighlts Tee. pla's. 1118. Pope Gelasius II. 1118. Spain:-A-.fciso 1. cap.
1119. " Calistus II. tures Saragossa.
1120 Tograi, Ilairi, and Abdallh 1120. Rivalry betwee E
Sharfaddin, Arabian poets. 1120. lry etween England and France com1123. First Lateran, or ninth mences.
Scholastic Philosophy attains general council.
its highest point by the 1124. Ilonorius II.
writings of Peter Abelarld.
0Peter, thze Lsnshorcl, (master 1125. Germany:-L o t h a i r e
of sentences). II. -opposed by F-e
deric, and Conrad, duke of
Suabia.
i066-1229. —Continued.] THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 89
A.D. EASTERN EMIPIRE. ENGLAND & SCOTLAND. TIE WO1irLD, elsewhere.
1093. Scotland: —alcolm III.
invades England, and is
slain near Alnwick Castle by
Roger de Mowbray.
1094. Scot.:-Donald Bane,
king.
William again invades
Noimandy. 1095. Hungary:-Coloman.
Sct'd.:-Duncan usurps
the crown.
William quarrels with
Anselm, archbishop of Can- 1096. Egypt: - Mustali t'he
terbury. eighth Fatimite caliph. Iae
Order, learning, and corn- takes Jerusalem.
merce revive. 1097. Baldwin founds the
By the courage and talents of 1098. Scotland:-Edgar puts principality of Edessa.
the Comneni, the empire is out Donald's eyes and cefeared or respected by the t
nations of Asia and Europe.
1099 Invasion by the crusaders: 1099. Jerusalem taken by the
great numbers pass through clusaders, uncer Godfrey
Constantinople.
Conlstanutinlople. who is elected king.
1100. William II. accidentally
Battle of Dorylteum, which shot by Sir Walter Tyre].
secures the march of the
crusaders through Asia i- -H e n r y I.
nor. (Beauclerc,) grants the English a chlarter, and marries
Maud, a Saxon, thus uniting
the Norman and Saxon interests.
1101. Robert, dulke of Normandy, invades England. 1102. Poland:-Boleslas IIl.
1104 Acre taken by the crusaders.
1105. I)enmarl: - NichoIas.
1106. Henry invades Norman- 1106. Italy:-V-enice, Genoa,
dy; takes Robert prisoner and Pisa greatly enriched
at-the battle of Tinchebrai. by the crusades.
Scotland: —Alexander I.
1107. Hlenry quarrels with Anselm.
1109 Tripolis taken by crusaders. 1109. Norway:-Segurd's expedition to Palestine.
-111 Berytus and Sidon taken by the
crusaders.
111 — John I., - -_(Comnne- 1117. Persia:-Sanjar subdues
1horasan and Samarkand.
nus),a noble prince; reforms
the manners of his people. 1119. War between Pisa and
Genoa.
1120. Shipwreck and death of 1120. Italy: - Rise of the
Prince NWilliam asd 140 no- house of Guelph.
Zengi, governor of MoTyre taken by the crusaders. blemen. Zeni, goveo
sul, a great prince.
1124. Insurrection in Normandy suppressed.
Scotland:-David I. promotes civilization.
90 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period VI. —' le Mlidle Ages. —
A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. ECCOLESIASTICAL. FRANCE, GERIMANY & SPA.N.
1112. Spain: -- Alfonzo VL.I
king, Leon anl Castile.
Aristotle's logic conies into 1127. — makes war against
repute. Rogei, king- of Sicily.
1130. Innocent II. and Anacletis, rival popes. 1134. Spain:-Garcia IV.. king
of Navarre.
Ramiro II., king of Arragon.
1135. Lothaire in Italy-cap.
ture of Amalfi.
1137 Pandects of tihe oma lawte, 1137. A pretended Messiah in 1137. Fr.:-L o u is V I I.I
(Justinian,) discovered at France. -(le Jeune).
Amalfi, and the study of the 1138. -another in Persia. 1135. Germany: — I o u s e
civil laew revived. o f S u a b i a:
-Conrad. I.1139. Second Lateran, or tenth 1139. Portugat becornes a kinggeneral council. dlom. —Ienry of Besarncon,
1140 Gratian collects the canonlaw. kingl.
Williamz of rctalnzsbury, Engr 1141. Germany and Italy:lish historian. 1143. Pope Celestin II. Dissensions of the G u e 1 fs
Vacarinzs teaches civil law at 1144. Lucius II. and G hi b e 1 i n es.
Oxford. 1145. " Euenius III.
Otho, bishop of Friesengen,
historian, introduces the pe- i147.T'he S e c o n d C r u s ad e excited by St. Be rn a r d
ripatetic philosophy into and joined by the emperor Conrad and his nephew FreGermany. deric Barbarossa, and Louis VII. of France.
Benjcanin of Tszdela, a Jew,
travels from Spain to India, 1149. France:-Louis divorces
by Constantinople, and re- his queen, Eleanor, who
turns through Egypt. marries Henry of' Anjoun afterwards king of England;
thus Guienne aand Poitou are
lost to France.
1150 The inanrgetic nzeedle known I50. Spain: —Sancho V., king
in Italy. ot Navarre.
Suidas, lexicographer. 1152. Germany and Italy:Eben Ezra, of Toledo, Jewish 1153. Pope Anastasius IV.
historian. 1154. Pope Adrian IV. (an End- F r e e r i c I.
lishman, Nicholas BrealIs- (Barbarossa).
peare).
1153 Arnold, of Brescm, condemn.
ed and burnt.
Ezsstathius, cotmentator on
Homer and Dionysius Per. 1157. Spain:- Castile a) l
Leon divided under Fercinand II. and Sancho II.
1558 Bank of Venice established.- 1158. Germany: —The empeFairs at Leipsic. ror Frederic receives the
title of king of Bohemia at
London contains 40,000 inha- the diet of Ratisbon:-conbitants quers Poland, and makes it
tributary.
Poem of the Cid. 1159. Pope Alexander III.
Victor IV., antipope.
1160. Order of the Carmelites
Colleges of theology, philoso- instituted.
phy and law at Paris. The W a ld e n s e s and 1162. Frederic destroys Milan.
English commerce confined to Albigenses begin to ap- Spain: - Alfonzo II.,
the exportation of wool.-A pear. Iking of Arragon.
woollen manufactory esta- 1164. Pascal III., antipope.
blished at Worsted, and soon
after at Norvich. 1167. Rome taken by Frederic Babarossa.
1168. Calistus III., antipope.
1066-1229. —Continued.] THIE WORLD S PROGRESS. 91
A,D. EASTERN EMPIsEn. ENGLAND & CSCOTLAND. THE WORLD, elsewhere.
Kelso, Melrose, and Ilolyrood house founded.
1127. Matilda, the king's
daughter, marries Geoffrey
Plantaglenet. 1130. Sweden: —RaSwall I.
1133. Magrnus 1.
1135. - S t e p h e n ---
of Blois.
1136. MIatilda asserts her right
to the throne;
David, king of Scotland,
assists her.
1138. — is defeated in the " battle of the Standard."
1139. PORTUGAL becomes a
kingdom, under Alfonso 1.
1141. Stephen made prisoner
1 M43 -Manuel Cosnmnenus. - at the battle of Lincoln.
Sweden: —Suercher II.
Edessa being retaken by the Civil war: Stephen and
Turks, gives rise to the MIatilda. 1147. Russia:- the city of
second crusade. Moscow founded.
1llS The Normans, under Roger
arrive before Constantino- 1149. Henry Plantagenet inpie-; are repulsed by Manuel. vades England.
1150. Denmark:-The coasts
infested with pirates.
-Henry 1150. Sweden:-Eric X.
1154. -H en ry II.. --
(Plantagenet).
1155 The Greeks reduce Apulia
and Calabria.
1156 Manuel forms the design of
conquering Italy and the
western empire, but fails. 1157. Denmark: Waldemar I.
11508 Thotlsts az Becket intro- 11158 Venice a great maritime
duced to the king's notice by power.
Theobold, archbishop of
Canterbury-becomes chancellor and preceptor of the
prince.
1159. Becket sent as ambassador to France.
1162. -made archbishop of 1162. Sweden:-Charles VII.
Canterbury - opposes the
kIing.
1164. -resists the constitutions
of Clarendon -- flies to
France.
1166. Scotland: -William.
1167. Italy:-League of the
Italian cities to preserve
their liberties.
92 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [Peiod VI. —T/ee Middle Ages.A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. ECCLESIASTICAL. FRANCE, GERMIANY, & SPAIN.
1170. Fraince: —'he Waldenses. They derived their
name fronm Peter taldo, a
merchant of Lyons.
1174. Frederick's fourth expedition into Italy.
1175 Foundation of the military
order of Santiago. 1176. Frederick defeated at tlL:
1177 Circuit Judges appointed in battle of Legnano.
England.
1178. InnocentIII., antipope. 1178. Henry. the Lion, duke
of Saxony, deposed, and
1178 The pope Alexander, by a special act, relieves the clergy Saxony divided.
of Berkshire from keeping the archdeacon's dogs and hawks
during his visitation.
The Waldenses spread over the valley of Piedlnont. They
circulated the Sacred Scrip tures. They were the forerunners of Protestantism. Con demned by the Eleventh General Council, and severely per secuted.
1179. Third Lateran, or Eleventh General Couescil.
Robert Wace, first French
poet. Translation of' his
-leist. des Rois dcl'Agleterre,
by Layanmon, the first Eng- 1180. Fr.:-P h i 1 ip I.,
lish composition. (Auguste).
1181. Pope Lucius III.
John Tzetes, Greek grammarian. 1183. The Peace of Constansce
re-establishes the independMaimonides, of Cordova, one ence of Italian republics.
of the most learned of the
Jews.
1185. Pope Urban III.
Hecvry, of Huenting'ton, anti
Tfilliaom, of Newbury, historlans.
Rainulpk de Glanville matkes
a diglest of laws and custonms 1187. Pope Gregory VIII.
of England. 1187.'Cleent III.
1189 Dreadful massacre of the Jews 11S8. Spain: - Alfonzo IX.,
at the coronation of Richardig of Le
I.
1190 Teutonic order instituted. 1190. T h i r d C r u s a d e led by Philip A.ugustus, of
Boahoddi Ibu Shadad, author France, and Richard, of Eng land, and Frederick Barbaof a Life of Saladin, in Ara- rossa.
bic. 1190. Ger.: —IIe n r y V I.T
emperor and kinr of Italyt
1191. Pope Celestine III. and the Sicilies,
1196. Richard Coeur tie I,110
The Jews become the princi- seized and retained in cappal banzekrs of the world. tivity.
1198 Order of the HIoly Trinity in- 1198. Pope Innocent 11. 1198. Philip, of Sunibia, and
stituted in Germany. Otho, of Saxony, dispute the
crown; the lormer supported by the Ghlibelines
and the latter by the Guelfs.
1066t -1299. —Continucid.] THE WORtLD'S PIIOG ESS. 93
A.D. EASTERN' EMPIRE. ENGLAND & SCOTLAND. THE WORLD, elsewhere.
1170. Becket returns to England, and is murdered at the 1171. Egypt: —SALADIN, SUI
altar. tan.
1172. He n r y c o n q u e rs — He extends his dlsmiIr e I a n d. nions in Egypt, and conquers Syria, Assyria, Mesopotamia, and Arabia.
1174. Treaty of Falaise, in 1174. Poland: —Miecislaus II.
which William agrees to do
homage fobr Scotland. 1175. Portugal-a fief of the
Henry makes a pilgri- Holy See.
mage to the shrine of Becket.
11]78. Poland: —Casimir, (the
Just;
1180 -Alexius II. --
1182. Denmar: —Canute.
118~ Andronicus L.~ ~~-~- ~1183. Saladin talces Aleppo,
Itt893 Anldronicus I. i1183.and deposes the sultan of
Mosul.
11s83 -— Isaac II. L ---- 1185. Portugal:-Sancho I.
1186. Saladin directs all his
(Angelhts). efforts against the crusaders.
The empire invaded by the
Bulgarians. 1187. -gains the victory of
Tiberias, and takes Jerusalem, which leads to
1189.-R i c h a r d I. —- 1190. The third crusade.
(Cceur de Lion). He engages in the third crusade.
1190 Iconium taken. by Frederick
Barbarossa, but afterwards
restored. 1191. Kingdom of Cyprus
founded.
1191. Acre taken by the crusaders.
1193. Richard defeats Saladin in the battle of Ascalon; but,
1195 -Alexius Angells, - abandoned by his associates, concludes a truce of bhIee
usurper and tyrant. years.
1193. John attempts to seize 1193. Saladin dies.
the crown in the absence of
Richard.
04 THE WORLD'S PROGRLESS. [Peri-od VI. —The Middle zAges.A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. ECCLESIASTICAIL. FRANCE. GERMANY & SPAIN.
The power of the pope supre me — Rome mlistress of the world, and tings her vassals
1200 The University of Bologna 1200. The pope excommunica tes Philip of France.
contains 10,000 students.
1202. The fourth crusade by the French, Germans, a,
Venetians under the Marquis of Monserrat. They takf
1203 VPille flardouin, historian. Constantinople.
Soaxo Gramsnaticus,historian,.
1204. The Inquisition in Fran ca.
Normandy reunited to
France.
1206 Usniversity of Paris founded.
1209 The order of Franciscan fri ars instituted.
The works of Aristotle, im- Bitter persecution of the
ported firom Constantinople, Albigenses. 1210. Germany:-Otho placed
condemned by the council under the ban of the pope.
of Paris.
1212. —F r e d e r i k I I.
Period of the Trsoubadours in Spain: —The Christians
France; the Minstrels in The doctrine oftransub- gain the battle of Naves de
England; and the Miimnee- stantiation and auricular Tolosa.
sisngers in Germany. confession established.
1215. Fourth Lateran, and 1215. Otho loses the battle of
twelfth General Council Bovines.
against the Albigenses, and
all heretics.
1216. Pope Honorius III.
1217. The fifth crusade by 1217. Spain e-Ferdinand, king
Andrew II., king of 1un- -of Castile.
gary.
1222 UsniversityofPadua founded.
1223. Fr.:Louis VIII..
-(The Lion).
Crusade against the Al,
bigenses.
Stephen Langton, archbishop
of Canterbury. 1227. Pope Gregory IX. 1226. Fr.: L o u s I X
-(Saint).
1227. Germany: —Crusade of
the emperor alter being ex1229. The Inquisition at Tou- communicated.
louse. 1230. Spain: —Castile antl
The Scripteres ferbid- Leon united by Ferdinand
den to all laynmen. III., who tal-es Cordova, Seville, C( aEz, kc, from the
Moors,
1066-1299.-Continuetd.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 95
A.D. EASTERN E3PIlRE. ENGLAND & SCOTLAND. TImE WORLD, elsewhere.
Richard, returning home
in disguise, through Germany, is imprisoned. Is
ransomed by his subjects for
10,000 marlks.
-declares war against
France.
1199. Richard dies.
1200. — John, --
(Lackland.)
1201. Prince Arthur supported 1202. Denmark: - Waldemar
by France. II.
Poland: -Lesco, (the
white).
Livonia:-Institution of
)4 4Alexius IV. the order of short swords to
The crusaders plunder Con- conquer the Prussians.
stantinople.
Baldwin, count of Flanders.
06. -— Henry II. *- _- 1206. Genghis Khan
subdues the north of China.
1207. The kingdom laid under
an interdict.
1208. John excommunicated.
London obtains the right
to elect its own Lord Mayor.
1210. Italy:-First war of Venice and Genoa.
1213. The pope declares John 1213. Russia:-Jurje II.
a usurper. John submits to
hold his crown as a vassal of
the pope.
1214. Scotland:-AlexanderII. 1214. Frederick cedes to Denmark all the provinces beyond the Elbe and Eiser.
1215. Magna Charta signed at
Runnymede.
-Peter -- 1216.-Henry III.*- 1216. Tartary:-Overrun by
(4th Plantagenet.) the hordes of Genghis Khan.
Earl of Pembroke, pro- 1217. Norway:-Haco V.
tector.
221 -Robert --
1222. Two Greek kingdorns in
Asia. Nice and Trebizond.
1224. Henry's province of John Ducas, emperor of
Poitou seized by the king of Nice.
France. HIungary:- Charter of
Andrew II. Foundation of
the national liberty.
228 -John of Brienne,&king of Jerusalem, and em- i229. First expedition of Henry 1234. Italy:-WVar of the L oinperor. into France for the recovery bard cities with Frederick of
of his estates. Germany.
1233. First discovery of coal 1236. Dreadful invasion oid
~7 - B —3-aldwin II.:- at Newcastle. Europe by the Mongols, uno
der Batu Khan.
96 THE WORLD )S PROGRESS. [Period VI.-ThLe Mldiddle Agcs.A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. ECCLESIASTICAL. FRANCE, GERMANY & SPAIN.
123S. Germany: - Frederic
again excommunicated.
1241. Pope Celestine IV.
Robert, of Gloucester, the first
English writer in rhyme.
1243. Pope Innocent IV. 1243. The Hanseatic
Continual struggles with 1 e a g u e-the chief tow1n'
the emperor Frederic. are Lubec, Cologne, Bruns
wick, and Dantzic.
1246. Henry of Thuringia see
Sect of the Flagellants. up for emperor by the pope,
and
1247 First war fleet in Spain at the 1247. William, of Holland.
conquest of Seville. 1248. France:-Louis sets out
Foundation of the Alhamsbra on the seventh crusade.
near Granada.
1249 St. Edmund, of Canterbury,
dies.
125)0 The University of'alaman. 1250. Germany:ca founded.
-Conrad IV. &
1252. Spain:- Alfonso X. -
1254. Pope Alexander IV. king of Castile and Leon.
The Jews every where
persecuted.
Silk masznufactory in Lucca;
woollens in iMilan and Tuscany.
Peter, of Albano, astrologer,
physician, and naturalist.
R1ubGhrugqis travels among the
tongtols.
1261 Private war and judicial corn- 1251. Pope Urban IV. 1261. France:-Burgundy fall
bats suppressed in France'r'he popes claim the to the crown.
by the laws of St. Louis. right of presenting t.o every
benefice in the world.
1261 Parliament in England.
1265. The pope succeeds in his long struggle for the do
The monastic orders, by their minion of Italy, and places Charles of Anjou on the throne
wealthl, rigid discipline, of Naples.
and popular infiuence, become powerful aids to po,- 1265. Pope Clement IV.
tij/i'cal a7mbitiozz.
1266. Henry of Castile, a Roman senator.
1268. Pragmatic sanctic
foundation of the liberties,
the Gallican church.
1268. NTo pope for about three
years.
1270. France:-Louis IX.' ets
out on the eighth and last
1271. Pope Gregory X. crusade, and dies before
Tunis-succeeded by
— Philip III.
(The Hardy).
10t66-12j99. — Continued.] THE WOIRLD S PROGRESS. 97
A D.. EASTERN EiapiMsE. ENGLAND & SCO'rLAND. THtE WVORLD, elsewhere.
1240. Rich.ard, earl of Cornwall, heads the sixth cru- 1211. Denmark:-Eric VI.
sade, and redeems Jerusalem.
1242. Second expedition into
France-defeated and compelled to make peace.
1246. Henry marries Eleanor,
of Provence.
1249. Scot.: Alexander 2I. 1249. The Hanse towns cap-Repulses Haco, king ture Copenhagen.
of Norway - obtains the 1250. Egypt:-The M a m eScottish Isles. 1 u k e s rule-take Damascus and Aleppo.
1255. Nice:-Theodore Lascaris, emperor.
i256. Hulaku enters Persia,
becomes sultan-takes Bagdad, and puts an end to
the calip h a t e.
1258. Famous parliament at 1258. Italy:-Dreadful naval
Oxford. -- S i m o n de war between Venice and
M o n t for t. Genoa.
1259. Peace with France. 1259. China:-Kublai Khan
builds Pekin, and makes it
his capital.
1260 -Michael Paleologus. -
1261 -recovers Constantinople. 1261. Norway:-Iceland subjected.
Italy:-Charles I.1262. -becomes a papal fief.
Greenland tributary to
Norway.
Norway:- --
The Mongols in Asia Minor. -lagnus II. -
1265. First regular parlia- 1265. Abaka Khan of Persia.
menzt.-Civil war-the kling
made prisoner at Lewes-is
released, and gains the battle of Evesham.
1266. Magnus, of Norway,
cedes to Scotland the He
brides and the Isle of Man.
1 The Mongols take Antioch.
I270. Prince Edward joins the 1270. Hungary:
eighth crusade.
— Stephen V, -
98 THIE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period VI. —T/e Mfiddle Ages.A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. EOCCRESIASTICAL. FRANCE, GERMANY, & SPAIN,
1272 MIarco Polo travels in the 1272. Languedoc falls to the
East as fatr as Pelin. crowl.
1273 First patelnf of nobility grant- 1273. Ger.:-R o d o 1 p h.
ed to his goldsmithll by the
king of France. This was founds tte h o u s e o f
designed as an attack pon II a p s b u r g.
the feudal barons, and all
the landed and hereditary
aristocracy. 1274. 14th General Council at Lyons; first re-union 3f
the Eastern and Western Churches.
Literature and science flourish
in Spain, under Alfonzo, the
learned.
1276 Chivalry and the tournaments 1276. Pope Innocent V., 4 mos. 1276 France at war with Casintroduced into Sweden. Adrian V., 1 mo. tile.
"John XXI., 8 mos.
1277. Nicholas III., enriching
1279 University of Lisbon founded. his famrily at the expense of
the church-he introduces
Nepotism.
Roqger Bacsor, of Oxford, the
most learned man of the
middle ages. 1281. Pope Martin IV.
1283. Germany- — Rodc.ph
makes his son, Albert, duke
of Austria.
1285 Institution of the three great 1285. Pope Honorius IV. 1285. Fr.:-P h i i p I V.
courts of law in England. - (the Fair.)
1286. Spain:-Alfonzo III.
king of Arragon.
1288. Pope Nicholas IV.
Nicholas IV. patronizes civil and religious literature, and
improves' and embellishes Rome.
Albert, the mathematlcian, and
Provencal poet.
i)066-1299.-Contintiied. THE WORLD'S PR~OGRESS. 99...D. - EASTEN EiIPIRE. ENGLAND & SCOTLAND. THE VWORLD, elsewhere.
1272. — E ward I. i — 1272 hungary - -
-— Vladislas V~. --
17-3 -- Andrllonicts, LI
(tile Elder.)' Union with the Latin church.
1276. War between England 1276. Swedenl- Magnus L.
and Wales.
Russia:-Hanseatic settlement at Novogorod.
1277 Persecution of the Greeks.
1279. China:-Kublia Khllan
subdues the southern kingdomn, and becomes the Great
Khan.
China visited by MIarco
Polo. a
1279. Poland: —Lesco 11. i1279. Portugal: —Dennis,~
-the father of his country.
1280. Norway:-Eric II.
1281 Othman establishes an independent rule, as chief of 1282. Sicilian'espers.
400 families, in the north of 1282. Denmark:-Parliament
Asia Minor. 1283. Edward has a son born at Wurtemburg.
at Caernarvon, from which First Handveste.
the title, Prince of Wrales,
descends to the eldest son of
the king.
Scotland:-Robert Bruce and
John Balliol contend for the
crown.
1286. Denmark:-Eric VI.L
1289. Last payment of liibute 1289. The Mongols invade
to tile pope. Hungary and Poland.
1290. Hungary: -Andrew III.
tlhe Venetian.
Poland: — Wenceslas,
king of Bohemia, takes Cracow, and becomes duke o
Lesser Poland.
100 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period VI.-T/he Middle Agles.A.D PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. ECCLESIASTICAL. FRANCE. GERMANY & SPAIN.
Peter, of Albano, astrologer, 1291. Germany:- - -
physician, and naturalist.
— Adolphus:
of Nassau.
John fIolywood, of England 1292. Celestine V.-he abdiastronomer. cates.
1292. The papal chair vacant Spain:-James II. k. of
two years and three months. Arragon.
lnstitution of the order
Richard Middleton. of the Celestines.
Cimabue, the first of modern
painters at Florence.
1294. Pope Boniface VIII.
Arnolf dt Lapo, the father of
modern Italian architecture. 1295. Spain: - Ferdinand IV.
in Castile ar d Leon.
The Influe nce of t he 1296. Struggles with France.
crusades was great
- expanding the
mind of E.urop e —refining the g e n e ral 1297. Canonization of Louis
m a nn es - e x c i t i ng IX. Philip successfully ina spir it of geog r a- vades Flanders.
phical research and
adventure-and promoting improvement 1298. Germany: - Adolphus
in the arts and sci- deposed by a Diet, which
ences thus under mining instead of elects
strengthening the
1299 First letters of marque grant- p o er ofp ap a l R o n e, — A l b e r t I. —
ed by Edward III. against b y a d v an c i ng i b e- son of Rodolph.-Adolphus
the Portuguese. ral ideas and free- slain in the struggle which
domn of tho zlght. ensues.
i066-1299.-Conti nued. ] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 101
A.D. EASTERN EMPIRE. ENGLAND & SCOTLAND. TEIE WORLD, elsewhere.
a:9l Capture of Acre by the Ma- 1291. Edward decides the
melukes-end of' the king- Scottish dispute in l:vor of
dom of Jerusalem. Baliol.
1292 The Mongols drive the last 1292. A piratical warfare be- 1292. Hungary: —The pope
sultan of Iconium from his tween England and'France. sets up Charles Martel,
throne. -Philip gets possession of crown prince of Naples, as
G uienne. king.
The Genoese obtain the trade
of the Black Sea, and rise to
great power.
1294. China: —Tymui Khan.
1295. Poland:
-Premislas II. -
1296. Ball. 1 defeated; sub- 1296. Poland:-Less 11. --
mits to Edward.
1297. Scotland:-S i r W i 1 -
l i am W alla c e.-S i r
WVilliam Douglas,
R o b-ert Bruce, and
other chiefs head a rebellion
against the English.
2L90 Othman invades Nicomedia, 1299. -they are defeated at 1299. Foundlatio n of the
and establishes the Ottoman Falkirk by king Edward I. OTTOMAN or TIJRKISII
empire. EMPIRE in Bythinia, under Othman I.
102 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
PERIOD VII.-T/ie Jidcdle Ag'es.-1299 to 1453.A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. ECCLESIASTICAL. FRANCE, GERMANY, & SPAIN.
1300 University at Lyons founded.
-Rapid advances in civilization.-Revival of ancient 1302. First convocation of the
learning.-Improvements in States-general in France.
the arts and sciences-and Guienne restored to Eng.
progress of liberty. land.
1302 THE MARINER's COMP A SS invented at Naples,
by Gioia, native of' Amaldi.
1303 University at Avignon. 1303. Pope Boniface VIII.
D an t e, the father of modern Council of Paris. 1304. France at war with
Italian poetry, flourishes. Bull unam sanctum. Flanders.
Amid the struggles of the Pope Benedict XI. Germany: —The Swiss
Guelfs and Ghibelines, Vacancy in the papal towns rise into importance
Italy becomes the cradle of chair nearly eleven monIhs. — oppressed by the IIouse oI
modern literature and irn- -The papal power de- Hapsburg.
proving civilization. clines.
1305 University at Orleans. 1305. Pope Clement V.
Seat of tlhe popes transferred to Avignon.
1306. Persecution of the Jews
in France.
Germany- - R u d o f
of Austria.. ---
1307 University at Perugia. 1307. Persecution of tlle
Knights Templar.
Ger.: — William Tell
shoots Gesler.
1308 University at Coimbra. 130S. Germany:- e n r y
of Luxemlbulr.
General insurkection in
Swilzerlantil.
1309. Spalin: - Ferdlinand I7.
takes Gibraltar.
1310 Knzights of St. John at
Rhodes.
1311 Order of Knihts Templar 1311. General Councilat Vien- 1311. Lyons unitedl to France.
abolished. —The barons in n1a.
England extort from Ed- Another vacancy in the 1312. Spain:-Alfonzo XI.
ward II. a reformation of papal chair of more than -of Castile and Leon.
abuses. Parliaments are to two years.
be held every year, and to 1314. Fr.:-I o u is X
appoint to all important (Hutin.)
offices. Ger.: —Louis of Bava.
ria, and Frederick of Austria, contend for thte crowlvi
1315. Fr.: —Edict tlr the eni
fianchisement of slaves.
Battle ot'Mrglarten-lt]c'
Austrialns defeated by the
Swiss.
1316. Pope Johln XXII. 1316. Fi:-P h i 1 i p V.Taxes itmposed upon all (the Long.) Ite succeeds by
the countries of Europe, to virtue of the Salique law
enrich the treasury of' the now first established.
church.
THE WORLD1S PROGRESS. 103
1o4 years.- OtInsaasl to thle Pall of tie Easter'e Emapire.
A D. EASTERN EMPIRE. ENGLAND & SCOTLAND. THE WORLD, elsewhere.
1301. Hungary:-Andrew, the
Venetiant. R -
Extinction of the house
of Arpad.
1303 War of the Catalans, under 1303. Edward invades Scot- -WVenceslas III. of BoRoager de Flor. land. — W-allace betrayed
Othman increases his posses- and beheaded. —-Scotland hemia.
sions; abandons the pasto- submits.
ral life, and fortifies towns Edward recovers Gui- 1304. -Otto V., of Bavaand castles. enne.
lia. d.
1305. Polaj rl: —-Vladislas IV.,
in Little Poland, and
Dulke Henry, of Glo-au,
in Great Poland.
1306. Scotland:- R o b e t Russia subject to the
B r u c e proclairned kling Khan of Tartary.
-is obliged to flee; but,
Edward dying. resutmes his
position.
1307.Eng.:EdwardII.J 1307. Switzerland: —Scot.:-Bruce stren-th- W lm. T e ll escapes fiom
ens himself by repeated ad- Gesler:
vantages and prudent con- SWISS R e p u b l i c s
duct. founded, Nov. 7.
1308. Hungary: —Carobert, of
Anjou.:
1309. Poland united into one
monarchy under Vladislas
IV.
Naples: — Robert, the
Good. He aspires to the
dominion of Italy.
O.i0 The Knights of St. John of 1310. Italy:-The Council of
Jerusalem, established at Ten established at Venice.
Rhodes.
1313. Italy;-Matteo Visconti.
1314. Edward invades Scot- 1314. Tunis made tributary to
land, and is defeated at the Spain.
Battle of Bannockb urn.
The Scots invade England and lreland.
1316. Italy:-Castruccio, Lord
of Iluca and Pisa.
1317. Robert, the Good, a senator of Rome, and
131S. -lord of Genoa.
1319. Final establishmemr, of
the oligarchy at Venice.
104 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period VII.- -Te MiddleAges.- -
A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. ECCLESIASTICAL. FRANCE, GERMANY, & SPAIN.
1321 Dante, dies.
1322. France: -- C h a r l e s
1323 Jozhn de.lll'is introduces
notes of dilberent length into I -(the Fair.)
music-and the method of
distinguishing them. Gernany:-Frederic, of
Austria defeated and taken
Romance poetry of the middle prisoner
ages flourishes. 1324. Contest of the popes 1324. Germany:- Louis ex1325 Mayronis commences the cele- with Louis of Bavaria. communicated by John XIr
brated disputations in the
brated disputatious in the — appeals to a general counSorbonne.
1326 Clock constructed on mathe- cil.
matical principles, by Richard Valifobrt.
1328. Crusade preached agains 13328. France:-P h i 1 i p V I
Linnza, a monk, and astrono- Louis, who sets up Nicholas
mer of Oxford, constructs a V. as anti-pope.
map of the northern seas. ali.
Thornas,ofB radwardine, archbishop of Canterbury. 1332. France:-The Fleine
revolt and acknowvJedge E1
ward III. as king oi France.
1331 Giotto, a shepherd boy, the 1334. Pope Benedict XII.
first who drew portraits
from life.
1335 Greek literature revives.Barlatam teaches Petrarch.
-Leonrtiots lectures on Homer at Florence.
1337 First comet, whose course has 1338. France: —WVar with Engbeen accurately described. land.
1339. Struggles in Rome be- Germany:-Declaratit.,;
1310 GUNPOWTVDER in use at tween the Colonna and the of the Diet of Frankfort,
the battle of Cressy. Ursini. that the pope had no tempoLippo Memmi Giotino. Flo- ral power in the empire.
rentine painter. Louis sides with the
1342. Pope Clement VI. English agaiast France.
1345 First bank at Genoa.
1346. France: -- Normandy
overrun by Edward, with
1347 Democracy at Rome, under Rienzi, the last of the Trl- his son, the Black Prince.bunes. French defeated at Cressy:
Germany:-C h a ar es
IV., king of Bohemia.
Manufactures improve in The empire offered to
England. - Connerce in- Edward III., who declines.
creases.
1350 Bartolus and Baldus, cele- 1350. France:-J o h n,
brated jurists. (the Good:)
1352. Pope Innocent VI.
Merleino sheep introduced into 1354. Rienzi liilled.-Albernoz, 1355. Germany: - PrornulgaSpain, by Peter IV. of Ara- cardinal legate, restores the tion of the golden Bull.
gon. papal dominion. 1356. France:-King John de1356,S'i? John Mandeville's Tra6 Jvels, the M dfirst Enlsh book feated and taken prisoner at
in prose. P-,itiers. —Charles the dauin prose.
phin regent.
Insurrection in Paris.
1360. Frace: —John regains
his liberty-cedes much ter.
ritory to England.
L299-1453 —154: years.-Conltinued.] THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 105..D. EASTERN EMPIRE. ENGLAND & SCOTLAND. TIHE WORLD, elsewhere.,20 Disputes and civil war between the emperor and his 1320. Russia: - The grand
son, Michael. duchy of Wladimir, conferred on Ivan Danilovitsch.
1322. Lancaster executed.
1323. Conspiracy against the
kin~.
326 Orkhan, sultan of the Turcs, 1326. Tartarv: — T a m e r -
makes Prusa his capital. 1 a n e born at Kesh.
1327. Peace between Scotland 1327. Italy: —Invaded by Louis,
32 n8 -Andronicus, and England. — The inde- emperor of Germany.
(the younger.) pendence of Scotland acknowledged.
-EDwARD III. —
1329. Scotland:-David 11.
1332. Edward invades Scotland.-Balliol crowned, but
soon expelled.
1333. Battle of Halidon Hill. 1333. Poland: —Casimir the
-Balliol restored-does homage to Edward. Great.
1338. Struggle for the French
crown,which lasts 120 years. 1339.' Italy:-Simon Bocanegra, doge of Genoa.
— ohn Ctacuzee. 1340. The victory of Helvoeth 1340. Denmarl: - Waldemar
341 — John Cantacuzene. Sluys - gives spirit to the IV. -restorer of the kingdom.
English navy. 134-2. Hungary:- Louis the
David, of Scotland, in- Great.
vades England. 1343. Italy: — Commercial
treaty between Venice and
1346. Battle of Cressy. the sultan of Egypt and
Syria.
1347. Siege and capture of 1347. Italy:-R i e n z i, the
Calais. last of the Tribunes, rules
at Rome.'A8 War with the Genoese, defeat
of the Greeks and Vene tians.
1350. Victory over the Spanishl 1350. Italy:-Naval war befleet. - Parliament divided tween Venice and Genoa.
into two chambers, lords 1353. Establishment of the Otspiritual and temporal. tomans in Europe.
1354. Italy:-Rienzi killed-John Paleeologus._ - papal power restored.
1356. E d w a r d, t h e 1356. First war between Itun.
B l a c k P r i n c e, gary and Venice.
gains the battle of
Poitiers.-John made
prisoner. — Two years' truce.
-Edward again invades
Scotland-is obliged to retreat.
1358. -again invades France.
1359. Hungary:-Conquest of
imurath I., Sultan of the 1360. Peace of Bretigni. the principalities lying on
Turks. the Danube.
106 THE WORLD7S PROGRESS. [Pe~riod VII. —The Middle Ages. —
A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. ECCLESIASTICAL. FRANCE, GERMANY & SPAIN.
Petrarch and Boccacio. 1362. Pope Urban V. at Avi-
non-beautifies the city of 1364. Fr.:-C h a r 1 e s V.
Rome —presents the right --— (the Wise.)
arm of Thomas Aquinas to
1364 Charles V. founds a college of Charles V. of France, as an
needicine and astrology at object of worship.
Paris.
1365 Foundation of the Ueziversity 1365. War with Navarre —batof' Vienna. tle of Amoy.
1370. Pope Gregory IX.
Geof. Chaucer, father
of English poetry.
1378. " Schlis7 Of the WVest:" 1378. Germany:- W e n c e s -
Pope Urban VI. ac- las, (king of Bahemia),
knowledged in the empire emperor.
and England.
Clement VII. aclknow1380 Mysteries played in France. ledged in France, Spain, and 1380. Fr.: CharlesVI.
Scotland. - (the Maniac).
1382. Battle of Rosbecq —thoe
Flemings defeated — Arte1383 Wickliffe's translationz of the velde killed.
Bible.
1386. France: —Fruitless at
1386 University of Heidelberg tempt to invade England.
obunded.
Froissart's Chronicles.
John, Van Eyck, invented oil
paintinf - founder of the
Flemish school.
1389. Pope Boniface IX. at
Rome.
1390 The first mill in Germany for
the manufacture of linen'1391. The English clergy forpaper. bidden to cross the sea for 1392. — Charles seized with
1392 Chaucer's Astrolabe written. benefices. madness.
1394. Pope Benedict XIII. 1394. Germany:-The emper
Revival of Greek literature in or imprisoned by the people
Italy. of Prague.
1400. Ger.:-R o b e rt t,
(Count Palatine).
1402 John Go6wer, English poet.
1299-1453. —154 years.-Continued.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 107
A.D.J EASTERN EMPIRE. ENGLAND & SCOTLAND. THE WORtLD, elsewhere.
1362. The Black Prince aids 1362. Italy: - War between
Peter the Cruel, of Castile, Pisa and Florence.
to recover his throne.
1369. A new war with France; 1369. Tartary: T- amerlane
unsuccessful. makes Samarcand the capital of his new empire.
1370. Poland:-Extinction ol
1371. Scotland:-Robert II.- the royal race of Piasts.
the House of Stuart.
1376. Death of the Black
Prince.
1373 Treaty with Murad, the Otto- 1377. —Richard II.'man emperor. First Speaker of the IHouse
of Commons.
1378. Fruitless invasion of 1378. Italy:-Silvester de MIeFrance.. dici, gonfaloniere of FloInsurrection of Wat Ty- rence.
ler.
1380. Russia:-Dimitri Ivanovitsch victorious over the
Tartars, near the Don.
1382. The king marries Anne, 1382. The Tartars Eack Mosdaughter of Charles IV. cow.
1384. The Scots, assisted by 1384. Persia: - Invaded by
France, invade England. Tamerlane; Ispahan taken.
— Pyramids ofhuman heads,
1385. The English burn Edin- 13S5. War between Austria
burgh. and Switzerland.
1386. Battle of Sempach:the Austrians defeated.
1387. Denmark & Norway:Margaret, -- the Semiramis of the north.
1391. Italy:-Pisa falls under
1389 Bajazet 1., sultan of the'urks. 1388. Battle of Otterbourne. the yoke of the Visconti.
1390. Scotland: Robert III.
1391 - Manuel II. - Persecution of the Wickemperor. lifites.
1395. Tamerlane overruns
1396 Victory of Nicopolis.-Sigis- Kipchak and Russia.
mond, of Hungary, defeated 1397. Union of Calmar, formby Bajazet I. 1398. Henry, of Lancaster, ing Denmark, Sweden, and
banished. Norway into a single moHouse of Lancas- narchy.
1399. -H en r y IV. -- 1399. Invasion of India by
Richard II. deposed. Tamerlane.
1401. Rebellion of Owen Glen1402 Bajazet defeated and made dower, and
prisoner by Tamerlane, at 1403. of the Percys, who are
the battle of Angora. defeated at the battle of
Shrewsbury.
108 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [Pe'i iId VII.- Tile Mliddle Aecs.A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. ECCLESIASTICAL. FRANCE, GER-IlANY, &5 SPA IN
1404-. Pope Innocent VII.
1406. " Gregory XII.
1407 Rodrigo, of Zasmora, Spanish 1407. France: -- Murder of
historian. Louis, Duke of Orleans.
1409 Ussiversity of Leipsic found- 1409. The council of Pisa de- Spain:-John I1., king
ed. pOses Gregory and Bene- of Castile.
diet, and elects Alexander
V.;-neither will yield, so
Thomas a Kemnpis. that there are three popes at
once.
Johzn Jauss. 1410. Pope John XXIII. 1410. Spain:-Ferdinand, king
of Arragon. - Yusoef III.,
king of Granada.
Jerome, of Pragute. 1410. Fr.: —Civil war between
the parties of Orleans and
Burgundy.
Germany: -- Deatih of
Robert.
1411. Sigis inund, (kIing
of Hungary), e —empe.
ror.
1413. France:-The French
1414. Council of Constance. defeated by Henry V., of
England, at Agincourt.
1416. John Huss, and Jerome, 1416. Spain:-Alfonzo V., lcing
of Prague, butrnt by the of Arragon and Sicily.
Council of Consstance.
1417. Pope Martin V.
1420 First Portuguese colonies on 1419. Sigismund succeeds to
the coast of Africa, Madei- the Bohemian crown.
ra, &c.
1422. France:-Death of Char1423 George of.Peurbach, astrono- les VI -- Henry VI. promer at Vienna. claimed at Paris lcing ot
France and England.
1425 Peter d'Ailly, theologian. — C h a r l e s V I I. -
at Poitiers.
1427. Orleans besieged by the
The arts promoted in Italy by English.
Cossno de Medici. 1429. Pope Clement VIII. at 1429. -saved by J o a sn o f
Avignon, resigns, and ends A r c.
the "Schism of thle West." Charles crowned at
Rheims; males a vain at;
1430 England increases hler trade tempt to gain Palis.
with the Mediterranean. 1431. Pope Engenius IV. 1431. Joan of Arc talcen priCsOnsZCil of Basie. soner and burnt as a witch.
1431. Germany: - Sigismund
1434 Michael Walhaemuth, Ger- visits Italy, and is crowned
man painter, (teacher of erperor by Pope Eugeniuo3
Durer). IV.
Fra. Filippo Lippi, painter. 1435. Peace of Arras, between
France and Burgundy.
INVENTION OF PRINT- 1436. France:-Recovery of
ING at Mayence. Paris.
John Mtiiller Regiomontanus, 1438. Pragmatic sanction of Bruges, establishes the liber
German astronomer and ties of the French church.
mathematician.
1299-1453: —154 ycals.-Continued.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 109
A.D. EASTERN EMPIRE. ENGLAND & SCOTLAND. THE WORLD, elsewhere.
1403 Solymnan I., Sultan of the
Turks.
1406. Scotland:-James I. 1406. Italy:-Pisa concqueled
by Florence.- Subjugation
of Padua and Verona by
Venice.
1412. Italy:-Sack of Rome!413 Mohammed I., Sultan of the 1413. — II e n ry. by Latlislas, ing of Napes.
Turks. Denmark, Norway, &c.:
1414. - claims the Prench
crown. Eric VII., ofPomerania.1
1415. - gains the b a t t 1415. Conquest of Ceuta, by
o f A g i n c o u r t. the Portuguese.
1419. Bohemia:-Ilussite war.
1420. Treaty of Troyes.-Ienry 1420. Discovery of Madeira
1421 Amurath II., Sultan of the marries Catharine, daughter by the Postuguese.
Turks. of Charles VI., and is declared heir to the FrIench
crown.
1422. Death of Henry V.
-I enry VI. --
1424. The Duke of Bedford 1424.Bohemia:-DeathofJohn
145 -_- John VIl. b- em- defeats the French at Ver- Ziska, the Hussite leader.
1 peror. neuil. Italy:-War of the Duke
of Milan against Florence.
1427. -besieres Orleans.
1429. The siege raised by the 1429. Florence: —Cosmo di
Maid of Orleans. M e d i c i, patron of the
arts and sciences.
1431. -she is taken prisoner 1431. Italy:-Second war of
and burnt. Venice and Milan.
1434. Poland:-Vladislas III.
1435. Death of the Duke of
Bedford, followed by the
loss of all the English possessions in France, except
Calais.
1436. WVar with Scotland. 1436. Italy:-Third war between Venice and Milan.
1437. Scotland: —James II. 1437. Portugal:- Expedition
1438 The emperor visits Italy to into Africa.
obtain help against the 1438. Portugal:-Alfonso V.,
Turks-submits to the pope. A
king. -
11 THE WORLDIS PROGRESS. [Perliod VII. — Te Middle Ages. —
A.D. PROGRESS OF, SOCIETY, etc. ECCLESIASTICAL. FRANCE, GERMANY & SPAIN.
1438. Germany: -H o u se
of Austria:
-Albert II.
(king of Bohemia an ungary.)
1440. Ger.:-Frederic III.
France:-The dauphin,
(Louis XI.), rebels-but is
pardoned.
1444 Leonardo da Vinci, sculptor, 1444. -establishment of the
architect, and painter-dis- companies of Archers, the
covers perspective. first national standing army.
1446 Pet. Perugino, founder of the 1446. Germany: — War with
Romans schzool of paintingH, Hungary, for refusing to
teacher of Raphael. give up the young prince,
Vladislas.
1447 Library of the Vatican, found- i447. Pope Nicholas V.
ed.
1448 hie Azorles discover ed. 1448. Concordat of Aschaffenberg, by which the liberties
Alaitn Chartica, French poet. of the German church are
compromised.
1450 Flourishing period of Flanders' trade.-All European
nations have warehouses at 1451. Expedition of Frederic
Bruges and Ghent.-Book to Rome.
trade at 3Iatyence.
1453. Austria made an herolitary duchy by Frederic.
End of the French and
English wars.
ler.
1299-1453.-154 years.-Continued.] THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 111
A.D. EASTERN EMPIRE. ENGLAND & SCOTLAND. THE WORLD, elsewhere.
1440. Hungary: — Vladislas
chosen king. —
1441. Italy:-Peace of Marti1443 Insurrection of Scandeberg- nego.
victory over the Turks near 1443. Alfonso V., of Arragon,
Nissa. unites the crown of the Two
Sicilies.
1444 Battle of Varna- Vladislas, 1444. Truce with France.king of Poland, defeated and Marriage of Henry to Markilled by the Turks. garet, of Anjou. 1445. Poland: Casimir IV.
1446. Tartary: —Ulugh Beg,
patron of astronomy and
geography.
1447. Gloucester arrested for
treason-dies suddenly.
1448 -Constantine XII. -- 1448. Denmarlk: —Christian I.
(Paltologus,) the last of the of Odenurg. —
Greek emperors. of Odenburg.
Sweden:-Charles VIII.'
1450. Isnsurrection of Jack 1450. Italy:-Francesco SforCade-calling himself Mor- za, duke of Milan.
1451 Mohammed II., Sultan of the timer. Norway: - Christian
Turks. Civil Wars ofA''the Roses:' crowned at Drontheim.
Richard, duke of York,
claims the throne. Delhi:-Behol Lodi enlarges the kingdom.
1453 Siege and capture 1453. Poland: -Confirmation
o f C o n s t a n t i n o p 1 e Scotland:-Struggles be- of the national liberty in the
b y t h e T u r k s: tween the king and aristo- Diet of Petrikan.
END OF THE EAST- cracy for power.
ERN EMPIRE.
112 THE WORLD S PROGRIESS.
PERIOD VIII. —1453-1598. —
SPAIN AND
A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. ENGLAND. SCOTLAND. FRANCE. PORTUGAL.
Philip de Comnines, French 1454. Spain:historian. Henry IV. of
1455. Battle of
St. Albans. Castile.
1460 Wood engraving invented.
Io us e
of' York: 1460. James
146. -E d - III. 1461. L o u i s
w a r d I V. t 1469. Marriage
1464 Post- Offices in France and i. XI. of Ferdinand,
England. - gains Civil war.- of Arragon,
ttile battle of -Peace of with IsabelTowton. Conflans. la, of Cas1466 Faust dies at Paris, uwhither tile.
he journeys twice to sell his
Latin Bible.
1470 Beerhard invents the pedal to
the organ.
1469.Warwick
147 L Printing in Eng land- Cax- banished.
ton.
1471. Battle of
Barnet:1473 Printed nusical notes. War w i c k
Hungary:- Mathias patroni. slain.-Henzes literature and the arts. ry VI. dies in
Large library at Ofen-300 the Tower. 1475. War be.
copyists of manuscripts. tween Louis
and tharles
of Burgun1476 German ballads-war songs of 1483.- E d - dyf
Veil Weber. w a r d V. 1479. War with 1476. -who is 1479. U n i o n
England. - defeated at ofC a stil I
Conspiracy Granson and and Ar ra1477 Watches first made at Nurem- of the no- Morat, and g o n under
bu rg. Ri c hard, bles-they 1477. -slain at Ferdinand
Mikrond and Rondemir, great Protector. -- takethekin Nancy. - I. and I saPersian historians. The king & prisoner. Artois and b e l a.
his brother Burgundy 1480. T h e I n
murdered in united to the q u i s i t i o n.
1481 Lady Juliana Berners, one of the Tower. French — X i m e -
the earliest female writers crown. n e s, bishot,
of England. -R i c h- of Toledo.
ard III.
Hans HIolbein, painter. o t.
1485. -Henry, 1483.-C h a r -
1484 Franchino Gafurid, teacher in earl of Rich- 1 e s V 1 I I. 1484. First authe first public school of mond, lands da-fe at Se,music at Milan. at Milford - ille
Haven.
Josquin de Prez, greatest mu- B a t t 1 e
sical genius of his age, 0 o sw o r t h
F i e I d:
-Richard
defeated and
slain.
THE WORLD S PROGRL:ESS. 113
Othman. to tLhe Edict of Nantes.
A.D. GERMANY. ITALY. i MPIRE. THE WORLD, elsewhere.
1454. Struggle 1454. Poland:-War with the
between Cos- 1455. Turks re- Teutonic Order.
mod da Me- pulsed at Beldici and the grade.
aristocracy.
1458. The 1458. Hungary: --— athias
French rule
in Genoa. Corvin, -:na kes his
462 The emperor besieged in his Pope Pi- country formidable to her
court at Vienna —delivered us II. neighbors.
by G. Podiebrad, of Bohe- 1463. War of nI
mla. Venice with the Turks. 1462. Russia:-Ivan I.
the Great-takes the title of
1464. Pietro de Czar.
Medici at
Florence. 1464.War with 1466. Peace of Thorn.-East
Pope Paul Hungary. Prussia a fief of Poland.II. V West Prussia ceded to Po1466. Galeaz- land.
zo, duke of 1468. Uzun Hasan, master of
MIilan. all Persia.
1469 Invasions of the Turks. 1469. Lo renz o de Me- 1470. -forms an alliance with
di c i, suc- the Venetians and the duke
ceeds Pietro. of Burgun dy against the Turks-con1471. Sixtus
147~ Univrsityof TnqIV. popeuers Bagdad.
1472 University of Ingoldstodt. PIowe ofp 1472. Russia:-Ivan marries
the r M diciSophia, niece of the Greek
increases. emeror
increases. 1474. -shakes off the Tartar
Learning yoke, and captures Novoflourishes. gorod.
gorod.
1477 Marriage of Maximilian and
Maria of Burgundy. 147. onspi1477. H1ungary —War with
racy of the
Pazzi atlo- 1479. Fruitless
rence. —Giu-
lio, brother attempt upos
of Lorenzo
de Medici,
slain. 1480. -capture
and destroy 1481. Denmark -John, QOtranto. partially acknowledged in
1481. Bajazet Sweden.
II. lb
the first unwarlike sultan.
1484. Innocent
VIII., pope 1488. Hungary: -- Mathias
takes Vienna.
i 14 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period VIII.A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. ENGLAND. LSOOT FRANCE. POAIN TUGAL.
Hou se o f
u dor:-1H1enry VII.
1486. Imposture of
1490 Martini Behaimn, (Nurem- Lambert Symnel. 1487.:burg,) publishes a snap of The Star Cham- James
the world. ber established. IV. 1491. Bretagne united to
1492 D I C O VERY OFt the crown 1492. ConA M E R I CA. bytheking's quest of
marriage Gyanada,
1493 First printing press at Copen- 1493. Perkin WVar- with Anne. by Gonzalo
hagen. beck, pretends to de Cordova.
be Richard, duke 1494. Invasion D i s c o v e ry
The second voyage of Colusn. of York-defeated of Italy. o f A m e r ihus.-A Spanish colony at on Blackheath. c a, by C oHispaniola. 1 u m b u s.
1497 The discoveries of John and 1497. Cabot makes 1498.-L o u i s 1498. V a s c o
-8 Sebastian Cabot. discoveries in A- d e G a m a
merica. X I I.. - doubles the
1498 Third voyage of Columbus. Cape of
He discovers Trinidad and 1499. E a r 1 o f 1499. -- in- Good Hope,
the Continent. W a r w i c k, last vades Italy and reaches
Lisbon, the great seat of trade. of the Plantage- -conquers India.
-Venice declines. nets, executed. the Milanese
Maritime enterprises greatly Duchy.
extended.
Sir Thomnas More's Utopia,
published. 1500. Treaty
Nicholas Machiavelli, states- with Ferdiman and historian. nand, of Ara1499 Amerigo Vespucius's voyage. gon, for the
1502 Fourth voyage of Columnbus. conquest and
Raphael,3 1ichael Ang'elo, Ti- partition of 1506. Colurntian, Corregio, painters. 1503.:- Naples. bus dies at
James Valladolid.
St. Peter's, and other magni- marries 1507. Carlinal
ficent churches built. 1509. -H e n r y Marga- Ximnenes.
r et, of Board of
V 1 I I Eng- 1510. The American
land. Council of trade at Sejoins the League Tours, to ville.
of Camnbray. support the
1513. Invasion of the king against
1515 The celebrated tapestry, after Scots. - Battle of the Holy
Raphael;-Cartoons woven Flodden-the king League.
in'the Netherlands. and chief Scots
killed. 1513.: -
1517 L UTHER, Erasmus, 15t15. W olse y, James 1515.-FranM e 1 a n c t h o, and other chancellor and car- V.
reformers. dinal.
Roger Ascharm, tutor of queen 1520. The Emperor -invades
Elizabeth. visits England. — Italy- victory
Hans Sachs, founder of Ger- Meeting of Henry of Marigna- 1516. —C a r -
man drama. and Francis at the no — Genoa
"Field of the Cloth and Milan l e,
C o p e r n i c u s, discovers of Gold." submit. ki:~- otl at
the true system of the Uni- 1521. The Reformed 1516. Concor- Spain. tn
verse —his great work, De doctrines opposed dat with the the Nethe.
Orbium Ccelestium Revolu- by Henry, in his pope, insteal lands.
tionibus. book on the Seven of pragma- 1519. C o nSacraments - he tic sanction. q u e. of
1522 First complete circumnavi- receives the title 1521. First war M e x c
gation of the globe, by Ma- of " Defender of with Char- byCo te s
gellan the Faith." les V.
1453-1598.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 115
"..D. GERMANY. ITALY. OTTOMAN TsEa WORLD, elsewhere.
1488. India:- Sekander Lodi,
king of Delhi.
1492. Poland: —John Albert.
AMERICA discovered by Co.
lumbus.
1492. Pietro II.
succeeds his
father, Lofi renzo, in Flo19 -M a x i m i l i an I.,- relce. 1493. Wars 1493. Spanish colony at His
Pope Alex- with Egypt, paniola.
ander VI., Hungary,
(Borgia.) and Venice.
1494. Expedition of' Charles VIII. into Italy. 1499. Voyage of Amerigo Ves.
1499. Amnerigo pucius. — South American
Vespucius's coast explored.
voyage to
America.
1500. Partition
of Naples lIOl.Poland:-Alexander.6
between
France and
Spain. 1502. Ismail Shah Soofi makes
1502.Florence: himself sole sovereign of
lIarchiavelli. 1503. Peace Persia.
Secretary of with Venice.
502 Unive osity of Wittenburg. State. 1505.War with
Univer 5 ""' """J "'~'VV'Zt a 1503. Naples Persia.
annexed to
the Spanish 1506. Poland:-Sigismund I.
Crown.
Pope Piu 112. Selim I. - ((the Great.)
1508 Maximilian enters Italy to be IIIPoe Ju- decrownedl by the pope. lius 11. thrones and
-joins the League of Cam- 1508. Leaguze puts to death
bray. of Cambaey his father. 1509. Bohemia: —Louis -
15112 -divides the empire into ten against Ve- 1514. The Per- 3 years old.
circles. nice. sians deleat- 1510. Anmerica: —Settlement
1510. holy ed at Kalde- at Darien.
LearueH to roon. — Me- 1511. America:-C u b a con.
expel the sopotamia quered.
Freenche. and Kurdis- 1512. America: —oF 1 o r i da
1511. Council tan adcled to discovered.
of Pisa. the empire. 1513. South Sea first reached
1513. P 5ope 1516. Cairo by Balboa.
Lo Xe. taken by
(de MIedici,) storm.-IMa- 1516. Hungary and Bohemia:
17 COM E N CM E N T oF patron of li- meluke do -
T H E R FOR M A T I O N. terratZe and minions an- -Louis II.
1518 Luther summoned before the?rts. nexed to the
diet of Augsburg. The build- empire. 1517. India:-Ibrahimi Lodi,
insl of St. 1520. Soliman, liing of Delhi
1.519 -- C H A R L E S V.: -- Peter's coss- 1517. America:-Fir'st piafent
of Spain. menced-. - (the for ispore'tisng Negroes15;dl The archduke Ferdinand, mar- 1519. Cardinal Magnificent.) granted by Spain.
ties Anne, sister of Louis- de Mediri 1521. Belgrade 1518. Corsairs in Algiers.
whence the accession of holds rule in taken by 1519. MEXICO conquered by
Bohemia and HIungary to Florence. storm.. the Spaniards, under Cor.
the House of Hapsburg. 1522. Pope 1522. Rhodes tes.
Diet of Wormns. Adrian VI. capitulates.
116 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period VIII.SOOT- SPAIN AND
A.D. PROGREtuSS OF SOCIETY, etc. ENGLAND. LAND. FRANCE. PORTUGAL.
Xavier plants Christianity in
India.
Ariosto, Italian poet.
1525. Francis
defeated and
taken prisoner at Pavia.
1527 Albert Durer. 1527. Second
F.rst work on military archi- war with
tecture. Charles V.
1529. Shi Thonuas 1529. Treaty of
MJore, Lord Chan- Cambray.cellor. -- Rise of Great enCranzmer, archbi- couragement.
1530 Jorgens invents the spinning shop of Canter- given to arts
wheel for spinning flax. bury. and sciences.
Rabelais, French humorist. -The Louvre commenced.
1532. The king mar- 1532. Calvin
ries Anne Boleyn. preaches.
1533 Botanic Gardens at Padua. Third
French war.
-Siege of
Marseilles.
1535 Ignatius Loyola founds the 1535. Bishop Fisher
order of the Jesuits. and Sir Thomas
More beheaded.
Henry excommunicated by the
Pope
Pope 1536.:- 1536. Aequisi1537 Papal bull declaring the Ame- 1536. -marries Jane Spad15. Acqusrcan natives to be ational Seymour —-Sup- Spread tion of Mirican natives to be rational of the
pression of the or1 the
bein-s. preosson o efor- 1532. Truce of lan.
1538 The diving bell invented. smaer monas ation.
ries. years.
1539 C A L v I N founds the Univer-. -Pro- Att t t 1540. Portusity of Geneva. testants Attempt to PortuPins first used by Catharine persecu- recover pow- bontl: -- ar
Hioward, queen of England. ted. er in Italy; bonthe marJohn Knox, Scottish Refor- hence the worl. e
mer. 1542. - -42. Com1542 A commercial treaty between Mary. 1542. Fourth 1542. CoiPortugal and Japan. 1543. Henry invades M y French ar. mercil teFrance - takes -ty between
Boulogne. - Portugal and
1544. French fleet Earl of 1544. Peace of Japan.
1545 Needles first made. gain a victory over Arran, Crespy.
Vasalius's work on Anatomy. the English, off regent. France gives
the Isle of Wight. Up Italy.
1547 Revival of Stoicism, by Justus 1547. -- E d w ard 1547. enry
Lipsius.
Palestrina, founder of Italian V I. I I
church music. Somerset invades The faScotland -defeats mous C at h aGiacomo Carisimi. the Scots at Pin- r i n e de
kie. M e d i c i,
1548 Orange trees introduced into Formal esta- queen.
J Europe. blishment of Protestantism.
1453-1598.J THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 117
OTTOMAN
t.D. GERMANY. ITALY. iEMPIRE. THE WORLD, elsewhere.
1523. Clement 1523. Sweden: —Revolt under
VII., pope. G usta v u s A as a. —Tle
Danes expelled.-Union of
Calmar dissolved.
Denmark and Norway:
-Frederic I. --
525 General insurrections of the 1525. Spain ac- 1525. Albert, duke of Prussia.
peasantry, under Thomas quires the
Miinzer. ascendency
by the victory of Pavia.
526 Charles marries Isabella, of 1526. Invasion
Portugal. of Hungary., Death of Frederic, of Saxony. 1527. The Medici expelled.529 The Turks invade Germany. from Flo- 1529. Invasion
-Diet of Spires.-Luther- rence. ofGermany.
ans first called Protestants. -Siege of
League of Smalcald. Vienna.
1530. Medici The Otto- 1530. Malta giver to the
restored. - man navy knights of Rhodes
Charles V. formidable
crowned at under the
Bologna. command of 1532. Union of Norway and
Barbarossa: Dgpmark.
1533. Conquest of Per u, by Cortes.
1534. Paul IlI.,
pope. Russia:-Ivan IV., (the
1535. -who Terrible).
seizes Tunis. -- The
emperor,
Charles V., 1536. Cortes discovers Califorrestores the nia.
1537. Cosmo Moorish
de Medici, king.
1538 Congress of Nice between the duke of TusEmperor, the Pope, and the cany.
king of France. 1540. Investiture of Milan conferred by Charles V. on 1541. DestrucPhilip. tion of an armament, led 1543. First standing army in
1543 War in alliance with England by Charles weden.
against France. Algiers.
045 Diet of Worms. 1545. Council 1545. South America:-Mines,.o A War of the Smalcaldists. of Trent. of Potosi discovered.
1547. The
1547 Duke Maurice, elector ofSaxo- Turks inny. vade Persia,
and capture
Ispahan.
1548. Poland:-Sigismund II.,
— (Augustus).
118 TE WO PORLD'S PROGESS. Peiod V._. = _ SPAIN ANJ
A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. I NGLAND. LOND. FR ANCE. PORTUGAL
Scaliger, Philologist. 1549. The Engisht
Litur~gy com01leted and establishAiontaiogne, French Essayist. ed by act of Par- l552. Fifth war
1553. No - les V.
land intrigues to.settle the crown on
Lady lane Grey,
his daughter-inlaw.
-M a r y. --
Catholicism restored.
1554. The queen 1554. CCrx-.
marries Philip, of in India,lo
Spain. —Lord Dud- 1556. Charle
ley and Lady Jane abdicatesGrey executed.
1555. Bloody perse- Philip I1.d
cution of Protestants. 1557. The 1557 PortuCardan, Italian philosopher. 1557. War with French defeat- gal: —SebasFrance to support 1560. Ca- ed at St.
Spain.-Calais tholic- uentin. tian
lost. -Cla ism ab- 558.-at Gra1558 Seahng uwaxs comes into use 1558. — E I A - h ie
in Eturope. by par. 1559. Peace of
in Europe. liament. Chateau1565.- Cambrosis.
Foundation of Jesuit Colleges Mary
in opposition to Protestant arries -F r a n c i s
Schools. The first at Co- C e Lor rd
imbra, in Portugal. Burleirh, reta- rn.
Burleih, Secreta- ley.
tary of State. 1565.: -- of
Protestantism Duke of
1559 Only two carriages in Paris- estblished. Revolt Guise, minhorses and litters generally The P itas teProtants- 1iste.CIused. begin to rise. testants. 150.-C li a r -
Darnley l
1560 Snufffirstbrought into France. 15. scis
-Knives first made in Eng- edthe 1564. Au tion t
land. queen' 552,Reliisus tion of thnd marries liberty grant- Philippines
earl of ed 1o the HGuBoth- g'zuenots.
well-is First civil
dethron- religious war
ed and — Huguenots 1567. Duke
impri- supported by Alva, gove.
soned at England — de nor of the
Lochle- i eated at Netherlando
Torquato Tasso, Guarini, IDreux.
poets Droux.
Tsrqstoetsn. y 1567. The sepoets.1J a m es[ cond war —
IHuguenots
defeated at
St. DBenys.
Camnoens, Portuguese poet. 11568.-Iary, queen
of Scots, takes refuge i imn Enrised-. 1569.- routed 1570. War
andi is imprisoned.? - at Jarnac., wills te
1570. Civil wars of 1570..: — Ct h n
Thomas Tallis, English mu. e.witsnd itn
the Desmonds in Lennoxl Turks. —Na
sician. in Ireland. kireg llen. val vi to
at Lepant
14[53-1598.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 119
OTTOMAN
A.D. GERDIANY. ITALY. EmPIPE. THE WOnLD, elsewhere.
1550. Julius
1551 Treaty of Passau secures reli- Ill., pope. 1551. Tripoli
gious liberty to the Protes- taken from
tants. the Maltese
Fruitless siege of Mentz. kInights.
1552. Invasion
of Hungary.
1553.War with 1553. New Mexico discovered
Persia. by the Spaniards.
Building of
t he mosque
of Solymanyah, at Constantinople.
1555. Marcel1556 Charles abdicates. lus 11., pope. 1456. India:-Jelaleddin AkPaul IV., bar, a patron of science and
(Caraffa) literature, aided by his minpope. isters, Abu Fazl and Sheikh
Faizi.
-raises the Mogul empire to its greatest splendor.
1558 -Ferdinand I. --
king of Hungary and Bohemia.
Coronation by ille pope relin.
qtiished.
1559. Pius IV. 1559. Naval 1559fDenimark and Norway:
(Medici) victory of X
pope. Galves, gain- -Frederic 1I.Peace of ed by DraChateau - gut. Decrease of the influence
Cambresis Military of the Hanse towns.
terminates power of
the French the Turks at 1560. Sweden:-Eric XIV.
wars in Italy. its greatest
1564 -Ma x i m i i a n II. -- Tranquil- height, un.
lity for 66 derSoliman.
years.
1562. Council 1562. War with Russia and
of Trent re- 1565. Unsuc- Poland.-An English amassembled. cessful siege bassador in Persia.
of Malta. 1564. Coligny sends a colony
1566. Pius V., 1566. Death of of Huguenots to Floridapope. Soliman at destroyed by the Spaniards.
1569. Florence, the siege of 1568. Prussia:-Albert Fredea grand du- Sigeth.
chy. Selim II. iei. -
Cosmo
d e M e d i - Sweden:-John III. --
c i, declared
grand duke
of Tuscany,
by Pius V.
1570. War of Venice with 1270. Peace of Stetin, between
the Porte. Denmarkr, Norway, and
1571. Cyprus reduced by the Sweden.
Turks. 1571. Russia devastated by the
I Battle of khan of Crim Tartary.Lepanto. Moscow burnt.
120 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period VIII.SCOT- SPAIN AND
A.D, PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. ENGLAND. LAND. FRANCE. POITUGAL.
1572. Massacre
of Sc. Bartholomew.
1573 Cervantes, author of Don 1573. Peace of
Quixotte, Rochelle.
Titian, and Paolo Veronese,
painters. 1574. -H e nFifth war
with the Huguenots,
1576. The- Catholic
League.
1577 Sir Francis Drake's voyage 1577. Sixth reround the world. 1578. The queen ligious war. 1578. Port.
sends help to the 0
revolted Nether- Henry. -
Sir Philip Sydney's Arcadia. lands.
1580. Portugal
~155~1.:- falls unrk~r
w1581.- Spanish.
1582 Grego7ian Reformation of the rie's minion.
Calendar. 1583. Levant Com- conspipany chartered, racy
1584. Raleigh's co- ateainst
lony in Virginia. te.1585 Greenland discovered by Sir 1585. War with
Francis Drake. Spain.
1586 Tobacco first brought to Eu- 1586. Sir Philip
rope. nSidney killed at
Zutphen.
1587. The Queen of
Scots beheaded. 1588. Revolt of 1588. Defeat of
1588 First newspaper in En-land. 1588. The Spanish Paris. the Spanish
armada destroyed. armada
1589. Alliance with 1589. H ou se 1589. English
Ienry II. in aid o f Bour- volunteers
of Protestantism. b
b o on: under Drake
Trospe sentto-H N N RY and Norris,
France. repulsed
IV. - from Liston.
1590 Telescopes invented by Jan- 1590. 1590. Siege of
sen, a German. The Paris. raised
king by the Spaniards.
1593. Act for reli- marries
Tasso, Italian poet. g ious conformity. A nme, of 1593. Henry
The Carracci, celebrated pain- Den- abjures Proters. 1594. Sir John Haw- mark. testantists
1594. Jesuits
kins's Voyages.
In England: —Spenser, banished.
S HI A K S P E APR.E, Beau- 1595.War with
snont & Fletcher, Ben Jon- 596. Cadi taken, Spain conson.-Napier invents loga- and the Spanish 159nued.
rithms. fleet burnt, by the 1598. Peace of
earl of Essex. Vervius. 1593. Philip
Ministry of
Sir Robert Cecil, Minisry o
Lord BACON, celebrated phi- minist Ct, S u 11 y: — II.
losopher. restoration
of order.
Lope de Vega, dramas and 1599. Troubles in E D I OF
novels. N A.........N.TE.
novels. Ireland - Revolt -ranting
of O'Neill, earl of toleration to
Kepler, Tycho Brahe, astro- Tyrone. toleration to
nomers. Protestants.
1453-1598.] THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 121
OTToasAN
A.D. GERPIANY. ITALY. E1Pi TII WOLD, elsewhere.
1572. Gregory
XIII., pope.
1573. Cyprus
yielded to
the Porte; peace withlVe1574.Florence. nice. 1574 Poland:-Henry, of Va-Frances Ma- 1574. -Murad
ria succeed lois.
Cosillo. III.
1575 Poland:-Stephen Ba1576 -R o d o I p h I I. -- 1576. War with thori.: --
king of Bohemia and1 Hun- Persia.
gary.
1578. Alliance of Sweden and
Poland against Russia.
1i79. C o mmencement
of the Republic of
1580. Charles 1580.WVarwith HOLLAND, by the union
Emmanuel, the Druses at Utrecht:
dulke of Sa- in Syria. W illi a m, Pr i n c e
voy. of O r a n g e, stadthol1583. First der.
trade with
England. 1584.North America:
-First English colony foun ded in Virginia, by Sir W.
Raleigh.
1585. Sixtus 1585. Persia acquires power
V.,pope, under Abbas the Great.
Thea imperial authority disre- active and Holland: - aurice, of
garded by the princes of the enegetic- Oran adthode.
empire, lwho wagfle war corirects 15S6. Battle of Zutphen: death
thamon temselves. abuses in of Sir Philip Sidney.
the church;
restores the 15S9. Predato- 15S8. Denmarl: — Christian
Vatican li- ry incurbrary. sions of the IV.
Cossaclcs.
Revolt of
the Janizaries.
1593. War with
the Empire
1590. Urban in Itungary.
VII., pope. 1594. The 1592. Sweden: — Sigilslmund
Gregory Grand Vi- liing of Poland.
XIV., pope. zier talces India: —Mizam Shah, re1591. Innocent Raab. pulsed fromn Choul, by the
IX., pope, 1595. Moham- Portuguese.
two months.. 1594. The Falkland Isles dis1594 Union of Protestants at Heil- Clement med I1I. coveed by awkis.
bronn. VIII., pope. Turkish 1595. The Dutch first in India.
1592. The Ri- power in Sweden:-The regent asalto and Pi-, Iungary de- sunmes independent authoazza di San clines; de- rity.
Marco built feated at
at Venice. Gran-revolt of WVallachia. 1598. Russia: -Boris Godu
1597. Mohanmined leads his nor, -— begins a new
troops, and dynatsly.
defeats the Sigismund lands in Swe
Germans at den, to re-establish his powAgria. er-but is defeated, and returns to Poland.
THE WORLDD7S PROGRIESS.
PERIOD IX. —120 years.A.D. PROGRESS o0r SOCIETY, etc. AMEMIcA. A1NGLAND. FRsNCE.
1601. Earl of Essex be1602 English East India Compa- headed.
ny ibunded.
flny fountded. 1603.-J a es I. -
Union of the
Exportation of Engish wool 1604.-Acadcia co- E ngl i s h and
prohibited. lonized by the Scotch crowns.
French.
1603 Conference at Hampton Court. 1605. The Gunpowder
1604 New Translatsion of thLe Bi- Plot.
ble begsun; (published 1611).
1606 Dr. Gilbert discovers the pow- 1606. - Discovery
er of electricity, and of con- of Hudson's Bay.
ductors and non-conductors. 1607. —E n g Ii s h
settlement at
Jamestown,
(1st permanent
one in N. America.)
1608. - Quebec
founded.
1609. -Jesuit mis3.10 Telescopes invented by Gali- sions i Para- 1610. Assassi.
leo. gpoy. 1612. English factories at nation of
Surat." Henry IV.,
by Ravaillac.
- -L ouis
1615 Coffee at Venice. X I I I,.k
1616 Tobacco in Virginia. 1616.-The Tobac- 161,. Ministry of Villiers, (9 years old).
co plant introdu- duke of Buckingham. Mary de JleBacon's Inductive Philoso- ced into Virgi- dici, regent.
pohy. nia. 1617. Sir Francis Bacon, 1614. Last aslord chancellor. sembly of the
1618 It-arvey discovers the cir'cilla. 1618. Sir Walte; Ra- States-gene.
tion of the blood. leigh's unsuccessful ral.
1620 Thernzomneters invented by 1620.-Neg ro voyage to America- 1615. The king
Drebel. slaves first im- he is beheaded on his marries
lznigo Joszes, celebrated archi- ported to Virgi- return. Anne, of
tect. nia. Austria.- -
Mlar/tisl Opitz, German poet. E m i g r a - Civil war:Negro Slavery co -.'menced in t 1 o n o f P u - C o n d e
Virginia. r i t a n s to heads the
New Eng- HIugueland. nots.
1621. -John Carver, 1st Governor of N. E.
1624 Peter Paul Rubens, painter. 1624. N e w A mt- 1624. Ministry
1625 illassisner, the dramatist. s t e r d a m set- 1625.-C h a r 1. of Cardina
12(j KIepler's "Astronomia Nova tledbytheDutch. R i c h
Celestis." Buckingham, prime 1 i e u
Tolrricelli invents the barome. minister.
ter.
1627 The Parian moarbles brought 1627. Boston found- 1627. War with France, in support of
to England by the earl of ed. the lulgueArundei. nots.
Roclielle
1629. Wouter Van 1629. No parliament for reduced by
1630 Gazettes first published in Twiller, gover- eleven years. famine -af.:
Venice. nor of New Am- 1630. Peace with France. ter a siege of
sterdam. ten months.
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS..23
1598-1718. —Edit of Niitecs lo the deatht of Chliales XII., of Swedcns.
SPAIN
AND OTTOBTAN
A.D. POI1TU -GEtANY. ITALY. OEIP111E. TIIE WVNORLD, elsewhere.
GAL.
1604. Sweden: Charles IX. "
1605. Leo XI., 1605. Revolt in 1605. India: — Jehanir, sulpope.,Syria and tan.
Paul V., Cararnania,
1606. Truce of Co- pope. under the
morra, for twenty pasha of
years, with tile Aleppo.
Porte. 16O06. Commercial
160S. Pr otesefant treaty with
sznion, under Fre- France and
deric, the elector Hlolland.
palatine. Tobacco1609. India:-Arrival of Ilaw
1609 Expul- 1610. The Catholic 169Tuscany: first bouht fi sh e
sion of League, under the — Cosmo II. to Turkey. frotA the East Inlia Geo
fi'om the East India Comthe ]lduke of Bavaria. pany.
iMoors. 1612 lIat hias. Sweden: -G ustav u s
1612. M atthias.
1613 War of A d o p
the Leghorn, A d o 1 p h u s.
th-e Leghorn,
IMont- the empori- 1611. Sweden: —W- ar with
ferrat um of the Denmark. —Calmar and Rlissucces- 1615. Truce of Co- Levant trade. by lost. —Axel Oxenstiern,
sion in moira confirmed. minister.-Russia devastaItaly. 1618. The Th i rty ted by Poles and Tartars.
Y e a r s' WV a r Russia: —-Michael Robegins.
1.619 e dinand 1617. -usta- manoff, czar.
LF22. Conspi~ 1615. Denmark: —First standII. _ 1618. Conspi. phla I. — ing army.
racy of Bed- 1616. Inidia:-Sir Thomas Roe,
1621 Dutch 1620. Victory of the mar, the 1618. -Osman ambassador from James I.,
war. — White Mountain, Spanish en- of England.
Spain near Pragle. —- voy, to re- II. -- Swelen predominates in
sup- Massacre of duce Venice Great Per- the north.
ports Prague.-The Pro- under sub- sian victory 1618. 7The Syszod of DortAustria. testant religion to- jection to at Shibli. Atrsiniius condemned.
Philip tally suppressed, Spin. 1620.War with Settlement of Tanquebar,
IV.< 1621.. Gre- Poland, and in Coromandel.
IV.~ \a1621. Gregory unsuccessXV., pope. ful invasion 1621. Dutch West India Com1625 Defeat 1626.Victory of T i 1- Tuscany: - of Poland. pany incorporated.
of Span-I ly over Christian FerdinandII. 1622. Persia: —Ormuz gained
fleet off IV., of' Denmark, 1623. The fa- 1623. Miurad from the Portuguese by the
Litmoa, at Lutter. mttous library help of the Englisl.
Iby the 1628.Wallenstein of the Pal IV. 1625. Netherlands: - Henry
Dutch. recovers all the tinse at IHei- restores tran- Fredleric.-Breda, taken by
1625 Naval shores of the Bal- delberg. sent quillity. Spinrla.
war tic, except Stral- to Romne.
with' sund. 16223. General 1625. Truce 1627. Persia:-Shah Soofi I.
IEno- 1629. Gustavus Adol- Italian war with the emi- 1629. Peace of Lubeck.
land. phus lands in Ger- on the death pire ew1630 Peace many. - Diet of of the duke ed.
with Ratisbon. — Wal- of Mantua.
Eng. lenstein dismissed,
land, succeeded by Tilly.
124 TIIE VORLDS PRIOGRESS. [Period IX —
A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. AoIERICA. ENGLAND. FRANCE.
1G30 Lotteries for money first men- The Dutch sole 1630. Wentswot/zh, earl of
tioned. masters of Bra- Strafflord, minister.
1631 Ccalico first imported into Eng- zil. Laud, archbishop of 1631. Treaty
land. 1632. forylolacnd Canterbury. with Swesettled by a colo- 1633. The king visits den and the
ny under Lord Scotland -is crowned popular prinBaltimorse. at Edinburgh. ces against
the emtperor.
1635. Connecticut 1635. Alliance
settled. -Guada- with Holland
loupe and Mar- against Spain,
tinique, by the for the parFrench. tition of the
Edlward Coke, the great ju- Austlian Nerist. therlands.
1636 Pedro Calderoon de la Barca, 1636. Alliance
Spanish dramatist. ~1637. Maine and 1637. Trcq bles in Scot- with Sweden
Flourishing period of Jozoer Newlt Ila7spshire land, caused by Char- against Australde in the L)utch cities. colonized. les's phan to overthrow tria.
Harvard Col- the Scotch presbyterian Invasion crf
lege founded. church, and enlorce Cascony by
Reisbranldt, Van Dyke, pain- episcopacy. te Spanters. 1639. War with Scotland. iards, and of
1640. Parliament assem- Picaidy, by
bled -dissolved with- tle Imperialisos, who
out effecting any thing. threaten PaThe Scotch invade
England -take 1)osesiss of, Newca - stle 38 Invasion
1638 The Janse7tists, founded by SI ot Newcastle. io n
Jansenius, bishop of Ypres. The Long Parlia
1639 Printsisng ins Atnerica. [639. First print- sneet, Nov. 3. iege ol Foning office in Ame- Impeachment of Straf- taraba.
1640 First Swedish manufactories. ica, st Cam- ford and Laud. 1640. TurintaPersisn, Caspar, Daghet, and bridge, by Sat. ten by the
Clautde Lorraizne, French Green. Fresch.
painters. 1640. Whole num- The first
ber of emigrants L he first
to Nw ladLouis d'o,'s
to New IEttglan estruck.
1641 Co5'ee brought to England by previous to this,
Nat. Conopilus. 21,000. 1641. Strafford beheaded. 1641. Alliance
-Courts of Star Chain witl Portuber andti igh Comrmis- ga against
sion abolished.-Rebel- Spain.-Catalonia a55
lion of Roger Moore in Rouillon reIreland. -'Mlassacre of volt, acil subProtestants by Irish Ca- mit to France.
tholics. 1642. Ciq
1642. C i v i Wa r and 1642. Cinq
R e v o I u t i o 0.t Mars and de
Rise of Roundlheads headed.
and Cavaliers, both of l163.-L o s
the popular party.-
Battle ofEdgehill, indle-
cisive. X I v.
1643 Condtt and Turenne, the great- 1643. Confedera- 1643. Rtoyalists victorious (the G rl alr
est generals of the age. ltion of the colo- at Carlslgrane-defeated As-es o f
nat Newbury.-Solem Austria, reoies of Ness at Newbuintry.-Solem) it-tlrt, ccEszgland, for league anl covenant be- gent.
mutual defence. tween the Scotch and Vitoc'y of
English parliamtsents. tcrol ever
the. Span.
iardlls, by
Condl6.
Ministry of
Cardinal M1Iazarine.
15s98-L1718] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.,25
SPAINI
NDD. POROTTOMAN THE WORLD, elsewhere.
GAL.
1631. Sack of Mag- 1631. Peace of
deburg, by Tilly. Chierasco.-Gustavus Adol- The influphus takes May- ence of France 1632. Sweden: -Christina,
ence. increases.
1632. Defeat and queen
death of Tilly, at 1634.Murad in- 1632. Sweden: — Oxenstierl,
Lech. - Gustavus vades Per- regent.
takes Munich. —- sia — takes Russia:-War with PoXVallenstein again Falreeze. land; twc vears' siece of
in ommf Lud.-enat- Smolensko. - Russian army
tie of Lutzen. — capitulates, and the Polish
Victory and death king advances to Moscow.
of Gustavus Adol- 1634. Peace of Wiasma, disadphets. vantageous to Russia.
16o5. Peace of Prague
with Saxony 1636. Peace
1636. Swedes victo- 1636. Peace
rious at Wlittstoctc. w d
renewed.
lG37. —F e r d i n a n d
1637. Troubles
on the TarItt I. ~ ~tar frontier;
Galas successful Azopl tasken
against the Svwedes. by the Cos1t38. Br.llarl of' sacks.
Saie Weimlar de- Bagdad ta/eats tlse Ilnpleria- tIen by the
ists at Bheinfield- Turks.
takles Brisac. All the con- 1639. Iolland. -Great naval
1639 Loss of ll B. Bttles of 01- questsof Ab- victory by Van Taso~p, over
the Ja- nitz andl Btranliez, bas recover- the Spanish fleet in the
panesse gained by the Swe- ed. Downs.
trade. dish general, 3Bauner.
1640 IPortu- 164U. Prussia — Fre- 1640. Ibrahim. 1640. India:-1Tadras founded
gal re- by the English.
gaitin dlericWilliam. by t Englih.
Fher indepeidence,
under
Johrn IV.
duke of
Braogan1642. The Swedes de- 1642. Recapfeat the Austrians ture ofAzoph
at Leipsic. front the Cossacks.
1643. -invade [Iolstein, and compel
thle Danes to desert
Austria.
126 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period IX.-120 yeaers.-.
A.D PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. AmIErIcA. GREAT BRITAIN.. FRANCE.
Des Cartes, French philoso- 1644. Battle of Marston
pher. Moor-royalists defeated.
1645. Battle of Naseby. 1645.: — Ma-l
16-16 Air gulns invented. 1646. Thlomnas 1646. The king seeks re- shalT Trenne
lllayhew, preach- fulge in the Scottish takes'l'reves.
er to the Indians, camp.
shlipwrecked.
1647. Peter Stuy- 1647. -is delivered up to
vesant, governor parliament for ~100,000.
of New Amsterdaml.
1i48 EsngravinginmLezzotinto, im- 1648. Cambridge 1648. Cromwell routs tlhe 164S. Factiops
proved by Prince tiupert. platform adopt- Scotch, under Ilamtil- of tihe Froned. ton. —The presbyte- de;,dissenrians expelledt fiom sions fomelltparliament, which re- ed by Cartdiceives the name of" the oal d e I e t z.
ItU11tp."'
1649. J. WlVinthrop, 1649. Trial and execution 1G49. Court regovernor of Con- of the king. moves to St.
necticut. Ge rmains.THE COMIMIONW'VEALTt. Siege of Pa1650 Railr-oads with woodets rails, 1650. Settlement of 1650. Cromwnsel2 subdues 1650. C o n d,
near Newcastle. North Carolina. Ireland. U o n t i, and
The Scots proclail I, o n i e -
Charles 11. IIe ville, iti1651. enters Enrland-is pirisoned.deieated at Wortcester, Tu remie
Jerenszy lTalor, Alafelt-. Sid- and escapes to IFrance. flees to t;.3
Spaniards.
ney, English writers.
16502. John Cotton 1652. Naval war with l652. M a z adied. Holland.- 1 a tc e: r i i e retires
A s c o u g h, and to Sdcan.
P e n n, i English ad- Corsli flies
Le Sezir and Le Brua, French inirals. to Spain.
painters. 1653. Long parliament t 153. M.lazarine
dissolved by Crom- enters PIaris
well.-' Barelboe's.par- in triumph.
liamellt t" summonted.
OLIVE R C It I -
WE L LLLord Protector.
Mltson, private secretary to Cromwell.
1654. Peace of Westmin~160 A~ir~ ptts] invented. ster. — Alliance with
Holland.
1655 About this time flourish Mo- I655. n. WEitzslosw 1655. War with Spain.liere, La Fontaine, Col- died. Jamaica conquered by
neille. Madame de Sevig- Penn.
nze, floche'oucazult, 1acine, 1658. Death of Cromwell. 16159. 1:icie,lt
Boileazl, and Pascal, in -R ich a r d Crom- the P'yre~Franlce. we I, Protector. nees.- s'arriage of louVelasquez and AMlhrillo. Span- iae 1 1 so
ish painters. Maria The
resa, of Spain.
1598-1718.] THE WORLD'S PPOGRESS. 121
SPAIN
AND OTTO'MAN
A.D. PORTU- GERMANY. ITALY. EMPIRE. THE WVORLD, elsewhere.
GAL,
1644. Invasion of 1644. Innocent 1644. Naval victory of the
Hungary, by Ra- X., pope. Swedes over the Danish
coezi- the empe- fleet.
ror forced to yield 1645.War withl 1645. Sweden:-P-eace of
to the demands of Venice. Br6iimsebro with Denmark.
the protestants. Candia, the
1646. Revolt of theatre of
Naples, un- war.
der M a s - 1647. Netherlands:-William
saniello. II.
China: —-The Tarstars
place a prince of their own
on the throne-the first of
the present dynasty ofTsing.
1648. P E A C E O P 1648. Mollain- 164S. Poland:-The Ukraitie
W E s T P H A - med 1v. Cossacks revolt, and cut the
L I A, signed at Polish army to pieces.
Munster, between t;
France, the em- — John Cassimir.2 --
pire, and Sweden.
-The principle of
a balance o' power in Europe first
recognized.
1650. olIohammled Rioprili, grand vizier.
1653.Naval de- 1653. Holland: —-J o h n d e
feat by the W it t, Grand Pensionary;
Venetians in De Ruyter, admiral.
the Archipelago.
1654. Defeat and death of
1654 Brazil Trom)p.
recover- Sweden: —Chis1tina reed from signs.-Charles X., Ist of
the
Dutch. 1655. Alexan- the House of Deux Ponts.
1655 War der VII., Poland:-War wtih lu swith 1657. - L e o p o 1 d pope 1657.War with sia.
Eng- I acoezi, for 1657. Delnmark:Warsag.llJ;t
la~nd. I aiding Swe- the Swedes, -who orveTrru
cden against IDenmark, andl mence CoPoland. penhagen.
1658. Denmark: —Naval vic.
tory over the Swedes.
Denmark:-Peace of Ros
kilde.
128 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period IA.X-120 years.A.D. PROGRaESS Or SOCIETY, etc. A1EmRICA. ENGLAND. FP.ANCE.
1659. Richard resigns.- 1661. Death of
Rump parliament call- Mazarine.
ed, but soon expelled. C ol b e r t,
Restoration of comptrolle:t h e Stuarts. general of
T finance.
1660.-C lh a r 1 e s I I. Lyonne.
H y d e, earl of Le Tellier.
Clarendon, chancellor 1662. Disputes
and prime minister. with the pop..
1661. New parliament.- — 6000 troops
Alliance with Portugal. sent against
1662 ILogwoold first cut in the bay 1662. Marriage with Ca- the Turks in
1662 Lowoo d first cut in the bas therine, of Portugal. Ilungary..1663. Canada made Act of Uniformity. 1664. French
a royal colony. Dunkirk sold Lo East India
Salvator Rosa, landscape France. Actdepainter. 1663. Elliot's I- 1664. War with Ilolland. mie des Scidian1 Bible prin. 1665. Naval victory by the ences Louvois.
t~y0gesss, Dutch astronomer. tedl. dukew of' or. 1667.War iLo1664. N ew or k Geat Plaogue in Spai. Lou
London. is claims
1663 Persecution of Joassenists in occupied by thle London. is clasNe
France. Eng lish. Spanish
DFraitre. E~n~li 1666. Great _lir-e in Lon- therlands for
1666 Claiss shot invented by De don. his wife —inWitt. vades Bei1666 Canal of Languedoc, from the giull.
Mediterranean to the Atlan- il66 1eace of
tie. Aix la Cha-9ele with
Spaht
1672. War Wi!' h
1667 Gobeli?, tapestry mantfactory 1667. -ceded to 1667. Peace of Bweda.- holltd.
in Parlis. them by the New York ceded to 1673. French
peace of Breda. England. ambassador
Banishment of the at IspLthan.
earl of Clarendon. 1674. Tl'e
1668.Triple league —Eng- Dutch tlelanl, Swelen, and Hol- eated at the
land, against France. battles of
1670 Bayonets invented at Bay- 1670. Conclusionof la67, Thae Cabal Fr in- Sinsheim
onne. the Ameican istry. —Secret treaty land MullauOrre1671 y invented. treaty' between witll France. sen. -Tu[671 Foundatio n of the Academy England and renne rav.
of AJchitectie~'e. and the Spain. ges the Pala
idtel des Invalides, at Pa- tinate.
ris. 1675. Death of
1672. War with Holland Turenne at
Cassini, Italian astronomer in conjunction with Sasbach.
and mathematician. France. Influence
D'HIe7rb0elsot, Poasca2l, Bssr- 1673. Ministry of Danby. of Pire la
D'tebelot, _Pascal,.Bout- Test Act passed. Chaise, tlhe
dctsloze, La B1resyire, Icatl- I 1674. Peace with tHolland. Iin's conbraiiche, French writers. lessor.
1677. Victory
1675 Clhrrissopher Ws-en, architect, 1675. King Phi- over the
commences St. Paul's. h i p Is I a r in Prince of
Ruysdael, celebrated Dutch New ipEnland. ront-Ce at'
Painter..Nlont-Cassel.
WVillirass, Te7pVle, historian. 1678. Pe ace
Brltler, 7WaIller, and Dryder, 1677. M ai n e pu- of Ni nieEnglish poet; ey chased by Massa. 1678. The Popish Plot. g u e n with
More, Leighton, Baoier, chuselts. Holland and
Bsyle. Spain-reMansart, architect; Giaodoes, stores tran
sculptor, of France. quillity to
E urope.
1C98-17183. THE WORLD7S PROGRESS. 129
SPAIN
AND OTTOMAN.D. POrtTU- GERMANY. ITALY. OITOMANi TiE WORLD, elsewhere.
GAL.
1661 invasion
of Por- 1660. Demark: —Peace of Cotugual. 1661. War penhagen. -- The Swedes
with Aus- restore Bor nholm, and D1on-tria. thei.l.
Revolution in Denmark.
Sweden:-Charles XI. l
Peace of Oliva.
Prussia acknowledged in-'dependent.
1660. Poland:-Great victory
1662. Invasion of Marshal J o h n S o -
of Iungary. b i e s k i over the Tartars.
1663 Victory 1663. The Diet perof the manent at RatisPortu- bon.
gtiese 1664. Montecuculi
over the victorious over the
Span- Turks at St. Goiards at thard.
Estreias.
665 Sptin: - 1G66. Tile Tyrol uniCharles ted to Austria.
1667. Holland: —Peace of Breda: loss of New NetherPortu- 1667. Clement
[x., pope. lands.
tevolu- 1669. Cantdia tacenifront Ye- 1668. First embassies from
Rtieola- 166)9.' iCaniia tal Dice fom Veio- Russia to France and Spain.
tioenr at Dice by Kio- India:-Rise of the MahLisbon. prili. ratta power.-Sevajee takes
King de[1I~in~ de- and sacks Surat.
posed. Peace with the Porte.
- Pedro
-~~Pedro 11670. Cosmo 1670. Den.:-Christian V.
II. Ill., grand
duke of Tus-!66j Peace of cony-War
Lisbon between Ge- 1672. The Sul- 1672. Sea fight between the
with noa and Sa- tan invades Dutch fleet, under )e Witt
Spain. voy. Poland. and De Ruvte, and tle
6;9 |Nitard, Clement X., 1673. -tefeat- English and l'ench feetsthe Je- pope. ed by Zo- Dutch defeated
suit, dri- 1674. Revolt of briski, at Den.:-Wiim.
-en 1673. War of Austria Messina in Choezim.
from and France. favor of
Spain. 1675. Turenne and France. 1674. Poland:-John Sobies.
1673 War - Montecuculi op- 1676. Messina 1676. Peace of k
with posed on the blockaded by. Zurawno ki.
France Rhine. — Victory the Dutch with Paland.
to pro. of Consarbrutck andt Spanish 1675. The Swedes invade
tect HI-ol- over the French, fleets. Brandenlbr:.
land. undter Crequi. —- Death of De 1677. Battle oif the Lund. hbe
Treves taken. Ruyter. 1678. First war tween the Swedes and Danes.
1676. General revolt InnocentXI. with Russia,
of Ilungarians un- pope. on account
der Emeric. Death of the of the Cosatheist, Spi- sacks.
noza.
(6`
130 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period IX.-120 ycars.-l
A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. AiEnRICA. GREAT BRITAIN. FRANCE.
Bernini. Italian sculptor. Rise of the names of France, the
1681 MIuseumn for Natural HIistory, Whigs and'Tories. most formniat London. dable power
Jardin dces Plantes, at Paris. in1 Europe.
1683 Penzny post established in Lon- 1683. " Ryehouse Plot." 1683. Inva-sion
don. Execution of Lord of tile SpanKenzpfer''s travels in Jrpoan. Russel and Algernon ish NetherJohri Buloyas, " Pilgrim's Sydney. lanids.
Progress."' In this reign the Roy- 1i68. Truce of
al Society of London Ratisboa n fLwas instituted by Wil- twenty years
kins, bishop of Chester. witli Spain.
-Bombay ceded to
1686. Sir IlEdmund England.
Andros, governor.
of New England. L68.-J a m e s I I 1685. Re v o1683. General sup- cation of
pression of char- Rebellion of Mon- the E di ct
ter governments. mouth, in England, and o f N a n t e s.
1689. Montreal tde- Argye, in Scotland,
stroyecl by the both defeated and exeC86 Otto Von Gueericke, inven- Five nations. cuted.
tor of the air-pzezotp and Leisler usurps the Jud-e Jeffiies.
electlrical oacoine, dlied. government of 1686. The kIing lavors the
1687 Telegraphs invented. New York. Catholics.
Neutlon's Princilpia, publish- 1690. The English 1687. -re-establishes the
edl. settlements of Court of High ComG. Batt. Letljy, from Flo- Schenectady, N. mission.
rence, founder of French Yorl, Casco, t6l. i - ro LTI0N 1688. War of
opera qtntsic. and Salmon Falls, o F 168S." The -Whigs Spain — the
Arch. Coselli, celebrated vio- N. H., destroyed and Toriesunite in a- Empire, Hollinist and composer at Rome. by a party of plying to the Prince of laud, Savoy,
1690 WhiYite paper first ntade in Frencl. Orange, who lands in and Enila,-'1
England. Port Royal, No- England with 15,000 against
Leibtnitz, German philoso- va Scotia, redu- men —the king flees to France.
pher, founds the Academy of ced by Sir Wil- France. 1689. Grand alSciences at Berlin. liam Phipps.- 1689.-W i i a m II I. liance against
1692 First opera in London. Expedition against France, headPurcell, English musician. Canada, unsuc- and M a r y I I - - ed by Wil16!33 Baink of England. cessful. War with France. liam III.
1692 Telescopes, fist mrleacting 169l. S c h u y I e r James II. lands in 1690. Naval
one imade on the principles defeats the French Ireland-besieges Lon- victory over
of Sir Isaac Newton. at La Prairie. donderry. the Dutch
1690. William in Ireland. and English
1692 WIVitchcr{frt sluperstition in zL'ew-Elsgland. -Battle of the Boyne. offDieppo.James defeated, returns Victory of
1692. New Hamp- to France. Luxemburg,
Johat Locke and Sir Isaac shire purchased 1691. Limericktaken. and at Fleuruis.
Neewton in England. by Allen. William aclkuowledged. 1692. Marshal
Boileazt, Fenelon, and Bayle, N. York: Leis- 1692. Invasion of Eng- L u x e min France. ler executed. land undertalcen by the b u r g de1693 Batik of Esngland. 1693. N. York:- French in favor of feats William
Episcoptacy in- James.-Naval victory at Steenkirl,
trolduced. by the Dutch and Eng- and
William and lish. 1693. -at NeMary's College 1693. Bank of England in- uvinden.
founded. corporated. Institution 01
1697. Kidd's pira- 1694. Death of queen the order of
cies. Mary. St. Louis.
1697. General p e a c e of Rys w i c
1698.First partition treaty, -between
between France, Eng France atnd
1699 Phosphoruz s discovered. 1699. French colo- land, and the Empire to the allies.
ny in Louisiana. dispose of tlhe crown of
-Gold mines in Spain.
Brazil. 1699. Visit of Peter the
Great.
1598-1718.] THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 131
SPAIN
AND OTTOMIAN - TIIE WORLD, elsewhere.
GAL.
1680. Great part of 1680. Sweden: —Diet of StockAlsace seized by 1682. War with h0olm.
France. Austria. -1S82. Russia:-Ivan and Pe1683. Turkish war, 1683. Total ter, — their sister, Sosiege of Vienna by rout before phia, re,ent.
the Turks-victory Vienna. 1683. Denmnark:-The Code of
of the Germans king Christiain published.
and Poles, under 1684. Alliance of Venice with
Charles, of Lor- Poland. and the Empire
raine, and John against the Porte.
Sobieski.,
Treaty of the
Hague against
France.
1686. Russia 1686. India:-The DerkIin con.
1686. League of dleclares war. quered.
Atugsburg against 1687. Revolu- Golconda and Besapore.
France. tion in Con1686. Buda taken af- stantinople,
ter being held by Molhammed 1687. -The English factories
the Turks 145 dethroned. in Bengal suppressed-afteryears. Solyman wards restored.
1687. Decisive victo- 1688. Prussia:-Frederic III.
ry of Mohaez: II.
Croatia and Transylvania subdued. Russia:-Ivan resignsJoseph I. crown- Sophia is confined in a coned king of Hun- vent:
gary. 168. Defeat at 1689 -- P E T T
1689 IRevolt 1689. Grand alliance 1689. Alexan- 1689. Defeatat 1689. --
of Cata- ratified at Vienna. der VII., R E A T isa.
lotia in The Palatinate P pha Kiopri- 1692. Russia: —First trade
favor of desolated by the li drives the with China.
lFiance. Frelnchl. Austrians India: —Height of the Moacross the gul power, annual revenue
Danube-re-;632,000,000.
covers Bel- China:-Great influence
1690. Joseph I. elect- grade. of Jesuits.
ed king of the Ro- 1691. Allmud 1693. Sweden:-The king- desomans by thle Diet clared absolute.
11 of Augsbg.- II 1695. Holland:-Bombard1691 Inctr.- TVictorifps over the 1691. Innocent ment of Busels by t
sion of Turkes. XII., pope. Deleat and ment of Brussels by the
Sion f Tuks. XI.) pe. death of Kio- French, under Villeroi.
th1elsce prili. 1696. Poland: —Death ot SoFrench 1694. Chio ta- bieski-succeeded by
Aragon. Iken by the 1697. -Frederic Augustus I.
1693. Battle of Venetians. Swedtlen:-C H A R L E S
Marsaglia - 1695. Musta-( years old.)
X I I. — (15 years old.)
the allies in pha 11
Italy defeat- paII.
ed by the 1696. — leads Russia:-Introtltuction oft
Marshal CIa- his own ar- various manufacturesP, Peace of R y s w i ck. tinat. my of Olaclto. eqipmentol a fleet, etc.
In- ry of Olach.
trig oues 1697. 1699. Peace of 1699. Den.:-Frederic IV.'vfe
167Victory over Carlowitz.
or the the Sultan Maensta,- The Otto- Alliance ofDenmark, Russucces- l)pha at Zenta, by man power sia, and Poland, against
Si1on. ese Prince Eugene. broken. Charles XII. of Sweden,
132 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Peod IX. —120 yJcrs'.-_
A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. AMERICA. GREAT BRITAIN. FRANCE.
1700 First manufactories in Russia 1700. A British fleet sent
and Denmarkl. to assist Charles XII.,
of Sweden.
Fenelone, Bossslet, Masillon, Foundation of the
in France. national debt in this
reign.
National Debt of England 1701. Yale College 1701. War of the Spanish succession.
commenced. founded. 1702. The French invaIde 11olland, oil
1702. Rice intro- derBoufilers-reputl ed by AM a r, I
Godfrey IKneller, English duced into Caro- b o r o u g h.
painter. lina from Mat a- si
gascar. -— A n n e. 1702. Reolt of
1703 First Russi n Iateispsaper.- 1703. Apalachiai 1703. Methuen tneaty of' tile ahiugeSt. Petersburgl folunded. Indians subdued. commerce with Portu- inots supprless.;Maine ravaged gal. ed by MIarby French and slal Villars.
Indians. 1704. Marlborough enters Germany,
1704. Captain gains the battle of B 1 e hei m.
Church's expe- Gibraltar taken by
dition against the Rookle.
Flourishing period of FPrench Indians. 1706.T r e a ty o f u n i o n
literature.- Great splendor Boston NVews- w it h S c o t land.
in the French court. Leltter,first Asse- 1Battle of Ramnllies, Villeroi de1704 A newspaper in Amnerica. rican periodical. feated.
1706. Carolina in- 1707. Victory of Almanza over the Enovaded by the lish and Portuguese.
French and Span- The fir s t U n it e d
ish. Parliamnent o f
Great Britain
meets.
1707. Unsuccessful 170S. Battle ofOudernarde -French deexpedition agailst feated.
Port Royal. Sardinia and MIinor ca captured by
1708.The S'raybroole the lnEnglish.
1703 Incorporation of the IUnited pltfb'0rsi, folbrm- Unsuccessful attempt
Britisl EBeast Insdlia CosI- ed. of Ihe'Pretenlder to land
praiy. 1709. First peeper inl Scotlal(d.
1709 Prieosic acid discovered by sioney il New- 1710. Victory of Vendlome atVillaviciosa.
Diesbach. Jersey. )i. Sacheverell's trial.
1710 A post-oqtice iu Asnerica, 1710. First post- -Collision of Wilir
office at New and Tory principles.
Yorkl. 1713. P e a c e o f U t r e c i t.
Fruitless expe- Perpetual separation of the crowns
edition against Ca- of France and Spain — England acnasla. quires Newloutiellanld, Acadia, anel
1713 Tle fanmou3s bisl U" izigesni- 1713. "Queen ]-ludson's Bay, also Mi norca anid Gi.
tits"'' against the Freach Jan- Anne's War" braltar. The Ithine is the bouniadary
senists. closed by the between Gerlsany and France.
1714 Rise of commerce in Austria- treaty of Utrecht. 1714. Factions at court- 1714. Peace of
first manufactories. disgrace of IHarley, Radlstad: tthe
chalcellor of the exche- Emperor acque r. knowledges
Law's bank at Pzaris. Death of the queen. Philip on
-— o use o u s e o f H a n o - the cession
ver:- of Lombardy, Naples,
G eo g e I. - and Sardinia.
Robert Walpole, pie- 1715. L o u i s
mTier.
1715 The monastery of htafra, the 71.5. Intlian war in 1715. Insurrection of Ja- X.
Wosslner of Portig.l,' beilti Ssuth Carolina. cobites.-Battles oft She- Dutile
1717. _Nezo. Orleans riffnUi r and Presu Orleans
Prior, Steele, De Foe, Addi- 1717. e les riti l esl O ans
soso, fi ucrislh in lstnglan-[. settled by the War against Sweden. gent. -;
1716 First standing iaimy in Enrg- Frencls. bis, nini
land. ter.
1718 The coffee tree brought from 1713. Quad r u p 1 e al Iiance: the
Java to Sririarm. Emperor, Esngland, ItIo lantl, and
France against the lesi gns of Spain.
1598-1718.] THE WORLD S ProGRESS. 133
SPAIN
AND OTTOMAN
A.D. PORTU- GERMIANY. ITALY. EmpTIRE T1IE WORLD, elsewhere.
GAL.
1700 Death of 1700. Russia:-Peter the Great
the king, invades Ingria —defeated by
wlio Charles XiI., at Narva.
names'VWar of the Northern
the duke Powers.
of Anjou
as his 1701. Grand alliance of the Ilague, 1701. PtlUSSIA erected intoa
stccess - between England, Holland, nndc kingdoml ulnder
or. the Empire, to pre vent the union
Ulo/ Philip of France and Spa in. F r e d e r i c I. --
1702. Battles of Slol- 1702. Victory
hafen, Ilochstedt. of' Luzzace 1703. Alhmted Charles XII. invades Po7jl1 The and Spires, gained gained by the 11. land-is victorious at Riga
arch- by thle French. Ilench over 170-2. -entelrs Warsaw-takes
dulie the Inspe- Ctracow.
Charles rialists. 1703. Victory of Pultunsk
larnds at Poland: —Tle throle dsLisbolt, clre(ld vacant, and
antd en- 170-1. Stanislas Leetzinski
ters
Spain. elected king.a
i703 Barcelo- 1705. -J o s e p h
na taieslle 1706. The Swedes victorious
by thle I M 1706. French over tl-e Saxons and Rusall. driven fronl sians at Traverstadt.
1706 Port.: — Italy by
John V. pince
gei-ne. 1707. Rtussia:-Revolt of the
s- 1 1707. All the Cossack SMazeppa.
e151lish Spanish pos- 1708. Charles invades Russia,
and o'e- sessions il-s crosses the Dnieper, and is
Iugues e Italy abanenlter slatnet to slte 1709. Charles 1709. dlefeated at Pultowa.
aid. 1710. Treaty ofl tle t alies. Xl. ltakesa Sweden at war withi Denrefuge at mark.
Mllgute between B3emler- Poland: —Frederic AnugusEnglantl. 1holhitd, ience war tus re-ascends the throne.
anid tile Eisslsire. <fwith tussia. 1712. Victo'ry of the Swedes at
711i Charles 1711. - C h a r 1 e s Galebusche.
leaves Z 1713. Prussia:-Frederic Wil
Spain on V I.
becoreI- AMsinislry of Count l I,. - 1ing, Eni- fLinzerndort'
ling Em- I sZessdoi
peror. i713. Pt7agsatic
satzctiot, vesting
the succession to
Austria in the
daughters of Char1714 Barcelo- les. 1714. Russia:-Naval victory
nataken 1714. Peace of Ras- 1714. War of Venice with over the Swedes.-Aland and
by Ber- taldt and Baden the Porte. Finland conquerel.
wiscl. with France.
Albero- 1715. Netherlands --— Barrier
ni, 1715. Corinth taken by tsle treaty of Antwerp with Ausprime Turks - the Emperor joins tria.
/minis'- Venice- sie ge of Corfu Sveden:-Return of Charter of raised on the news of their les-Prussia and Englantl
Sp, in. 1716. defeat at join the alliance against him.
the battle of
PeterwarlbsJ,. I (den. - 1718. Charles XII. invades
1717. Defeat ol Norway, is Iilled at the
Crusca-loss siege of Fredericshlall.
of Belgrade. Sweden: —Uirica Eleo.
1718. Q u a d r u - 1718. Peace of Passarowitz,
p 1 e a 1l i a n c e between the Porte, Venice, nora.
against Spain. and Hunga ry.
134 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
PERIOD X. —97 ycaves.A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. AtE:RIcA. ENGLAND.
and Increase Mloather, Hist. paper. invade Scotland by the Spanof War with Indians. iards.
"The South Sea Scheme."'
1720. "' Bursting of the South
Sea bubble."
1721 Inoculation introduced by 1721. First New-York news- 1721. Sir Robert Walpole's
Lady Montag ue. The same paper. mninistry continues.
year introduced into Boston
by Dr. Boylston.
1723. Vermont settled.
IIncrease Mlathers, died.
1724 Academy of Sciences at Peters- 1724. Trenton, N. J., founded.
burg.
1725 The " Appellants," in France, 1725. Leaf& e of Eerrenhauser,
headed by the Cardinal de
Noaitles, appeal front the 1727. Great earthquake in 1727. George I. dies at Osnabull "' Unigenitus," to a ge- New-England. burg.
neral council; but without
effect. - George I.
1728 Behring's Strait discovered. 1728. Cotton Maither, died. 1728. Pease of Pardo wlst
Discovery of' diamond Spain
mines in Brazil.
1729 Balloons inventedbyGusmac. 1729. The Carolinas separated. 1729. Treaty of Seville, be
t.In Egland: Iee France:
Pop7e, Soft, J. 1. Rotts- 1731. T'reaty of Vienna withl
J'oln-, seBazc. Le sI-IHollantl and the Emtpire.
e sean., Le
T'lhompson, Sage, Roltin,
Tatts, Lord( lYonttesquieu.
Bolins' 57roke,
Doddridge,
Dlzesor/rlde 1732, Birth of W'ashington.
C/test efetd. 1733. Savannah founded.
ITalley,'astronomer.
1733 First Lodge of sr eemasons in Ameerica, at Boston.
173l-Y. War with Spaln.
1740 Irish linen manozfactories, 1740. Tennessee first explored. 1740. Porto Bello tatlen by Adand English steel and cuttlery mniral Vernon.-Anson's voyflourish. age round the worldl, and
1742. Invasion of Florida by capture of the Manilla 9.1lIndians and Spaniards-re- leon.
pulsed.
L. ltolberg, I)anish dramatist.
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 135
1718-1815.-Dealt/ of ClAcles XII. to Battle of Water'loo.
SPAIN
AND
D. FRANCE. PoRTU- GERMOANY. THE WORLD, elsewhere.
GAL.
1719. Italy: —Sicily invaded by the
I Spanish.
1720. Peace of Stockolmlm.-Tranquillity
restored in thle srcxth,
Sweden: —The queen abdicates in
favor of her husband.
1721. Italy:-Innocent XII., pope.
- Frederic.
Peace of Nystadt with Russia.
Russia:-Peter assumes the title
lad The king as-umies "Ernperor of all the Russias."
tho goveristuent. 1721. Turkey: —Mahonlmed Effendi, amDuke de Blouibon, bassador to Paris.
nminister. 1723. Cllina:-Christians expelled.
1723. Italy:-John Gaston, (de Medici),
grand dulke of Tuscany.
1723. Turkey:-The Turks and Russians
attempt to dcismember Persia,
1724. Italy:-Benedict XIII., pope.
1724 Congres of Cam- 1725. Russia:-Catharine I., widow of
between Fngland, 1725.:- Peter
Fraknca, P ussi. Allianee of Vientna, Spain, 1725. Turkey:-Partition treaty for seiza1734. 73 dand Austria.
and Iclal.:d. ing the north and west provinces of
1726 Ministry fT Cardi- Con- Persia.
nal F e u r y. Napest of 1726. Russia:-Alliance with Austria.
ps 1726. Turkey:-irst printing press
vaisdlcl - l broughlt from Paris to Turkey.
Do'yn 1727. Russia:- Treaty with China.
Carlos. -Peter II.1k
1727. Turkey:-Peace of Bagdad.
1728. Denmark:-Fire at Copenhagen,
1728 Congress of Sools- destroys the public libaryv.
sons dissolved, -colony of Danes in iGreenland.
without effectingl
any thing, 1730. Derenmarl:-Christian VI..een En ar of the Po- 1730. Italy -— Clement XII., pope.
tween England, 1733. War of the Ps.
France, and ls- Itsh succession;
lFrand. I d 1Austria, Russia,
land.andl Dentatli. 1733. Poland:-Frederic Augustus II.I
of1735. Peimennanot on-es The diet elect Stanislaus, but are
cluded till 1712. compelled by the Russian army to elect
1740. War of the A us- Frederic
1734. Stanislaus besieged in Dantzic, estrian succession.
Marin a *Th e- capes to Koningsberg.
1733 War of the Polish r e s a succeeds to 1734. Turkey:-Turks driven from Persuccession: te e edi sia by Nadir Shah.
France, Spain, the hereditary 1736. -ar with Russia and Austria.
and Sard itia. 1741. The French, 1737. Italy: —Francis, of Lorrainie, grand:3.i Conquest of Lor- Saxono sod Bava duke of Tuscany.
raine. 1739. * r-.Saxons, overrn av- 1739. India:-Invaded by Nadir Shalh,
1740 War of the Aus- War tria, tae Prae, who taltes and plurnders Delhi.
tl h sucess7ioanda c'rown Cha rr leats 1739. Turkey:-Turlks defeated near
trian succession with and crown Charles
-Marshals Belle Eng- Choezil.
isle and Broglio: land, for VI. emperor. 1740. Italy:-Benedict XIV., pope.
inhfiac- I Trea ty of Bres- Turkey: —The Turks invade Persia
iio ni fr l Tretly f Bres lare repulsed by Ashrat.
rions of lau with Austria. - epl by sa
1743/-defeated by the the Asi- 1743, The French — peace o Belgrade.
allies at Dettin- ento driven across the
gen. treaty. Ihine.'"~~~~~~tdrvnars h
136 THE WORLD7S PROGRESb. [Per'iod X —97 X- m0ars. —
A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. AMERICA. GREAT BRITAIN.
Frederic the Great makes 1744. Naval victory over the
great iinprovements in,nili- French andi Spanish fleets in
tary tactlcs-introducesfly- tle bay of IIieres.
ingz horse artillery. 17445. Louisburg and Cape 1715. Scotch rebellion-Char
DIlranlte and Leo. celebrated Breton taken fri'omn France les Edward larldls iin Scotmrusicians. by the English. land.
Ilsandet, and Seb. Bach, mulm- 17465 he is defeated at CuLcal composers. loden.
1747'Indigo first produced in Caro- 1747. David Bralnerd and 1747. Victories over the French
lina. Beejanmin Colemanz, died. off Belle-isle and Cape
Finisterre.
17418 Mossheim, ecclesiastical histo- 1748. P e a c e o f A i x I a
rian. 1749. English settleiment in mutual restitution of coI'750 Dr. Franklin's discoveries il Nova Scotia.
electricity.
1752 England introduces the'"New 1752. The new style introStyle" Calendar. dalced; thle year hereaftie
1753 British Mutseumn fowtnded. comnmences Jan. 1.
1752. Hostilities between Eng land and France on the boun
1754. Washington's mission to
the French.
1755. Defeat of Braddock.
British. 1756. Oswego and Ft. Granbv
A/larn Ranr- Rle/ueti/as, Fi. rtaken by the French. 175G "S e v e n Y e a r s
say, Raceire, Pri. Subsidiary alliance with
Slen.stoere, Gellet, Ger. ussi.
Gray?/, Gfieckle-; Miniistry of W i l 1 i a mn
CsGrays, Wrncakir, GeP iG t t the elder.
AlceeLside, 1757. Forlt Winm. Henry cap- 1757. Victory of Plassey, in
C/rierc/riIl. ltured. India.
1758. Rlepulse of Abercrombie
at Ticonleroga.
Fort Du Q.usesne taken.
1759. Invasion of Canada- 1759. Naval victories over tle
death of Wolfe —-Quebec Lagros, and off Brest.
taken. Surat. in India, taken
Capture of Niagara, from the Dutch.
Crown Point, and Ticonde- 17
roga. 1760.-G e 0 r ye I I I -
John r Rysbrach, sculptor. 1761. Earl of Brte, premier. -
Ilhgarl/i. FTI/sona, c Josheua 1762. War with Spain.
Reynolds, painters. Conquest of Havana,
1761 Potantoes first planted in Triniilad, and Manilla.
France, by Turgot. 1763. End of the Old Frlenc 1763. P e a c e o f a r i a s.Niebuhr's travels in Arabia. WVar."
1765. " American STamp Act"
Wesley t WVFhitefireld preach. resisted in Massachusetts
1761 Philadelphia Medical School, and Virginia. 1765. Bengal ceded to the 1East
first in America. First Colonial Congress at India Company by the
1766 Wallis and Carteret's voyage New-York. treaty of Allahabad.
of discovery in the South
Seas,
1718-1815.] THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 137
SPAIN
AND
A.D. FRANCE. PORTU- GERMANY. THE WORLD, elsewhere.
GAL.
1744 War declared
against England 1740. Prussia:-F R E I C I I.
and Au-striat. (the Great,) Prussia increases in im1745 Battle of Fontenoy, 1745. Charlbs (lies at portance.-IWar with Austria.
allies defeatedcl. Munich. Russia: —van V.
1746 The French victo- 1746.:- I1 o u s e o f 1741. Sweden:-War with Russia.
rious by land, Ferdi- L o r r a i n e Swedes driven out of Finland.
but unsuccessful nand VI.
by sea. -F r an c i s I. Russia:-Elizabeth. -
1747 War with HIolland. husband of Maria 1743. -Peace of Abo with Sweden.
Theresa. 1743. Turkey:-War with Persia.
-Defeat near Erivan.
1744. India:-Iostilities between French
and English.
1744. Italy:-Savoy occupied by French
and Spaniards, who take
1745. -Parma, Milan, and Placentia.
-Genoa bombarded by the English.
1746. -French and Spaniards driven from
Lombardy.
1716. Denmrark:-Frederic V. -
1747. Netherlands:-William IV.
Persia:-Revolution: Nadir.
Shah. murdered.
1751. hIolland:-William V. stadtholder.
Denmark: —Ministry of Count BernC h a p e 11 e - 1748 Peace of Aix la Chla- storff.
quests. pelle; Spain, anti Prussia Sweden: —House of IIolstein Gotthe on ly gainers by the torp:war.
1756. Seven Years' - Adolphts Frederic.p
VWar of Austria 1754. Italy:-The Corsicans, under Paoli,
and Prussia. revolt against Genoa.
daries of Nova Sco- Invasion and 1754. Turkey:-Othtman III.
tia. conquest of Saxo- 1755. First Prussian embassy to Constan17531 Inliuence of MIa- ny, by Frederic II. tinople.
dame de Po pa Alliance witth 1756. India' —Calcutta taken by the Nadour. ompaFrance. bob of Bengal.
W ar.'' 1757. Prussians vic- 1757. Turkey:-M- ustapba III.
Capture of Minor- torious at Prague, 1757. Prussia:-RRussian invasion.
ca fiom the Eng- Rossbach, Lessa, 175S. — victory of Lonlorf.
lish and Breslau. 1758. Italy:-Clement XIII., pope.
The French take 1759. Prussia: —The king deleatetl at
Verdun and Bre. Kunnersdorf.
1757 Invasion of IIano- B esdof
ver. men. 1760. -Battle of Lietnitz. —Berlin taken.
1758 Defeat at Crefeldt. 1758. French defeated India:-Shah ALIm I.
on the Rhine - at Crefeldlt, Siege and capture of Pondicherry,
1759. and at Minden. by the English.
1759:- Victory at Max- Kingdom of Mysore founded by
French off Cape Charles e over e us IIyde
Attempt'to invade Charles en over the Pus- yider Al i.
Ireland.
1760 Loss of all Canada. ta1ken. 1762. Rlssia: —Peter III, - (six
761 T'l'he Bourbon Fa- a1760. Great vibtoy months).
mily Compact. at Torga, by e
Siege and capture Cic. a t h Ia r i n e I I
of Belleisle, by 1762.Prussians victo- 1764. Polan:Stanislauix Poniatowski.
the Enlglish.t Feib g 1765. India,-Treaty of Allahabad.
1763. Peace of Itu- -Estalblishment of a British empire
between France, 1765. Itly: —Peter Leopold, grand duke
Spain and Eng- o'u cn v
8,xain andi lI~n-r ~ 1705. J o se ph I I. of Tusc:.lny..
land. 1766. Den k:-Ch ristian Vt I. -VI
17164 Expulsion of the M - 1766. Power of the Mamelukes inl Egypl
Jesuits. revived uncder Rodvan and Ali Bey.
138 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period X.-97 years.A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. UNITED STATES. GREAT BRITAIN.
1756. American Stamp
Act repealed. —New
ministry under the
Earl of C h a t h a m.
1767 First -spinning, machine in England. 1767. First war with
Hyder All in Mysore.
1763 Cook's first voyage of discovery. 1768. Boston occupied
by the British troops.
Bruce discovers the source of the Nile.
Royal Academy of Arts in England i Joshua
Reynolds, first president.
1769 Letters of Jnzius. 1769. Dasniel Boone ex1770 Whitefield dies at Newburyport. plores Kentucky. 1770. Lord N o r t h,
prime minister. -
1771. The Falklland
1772. HI a n c o C I, S. Islands ceded by
Adams, and Pa- Spain to Great Brit r i c k I1 e nr y, tain.
promote the revolutiont.
1773. Tea destroyed at
Boston.
1774 Captain Cook discovers New California. 1774. Continental Con- 1774. The Boston Port
1gress at Philadelphia. Bill passed.
1774 The SPINNING-JENNY, invented by Robert 1774. Warren Hastins,
Arktosrigst. governor general o0
India.
1774 The Improved STEAIm ENGINE, by Watt
and Bsoltot. 1775. AIMERICAN REVOLUTIONARY
WAR:
April 19, Skirrmish at 1775. Lord North's
Lexington. } "conciliatory meaJune 17, Battle of Bun- sures" rejected by
ker's Itill lthe colonies.
Prescott, Putnam, &VWar r a en.
WVASIIINGTON,
In zz lnand. Frasnce. commander-in- chlief.
Goldslithl, Voltaire, Ge. osh I o n t g o m e r y takes St. Johns ainJ
Warburton, Rousseau, eimt Montreal, and falls at Quebec.
Johnson, DiderotZ, imunerm an, 1776. Tle British troops 1776. The city of LonJohnson, Diderat, Zimmernan, evacuate Boston. don remonstrates
Littleton, Condillac, Kant, agaainst the American
Lowth, Jussien, Klopstock, a Amer
Garrick, Lavoisier, Lessing, ultie de feats the nlih t
IM o u l t r i e de feats the English at
Hume, La Harpe, Wieland, S I0slan.
RIobertson, Barthelemy, Hede, Sullivan's Island.- The Bsh
Blackstone, Buffon. Goethe, TION OF IN- takes possession
Blackstone, BoCon. Goethe D E C L A R A - The British arm
Adam Smith, Schiler
Horne Tooke, Sw. Linneus, DEPEND1ENC, NewYork.
Priestley, It. Metastasio. July 4. Hessians hired foi
Hersley, Beus. Kherasm Americans (S tl ii - service in America.
Burke, kov, v a n) defoeated at
Pitt, ostrov Flatbush, Aug.
F ox, seerhavin Battleh of WVhite
Plains.
Cooper, Bogdanovich Pl
Soheridan, BoKhemtsitzee.'h ncBattle of Trenton,
Burns., 1777. Arrival of LafayKaimes, tti.
Reid. Capture of Ticon deroga bythe British,
I July 5.
171841815.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 139
A.D. FRANCE. GERMANY. THE WORLD, elsewhere.
Discipline of the Ottoman troops improvedl by Baron de Tott.
1767. Spain:-Jesuits expelled.
India; —Hyder Ali resists the English.
7 68 Genoa cedes Corsica to France. 1768. War between Russia and the Ottoman
Empire.
1769 Ministry of Duc d'Aiquillon. 1769. Pope Clement XIV.
The Russian army occupies Wa.lachia
770 Marriage of the dauphin with and Moldavia.
MIarie Anstoinette.
1771. Sweden:-Gustavus III.
1772. Joseph 1772. F i r s t P a r t i t i o n o f P o l a nd.
II. with the
Emperors of
Russia and
Prussia, dis1773 Madame du Barri rules the member Po- 1773. Ottoman Empire:-The Russians crossking. land, dividi- ing the Danube, are repulsed by Ghazi
ing it be- Hassan,
7 774 -L o u i s X V I. - tween t bem- Pope Clement abolishes the order of
3larie Antoinelte, queen:- selves. Jesuits.
Maurepas, primne minister. 1774. Inldia —Warren Ilastings, first British
governor-general.
Russia:-Revolt of the Cossack Pugatscheft, calling himself Czar Peter.
Ottoman Empire:-Abdul Hamid. --
1775. Pope Pius VI.
Spain -Able ministry of Florida Blanca.
1776 N e c k e r, comptroller-gene- 1776. Bassora surrendered to the Persians.
ral. East Indies:-Lord Pigot, governor-geFranklin in Paris. neral, imprisoned by his own council.
1777. Portugal:-Maria, queen.
140 TIlE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Periodl X.-97 years.A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. UNITED STATES. GREAT BRITAIN.
Battles of Bennington, Aug. 16; Brandywine, Sept.
11, and Stillwater.
Philadelphia taken by the English, under Cornwal.
lis. —— Bat.tle of German town, Oct. 4. —G a t e s receives B u r g o y n e' s surrender, Oct. 17.
Articles of' conlederation,
adopted Nov. 15.
1778. Alliance with France. 1778. Capture of Pondicherry,
Battle of Moninouth, in Intlia.
Washington victorious, June
28.
Arrival of the French
fleet under D'lEstaing.
Massacre of Wyoming.
Savannah taken by the
Enalish..
1779. W a y n e recovers
Stoney Point.
Paul Jones's Victory off Scotland.
1780. Battle near Camden: 1780. War with Hyder Ali in
D e K a ltb ) illed. India.
Treason of Arnold. War with Holland.
1781 HIerschel's discovery of the 1781. Batle of Cowpens, gainGeosrgius S'idus. ed by M o r g a n.
Surrender of' Co rnwallis at Yorlktown, Oct. 17.
t o w n Oct. 17. It 1781. Victory of' the Doggerbank.
1782 Prussic acidl obtained in a se- 1782. Treaty with Holland, by
parate state, by Scheele. J. Adams, Jay, F r a n k
1 i n, and Laurens.
1783 Air balloon of Montgolfier. 1783. PEACE OF VERSA ILIES:
INDEPENDENCE of the UNITED STATES
kInowledged by Great Britain.
1781 First American vessel in 178l. New-York Chamnber of 1781. P i t t, the younger,
China. Commerce liunded. premier.
Isnstitution for the dcerf and Peace with Tippoo S:ib.
dlesmb at Paris, by the Abbh
dle I' pee.;S'ulday scyhools establishedl in
Entgland, by lvobelrt laikes.
1785 Iiersclmel's Telescopes. 1785. J o h n A d a m s, Ist ambassadlor froom the United
States of Aimeriica to Great
Britain. I
1786 S'teogsacAphy, by Taylor. 1786. Shay's insurrection in 17853. Pitt's Sinliliig Fund.
Iasssacll use ltt>.
1787 Panosramas in Lonilon. 1787. General Convention at
First spinninrg iachize in Philaduelhia.
France. F E D EDERAL CONs T I T T r O N of the 1783. The kinr insane. —l)eiitn
United States, adopted. of Charles Edward, thle last
1783. Coltlor plraned in Geor- pretender.
gia.
1789. G:E O R G E W A S u -
I N G T O N f, i st Pre.si Trial of Warren Jt'
dent: in-s.
Jefferson, Hamilton, Knox, Itan7'alsna, the celebrated trage- dol p h, anld Jay, foil
lian. the cabinet.
1791. Fi rst United Srates Bank,
1792. K e n t u c Ik y adlmitted 1792. Provision for the gradtua
to tlme Unlion. abolition of the slave trade,
United States Mint established.
1718-1815.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 141
A.D. P FRANCE. GERiMANY. THE WORLD, elsewhere.
1778 Alliance with America. 1778. War of the Bavarian
succession.-Bavaria seized
by Germany.
1779 Scheme to invade England i779. Congress and Peace of
from Normandy. Teschen.
]78CiR o c ha mb e au sent to 1780. Declaration of thc armed
aid the Americans. neutrality —to protect neutral flags friom the riglit ol
search claimed by Britain.
178L Necker resigns.
1782 Defeat of De Grasse in the 1782. Punishment of death [782. Italy:-Pontine ma;smes
West Indies, by Rodney. abolished. drained.
1783 P e a c e o f V e r s a it The Pope visits the emn- India:-Rise of Sindia1 P e a c e o f V e r s a i 1- peror, to dissuade him fro T i p p o o, Sultan.
1 e s. lhostilities against tlee church. 1783. — alliance with tile
French.
1785. 2,000 religious houses
suppressed by the emperor.
La Perousts's voyage of disco-.
tvery. 1786. Prussia — Frederic William II.
F787 Financial difficulties —-NewWa r with the
taxation: Colonne, Brienne, Porte.
and Necker, ministers successively. 1788. The emperor attempts 1788. Spain:-Charles IV.
17859 FRENCH 1RE3VOLUTION to control the Universities.
FI~RES~NCHXI REC~VOLUTIO N ~ 1789. Ottoman Empire:-Sebegins.-Bastile taken and. lim II
razed, July 14.-L a f a y - 1790. L e o p o d II d..- 1790. Tuscany: —Ferdinand
e t t e commander of the 1II,
national guards.- M i r a
b e a u, leading orator. Congress of Reichenbach.
179. Flight of the king to Varen- 1791. Conference of Pilnitz.
[nes.-Lalayette resigns.
nes-alayette esgs 1792.-F r a n c i s I I. --
1792 War with Germany: —The French take Spires, Mentz, 1792. Sweden:-Gustavus IV
and Longwy-Lafayotte imFrance declared a prisoned at Olmutz. -
republic.
Gironudists and lIonrtainists.
142 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period X. —!)7 years. —
A.D. PRLOGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. UNITED STATES. | GREAT BRITAIN.
1793. Washington re-elected. 1793. First coalition against
Neutrality in regard to F'rance, diilected by -ng.
France. ] anil —-all Euriop e, except
Sweden, Deinmarki, and'TaurTon Paine, Ableri, Italian key.
Fisher 4Atzes. poet.
179&. Comrenercialr treaty with, sgslIanl.
1iannahtleVre, Glzuck, C o in m e n c e n e n t Bcitish army defeated
Gaisboro', iftaydrz, o f the a vy-6 fri- near Dunkirkc.
3loreland. l/Iozart, g a t e s b u i t.
Albrechtsbe-r.
Bognslazoski, fea,
Krasiki, Po- Beethoven.
lish poets. L795. War with Holland.
1796. Washington resigns.
1797. John Adams, 2d
president.
Difficulties with France.
1798. Recular army organized, 1798. Secondl coalition against
Wasliliigton commnandler-in- France.-Irish rebellio,. -
chief. N e 1 s o n I s victory at
1799 Pestalozzi, system of elemen- 1799. Death of Washington. the B a ttl e o f t h e
tary education. T e nn re s s e e becomes N i e.
ll1ungo Park's travels in a State. Wilberforce's motion
Afiica, published. abolish the slave trade, lost,
87 to 83.
1800. Seat of government 1800. U n i o n o f E n -
transferred to Washinton, land and I r eland.
D. C. -Malta taken.
18010 Iron railways iln E Pnland. 1801. T h o m as J e f e r- 1801. Battle of Alexandria.Pstyteclzree schsst in Paris. so n, 3d President. Pitt resigns, succeedledl
Exports of United States, Addington.
893,000,000.
18u2 First boocfair in eew-. York. 1802. 0 i o joins the Union; 1802. P ea c e o f A m i e n
it has 76,000 inhabitants.
1803. Purclhase of L o u i s i- - 1803. Successful war in India,
ana, for $15,000,000.
U. States frigate Philadelphia, taken by the Tripolitans.
180 1;'irst Locomnotive Steass Essn- 1804. D e c a t u r recaptures 180-t. Pitt again premier.
ginse used on the Merthyn the Philadelphia.
Tydvil road in WVales. P r e b 1 e bombards Tripoli.
Burr lills Hamilton.
1805. Jefferson re-elected Pre- 1805. N e 1 s o n defeats the
sident: G eorge C lin - French and Spanish fleets
t o n, of New- York, Vice- off Trafalgar.
President.
1718-1815.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 143
A.D. FIRANCE. GERMANY. | THE WORLD, elsewhere.
_ 7 —I. _!793 The king andl queen beheaded. 1793. F i r s t C o a 1 i t i o n 1793. Second Partition of Poa g a i n s t F r a n c e. lantd by Russia and Prussia.
e i g n o f T e r r o r. II a y t i independent republic, under T o u s s ai n t
MIarat assassinated by Char- L'O u v e r u r e.
lotte Corday.
17941 Victories of P i c h e g r u and J o u r d a n -the allies 1794. Poland:-Revolt at Craevery where driven back. cow.-K o s c i u s k o, ge.
Revolution of the 9th Thermi- neral-in-chief.-Russians dedor. feated at Warsaw.
R o b e s p i e r e guillotined.
1795 NAPOLEON BONA- 1795. Final partition
PA R T E, commander of o f P o 1 a n d- extinction
the army; quells an insur- of the kingdom.
rection in Paris. Batavian Republic:-Shimelpenninlk.
1969 War in Italy. 1796. Russia:-Paul I.
Battle of Lodi.
1797 Bonaparte's Austri an Campaign —Hoche 1797. Switzerland:- General
and M o r e a u' s cele- Revlutio — The Frech
brated passage of the Rhine.
Fee of o Prmi ~Ro. epublic.
Peac e o f C amp o F o r m i o. Prussia:-Frederic William III I -
1798 Bonaparte's expedition to 1798. Second Coalition against 1798. India:-Marquis VellesEgypt is defeated by Nelson France. ley, govenor-generaL.
at Aboulcir, Aug. 1. 1799. Russians, under S u -
1799 The French enter Switzerland w a r o w, defeated near
underB er n a d o t t e and Milan.
Jourdan.-Return of Bopaparte.-Revolution of
the 18th Brumaire
-Bonapart e, first
consul.
1800 B a t t l e of M a r e n g o. -M o r e a u's victory of 1800. Armed neutrality of the
II oh e nlind en. north.
Pope Pilus VII.
Ionian Republic founded..801 Peace of Lunevile.
1801. Russia: Alexander.
1802. Italian Republic-Bon-a.
32 Bonaparte elected president of parte president.
the Itarian republic.
Peace of Aomien s.
Legion of Honor instituted.
War woith Engaland. 1803. India:-Great Mahratta
t803 Bank of France. War.
FU4 BDuke D'Enghien shot. 1804. The emperor of Ger- 1804. Russia:-War wlthPerBonaparte crowned as NA- many assumes the title of Sia.
POLEON I., Emperor of emperor of AUSTRIA.
the French.
|Marshals Soult, Murat,
Ney, &c.
J3,5 Austrian Campaign, Batttle of Austerlitz.
Peace of Presburg.
Napoleon Protector of the CoGsfederation of the Rhine.
144 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [Peiod X. —97 yea?'s.A.D. PEROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. UNITED STATES. GREAT BRITAIN.
1806 Planet Jueno discovered. 1806. Fourth Coalition against
Leoivs 4 Clark's e.xtedition France.
to the Poclcy Mouetains.
1807 FULTON'S FIRST SUCCESS- 1307. Embargo on all the 1807. Bill for tlte abolition of
FUt TRIAL OF SrEAeI- ports of thle United States. the slave trade, passed.
BOATS. Trial of Aaron Burr for
treason.
1803 General University established Slave trade abolished. 1808. The English, under
by Napoleon, to superintend W e 11 e s 1 e y, enter Spa:;e
national education. as allies.
Lithog,'Craplhy invented.
1809. J a m e s M a d i s o n, 1809. Fifth Coalition.
In England: France: 4th President. Walcheren expeditiol.
FWelstzzsoa, La Gralge, Embargo repealed; the
Wesltnacott, lMaCnge, non-intercourse act passed.
Chantey, 1lauy,
sculptors. Biot,
B. St. Pierre,
L poet.
1810. War with Sweden.
1810 First steamtboat built in EuI.oepe.
181.1. Engagement between 1811 George, Prince of Wales,
the' President' and the Prince Regent, (the king be-' Little Belt.' ing insane).
Indians on the Wabash, Population of Great Bridefeated by Gov. HIarrison. tain, 12,552,144.
Population of the United
States, 7,239,903.
1812 Ainersican Board of Cos7n- 1812. WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN.
snissioners for EV7 eigfln Vlfissions, founded. Invasion of Canada under Gen. Hull.
Gen. Hull surrenders Detroit to the British.
1814 Steaon carriag'es in England. The Constitution captures the GuerGas used for lighting the r i e r e:
streets of London. (First check of British Lord L i v e r p o o 1,
naval supremacy.) premier.
1815 Srtfety tamp indvented by Sir W o o 1 victorious at Queenstown, Oct. 12.
Iusnmphrey Davy. Captain J o n e s, in the W a s p, captures the Frolic
Oct. 18.
In England:
~ Wh/ite, BI~ilderdyk, ~ The "United States," Captain Decatur, captures the
K1ea1-. ButcThe WConstitite, Bildeo iyk, n British frigate lMacedonian.
~e ats, Dutch.
The Constitution, Captain Bainbridge, captures the Bri
Reg. Ileber~, tish friate Java.
Shelley, German: Louisiana admitted into igate Java.
Crlabbe, W. Schlegel, the Union.
Si?- riY Scott, F Schlegel,'1813. P e rr y' s v i c t o r y 1813. Sixth Coalition agains
Byrsouz, Richter, o i L a l e E r i e. France —Prussia, RIussia
Colseridge, KIotzebue: Battle of the Thames: Sweden, Great Britain, anm
Lamsb, Weber and Tecumsea killed. Austria.
llsantgemery, Spohr, musi- 1814. City of Washington 1814. Treaty of Chautnont'Ioggg. caL compo- burnt by the BWtish. tween Alustria, Prussia, RIts
sers. sia, and Great Britain.
France:
MBatd. de Stael, Russia: Peace of Ghent, signed Dec. 3.
Mad. de Genlis, Karamsin,
Chateaubriand Somorokor, 1815. Battle of New-Orleans;
Cuvier. Dmitriev, British defeated by General 1815. Candy and Almora cap
Krilov. Jackson. Jan. 8. tured.
Melendez Val- Wellington vice
dez, Spanish War against Algiers de- torious at Waterloo. June 18
poet. clared.
:1718-1815.j THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 145:
A.D. FRANCE. GCERMIANY. THE WORLD, elsewhere.
1806 Victory of J e n a over the Prussians. 1808. Holland:-Louis Napo.
Berlin decree leon, king.
Prulssia at war with France
in alliance with Russina.
[107 War with Russia. LS07.0 ttoman E npire:-MusBattle of Friedland.-P e a c e tapha IV.
of Tilsit.
Invasion of Portugal.
18AO French in Spain defeated at 1808. Spain:-Ferdinand VII.
Vienna, by Sir Arthur WVel- " Joseph Napoleon.
lesley. Naples:-Murat.
Denlsark:-Frederic VI.
Ottoman Empire:-i-Iahmoud II.
1809 Battle of Wagram- Peace of Vienna. 1809. Sweden:-Charles XII.
tMetternich, minis- _
ter.
1810 Napoleon marries Maria Lou- 1810. South America: —VEise.-Continental peace ex- NEZUELA declared indecept with Spain. pendent.
1811 Birth of the emperor's son; 1811. NEW GRENADA decreated king of Rome. clared independent.
Soult victorious in Spaintakes Badajos; is defeated
by the English at Albuesa.'.812 R s s I A N C A 1 P A I GN. 1812. Austria in alliance with 1812. INVASIoN OF RUSSIA
Battles of Smnolensko and Boe France against Russia. by Napoleon.-BURNING
rodino.
OF MOSCOW.
Moscow entered hy Napoleon's tO tOSO f pursues
~army-an~ d b~urs:.d by the the retreating French.
~~~~~~~~~Russians.,Poland:-Diet of Warsaw: the Poles declaredl a
nation by Napoleon.
t8i3 Victories of L u t z e n, 1813.'War of German inde- 1813. South America: —B o -
B a u tzen, and Dres- pendence. liv a r drives the Spand e n, over the allies. Austria joins the Coali- iards fiom Caraccas.
lion.
B a t t l e o f L e i p s i c — Bonaparte driven to the'814 The allies enter Paris. Rhine, loses his wholear amy. 1814. nion of Holland and
Nap ole o abd icates. Belgiuml. —Peace of Kiel,
and retires to Elba. Sweden, and Englalnd.
1H o u s e o f 11 o u r b o n llntost of Svedess Stl
HJ ouse of Bourbon 1Union of' Sweden and
r e s t o r e d: Norway as two kingdoms,
— L o u i s X V III. - under one monarch.
\812 Bonaparte returns frorm Elba. 1815. German League. [L85. Netherlands: —Villiam
The hundred days. Congress of' VienNapoleon victorious at Ligny. n a. I
BATTLE OF WATERLOO. e H o l y A 1.
The allies enter Paris. 1 i a n c e' I —Russia, PrusBonaparte b anish- sia, and Austria.
ed to St I elena.
7
146* THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
PERIOD XI. —35 years.A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. UNITED STATES. GREAT BRITAIN.
1815 New corn law in England.
Polytechnic institution at Vienna.
Manufactories introduced into
Poland.
The family of Rothschilds
conies into notice at Frallkfort.
Abolition of the slave trade by
the congress of Vienna.
1816 Second United States Bank 1816. United States Bank in- 1816. Bombardoment of Alfiers.
chartered for 20 years, capi- corporated. -The Dey compelled to
tal $35,000,000. I n d i a n a admitted. malce peace and abolish
slavery.
1817 Public schools established 1817. J a m e s AI o n r o e, 1817. Lord Exmouth's expethroughout Ru1ssia. 5th President. dition to Algiers.
Belzosni penetrates the second Mi i adpyramid of Gheza. mitted.
1818 Abolition of predial bondage 1818. I 1 1 i n o i s admitted.
in Bavaria and Wirteiibelg. War with the Seminoles.
1819 First passCge of thle Atlalntic by steam, by the SavannahNew-York to Liverpool.
1820. Main e admitted. 1820.- eor e IV. -
1821 Rise of mechanic institutions 1821. Monroe re-elected.
in Enlland. M i s s o u r i admitted.
Slavery compromise.
1822 IHieroglyphics deciphered:ChaLrpollion.-Sir William
Herschel died.
1823 Huslrisson's free trade systel 1823, C a n i i n ministry.
Finst 2nglCandzz.ifato?' i~2 Eyp~t The Ashantees in Africa
First snmsstacory io Egypt, defeated.
established by MehemeL All.
1824 Inland satvigation of the 1824. Lafayette's visit.
United States: the great Eie cal opeed.
Erie Canal opened. Priotective taopie
1821 Mazil-posts in Prussia.- 1825. J. Q. A d a m s, 6th 1825. Commercial treaty wit!
Eteam 5a0i5ation 0n2 t~he lPresident. Prussia.
Rhine.
General financial panic in
Englandl.
Vast increase of periodical
literature in England, France,
Germany, America, &c.
1826 Alexander Volta dies, discoverer of the Voltaic battery.
1827. Treaty of Londop, in
favor of Greece.
1828. Wellington ministry.-.
Disturbances in Ireland,
THE WORLD)S PROGRESS. 147"
81.15-1850.
A.D. FRANCE. AUSTRIA, &c. THE WORL1)D, elsewhere.
1816. Portugal -Jchn VI.
-in Brazi.
Union of Naples and
Sicily.
1817. Republic of the Ionian
Islands.
India:-The cholera commences its ravages.
1818. Sweden: —Charles XIV.
1118 Congress of Aix la Chapelle. (Bernaldotte.)
-France joins the " Holy India:-The Mahratta
Alliance."' power completely overthrown, and the British succeeds.
1819. South America:-Republic of COLOMBIA:B o 1 i v a r, President.
1821 Death of Napoleon at St. Ie- 1821. Congress of monarchs 1821. Ilayti:-B o y e r, ernlena. at Laybach. —Insu r rection peror.
in Moldavia and Wallachia. South America:-PERU
-Alexander Ypsilanti de- and GUATE2MALA indefeated and carried prisoner pendent.
to Austria. 1822. BRAZIL declared inde.
pendent.
Mexico:-Iturbide, em.
perolr.
Greek Revolution.
X Declaration of Indepen1524 -Charles Xem dence.
Massacre of Scio.
1823. Italy:-Leo XII., pope,
1824. Death of Lord Byron at
Missolonahi.
1825. Russia:-N i c h o l a s
1826. — War with Persia.
Greece: -- Missolonghi
talen by the Turks.
1827. Treaty between Russia
and the Porte respecting
Greece.
Greece:-B attle o f
Navarino.
Portugal: —Maria de Glo1827 Fleet sent to Algiers, Portugal
ria, queen. -
-Rebellion in favor of
Don Miguel as regent.
1828. War between Russia
and the Porte.
148- r THE WORLD7'S PROGRESS. [Period XI.-35 year-s.A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. UNITED STATES. GREAT BRITAIN.
In ENGLAND: FRANCE:
Jeremy, Ben- Cuvier.
tl/CGam, lTalbnza, trageThonas dan, 182/7. Treaty of London in
meThomsDic La, favor of Greece.
Thomas'Dicik, La Place,
TV. Kirby, Becranger,
Hallaie, Larcarltine.
WLordee1't/, GERMANY: 1828. The Wellington minissbeethey, Maps/cree^, try. —Disturbances in -.eSouthey, Spohr, land.
Camapbell, Vayerbeer,
10esre, Kotezebue.,
Leigh Hunt, Gall,
we. enan, eim. 1829. G e n e r a 1 J a c k - 1829. Catholic emancipation.
"i Barry Corn- SWED s o n, 7th President of the Captain Ross' voyage to
wall." United States. discover a North West pasTegzner, sage.
Rvus rA: Dahlyre'.
Ke'amseisn, ITALY:
Sossorokov{,..ossini,
Dnietlriev, Iosenini
Krilov. Paganzni.
U. S. A. 1830. Treaty between the 1830. -W ill i a m I V,
N. WTVebster, WIheatozn, United States and the Porte. Earl G r e y, minister.
Irving, Kent, Difficulties with China.
Cooper, Story, 1831. L o r d Jo hn R u s -
Flisnt, Gallatins, s e 1' s Reforsn Bill introW irt, Livisngston, duced.
iMa7rscall, Channiczg..Cholera first appears in
England.
1830 Liverpsool and Blanchester
Railroad opened. 1831. The king of the Nether lands makes his award on the
The two Landers succeed in North Eastern Boundary, be tween the United States and
tracing the Niger fromn Lakle the British provinces.
Tchad to the ocean. 1832. War with the Winneba- 1832. Refolbrm Bill passed.
1831 The first newspaper in Con- goes and other Indian tribes.
stantinople. — The Factory -Cholera in New-York.Bill in England, limiting the -Nullification in South Carohours of labor for children. lina.-General Jackson's ce1832 Reformn Bill in England:- lebrated proclamrnation.
Etftension of Siffrage. 1833. General Jackson re-elect- 1833. Captain Ross returns
T'rade unions in England, ed to the Presidency. from his voyage of di-CoFrance, Germany, Switzer- Removal of the Depo- very.
land, &c. sites of the United States
1833 Girard College, at Philadel- from the U. S. Bank.
phia, and the University of 1834. The President censured 1834. S i r t o b e r t P e e 1
New-York, commenced. by the Senate for removing Premier. -- Difficulties i.
1834 De Tocqueville's fistory of the Deposites. Canada.
Democr-acy in America.
Insfzyisitionl abolished in 1835. Great Fire in New-York.
hjpaien.
183:5 Slavery abolished in the
British colonies.
Boston and Lowell Railsroad 1836. The national debt of the
comspleted. United States being paid, the
1836 James Smithson, of London, surplus revenue is divided
bequeathes ~l100,000 to the among the States.
United States for the establishment of an In-stituztionL Treaty with Morocco..
"for the inscrease and diff-. 1837. The independence of 1837. — V i t o r i a.
sion of knowledge amoassg T e x a s acknlowledged.?nero.."
1836 The Luxor obelisk erected at M a r t i n Va n B u re n,
Paris. 8th President.
1815-1850.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 149'
A D. FRANCE. AUSTRIA, &C. THE WORLD, elsewhere.
1327 A French fleet sent to Algiers.
18219 ABlgiers ta~ken. 1829. Italy:-Pius VIII., pope.
Algiers taken by the French.
VENEZUELA independent, General
P a e z, President.
1830 T hre e D ay s' R e vo - 1830. BELGIUMI revolts from Holland, and
I u t i o n, July 27, 28, and is declared independent in August.
29. 1830. Polish struggle folr nation
Lafayette, commander of the a I ty, begins Noveimber 19.
National Guard. 0
Charles X. abdicates. PeI.Brazil:-Itevolution; Don Pedro II.
-Louis Philippe I.
pIuuse of Orleans.)L 1831. Belgium:-L e o p old I.
The Poles victorious at Prayo.
Italy:-Gregory XVI., pope.
Polandc: —Warsaw capitulates to Russia.
1832 Ministry of Marshal S o u I t. 1832. The kingdomt of GREECE founded:
Otho I. -
Poland;-The Insurrection crushed:
5000 families sent to Siberia.
-University of Warsaw abolished.
1833. The Em- 1833. Spain:-Isabella.
peror of Rus- -Don Carlos claims the throne.
sia visits the Portugal:-A constitutional monarchy.
Emperor of' Egypt:-Mehemet Ali acknowledged by
Austria. the Sultan.
Mexico:-Santa Anna, President.
1834. Quadruple alliance-England, France,
Spain, and Portugal, against Don Miguel
1835 Death of Laftayette. and Don Carlos.
1835. The Plague in Egypt.'16 Insurrectiont attempted by 1836. Spain: —The Queen Regent adopts the
Louis Napoleon at Stras- constitution.
burg.
Texas:-Battle of San Jacinto, Santa
F e r d i - Anna taken prisoner.
nandl I.
China:-A decree to expel all British
and othefbarbarian merchants.
150* THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period Xl.-35 years.A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. UNITED STATES. GREAT BRITAJN.
1837 S. F. B. M o R S E takes
out a patent for his E 1 e c - 1838. The Exploring Expedit r o-magnetic T e 1 e - tion sails.
g r a p h, (invented 1832 )
SuLspensionofspecie payments 1839. Disturbances on the 1839. The British take possesb
by the Bantks in the United " disputed territory,' be- sion of Ghuzne.
States, in May. tween Maine and NewBrunswick.
1839 The Dague reotype
invented in Paris.
Imnprovement of the condition
of the Jews in Russia.
Anz Antarctic Conetisnenst disco vered by the United States 18140. The uniform Pennzy
Exploring Expedition. Postage system esta; lished
1840 Penney postage system in Eng- Marriage, f Queen Vic
land. toria to Prince Albert ol
Saxe Cobourg.
Persecution of the Jews at War with Chita, to en.
Damascus. force the opium trade.
War in Syria: —Grea
Britain taking'part with
W4heeatstone's Electric Tele. Austria and Turlkey. Lord
graph patented in England. P a I m e r s t o n' s foreign
policy excites the ill-will of
France.
1841. W. H. HIarrison, 1841. The war with Cllin,
9th Presidlent. ended: $6,000,000 received
He dies April 4, just one as a ransom for Canton
month after his inauguration.
John Tyler, suc.
ceeds him, as 10th President.
Congress meets in extra
session, May 31.
Sub-Treasury Act repealed, Aug. 9.
Bankrupt Act passed,
Augrust 18.
1842 The Croton Aqzeduct in New- 1812. The'Dorr Insurrection
York completed. in Rhode Island.
Treaty between the Uni ted States and England, settling
the north-eastern boundary.
Treaty of peace with
Bainz's electro-t,78agleetic Tele- China.
gralph patented in London.
1843. Great "R e p e a "
agitation in Ireland.
The British gain posseE.
sion of Scinde.
1844'Anti-'enstismz', o\)ached in 1844. T e x a s annexed to 1814. Daniel O'Connell's trial
the State of New-Yorlr. the United States. and itmprisonment-the senAnti-rent riots in New- tence reversed by the House
York. of Lords.
1815 A great defection from the Ro- 1845. Treaty with China. 18-15. Sir John Frankllin sai'.
mish clhurch, under the J a in e s K. P o I k, in search of the north west
preaching of Ronsge, in Ger- 1 1th President. passage.
many.
18i6.War with MexiLord Riosse's Telescople.h M
Gzutta Percha in use. Hostilities commence on
1845 Coplpl etion of the Thanes the Rio Grande, April 24.
s7'nnel, March 25. Battle of Palo Alto,
1846 The Planet Neptune, pre- MIay 8.
dicted by Le Verrier, dis- Battle of Resaca de la
covered by Dr. Galle, of Palma, May 9.
Berlin, Sept. 23.
1815-1850.] THE WORlLDIS PROGRESS. 1514
A.D. FRANCE. AUSTRIA, &C. THE WORLD, elsewhere.
1838 Talleyrand dies. 1838. New 1838. Mexico:-The Castle of San Juan
Difficulty with Mexico: cap- Treaty of d'Ulloa taken by the French.
ture of San Juan d'Ulloa. commerce
with En.- 1839. Peace between France and Mexico.
land, July 3.
China:-The Opium trade forbidden.
Ferdinand Turkey at war with Egvi~t.
crowned at
Milan, Sep- India: —Ghuzne taken by t, e British.
tember 6.
1840 Prince Louis Napoleon at- 1840. China:-Canton blockaded by the Engtempts a hostile descent on lish, to compel the renewal of the opium
the coast of France, near trade.
Boulogne-is taken prisoner,
and imprisoned at Ham. Holland:-William I. abdicates
-William II.*Syria:-St. Jean d'Acre taker. by the
G u i z o t, minister for fo- English, Austrians, and Turks
reign affairs.
The remains of Napoleon
removed from St. Helena,
and deposited withl great 1841. China:-Canton capitulates, $6,000,000
honors at the Invalides, in paid in one week, as a ransom for the city.
Paris.
Mexico:-Santa Anna enters the capital, and places himself at the head of the
government.
11342 The duke of Orleans, heir to 1812. India:-Insurrection in Affghanistan.
the throne, killed by a fall
from his carriage.
1843. Temporary surrender of the Sandwich
Islands to Great Britain, compelled by Lord
Geo. Paulet.
1844 The Duke de Nemours ap- Greece: —King Otho compelled to acpointed Regent, in the event cept a constitution, Sept. 15.
of the king's death.
The Society Islands seized by a French
squadron-e.ostored by the government.
India:-Scinde annexed to the British
empire.
1846 Louis Napoleon escapes from 1846. Poland:-A powerful, but unsuccessful
Ham, May 26. insurrection at Cracow, Feb. 23.
Rome:-Pius IX., pope; elected June 16.
Poland:-Cracow deprived of its inde.
pendence, Nov. 16.
152* THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [- Period XI.-35 yecars.n.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etC. UNITED STATES. GREAT BRITAIN.
18-16. The O r e g o n T r ea t y with Great Britain, settling the North-Western Bo undary, signed at London,
June 18.
Commodore Sloat takes
possession of California,
July 6.
New Tariff bill passed,
establishing ad valorent duties.
Battle of Monterey, September 23.
Tampico occupied, November 14.
1847. Battle of Buena Vista. 1847. Severe famine in Ire.
Feb. 22. land. Large supplime of
Battle of Sacramento, food sent from the United
Feb. 26. States.
Vera Cruz surrenders,
March 29. The Bogue forts in China
Battle of Cerro Gordo, taken and destroyed, April
April 18. 26.
Battle of Contreras, August 20.
Armistice, Aug. 24.
Hostilities renewed, September 7.
Battle ofMolino del Rey,
Sept. 8.
Battle of Chepultepec,
Sep, 12.
Mexico surrend e r s, Sept. 14.
1848. Treaty of Peace with
Mexico, signed at Guada- 1848. Civil war in Ireland.
loupe Ilidalgo, Feb. 22.
loupe lidalgo, Feb. 2. John Mitchell, tried and
The cultivation of the Tea plant in the United States, condemned to transportacommenced by J. Smith, near Greenfield, South Caro- tion, May 26.
lina.
Postal convention betw een the United States and
Great Britain.
First deposit of CaliforXuspension Bridge at Nia- nia gold in the mint, Dec. 8. Habeas Corpus Act susgara Falls, opened July 29. pended in Ireland, July 25.
Emigration from Europe to America during this year,
300,0'0.
Smith O'Brien arrested
and condemned, Aug. 5.
Return of Ross's expts
dition, Nov.
1815-1850.] THIlE WORLD'S PROGRIESS. 153
A D. FRANCE. AUSTRIA, &C. THE WORLD, elsewhere.
18ir Reform Banquets in Stras- 1847. Austria 1847. Prussia:-Frederic William grants a
burg, Chartres, &c. takes posses- constitution, Feb. 8.
sion of Cracow. iayti:-Soulouque, President, March 2.
Michelet's Lectures interrupted by the ministers, Dec.
Algiers -Abd-el-ICadet made a prisoner
Abd-etlKader captured, Dec. to France, Dec. 22.
22.
1848 Debate on the Reform Bill, 1848. Sardinia:-Charles Albert'protests
Feb. 8. against the encroachment of Austria, and calls outan
Proposed Banquet at Paris, army of 25,000 men, Jan 10.
abandoned, Feb. 21. Naples -Rebellion at Palermo, Jan. 12.
R E: v L U T I o N C O a - Sardinia:-Charles Albert proclaims a
M E N C E D, Feo. 22. constitution, Feb. 8.
Barricades erected, Feb. 23. Bavaria: —Distut-bances on account of
Louis Philippe abdicates and Lola Montes-the king abdicates in favor of
flies, Feb. 24. his son,
Provisional government established. - Iaximilian 11. - March 22.
L a m a r t i n e, Provisional
Presitelnt, Feb. 24. Charles Albert enters Milan, March 23.
French Reptblic proclaimed, Denmark:-Revolt of Schleswig-HolFeb. 26. stein, March 26.
Meeting- of' the National As- Sicily declared independent, April 3.
sembdly, May 4. Holland receives a constitution, April 17.
0Bloody Insurrection in Paris, Polantd:-Unsuccessful revolt at CraJune 23-25. cow, April 25.
Cavaignac, military dictator, Sicily:-The Duke of Genoa elected
June 24. king, Julv 10.
Paris in a state of siege. I,
India:-Insurrection in Ceylon, Aug. 16.
New Constitution adopted, Armistice signed between Denlmark,
NIeCov. 4. nsi The Ban Jella- Prussia and Sweden, Aug. 26.
chich ap- India:-The British make an unsucpointed gov- cessful attempt on Moultan.
L o u i s N a p o 1 e o n B o- ernor of Sicily:-Messina bombarded and taken,
n a p a r t e, elected Pre- Hungary, Sept. 2.
sident, Dec. 10. Oct. 3.
sidntInsurr De. 10. Oction. 3. ungary:-K o s s u t h appointed Pre) Vienna, Oct. sident of the Defence Committee, and Dicta.
The6 a. c tor, Oct.
1848. The IEmperor leaves
the city. The
Hungarian
army advances within 6
miles of Vienna, Oct. I 1.
Windischgratz appointed commander of
the imperial
army.
1 54$ THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period XL.-35 years.A.D. PROGRESS OF SOOCIETY, etC. UNITED STATES. GREAT BRITAIN.
18419 A neiw plaszet discovered by 18-19. Z a c h1 a r y T a y 1 o r, 18-9. Moultan, in India, taken,
Gasparis, at Naples. 12th President. Jan. 3.
Magnetic Telegraph lines in use in the United States in
1819, 10,000 miles.
Rail Roads 6,000
Tubular B13idge in Anglesea,
England.
Aliragnelic Clock, invented by
Dr. Locke, at Cincinnati.
Enmigration from Europe to America, durins this year, at
the rate of 1080 a day.
1850 Great agitation on the Sla;very 1850. John C. Calhoun died at 1850. The war In Lahore fila.
Question in the United Washington. ished, and th., Punjaub an-.
States Congress. Attempted invasion of nexed to the British crown.
Cuba:-600 adventurers unThe Pekin Monitort', a new der Lopez, repulsed at Carpaper, prinlted in China. denas, May.
The Sultan of Turkey, grants Death of Gen. Taylor,
permission to the Jews to July 9.
build a temple on Mount Millard Fillmore,
Zion. 13th President.
A University founded at Syd- C a 1 i fo r n i a adney, New South Wales. mitted, 31st State.
Texas boundary settled,
by the payment of 10,000,000
Deaths in 1850: dollars to Texas.
U. S. A. EURnOPE. New-Mexico and Utah
A.Judson Wordswort admitted as Territories.
A. Jttdsson, eWsoJ dswortt, Bill for the arrest of
S. iL. Dvlleil, Jeffrey, fugitive slaves passed by Conil L. Duaavis. Neandeer,
Zschsocke, Slave trade in the District of
Berzelius, Columbia abolished.
Baizac. A British fleet block:
the ports of Greece, to
force the alleged claims
British subjects.
Sir Robert Peel dies
July 2.
Ilaynau. ": the Austria
butcher,' chastised by tt
draymen in London, Sept.
1~15-1850.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 155w
A.nD. FRUANIA. AUsnRA, &C. THE WORLD, elsewhere.
The Emperor
issues a proclamation
against the
city.
Kossuth with-draws his army from Vienna, Oct. 27.
Rome: —M a z i i xi i' s proclamation,
The Imperial- Oct. 29.
ists take pos- Prussia: —The king prorogues the Assession of Vi- sembly, Nov. 9.
enna, Nov. -The Burgher Guard of Berlin refuse to
2. give up their arms. The city in a state of
siege, Nov. 12.
Rome: —Count Rossi, the Pope's primeminister, assassinated, Nov. 16.
India:-Great battle near Ramnuggur,
Ferdinand ab- Nov. 22.
dicates, Dec. Rome:-The Pope escapes in disguise,
2. Nov. 241.
- F r a n c i s Ilungary declared independent, Dec.
1849. India:-M-Ioultan taken by the British,
Joseph Jan. 3.
Italy:-The Grand Duke of Tuscany
flies. Provisional Government proclaimed,
Feb. 9.
1849. A new Rome:-Republic proclaimed, Feb. 9.
Constitution Sicily:-A new Constitution conceded
promnulgated by Naples, March 6.
March 4. Sartinia:-Charles Albert defeated by
Brescia taken Radetsky, March 21-again totally defeated
by Haynau, at Novarra, March 23, he abdicates the
March 30. throne in favor of his son,.Victor Emanuel.'
India:-The Punjaub annexed to the
British Einpire, March 29.
Italy:-Insurrection in Genoa, April 1.
Russia comes to the aid of Austria against Hungary, April
26.
Rome: —The French army arrives under the walls of Rome, April 29.
IIaynau takes command of the Austrian army in Hungary,
June.
Rome surrenders to the French, July 2.
Garibaldi leaves the city, July 3.
Rome: —The government placed in the
hands of the Pope's commissioners, Aug. 3.
G6rgey traitor-ously surrenders to the Russians, Aug. 11.
Kossuth escapes into Turkey.
1850 Louis Philippe dies in Eng- Venice capitulates to Radetsky, Aug. 22.
land. 1850. Ronme: —The Pope returns, April.
Greece disputes the claims of Great
Britain for losses of British subjects: is
forced to submit.
China:-The Emperor Tau-Kwang,
dies:
— Sze-hing: succeeds.
DI]CTIONARY OF DATES.
CHIEFLY FROM1 THAT OF JOSEPH HAYDN; W VITH REVISIONS AND ADDITIONS
ABBEYS AND M3ONASTERIES, were first founded in the third century, near
the close of which the sister of St. Anthony is said to have retired to one.
An abbey was founded by St. Anthony at Phaim, in Upper Egypt, A. D. 305.
The first founded in France was at Poitiers, in 360. The first in Ireland was
in the fifth century: see Clogthe'-, Elpl/in, Dowt. The first in Scotland was
in the sixth century: see Isles. And the first in Britain was in 560: see
Bcungoro. The abbey of Mount Cassino, near Naples, founcldecl by St. Benet
in 529, was esteemed the richest in the world, and furnished many thousands
of saints to the church. 110 monasteries and priories. were suppressed in
England by order in council, 2 Henry V. 1414.-Sc'almon. The revenues of
193 abbevs which were dissolved at the Reformation amounted to;2,653,000.
These foundations were totally suppressed throughout the realm, 31 Henry
VIII. 1539. See Mona,sl-eries.
ABDICATION oF KINGS. They are numerous in ancient history. Those in
later times of most remarkable character and greatest political importance,
and to which reference may more frequently be made, are the following:Of Henry IV. of Germany,. 1080 lHe again abdicates in favor of the BoOf Stephen II. of Hungary, surnamed naparte family. See Sp~ain. May 1, 1808
ThIunder,. 1114 Of Joseph Bonaparte of Naples, to
Of Albert of Saxony,... 1142 talce the crown of Spain,. June 1, 1808
Of Lestus V. of Poland,.. 1200 Of the same (by flying before the British
Of Uladislaus III. of Poland, 1206 from Madrid),.. July 29, 1808
Of Baliol of Scotland,.. 1306 Of Louis of Holland,.. July 1, 1810
Of Otho of HIungary... 1309 Of Jerome of Wyestphalia, Oct. 20, 1813
Of Eric IX. of Denmarl, 1439 Of Napoleon of France,.. April 5, 1814
Of Eric XIII. of Sweden,. 1441 Of Emanuel of Sardinia,. March 13, 1821
Of Charles V. Emperor,.. 1556 Of Pedro of Portugal,.. May 2, 1826
Of Christina of Sweden,.. 1654 Of Charles X. of France,. Aug. 2, 1830
Of John Casimir of Polandd, 1669 Of Pedro of Brazil,.. April 7, 1831
Of James II. of England,. 1688 Of Don Miguel of Portugal (by leaving
Of Frederick Augustus II. of Poland,. 1704 the lcingdom),... May 26, 18.34
Of Philip V. of Spain,. 1724 Of William I. of Holland,. Oct. 8, 1840
Of Victor of Sardinia,... 1730 Of Christina of Spain, queen dowager
Of Charles of Naples,... 1759 and queen regent,.. Oct. 12, 1840
Of Stanislaus of Poland,. 1795 Of Louis Phillippe of France, Feb. 24, 1848
Of Victor of Sardinia,.. June 4, 1802 Of Louis, king of Bavaria,. March 22, 1848
Of Francis II. of Germany, vwho becomes Of Ferdinand I. emperor of Austria,
emperor of Austria only,. Aug. 11, 1804 D)ec. 2, 1848
Of Charles IV. of Spain, in favor of his Of Charles Albert, kIing of Sardinia,
son,. March 19, 1808 Aug. -1849
ABEL ARD AND H1ELOISE. Their amour, so celebratled for its passion and
nsisf)rtu-noes. conmmenced at Paris, A. D. 1118 when Ieloise (a cnlon's daughter) was under 17 years of age. Abelard, after suffering an ignominious injury, became a monk of the abbey ofi St. Denis, and died at St. Marcel, of
grief which never left his heart, in 1142. Helolse begged his body, and had
7
146 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ACA
it buried in the Paraclete, of which she was abbess, with the view of reposing
in death by his side. She was famous for her Latin letters, as well as ltye,
and died in 1163. The ashes of both were carried to the Museum of French
Monuments in 1800; and the museum having been subsequently broken up,
they were finally removed to the burying-ground of Pbre La Chalise, in 1817.
ABORIGINES, the original inhabitants of Italy; or, as others have it, the nation.
conducted by Saturn into LatiumL, founclded by Jalnus, 1450 B. c. — UizV. History. Their posterity was called Latimji, from Latinus, one of their kings;
and Rome was built in their country. They were calledl Asborigmes, beines, bei
absque or'ig-ine, the primitive planters here after the flood.-St. Jeromne. The
word signifies without origin, or whose or'ig'in is not lnown, and is generally
applied to any original inhabitants.
ABOUKIR, the ancient Canopus, the point of debarkation of the British expedition to Egypt under general Abercromby. Aboukir surrendered to the
British, after an obstinate and sanguinary conflict with the French, March 18,
1801. The bay is famous for the defeat of the French fleet by Nelson, August 1, 1798. See Nile.
ABRAHAM, ERA oF. Used by Eusebius; it began October 1, 2016 B. c. To
reduce this era to the Christian, subtract 2015 years and three months.
ABSTINENCE. St. Anthony lived to the age of 105, on twelve ounces of bread,
and water. James the Hermit lived in the same manner to the age of' 104.
St. Epiphanius lived thus to 115. Simeon, the Stylite. to 112; and Kentigern, commonly called St. Mungo, lived by similar means to 185 years of
age.-Spottiswood. A maln may live seven, or even eleven, days without
meat or drink.-Pliny Hist. NAt. lib. ii. Democritus subsisted for forty days
by smelling honey and hot bread, 323 B. c.-Diog. Laert. A woman of No,
nmandy lived for 18 years without foodl.-Petrts de Albano. Gilbert Jacksoof Carse-grange, Scotland, lived three years without sustenance of any kil
1719. A religious fanatic, who determined upon fasting forty cldays, died on
the sixteenth, 1789. —Phillips. A country girl, of Osnabruck, abstained four
years from all food and drink, 1799.-Hfeland's Practical Journralt. Ann
Moore, the falsting woman of Tutbury, Staffordshire, supposed to have been
an impostor, was said to have lived twenty months without food, Nov. 1808.
At Newry, in Ireland, a man named Cavanagh uwas reported to have lived
two years without meat or drink; Aug. 1840; his imposture was afterwards
discovered in England, where he was imprisoned as a cheat, Nov. 1841. Se
instances in latller's Eleslaentce Plt/siologice; Cornaro; C Pricier'S Surg4
Lib'crary', &c.; and in this volume, see Fai'sting.
ABSTINENTS. The abstinents were a sect that wholly abstained from wine,
flesh, and marriage and were a community of harmless and mild ascetics
They appeared in France and Spain in the third century; and some authe
rities mention such a sect as having been numerous elsewhere in A. D. 170.BossaeSt.
AB:YSSINIAN ERA. This era is reckoned from the period of the Creation,
which they place in the 5493d year before our era, on the 29th August, old
style; and their dates consequently exceed ours by 5491 years and 125 ciys.
To reduce Abyssinian time to the Julian year, subtract 5492 years and
125 days.
ACADEMIES, or societies of learned men to promote literature, sciences, and
the arts, are of early date. Acarldemia was a shady grove without the walls
of Athens (bequeathed to Heocademus for gymnastic exercises), where Plato
first taught philosophy, and his followvers tool the title of Acadesmics 378
B. c.-Stanley. Ptolemy Soter is said to have founded an academy at Alexandria, about 314 D. c. Theodosius the Younger and Charlemagne are a'
aCH J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 147
namedl as founders. Italy has been celebrated for its academies; and Jarckius
mentions 550, of which 25 were in the city of Milan. The first philosophical
academy in France was established by Pbre MIlersenne. in 1135. Academies
were introduced into England by Boyle and Hobbes: and the Royal Society
of London was formed in 1660. The following ar'e among the principal
acadceies:-i
American Academy of Arts and Sciences, MIarseilles, Belles-Lettres, 1726.
1780. Milan, Architecture. 1380; Sciences, 1719.
American Philosophical Society, 1769. Munich, Arts and Sciences, 1759.
Ancona, of the Ctsglinosi, 1624. Naples, _Rossarna, 1540; Mathematics, 1560;
Berlin, Rtoyal Society, 1700; of Princes, Sciences, 1695; Herculaaneum, 1755.
1703; Architecture, 1799. New York, Literature and Philosophy, t814.'
Bologna, Ecclesiastical, 1637; Mrathematics, Nismes, Royal Academy, 1682.
1690;,Sciences and Arts, 1712. Padua, for Poetry, 1610; Sciences, 1792.
Brescia, of the 1?rranti, 1626. Palermo, Medical, 1645.
IBrest and Toulon, Military, 1682. Paris, S'orbonste, 1256; Painting, 1391; MuBrussels, Belles- Lettres, 1773. sic, 1543; French, 1635; Medals, 1663;
Caen, Belles Letltes, 1750. Architecture, 1671; Surgery, 1731; MiliCopenhagen, Polite Arts, 1742. tary, 1751; Natural Philosophy, 1796.
Cortona, Antiquities, 1726. Parma, the Innominati, 1550.
Dublin, Arts, 171,9; Science and Literature, Perousa, Izsensati, 1561 Filirgiti, 1574.
1786; Painting, Sculpture, &c., 1823. Petersburgh, Sciences, 1725; Military, 1732;
Erftirt, Saxony, Sciences, 1754. the School of Arts, 1764.
Faenza, the.Philopozti, 1612. Portsmouth, Naval, 1722; enlarged, 1806.
Florence, Lesles-Letlles, 1272; Delia cr'eus- Rome, Ussoristi, 1611; Fcsztascici 1625;
ca, 1582: Antiquities, 1807. Ifecondli, 1653; Painting, 1665; Arcadi,
G-eneva, Medical, 1715. 1690; English, 1752.
Genoa, Painting, &c., 1751; Sciences, 1783. Spain, SRoyal, 1713; Military, 1751.
Germany, Medical, 1617; Natural I-listory, Stockholm, of Science, 1741; Belles-Lettres,
1652; Military, 1752. 1753; Agriculture, 1781.
Ilaerlem, the Sciences, 1760. Toulon, IMilitary, 1682.
Lisbon, History, 1720; Sciences, 1779. Turin, Sciences, 1759; Fine Arts, 1778.
London: its various Academies are de- Turkey, Military School, 1775.
scribed tllrough the volume. Upsal, Royal Society, Sciences, 1720.
Lyons, Sciences, 1700; had Physic and Ma- Venice, AIedical, &c., 1701.
thematics added, 1758. Verona, Music, 1543; Sciences, 1780.
Madrid, the Royal Spanish, 1713; History, Vienna, Sculpture and the Arts, 1705; Sur1.730; Painting and the Arts, 1753. gery, 1783; Oriental, 1810.
Manheim, Sculpture, 1775. Warsaw, Languages and History, 1753.
Mantua, the Vigilanti, Sciences, 1704. Woolwich, Military, 1741.
ACCENTS. The nmost ancient tlaanuscripts are written without accents, and
without any separation of words; nor was it until after the ninth century
tlhat the copyists began to leave spaces betWeen the words. Michaelis, after
Wetstein, ascribes the insertion of accents to Euthalius, bishop of Sulca, in
Egypt, A. D. 458; but his invention was followed up and improved upon by
other granmmarians in the various languages.
ACHAIA. This country was governed by a race of lcings, but even their nimnes
are all forgotten. The capital, Achaia, waas founded by Achnaus, the son of
Xutlhus, 1080 a. c. The kingcdom was united with Sicyon or subiject to the
iEtolians until about 284 B. c. The Achmi were descendants of Achitnns,
and originally inhabited the neigllborhood of Argos; but when the Heraclidx drove themn thence, they retired among the Ionians, expelled the natives, and seized their thirteen cities, viz. Peleni, Xgira, sFEgeun, Bura, Tritmta, Leontium, Rhype, Ceraunia, Olenos, Helice, Patri, DynIm, and Pharm.
The Achean league,. a. o. 281 Alliance with the Romans,. B. C. 201
Fortress of Athenneim built,.. 228 Philopoemen defeated bv Nabis. in a naDefeat of the Acthseans by the Spartans, val battle,... 9
and Lysiades illed,.. 226 Sparta joined to the leeage,. 191
Battle of Sallacia,.. 222 The AchEans overrun Messenia with
The Social war begun,. 220 fire and sword,. 182
The Peloponnesus ravaged by the 2Eto- The Romans enter Achaia, 165
lians,.. 219 Metellus enters Greece, 147
Arattus poisoned at Egium,.. 215 The Achlian league dissolved, 146
Battle of Mantinea; Philopcnmen defeats Greece subjected to Rome, and named
the Spaltan tyrant Mechanidas,. 208 the prosvice of Acllaia, 146
* Now extinct.
148 THE WORLD1S PROGRESS. [ADA
The constitution of the United States of America bears some analogy to that
of the Achman league; andl the Swiss cantons also had a great resemblance
to it in their confbderacy.
ACOUSTICS. The doctrine of the different sounds of vibrating strings, and
the colmmunication of sounds to the ear by the vibration of the atmlosphere,
was probably first explained by Pythagoras, about 500 B. c. Mentioned by
Aristotle, 330 B. c. The speaking-trumpet is said to have been used by
Alexander the Great, 335 B. c. The discoveries of Galileo were made about
A. D. 1600. The velocity of sound was investigated by Newton before 1700.
Galileo's theorem of the harmonic curve was demonstrated by Dr. Brook
Taylor, in 1714; and further perfected by D'Alembert, Euler, Bernoulli, 9-ld
La Grange, at various periods of the eighteenth century. See Soxlxd.
ACRE, ST. JEAN D'. Taken by Richard I. and other crusaders in 1192, after a
siege of two years, with the loss of 6 archbishops, 12 bishops, 40 earls. 50(
barons, and 300 000 soldiers. Retaken by the Saracens, when 60,000'l1ristians perished, 1291. This capture was rendered memorable by the rurder
of the nuns, who had mangled their faces to repress the lust of the Infidels.
Acre was attacked by Bonaparte in July 1798; and was relieved by Sir Sydney Smith, who gallantly resisted twelve attempts during the memorab'
siege by the French, between March 6 and May 27, 1799, when, baffled by
the British squadron on the water and the Turks on shore, Bonaparte relinquished his object and retreated. St. Jean d'Acre is a pachalic subject to
the Porte; seized upon by Ibrahim Pacha, who had revolted, July 2, 1832,
It became a point of the Syrian war in 1840. Stormed by the British fleet
under Sir Robert Stopford, and taken after a bombardment of a few hours.,
the Egyptians losing upwards of 2,000 in killed and wounded, and 3,00r
prisoners, while the British had but 12 killed and 42 wounded, Nov. 3, 18:
See Syriacc and Tan'/e2Jy.
ACROPOLIS oF ATHENS. The citadel of Athens was built on a rock, anm.
accessible only on one side: iVlInerva had a temple at the bottom.-Pau/es. i.
Attic. The roof of this vast pile, which had stood 2.000 years, was destroye
in the Venetian siege, A. D. 1687.-Aspixb. The Acropolis of Mycenm wa
marked by terraces, and defended by ponderous walls, on which were higl
towers, Gach au the distance of fifty feet.-Euripidces.
ACTIUM, BATTLE OF, between the fleets of Octavianus Cmsar on the one sid,,
and of Marc Antony and Cleopatra on the other, and which decided the f.
of Antony, 300 of his galleys going over to Cesar; fought Sept. 2, 31
This battle nmade Augustus (the title afterwards conferred by the senat,
upon Cmcsar) master of the world, and the commencement of the Ronma
empire is colmmnonly dated from this year. In honor of his victory, the con
queror built the city of Nicopolis, and instituted the Actian games.-B-lc?
ACTRESSES. Women in the dcrama appear to have been unknown to the ar
cients; men or eunuchs performing the female parts. Charles II. is said t
have first encouraged the public appearance of women on the stage in Enp
land, in 1662; but the queen of James I. had previously performed in a tF
atre at court.- Tleat. Rioeg.
ACTS of PARLIAMENT. The first promulgated, 16 John, 1215. See Palicarnent. For a great period of years the number of acts passed has bee
annually large, although varying considerably in every session. Betwee
the 4th and 10th of George IV. 1126 acts were wholly repealed, and 4-4
repoealed in part, chiefly arising out of the consolidation of the laws by M
Peel (afterwards Sir Robert): of these acts, 1344 related to the kdingdom
large and 225 to Ireland solely.
ADAMITES, a sect that imitated Adam's nakedness before the fall, arosep
ASI ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 149
130. They assemnibled'quite naked in their places of worship, asserting that
if Adam had not sinned, there would have been no marriages. Their chief
was named Prodicus; they deified the elements, rejected prayer, and said it
was not necessary to confess Christ.-Ensesbis. This sect, with an addition
of imany blasphemies, anad teaching from the text " increase and multiply,"
was renewed at Antwerp in the thirteenth century, under a chief named
Tandeme, who, being followed by 3,000 soldiers, violated females of every
age, calling their crimes by spiritual names. A Flandrian, named Picard,
again revived this sect in Bohemia, in the fifteenth century, whence they
spread into Poland and existed some time.-Bayle; Pacrdont.
ADMINISTRATIONS. Successive administrations of the United States, since
the formation of the governuent:FIRST ADnINISTRATION;-1789 to 1797;-8 years.
George Washington, Virginim, April 30,1789 President.
John Adams, Mastsachusetts, do. 1789 Vice President.
-lppoir ted.
Thomas Jefferson, Virginia, Sept. 26, 1789
Edmund Randolph, do. Jan. 2. 1794 Secretaries of State.
Timothy Pickering, Pennsylvania, Dec. 10, 1795
Alexander IHamilton, New York, Sept. 11,1789 Secret.'ies of the
Oliver WVolcott, Connecticut, Feb. 3,1795 Treasury.
Ilenry Knox, Massachusetts, Sept. 12,1739)
Timothy Pickering, P'ennsylvania, Jall. 2, 1795 Secretaries of War.
Janles MSIlenry, iMaryland, Jan. 27, 1796
Sanmuel Osgood, SIassachusetts, Sept. 26, 1789
Timothy Pickering, Pennsylvania, Nov. 7, 1791 Post Masters en.
Joseph Ha.lersham, Georgia, Feb. 25, 1795
Ed(mund Rantlolph, Virginia, Sept. 26, 1789
William Bradford, Pennsylvania, Jan. 27, 1794 Attorneys General.
Charles Lee, Virginia, Dec. 10, 1795,Spealcers of tle House of Re?7'pesentatives.
Frederick A. Muthlenberg, Pennsylvania, Ist Congress, 1789.
Jonathan Trumbusll, Connecticut, 2d do. 1791.
Frederick A. Muhlenberg, Pennisylvania, 3d do. 1793.
Jonathan Dayton, New Jersey, 4th do. 1795.
SEcoND ADMINISTRATION;-1797 to 1801; —4 years.
John Adams, Massachusetts, March 4, 1797 President.
Thomas Jeflerson, Virginia, 1797 Vice President.
Appointed.
Timothy Pickering, Pennsylvania, (continued in Oqg ce.) Secretaries of State
John Marshall, Virginia, May 13, 1800
Oliver Wolcott, Connecticut, (continued in osice.) Secretaries of the
Samuel Dexter, MIassachusetts, Dec. 31, 1800 Treasury.
James M'Henry, MIaryland, (contiaued in otfice.)
Samuel Dexter, MIassachusetts, May 13, 1800 Secretaries of War.
Roger Griswold, Connecticut., Feb. 3,1801
George Cabot.* Massachusetts, May 3, 1798 Secretaries of the
Benjamin Stodldart, MIaryland, SIay 21,1798 N, avy.
Joseph IIabershaim, Georgia, (continued in of ice.) Post'Master Gen.
Charles Lee, Virginia, (contiznued in o ice.) Attorney General.
lpeaokers of the fHouse of.Representatives.
Jonathan Dayton, New Jersey, 5th Congress,:797.
Theodore Sedgwickl SIassachusetts, 6th do. 1799.
THIRD ADnM!NISTRATION;-1801 to 1809;-8 years.
Thomas.Teffeson, Virginia, March 4, 1801 President.
A,:on liuier, lew Yorlk do. 180N i Vice Presidents.
George Clinton, New VYorlk do, 1805
Aptpointed.
Jalnes Mtadison, MVirgin., SIarch 5, 1801 Secretary of State.
Saimuel Dexter, Miass. (coistianued in office.) Secretaries of the
Albcrt Gallatin, Pennsylvania, Jan. 26, 1802 S Treasury.
Ir. Cabot declined the appointment. The Navy Department was established in 1798.
150 THE WORLD IS PEOGRESS. [ AD7'
Henry Dearborn, Massachusetts, March 5, 1801 Secretary of War.
Benjamin Stoddart, MCd. (continued in offce.) Secretaries ofthe
Robert Smith,* Maryland, Jan. 26, 1832 Navy.
Joseph Habersham, Georgia, (continued in office.) Post Masters GeGideon Granger, Connecticut Jan. 26, 1892 neral.
Levi Lincoln, Massachusetts, March 5,1 801
Johln Brecklenridge, Kentucky, Dec. 23, 1805 Attorneys General.
Cesar A. Rodhney, Dulaware, Jan. 20, 1807
SI/ealkers of the Isousse of Representatives.
Nathaniel Macon, North Carolina, 7th Congress, 1801.
Joseph B. Varnum, Massachusetts, Sth do. 1803,
Nathaniel Macon, North Carolina, 9th do. 1805.
Joseph B. Varnum, Massachusetts, 10th do. 1807.
FOURTH ADILIINISTnATION; —1809 to 1817;-8 yeas..ames Madison, Virginia, March 4,1809 President.
George Clinton, New York, 1809, (died April 20, 1812) Vie n
Elbridge Gerry, Mass. 1813, (died Nov. 23, 1814) Vice Prsidents
Aplpoi ted.
Robert Smith, Maryland, March 6 1809
James Monroe, Vrginia, Nov. 11
James Monroe, Virginia, Nov. 25, 1811 Secretaries of State.
James Monroe,t Virginia, Feb. 25, 1815.Albert Gallatin, Pennsylvania, (continued i oice.) Secretaries of th
George W. Campbell, Tennessee, Feb. 9, 1814 ce es o e
Alexander J. Dallas, Pennsylvania, Oct. 6, 1814 T'reasury.
William Eustis, BMassachusetts, March 7, 18U9
John Armstrong, New Yor Jan. 1318 13
foh Amston, New York, Jan. 13, 3813 Secretaries of War.
James Monroe, Virginia, Sept. 27, 181.4
William 11. Crawford, Georgia, March 2 1815
Paul Haamilton, South Carolina, Marcll 7, 180
William Jones, Pennsylvania, Jan. 12, 1813 Secretaries of the
Benj. W. Crowninshield, Massachusetts, Dec. 19, 1814 Navy.
Gideon Granger, Connecticut, (conltinuzed inz osfice.) Post Masters GeReturn J. Meias, Ohio, March 17, 1814 neral.
Ce-sar A. Roldney, Delaware, (continused io osice.)
William Pinkney, Maryland, Dec. 11,1811 Attorneys General
Richard Rush, Pennsylvania, Feb. 10, 1814
Slpeakers of the lsoutse of Represenstatives.
Joseph B. Varnum, Massachusetts, 11Ith Congress, 1809.
Henry Clay, Kentucky, 12th do. 1811.
H-enry Clay, Kentucly, 13th do. 1812.
Langtlont Cihces, South Carolina, 11814.
Henry Clay, Kentucky, 14th do. 1815.
IFTEI- ADMIINISTRATION;-1817 to 1825; -8 years.
James Monroe, Virginia, MIarch 4, 1817 President.
Danic D. Tompkins, New York, do. 1817 Vice President.
Appozinted.
John Q. Adams, Massachusetts, March 5, 1817 Secretary of State.
William Hi. Crawford, Georgia, March 5,1817 Secretary of Treas,
Isaac Shelby,' Kentucky, March 5,1817?
John C. Calhoun, South Carolina, Dec. 16, 1817 J Secretartes of War.
Benj. W. Crowninshield, Massachusetts, (continued iz office.) of tl
Smith Thompson, ANew York, Nov. 30, 1818 et s of t
Samuel L. Southard, New Jersey, Dec. 9, 1823 ) Navv.
Return J. Meigs, Ohio, (continued in office.) Post Masters GeJohn McLean, do. Dec. 9, 1823 5 neral.
Richard Rush, Pennsylvania, (continsued in oice.) (
William Wirt, Virginia, Dec. 16, 1817 Attorneys General.
Robert Ssnfish was appointed Attorney General, and.Tcob C'arowsinshield, of Massachutset;ts.
Secretary of tlle Navy, on the 2d of March, 1805, but they both declined tllese appoirtments; an.j
Mvr. Smith continued in the office of Secretary of the Navy, till the end of IMr. Jefferson's adtni.
gistration.
t James Monroe was recommissioned, having for some time acted as Secretary of War.
t Isaac Shelby declined the appointment.
)D M] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 151
ADMINISTRATIONS (UNITED STATES) contiued.
Speakers of the Hiouse of Repxresentatives.
-Tenmy Clay, Kentucky, 15th Congress, 1817.
Fenry Clay, Kentucliy, f lt do. 1819.
John WV. Taylor, New York, 1820.
Pllilip P. Barbour, Virginia, 17th do. 1821.
Henry Clay, Kentucky, 18th do. 1823.
SIXTI-I ADIINISTRATION;-1825 to 1829;-4 years.
John Q. Adams, Massachusetts, March 4,1825 President.
John C, Calhoun, South Carolina, (do. 1825 Vice President.
Appointed.
Henry Clay, Kentucky, 5March 8,1825 Secretary of State.
Richard Rush, Pennsylvania, March 7, 1825 Sec'y of the Treas'y
James Barbour, Virginia, do. 1825 Secretaries of War.
Peter B. Porter, New Yorlk, May 26, 1828
Samnuel L. Southard, New Jersey, (continued inz office.) Sec'y of the Navy.
John McLean, Ohio, (contitnted ins office.) Post Master Getl
William Wirt, Virginia: (conrtislted tzn ofice.) Attorney General,.
Speakers of the Iloeuse of Representatives.
John WV. Taylor, New York, 19th Congress, 1827.
Andrew Stephenson, Virginia, 20th do. 1828..
SEVENTI ADMINISTRATION; —1829 to 1837;-8 years.
Andrew Jackson, Tennessee, MIarch 4, 1829 President.
John C. Calhoun, South Carolina, do. 9 Vice Preside s.
3artin Van Buren, New York, 18533
Appointed.
Martin Van Buren, New York, March G8 1829
Edward Livingston, Louisiana. 1531
Louis McILane, Delaware, 1833
John Forsyth, Georgia 1835,
Samuel D. Ingham, Pennsylvania, March 6, 1829)
Louis McLane, Delaware, 1831 Secretaries of the
XVilliam J. Duane, Pennsylvania, 1833 rea
Roger B. Taney, Maryland, 133 3 Treasury.
Levi Woodbury, New Hlampshire, 1834J
John H. Eaton, Tennessee, March 9, 129 Secretaries of War.
Lewis Cass, Ohio, 131 Secretaries of War.
John Branch, North Carolina, March 9, 1829 )
Levi Woolbury, New ampshe, 1831- Secretaries o the
Maahlon Diclerson, New Jersey, 1834 Navy.
WVilliam T. Barry, Kentucky, nMarch 9, 1829 Post Masters GeAmos Kendall, Kentucky, 1835 neral.
John McP. Berrien, Georgia, March 9, 1829
Roger B. Taney, Maryland, 1831 Attorneys General.
Benjamin F. Butler, New York, 1834)
~Speakers of the f-touse of Represenztatives.
Andrew Stevenson, Virginia, 21st Congress, 1829.
Andrew Stevenson, Virginia, 22d do. 1831.
John Bell, Pennsylvania, 1835.
EIGIITH ADIINISTRATION;-1837 to 1841 -4 years.
Martin Van Buren, New York, 1837 President.
Richard M. Johnson, Kentucky, 1837 Vice President.
Appointed.
John Forsyth, Georgia, (contionued in office.) Secretary of State.
Levi Woodbury, New Hampshire, (continzued isn office.) Sec'y of Treasury.
Joel R. 1 oinsett, South Carolina, 1837
Mahlon Dickerson, New Jersey, (cosntinzued in office.), Secretaries of War
James K. Paulding, New York, 1385
Amos Kendall, Kentuciky, (continzued its ofice.) Post Masters GeJohn M. Niles, Connecticut, 1840 neral.
Benjamin F. Butler, New Yorlr, (continzued in office.)
Feliax Grund.y, Pennsylvaonia,l
Itenry D. Gilpin, Pennsylvania, 1839,S'peakers of the Hosuse of Representatives.
James K. Polk, Tennessee, 1837.
Robert M. T. Hunter, Virginia, 1839.
152 TRE'WORLD9S PROGREWSS. [ADM
ADMIVNISTRATIONS (UNITED STATES) coltithtced.
NINTH ADnIINISTRATION;-1841 to 1845; —4 years.
William I-T. Harrison, Ohio, 1841 President.
Died one month after mauguration, and
John Tyler, Virginia, 1841 b icae PactinegtPes
became acting Pres.
Samuel L. Southard, New Jersey, 1841 I Acting V. Pres. and
Willie P. MIangunm, North Carolina, 1841 Pres. Senate.
Aplpointed.
Daniel Webster, Massachusetts, 1841
Abel P. Upshur, Virginia, 1841 Secretaries offState.
Thomas Ewing, Ohio, 1841
Walter Forward, Pennsylvania, 1841 Secretaries of the
John C. Spencer, New VYorc, 1841 Treasury.
John1 Bell, Tennessee, 1841
John C. Spencer, New York, 1841 Secretaries of War.
George E. Badger, North Carolina, 1841 S
Abel P. Upshur, Virginia, 1S41) Secretaries of the
David Henshaw, Massachusetts, 1841) avy.
Francis Granger, New Vorl, 1841 Post Masters Gen.
Charles A. Wickliffe, Kentuclky, 1841 eral.
John J. Crittenden, Kentuclcy, 1841
Hugh S. Legare, South Carolina 1841 Attorneys General.
john Nelson, Maryland, 1841)
fpsaeakers of the slIouse of Rleepresentatives.
John White, Kentucky, 1841
John W. Jones, Virginia, 1843
TENTH ADMINISTRaATION; -18415 to 1849;-4 years.
James K. Polk, Tennessee, 1845 Presitlent.
George M. Dallas, Pennsylvania, 1845 Vice President.
ApsPoisnteld.
James Buchanan, Pennsylvania, 1845 Secretary of State.
Robert J. Walker, Missississippi, 1845 Secretary of Treas.
William L. Marcy, New Tork, 1845 Secretary of War.
George Bancroft, Massachusetts, 1845 Secretaries of the
John Y. Mason, Virginia, 1847 Navy.
Cave Johnson, Tennessee, 1845 Post Master Gen.
John Y. Mason, Virginia, 1845
Isaac Toucey, Connecticut, 1847 Attorneys General.
Speakers of the lHouse of Representatives.
John W. Davis, Indiana, 1845.
Robert C. Winthrop, Masstchusetts, 1847.
ELEVENTH ADIINISTRATION;-1849 to 1853;-4 years.
Zachary Taylor, Louisiana, 1849 President.
Miillard Fillmore, New York, 1849 Vice President.
Ai~)pointed.
John M. Clayton, DIelaware, 1849 Secretary of State.
Willianm E. Mereditll, Pennsylvania, 1849 Sec'y of Treasury.
William B Preston, Virginia, 1849 Sec'y of the Navy.
GIeorge W. Crawford, Georgia, 1849 Secretary of War.
Thomas Ewing, Ohio, 1849 Sec'y of Interior.*
Jacob Collamer, Vermont, 1849 Post Master Gen.
leverdy Johnson, Maryland, 1849 Attorney General,
Speaker of the HTlouse of Representatives.
Howell Cobb, Georgia, 1849.
ADMINISTRATIONS or ENGLAND, AND OF GREAT BRITAIN, from the
accession of Henrly VIII. The following were the prime ministers, or favorites, or chiefs of administrations, in the respective reigns, viz.:
KING HENtY VIII. Sir Thomas More avd Cranmer 1529
Bishop Fisher and Earl of Surrey. 1509 Lord Audley, chalzcellor; archbishop
Cardinal Thomas Wolsey.. 1513 Craner.... 1532
*A new department, created by act of Conglress, 1849.
2Note. The dates of the appointments of the principal executive officers, in the several adrminis.
trations, above exhibited, are the times when the several nominations, made by the Presidents,
were confirmed by the Senate, as stated in the "' Journal of the Executive Proceedings of the Senate
of the United States." AsZ., Almanoacs, &c.
A.D ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 153
And lord Cromwell (earl of Essex) 1534 Duke of Marlborough, &c. 1705
Duke of Norfolk, earl of Surrey, and Lord Godolphin, lord Cowper, dukes
bishop Gardiner. 1540 of Marlborough and Newcastle 1707
Lord WYriothesley, earl of Hertford. 1541 R. Harley, afJtelrwards earl of yb'lrd 1710
Earl of Rochester, lord Dartmouth,
KING EDWARD VI. and I-enry St. John, esq. aJteerswads
The earl of I-ertIord, contiznued viset. Bolingbroke; lord Harcourt 1710
John, duke of Northumberland. 1552 Charles, duke of Shrewsbury, &c.. 1714
QUEEN IARY. KING GEORGE I.
Bishop Gardiner..,L3 Lord Cowper, dulke of Shrewsbury,
marquess of Wharton, earl of OrQUEEN ELIZABETHI. ford, duke of Marlborough, vist.
Sir Nicholas Bacon.. 115 Townshend, &c.. 1714
Sir Willlam Cecil, afterwcords lord Robert Walpole, esq. 1715
Burleigh; clsief minister during al- James, cj'lerwards earl Stanhope 1717
most stle whole of this lonrg reign Charles, earl of Sunderland, &c. 1718
Earl of Leicester, a favorite. 1564 Robert Walpole, esq. cftecrwarlds sir
Earl of IEssex 1,538 Itobert and earlof Orford. 1721
Lord Burkhurst 1601
KING GEORGE II.
KING JAMES. I.
Lord Burklhurst (earl of Dorset)ord ateet, lord Wilmirtc lod
Earls of Salisbury, Sufblli, and North- Bath, Mr. Sandclys, &c.. 1742
EarlptoSls.,. a r 08 Hon.Henry Pelham, lord Carteret, earl
Sirp 11. Carr, cr eoted viScount Fiocres- of Harrington, duke of Newcastle. 1743
ter, aoferwaords earl of Somerset. 1612 Mr. Pelham, earl of Chesterfield, due
Sir GeJrge Villiers, created earl, mar- of Becford, &c.. 1746
ouess, and duke of Buckingham. 1615 Duke of Newcastle, Sir Thomas Robinson, Henry Fox, &c., lord Anson 1754
KING CHARLES I. Duke of Devonshire, Mr. William Pitt,
Duke of Buckingham conlinued earl Temple, Hon. H. B. Legge. 1756
Earl of Portland, archbishop Laud 1628 [Disiissed in April, 1757. Restored in
Archbishop Laud, earl of Straffbrd, June, same year.]
lordc Cottilrton. 1640 WVVillianm Pitt., Mr. Legge, earl Temple,
Earl of Essex. 1640 duke of Newcastle, &c.. 1757
Lord vis. Falkland, lord Digby 1641
[The civil war commenced, and all KING GEOROE III.
went into confusion.l Earl of Bute, earl of Egremont, duke
of Bedlbrd. 1761
KING CIHARLES II. Earl of Bute, hon. George Grenville,
Edward. earl of Clarendon. 1660 sir Francis Dashwood, &c. 1762
Dukes oflBuckingham and Lauderdale 1667 Right hon. George Grenville, earl of
Lord Ashley, Lord. Arlington, Sir T. Halifax, earl of Sandwich, duke of
Clifford, ctftetvacrds lord Clifford. 1667 Bedford, &G. 1763
Lord Arlington, lord Ashley, cleal/ed Marquess of Ilockingham, duke8 of
earl Slhaitesbury, and Sir Thomas Grafton, earl of Sllelburne, &c. July 1765
Osborne. 1673 Dulke of1 Grafton, hon. Chas. TownsSir Thos-las Osborne. 1674 hend, earl of (Chatham, &c. Aug. 1766
Easrl of IEssex, dukes of Otmond, ea 1 Duke of Grafton, right honl. Frederick,
cfterw sarCls marquess of Halifax, sir lord North. &c.. Dec. 1767
AVilliam Temple.. 1677 Lord Notll, lord Halifax, &c.. 1770
Duke of York. and his friends. 1682 Loid North, lord Dartmouth, lord Stortamont, locrd Iillsborough, lord St.
YiING JAMIES II. Germain, &c... 17, 3
Earls of Sunderland and Tyrconnel, Marquess ofRockinghall,righ iht hdn'ble
sir George cf/erwaords, lord Jeffries 1685 Charles James FIox, &c. Mar. 30, 1782
Lord.Jeffiies, earl of Tyrconnel, lord Earl of Shelburne, William Pitt, lord
Bellasis, lord Arundel, earl of Mid- Grantltham, &c. July 10, 1782
dlleton, vist. Preston. 1. 687 Duke of Portland, lord Nolth, Mr. Fox,
&c. (The Coalition Ministly. See
KING WILLIAMI III. AND QUEEN MARY II. " Coaitison.)) 7 April 5, 1]783
Sir John, flterearrds lord Somers, lord Rt. hon. William Pitt, lord Gower,
Godolplhin, earl of Danby, af/'er- lords Sidney, Carmarthen, and Thnursn(r7ds dulie of Leeds, &c.. 1688 low, right hon. W. tW. Grenville,
The earl of Sunderland, &c... 1695 HI-enry Dundas, lord 1Mulgrave, dulke
Charles Montagu, lez/erwards earl of of Richmond, &c. Dec. 27, 1783
HIalifax, earl of Pembrolke, viscount Mr. Pitt, lord Canmden, marq. of Staf-,onsdale, earl of Oxford, &c.. 1697 ford, lord ITawlesbbury, &c.. 1786,.Mr. Pitt, lord Grenville, dukee of Leeds,
QUEEN ANNE. lord Camden, &c.. 1790
Lord Godolphin, R. 1Halley, esq., lord Mr. Pitt, lord Grenville, earl of' ChatPenllbroke, duke of Buckinglham ham, lord Loughborough, &c.. 1793
7
154 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. L ADE
Mr. Pitt, duke of Portland, lord Gren- tHenry Hardinge, &c., (Mr. Huskisville, Mr. Dundclas, &c... 1795 son,vise Palmerston,Mr. Grant, earl
Mr. Pitt, earl of Westmorland, earl of Dudley, &c. retiring) May 30, 1828
of Chatham, lord Grenville &c.. 1798
RIight hon. Henry Addington, duke of IKING WILLIAM Iv.
Portland, lord Hawkesbury, lord Hobart, lord Eldon, &c. Mar. 17, 1801 Duke of Wellington and his cabinet,
Mr. Pitt, lord Melville, rt. hon. George contre ued.
Cannin-, lord Ilarrowby, lord West- Earl Grey, viscounts Althorpe, Melmorlsand, durke of Portland, Mr. DU1n- bourne, Goderich, and Palmerston,
das, &c. may 12, 1804 marquess of Lansdovne, lord J HolLord Grenville, lord Henry Petty, earl land, lord Auckland, sir James CraSpencer, rt. hon. WVilliam Wind- ham, &c. Nov. 22, 1830
ham, Mr. Fox, lord Erskine, rt. hon. [Earl Grey resigns Say 9, but reslsmes
Charles Grey, lord Sidmouth, &c. ofice Mlay 18, 1832.]
(See "All the Talesnts.") Feb. 5, 1SOG Viscount Melbourne, viscount Althorp,
Duke of Portland, MIr. Canning, lord, viscts. Palieton
Hawklesbury, earl Camnden, rlghlst and Duncannon, sir J. C. Hobhouse,
hon. Spencer Perceval. &c. Mar. 25, 1807 lord Hoxviclc, Sr. S. ice, SIr. PonDuke of Portland, earl Bathurst, lord lett Thlomson, &c. July 14, 1834
vicount Castlereagh, lord Granville Viscount Melbourn's amistlation
Gower, &c.... -1808 i dissolved: the dulke of Wellington
Mr. Perceval, earl of Liverpool, soar- talces the helm of state provisionally,
quess Wellesley, viscount Pallmlers- ~waiting the return of' sir Robert Peel
ton, Mr. Ryder, &c. Oct. 1809 from Italy Nov. 14 1834
Sir Robert Peel, dulke of Wellington,
REGE NCY OF GEORGE, PRINCE OF WYALES. lord Lyndhurst, earl of Aberdeen,
Mr. Perceval, the earl of Liverpool, lordl lienbolough, lord ltssln,
8&c. rscontisierl. lord Wharncliffe, sir George M aurray,
Earl ofLiverpool, Earl Bathurst, visct. Mr. A. Baring, SI. IIerries, Mr.
Sidmouth, viscount Castlereagh, Mr. Goulburn, &c. - 9 ec. 15, 1834
Ryder, earl of Harrowby, right hon. Viscount Melboulne aid his colleagues
Nich. Vansittart, &c. June 8, 1812 return to ffice April 1, 83
CING GEORGE IV. QUEEN VICTORIA.
Earl of Liverpool, viscount Sidlmomth, Visct. Melbourne and the same calbiMr. Vansittart, &c. corltisued. net, cosntimted.
lRt. hlon. George Canning, lord viscount Viscount Melbourne resigns May 7, 1839
Goderich, lord Lyndhurst, Mr. Stur- Sir Robert Peel receives the queen's
ges 3ourne, &c.. April 10, 1827 commands to formll a new admlnisViscount Goderich, duke of Portland, tration, May 8.
right hon. William Iluslkisson, SMr. This command is withdrawn, and lord
Herries, &c.. August 11, 1827 Melbourne and his friends are reinDulte of Wellington, right hon. Robert stated. ay 10, 1839
Peel, earl of Dudley, viscount Mel- Sir Robert Peel, dulke of Wellington,
ville, earl of Aberdeen, Mr. Goul. earl of Aberdeen, earl of Haddingburn, Mr. Herries, Mr. Grant, &c. ton, earl of Ripon, lord Stanley, Mr'.
January 25, 1823 Goulburn, &c.. Aug. 7, 1841
Duke of Wellngton, earl of Aberdeen, Lord John Russell's administration
sir George Murray, lord Lowther, sir July 6, 1846
ADMI]RAL. The first so called in England was Richard de Lucy, appointed
by Henry III. 1223. Alfred, Athelstan, Edgar, Harold. and other kings, had
been previously the conmmacnders of their own fleets. The first was appointed
in France, in 1284. The rank of admiral of the English seas was one of
great distinction, and was first given to Williamn de Leybouine by Edward I.
in 1297. —SpelsmaTa; Ryn' er.
ADMIRAL LORD HIGH, or, ENGLAND. The first officer of this rank was
created by Richard II. in December 1385; there had been previously high
admirals of districts-the north, west, and south. See NaCvy.
ADMIRALTY, COURT OF, erected by Edward III. in 1857. This is a civil court
for the trial of causes relating to maritime affairs.
ADRIANOPLE, BATTLE OF, which got Constantine the empire, was fought July
3, A.D. 323. Adrlianople nwas taken by the Ottomans from the Greeks in 1360;
and it continued to be the seat of' the Turkish empire till the capture of
Conistantinople in 1453. Mahomet II., one of the most distinguished of the
sultans, and the -one who took Constantinople, was born here in 1430.
ADv ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 155
Priestlep. Adrianople was taken by the Russians, Aug. 20, 1829; but was
restored to the sultan at the close of the war, Sept. 14, same year. See Tulrkey.
ADRIATIC. The ceremony of the doge of Venice wedding the Adriatic Sea
was instituted in A.D. 1173. Annually, upon Ascension-day, the doge married
the Adr~iaticcrb/ Mc/are, by dropping a ring into it from his bucentaur, or state
barge, and was attended on these occasions by all the nobility of the state,
and foreign ambassadors, in gondolas. This ceremony was intermitted, for
the first time for centuries, in 1797.
ADULTERY, ANCIENT LAWS AGAINST IT. Punished by the law of Moses with
the death of both the guilty man and woman.-Leviticus xx. 10. This law
was repealed, first, because the crime had become common; and secondly,
because GoD's name should not be liable to be too often erased by the ordeal
of the waters of bitterness. Leo, of Modena, says that the husband was obliged
to dismiss his wife for ever, whether he willed it or not. —Calmet. Lycurgus
punished the offender as he did a parricide, and the Locrians and Spartans
tore out the offenders' eyes. The Romans had nQ formal law against adultery;
the emperor Augustus was the first to introduce a positive law to punish it,
and he had the misfortune to see it executed in the persons of his own children.-Lenglet. Socrates relates that women who were guilty of adultery
were punished by the horrible sentence of public constupration. In England
the legal redress against the male offender has been refined into a civil
action for a money compensation.-Lord Mansfield.
ADULTERY, ENGLISH LAWS AGAINST IT. The early Saxons burnt the adulteress,
and erected a gibbet over her ashes, whereon they hanged the adulterer.Pardon. King Edmund punished the crime as homicide. It was punished
by cutting off the hair, stripping the female offender naked, and whipping
her through the streets, if the husband so demanded it to be done, without
distinction of rank, during the Saxon Heptarchy, A.D. 457 to 828. —Stowe.
The ears and nose were cut off under Canute, 1031. Ordained to be punished
capitally, together with incest, under Cromwell, May 14, 1650; but there is
no record of this law taking effect. In New England a law was ordained
whereby adultery was made capital to both parties, even though the man
were unmarried; and several suffered under it, 1662.-Hardie. At present
this offence is more favorably viewed; to divorce and strip the adulteress
of her dower, is all her punishment among us; but in Romlish countries they
usually shut up the adulteress in a nunnery.-Ashe.
ADVENT. In the calendar it signifies, properly, the approach of the feast of
the Nativity; it includes four Sundays, the first of which is always the nearest
Sunday to Saint Andrew (the 30th November), before or after. Advent was
instituted by the council o'f Tours, in the sixth century.
ADVENTURERS, MERCHANT, a celebrated and enterprising company of
merchants, was originally formed for the discovery of territories, extension
of commerce and promotion of trade, by John duke of Brabant, in 1296.
This ancient company was afterwards translated into England, in the reign
of Edward III., and queen Elizabeth formed it into an English corporation
in 1564. —Andeso,.
ADVERTISEMENTS IN NEWSPAPERS. In England, as now published, they
were not general until the beginning of the eighteenth century. A penalty
of 501. was inflicted on persons advertising a reward with "No questions to
be asked" for the return of things stolen, and on the printer, 25 Geo. II. 1754.
-Statates. The advertisement duty was formerly charged according to the
number of lines; it was afterwards fixed, in England at 3s. 6d., and in Ireland
at 2s. 6d. each advertisement. The duty was further reduced, in England
to is. Gd., and in Ireland to Is. each, by statute 3 and 4 Will. IV. 1833.
156 TIIE WOR.LD S PROGR.:SS. [ ArFF
EDILES, magistrates of Rome, first created 492 B.c. There were three degrees
of these officers, and the functions of the principal were similar to our justices
of the peace. The plebeian,ediles presided over the more minute affalirs of
the state, good order, and the reparation of the streets. They procured all
the provisions of the city, and executed the decrees of the people.- Varro.
2F,NIGMA. The origin of the vnigma is doubtful: Gale thinks that tile Jews
borrowedcl.their -enigmatical forms of speech from the Egyptians. The
philosophy of the Druids was altogether menigmnatical. In Nero's time thle
Romans were often obliged to have recourse to this method of concealing
truth under obscure language. The following epitaph on Fair Rosamond is
an elegant specimen of the eunigma:lTic jacet in tombU, Rosa mundi, non Rosa munda;
Non redolet, sed olet, quae redolere solet.
2EOLIAN IHARP. The invention of this instrumnent is ascribed to Kirche. 1653;
but Richardson proves it to have been known at an earlier period than his
tirme.-Dissertaltiou o? the Customns of the Ecast. There is a Rabbinical story
of the aCrial harmony of the harp of David, which, when hung up at nig'ht,
was played upon by the north wind.-Bars'c1c.
AERONAUTICS. To lord Bacon, the prophet of art, as Walpole ca.lls him, has
been attributed the first suggestion of the true theory of balloons. The
ancient speculations about artificial mwings, whereby a man might fly as well
as a bird, refuted by Borelli, 1670. Mr. Henry Cavendish ascertained that
hydrygen air is at least twelve times lighter than common air, 1777. The
true doctrine of aeronautics announced in France by the two brothers MIont
golfier, 1782.-See Bcalloose.
AEISOP'S FABLES. Written by the celebrated fabulist. the supposed inventor
of this species of entertainment and instruction, about 565 B.c. sopl)'s
Fables are, no doubt, a compilation of all the fables alnd apologues of witR
both before and after his own time, conjointly with his own.-Plwtc'clh.
_.ETOLIA. This country was named after AItolus of Elis, who, having accidentally killed a son of Phoroneus, king of Argos, left the Peloponnesus,
and settled here. The inhabitants were very little known to the rest of
Greece, till after the ruin of Athens and Sparta, when they assumed a consequence in the country as the opposers and rivals of the Achseans, to whom
they made themselves formidable as the allies of Rome, and as its enemies.
They were conquered by the Romans under Fulvius.
The.Etolians begin to ravage the Pelo- Therma, Xenia, Cyphara, and other
ponnesus... c. 282 cities, and destroy with fire all the
They dispute the passage of the Mace- country they invadce B. c. 201
donians at Thermopylm. 23 They next invite tlhe kings of Macedon,
Acarnania ceded to Philip as the price Syria and Sparta, to coalesce with
of peace.. them against the lRonans.195
Battle of Lamiai the AEtoliars, com- They seize Calchis, Sparta, and Dememsanded by Pyrrhus, are deleated by trias in Thessaly... 194
Philip of Mahcedon 214 Their defeat near Thermopylm. 193
With the assistance of allies, they seize'hey lose Lamiat and Amphissa. 192
Oreum, Opus, Triboni and Dryne. 212 Made a province of Rome. 146
They put to the sword the people of
AFFINITY, DEGREES OF. iMarriage witllin certain degrees of kindred waas
prohibited by the laws of' alldost all nations, and in almost every age.
Several degrees were prohibiited in scriptural law, as may be seen in Leviticks, chap. xviii. In England, a table restricting nmarriage within certain
near degrees was set forth by authority, A.D. 1563. Prohibited marriages
were adjudged to be incestuous and iunlawful by the ninety-ninth Canon, in
1603. All nmarriages celebrated withisn the forbidden delrees of kindred are
declared to be absolutely void by statute 5 and 6 Will. IV. 1835.
AGR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 157
AFFIRIATION or TI-IE QUAKERS. This was first legally accepted as an oath
in England A.D. 1696. The affirmation was altered in 1702, and again altered
and modified December 1721.
AFGHANISTAN. Insurrection of the Afghans against the British power in
India, January 5, 1842..-Sce Indica.
AFRICA, called Libya by the Greeks, one of the three parts of the ancient
world, and the greatest peninsula of the universe, first peopled by Ham. It
was conquered by Belisarius in A.D. 553 et seq. In the seventh century, about
637, the lMahometan Arabs subdued the north of Africa; and their descendants, under the name of Moors, constitute a great ptart of the present population. See the several countries of Afriica through the volume. Among
the late distinguished travellers in this quarter of the world, may be ilmenlioned Bruce, who commenced his travels in 1768; Mungo Park, who made
his first voyage to Africa, MlAay 22, 1795; and his second voyage., January 10,
1804, but froml which lie never returned. See Parcr. Richard Lander died
of shot-wounds (which he had received whenl ascending the river Nunn) at
Fernando Po, Jan. 31, 1834. The African expedition, for which parliament
voted 61,0001., consisting of the Albe'rt, W7'VibeSforce, and SotldaCt steam-ships,
sailed in the summer of 1841. The vessels commenced the ascent of the
Niger, Aug. 20; but when they reached Iddah, fever broke out among the
crews, and they were successively obliged to return, the Albert having
ascended the river to Egga, 320 miles from the sea, Sept. 28. The expedition was, in the end, wholly relinquished owing to disease, heat, and harclships, Oct. 17.
AFRICAN COMPANY, a society of merchants trading to Africa. An association in Exeter. which was formecd in 1588, gave rise to this company. A
charter wais granted to a joint stock company in 1618: a third company was
created in 1631; a fourth corporation in 1662; and another formed by letters patent in 1672, and remodelled in 1695. The rights vested in the present company, 23 Geo. II. 1749. See Slave T?~rade.
AGE: GOLDEN AGE, /[IDDLE AGE, &C. Among the ancient poets, an age was
the space of thirty years, in which sens nsge ae aounts to nmuch the samne as
generation. The interval since the first formlation of man has been divided
into four ages, distinguished as the golden, silver, brazen, and iron ages; but
a late author, reflecting on the barbarism of the first ages, will have the
order assigned by the poets inverted-the first, being a time of ignorance,
would be more properly dcenominated an iron, rather than a, golden age.
VarioUs divisions of the duration of the world have been made by historians:
by some the space of time comnmencing from Constantine, ancl ending with
the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, in the fifteenth century, is called
the middle age; the middle is also styled the barbarous age. The ages of
the world may be reduced to three grand epochs, viz., the age of the law of
nature, from Adam to Moses; the age of' the Jewish law, firom Moses to
Christ; and the age of grace, from Christ to the present year.
AGINCOURT, BATTLE Op, between the French and English armies, gained by
Henry V. Of the French, there were 10,000 killed, and 14.000 were taken
prisoners, the English losing only 100 men. Among the prisoners were the
dukes of Orleans and Bourbon, and 7000 barons, knights, and gentlemen,
and men nmore numnerous than the British themselves. Anmong the slain
were the dukes of Alenqon, Brabant, and 1Bar, the archbishop of Sens, one
marshal, thirteen earls, ninety-two barons, and 1500 knights, Oct. 25, 1415.
- Goldszaitl/.
AGRA, FORTRESS OP, termedl the key of Hindostan, surrendered, in the war
with the Mahrattas, to the B3ritish forces, Oct. 17, 1803. This was once the
158'1mH WORmLD'S PROGRESS. IALE
nmost splendid of all the Indian cities, and now exhibits the most magnificent
ruins. In the 17th century the great mogul frequently resided here; his
palaces, and those of the Omrahs, were very numerous; Agra then contained above 60 caravansaries, 800 baths, and 700 mosques. See Z~larsolevirs.
AGRARIAN LAW, Awraria Lex. This was an equal division among the Roman people of all the lands which they acquired by conquest, limiting the
acres which each person should enjoy, first proposed by Sp. Cassius, to gain
the favor of the citizens, 486 a.c. It was enacted under the tribune Tibdrius Gracchus, 132 B.c.; but this law at last proved fatal to the freedom of
Rome under Julius Cesar.-Livy; Vossiis.
AGRICULTURE. The science of agriculture may be traced to the period immediately succeeding the Deluge. In China and the eastern countries it was,
perhaps, coeval with their early plantation and governiment. Of the agriculture of the ancients little is known. The Athenians pretended that it
was among them the art of sowing corn began; and the Cretans, Sicilians,
and Egyptians lay claini, the last with most probability, to the honor.
Brought into England by the Romans, as a science, about A.D. 27.
AGYNNIANS. This sect arose about A.D. 694, and alleged that GOD forbade
the eating of flesh, assuming the first chapter of Genesis to be the authority
upon which the doctrine was founded. A revival of this ancient sect now
flourishes at Manchester and other towns in England, and has been public
there since 1814.
AIR. Anaximenes of Miletus declared air to be a self-existent deity, and the
first cause of every thing created, 530 B.c. The pressure of air was discovered by Torricelli, A.D. 1645. It was found to vary with the height by Pascal, in 1647. Halley, Newton, anc others, up to the present time, have
illustrated the agency and influences of this great power by various experiments, and numeirous inventions have followed from them; among others,
the air-gun by Guter of Nurembuirg in 1656; the air-pump, invented by
Otho Guneicke at Magleburg in 16b0, and improved by the illustrious Boyle
in 1657; and the air-pipe, invented by Mlr. Sutton, a brewer of London,
about 1756. See Bedloob.
AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, PEACE or. The first treaty of peace signed here wa8
between France and Spain, when France yielded Franche-Comt6, but
retained her conquests in the Netherlands, MIay 2, 1668. The second, or
celebrated treaty, was between Great Britain, Flance, Holland, Hungary,
Spain, and Genoa. By this memorable peace the treaties of Westphalia in
1648, of Nimeguen in 1678 and 1679, of Ryswick in 1697, of Utrecht in 1713,
of Baden in 1714, of the Triple Alliance 1717, of the Quadruple Alliance in
1718, and of Vienna in 1738, were renewed and confirmed. Signed on the
part of England by John Earl of Sandwich. and Sir Thomas Robinson, Oct.
7, 1748. A congress of the sovereigns of Austria, Russia, and Prussia,
assisted by ministers from England and France, wsas held a-t.Aix-la-Chapelle, and a convention signel, October 9, 1818. The sumn then due from
lrance to the allies wa s settled at 265,000,000 fiancs.
AL.ABAMA. One of the United States; most of its territory was included i1i
the original patent of Georgia. It was made a part of the Mississippi territory in 1817; admitted into the Union as a State in 1820. Population in
1810 was less than 10.000; in 1816, 29.683; in 1820, 127,901; in 1830,
308,997; in 1840, 590.756, including 253,582 slaves. Exports of the State il.
1840 amounted to $12,854,694; imports, to $574,651
ALBA. Foundeld by Ascanius, 1152 B.c., and called Loe-ga, because the city
extended alcorg the hill Alba.wrs. This kingdom lasted 487 years, and was
:Th, J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 159
governed by a race of kings, the descendants of Eneas. When Amulius
dethroned his brother, he condemned Ilia, the daughter of Numitor, to a
life of celibacy, by obliging her to take the vows and office of a vestal,
thereby to assure his safety in the usurpation. -His object was, however,
fiustrated; violence was offered to Ilia, and she became the mother of
twins, for which Amulius ordered her to be buried alive, and her offspring to
be thrown into the Tiber, 770 B.c. But the little bark in which the infants
were sent adrift stopped near Mount Aventine, and was brought ashore by
Faustulus, the king's chief shepherd, who reared the children as his own, and
called tbem Romulus and Remnus. His wife, Acca-Laurentia, was surnamed
Luxpca; whence arose the fable that Romulus and his brother were sauckled
by a she-wvolf. At sixteen years of age, Romululs avenged the wvrongs of
Ilia and Numitor, 754 B.C., and the next year founded Rome.- VCrr0.
kLBAN'S, ST. The name of this towq was anciently Verulaml; it was once
the capital of Britain, and previously to the invasion of Julius Ciesar was
th;e residence of British princes. It takes its present name from St. Alban,
who was born here, and who is said to have been the first person who suffered martyrdom for Christianity in Britain. He is hence commonly styled
the proto-martyr of this country, and was decapitated during the persecution raised by Diocletian, June 23, A.n. 286. A stately monastery was
erected here to his memory by Offa, king of MBercia, in 793. St. Alban's
swas incorporated by Edward VI. 1552.
ALBAN'S, ST., B3ATVLES OI. The first, between the houses of York and Lancaster, in which Richard duke of York obtained a victory over Henry VI.,
of hisllose army 5000 were slain, while that of the duke of York suffered
no material loss, fought May 22, 1455. The second, between the Yorkists
under the earl of Warwick, and the Lancastrians, commanded by queen
l/iargaret of Anjou, who conquered: in this battle 2500 of the defeated army
perished; fought on Shrove Tuesday, February 2, 1461.
ALBANY, city, capital of the State of New-York, founded by the Dutch in
1623; and by them named Beaverwyck; capitulated to the English in 1664,
and then received its present name in honor of the Duke of York and
Albany, its proprietor. Incorporated in 1686. Population in 1810, 9,356:
in 1830, 24;238; in 1840, 33,721.
ALBIGENSES. This sect had its origin about A.D. 1160, at Albigeois, in Lan-'uedcoc, and at Toulouse; they opposed the disciples of the Church of
Rome, and professed a hatred of all the corruptions of that religion. Simon
dce Montfort commanded against them, andcl at Bezieres he and the pope's
legate put friends and foes to the sword. At Minerba, he burnt 150 of the
Albigenses alive; and at La Vaur, he hanged the governor, and beheaded
the chief people, drowning the governor's wife, and murdering other
women. They next defeated the count of Toulouse, with the loss of 17,000
men. Simon de Montfort afterwards came to England. See Waldecxses.
ALBION. The island of Great Britain is said to have been first so called by
Julius Csesar, on account of the chalky cliffs upon its coast, on his invasion
of the country, 54 B.c. The Romans conquered it, and held possession about
400 years. On their quitting it, it was successively invaded by the Scots,
Picts, and Saxons, who drove the original inhabitants from the plain country, to seek refuge in the steeps and wilds of Cornwall and Wales; the
Danes and Normans also settled at various times in England: and from a
mixture of these nations the present race of Englishmen is derived. See
Britai-n.-New Albion, district of California, was taken possession of by sir
Francis Drake, and so named by him, in 1578; explored by Vancouver in
1792.
ALBUERA, BATTLE OF, between the French, conmmanded by marshal Soult,
160 TIE WORLD S PROGRESS. [.ALa
and the British and Anglo-Spanish army, commanded by marshal, now lord
Beresford, May 16, 1811. After an obstinate and sanguinary engagement,
the allies obtained the victory, justly esteemled one of the most brillianll
achievements of the Peninsular war. The French loss exceeded 9000 men
previously to their retreat.
ALCHEjMY. This was a pretended branch of chemistry, which effected the
transmutation of metals into gold, an alkahest, or universal menstruulm, a
universal ferment. and other things equally ridiculous. If regard may be
had to legend and tradition, alchemy must be as old as the Flood: yet
few philosophers, poets, or physicians, from Homer till 400 years after
Christ, mention any such thing. Pliny says the emperor Caligula was the
first who prepared natural arsenic, in order to make gold of it, but left it
off because the charge exceeded the profit. Others say the Egyptians had
this mystery; which if true, how could it have been lost. Tlie Arabians
are said to have invented this mysterous art, wherein they were followed by
Ramoncl Lullius, Paracelsus, and others, who never found any thiing else
but ashes in their furnaces. Another author on the subject is Zosimnus,
about A. D. 410. —Fb. Bib. Grces. A license for practising alchemy with all
kinds of imetals and minerals granted to one Richard Carter, 1476.- Ry2e1"'s
Facd. Doctor Price, of Guilciford, published an account of his experiments
in this way, and pretended to success: he brought his specimens of gold to
the king, affirmingD that they were macde by imeans of a redi and white powder; but being a Fellow of the Royal Society, he was required, upon pain
of expulsion, to repeat his experiments before Messrs. Kirwan and Woulfe;
but after some equivocation, he took poison and died, August 1783.
ALCORAN. The book which contains the revelation and cr edetnda of Mahomet:
it is confessedly the standard of the Arabic tongue, and as the Mahometans
believe, inimitable by any human pen; hence they assumne its divine origin.
It is the common opinion of writers, that Maholnet was assisted by Batirac,
a Jacobin, Sergius, a Nestorian monk,'and by a learned Jew, in composing
this book, most of whose principles are the same with those of Arius, Nestorius, Sabellius, and other heresiarchs. The Mahometans say, that God
sent it to their prophet by the Angel Gabriel: it was written about A. D. 610.
-See Koracn, M/dovzelismn, ZIhecca, &c.
ALDERMEN. The word is derived fiom the Saxon Ealdomazn., a senior, and
among the Saxons the rank was conferred upon elderly and sage, as well as
distinguished persons. on account of the experience their age had given
them. At the time of the Heptarchy, aldermen were the governors of' provinces or districts. acnd are so mentioned up to A. D. 882. After the Danes
were settled in England. the title was changed to that of carl, and the Norrnans introduced that of coIl.t, wrhich though clifferent in its original signification, yet meant the same thing. Henry III. may be said to have given
its basis to this city distinction. In modern British polity, and also in the
IJnitecl States, an aldermnan is a magistrate next in dignity to the mayor.
ALE AND WINE. They are said to have been invented by Bacchus; the former where the soil, owing to its quality, would not grow grapes.-Too/ce's
Pzt%/ceo't. Ale was known as a beverage at least 404 a. c. Herodotus ascribes the first discovery of the art of brewing barley-wine to Isis, the wife
of Asyris. The Romans andC Germans very early learned the process of preparing a liquor from corn by imeans of fermentation, from the Egyptians.Tccitvts. Alehouses are made mention of in the laws of Ina, king of We —
sex. Booths were set up in England A.D. 728, when laws were passed for
their regulation. Alehouses were licensed 1621; and excise duty on ale
and beer was imposed on a system nearly similar to the present, 13 Charles
II., 1660. See Beer, WiF/e.
~tZi ] DICTIONARRY OF DATES. ]61
ALEMANNI, oR ALL MEN, (i. e. men of all nations,) a body of Suevi, defeated
by Caracalla, A. D. 214. On one occasion 300,000 of this warlike people are
said to have been vanquished, in a battle near 3Milan, by Gallienus, at the
head of L0,000 Romans. Their battles were numerous with the Romans and
Gauls. They ultimately submitted to the Franks.-Gibbon.
ALEXANDER, ERA oP., dated firom the death of Alexander the Great, November 12, 323 B. c. In the computation of this era, the period of the creation
was considered to be 5502 years before the birth of Christ, and, in consequence, the year 1 A. D. was equal to 5503. This conlputation continued to
the year 284 A. D., which was called 5786. In the next year (285 A.n.),
which should. have been 5787, ten years were discarded, and the date becamle 5777. This is still used in the Abyssinian era, which see. The date is
reduced to the Christian era by subtracting 5502 until the year 5786, and
after that timle by subtracting 5492.
ALEXANDRIA, in Egypt, the walls whereof were six miles in circuit, built by
Alexander the Great, 332 B. c.; taken by Cc sar, 47 B. c., and the library of
the Ptolemies, containing 400,000 valuable worls in MS., burnt. Conquered
by the Saracens, wht n the second library, consisting of 700,000 volumes was
totally destroyed by the victors, who heated the water for their baths for.six months by burning books instead of wood, by command of the caliph
Omar, A. D. 642. This was formerly a place of great trade, all the treasures
of the East being deposited here before the discovery of the route by the
Cape of Good Hope. Taken by the French under Bonaparte, when a massacre ensued, July 5, 1798; and fronl them by the British in the memorable
battle mentioned in next art:icle, in 1801. Alexandria was agaain taken by
the Bflitish, under General Frazer, March 21, 1807; but was evacuated by
them, Sept. 23, same year. For late events, see Sy/rice and TaLr/?ey.
ALEXANDRIA, BATTLE Oc, between the French, under Menou, who made the attack, and the British arnly, under Sir Ralph Abercrombie, amounting to about
15,000 men, which had but recently debarked,. fought March 21, 1801. The
13ritish were Victorious, but Sir Ralph Abercrombie was mortally wounded.
ALEXANDRINE VERSE. Verse of twelve feet, or syllables, first written by
Alexander of Paris, and since called, after himl, Alexandrines, about A. D.
1164. —1o0uv, Diet. Pope, in his EssaJ on C~riticism, has the following wellklinown couplet, in which an Alexandrine is Ilappily exempliiedc:" A needless Alexandrine ends the song,
That like a wound-ed snake, drags its slow length a-long."
ALGEBRA. Where algebra was first used, and by whoml, is not precisely
known. Diophantus first wrote upon it, probably about A. D. 170; he is said
to be the inventor. Brough-t into Spain by the Saracens, about 900; and
into Italy by Leonardo of Pisa, in 1202. The first writer who used algebraical signs was Stifelius of Nuremberg, in 1544. The introduction of symbols for quantities Awas by Francis Vieta, in 1590, when algebra came into
general use.-J-orer'i. The binomial theorem of Newton, the basis of the
doctrine of fluxions, and the new analysis, 1668.
ALGIERS. The ancient kingdom of Numidia, redauced to a Roman province,
44 a. c. It afterwards became independent, till, dreading the power of the
Spaniards, the nation invited Barbarossa, the pirate, to assist it, and he
seized the governleint, A. D. 1516; but it afterwards fell to the lot of Tur-.
key.-Priestley. The Algerines for ages braved the resentiment of the most
powerful states in Christendom, and the emperor Chlarles V. lost a fine fleet
and army in an unsuccessful expedition against them, in 1541. Algiers was
reduced by Admiral Blake, in 1653, and terrified into pacfic measures
with England; but it repulsed the vigorous attacks. of other European powers, particularly those of France, in 1688, and 1761; and of Spain, in 1775,
162 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ ALYE
1783, and 1784. It was bombarded by the British fleet, under lord Exmouth,
Aug. 27, 1816, when a new treaty followed, and Christian slavery was abolished. Algiers surrendered to a French armament, under Bourmont ani
Duperre, after some severe conflicts, July 5, 1830, when the dey was deposed,
and the barbarian government wholly overthrown. The French ministry
announced their intention to retain Algiers, permanently, May 20, 1834.
IMlarshal Clausel defeated the Arabs in two engagements (in one of which
the duke of Orleans was wounded), and entered Mascara, Dec. 8, 1836.
General Damremont attacked Constantina (which see), Oct. 13, 1837;" since
when various other engagements between the French and the natives, hare
taken place. Abd-el-Kader surrendered to General Lamoriciere, Dec. 22,
1847. See Mor'occo.
ALI, SECT o0. Founded by a famous BMahomnetan chief, the son-in-law of Mahomet, (having married his daughter Fatima,) about A. D. 632. Ali was
called by the Prophet, " the Lion of God, always victorious;" and the Persians
follow the interpretation of the Koran according to Alli, while other Mahoinetans adhere to that of Abubeker and Omar. It is worthy of renlark,
that the first four successors of Mahomnet-Abubeker, Omar, Othman, and
Ali, whom he had enmployed as his chief agents in establishing his religion,
anil extirpating unbelievers, and whom on that account he styled the " cutting swords of God," all died violent deaths; and that this bloody impostor's family was wholly extirpated within thirty years after his own decease.
Ali was assassinated in 660.
ALIENS. In England aliens were grievously coerced up to A. D. 1377. When
they were to be tried criminally, the juries were to be half foreigners, if
they so desired, 1430. They were restrained from exercising any trade or
handicraft by retail, 1483.
ALL SAINTS. The festival instituted, A. D. 625. All Saints, or All Hallows,
in the Protestant church, is a clay of general commemoration of all those saiilrs
and martyrs in honor of whom, indivicldually, no particular day is assigned.
The Church of Rome and the Greek church have saints for every day in the
year. The reformers of the English church provided offices only for very
remarkable commemorations, and struck out of their calendar altogether a
great number of anniversaries, leaving only those which ast their time were
connected with popular feeling or tradition.
ALLEGORY. Of very ancient composition. The Bible abounds in the finest
instances, of which Blair gives Psalmc lxxx. ver. 8, 16, as a specimen. Spen.ser's Faerie Q'leenee is an allegory throughout; Addison, in his Spectator,
abounds in allegories; and the Pilg'rieb's Progress of Bunyan, 1663, is perfect in its way. Milton, among other English poets, is rich in allegory.
ALLIANCES, TREATIES OF, between the high European Powers: See Coalition,
T-reaties, &c.
Alliance of Leipsic.. April 9, 1631 Alliance of Versailles. May 1, 1756
Alliance of Vienna. May 27, 1657 Germanic Alliance. July 23, 1785
Alliance, the Triple. Jan. 28, 1668 Alliance of Paris.. ay 16, 1795
Alliance of Warsaw. March 31, 1683 Alliance of Petersburg. April 8, 1S0o
Alliance, the Grand.. May 12, 1689 Austrian Alliance.. March 14, 18i2
Alliance, the HIague. Jan. 4, 1717 Alliance of Sweden. March 24, 1812
Allance, the Quadruple. Aug. 2,1718 Alliance of Toplitz. Sept., e1813
Alliance of Vienna. March 16, 1731 Alliance, the Holy. Sept. 26, 1813
ULTIANACS, The Egyptians computed time by instrulllents. Log calencdars were anciently in use. Al-mon-aght, is of Saxon origin. In the British Museum and universities are curious specimens of early almanacs.
Michael Nostrodaluus, the celebrated astrologer, wrote an almlianac in the
style of Merlin, 1566.-Ducfresnoy. The most noted early almanacs were:
:U ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 163
ALMAN ACS, coltintted.
Jolin Somer's Calendar, written in Ox- Poor Robin's Almanac. 1652
ilrd.. 1380 Lady's Diary.... 1705
One in Lambeth palace, written in 1460 Moore;s Almanac.. 1713
Fir;t printed one, published at lcuda. 1472 Season on the Seasons... 1735
First printed in England, by Richard Gentleman's Diary... 1741
Pynson... 1497 Nautical Almanac.. 1767
Tybault's Prognostications... 1533 Poor Ricltard's Almanac, tFranltlin's,
Lilly's Ephemeris.'644 Philadelphia).... 1733
Of Moore's, at one period, upwards of 500,000 copies were annually sold.
The Stationers' company claimed the exclusive right of publishing, until
1790, in virtue of letters patent from James I., granting the privilege to this
company, and the two universities. The stamp duty on almanacs was
abolished in England, 1834.
ALUMEIDA, BATTLE or, between the British and Anglo-Spanish army, commanded by lord Wellington, and the French army under Massena, who was
defeated with considerable loss, August 5, 1811. Wellington compelled Massena to evacuate Portugal, and to retreat rapidly before him; but the route
of the French was tracked by the most horrid dcesolation.
ALPHABET. Athotes, son of Menes, was the author of hieroglyphics, and
wrote thus the history of the Egyptians, 2122 1. c.-Blair'. But Josephlus
affirms that he had seen inscriptions by Seth, the son of Adam; though
this is doubted, and cleemel a mistake, or fabulous. The first lettei of the
Phoenician and Hebrew alphabet was aleplt, called by the Greeks cbphtd, and
abbreviated by the moderns to A. The Hebrew is supposed to be derived
fromn the Phcenician. Cadmus, the founder of Cadmea, 1493 B. c., brought
the Phoenician letters (fifteen in number) into Greece; they were the following:A, B, r, A, I, K, A, M, N, 0, II, P, Z, T, T.
These letters were originally either Hebrew, Phoenician, or Assyrian characters, and changed gradually in form till they became the ground of the
Romian letters, now used all over Europe. Palamedes of Argos invented
teac double characters, 0, X, a,;, about 1224 B. c.; and Simonides added Z,
Yr, H, Q, about 489 B. c.-Ar'ldelicati Marbles. When the E was introduced
is not precisely known. The Greek alphabet consisted of sixteen letters
till 399 a. c., when the Ionic, of 24 characters, was introduced. The small
letters are of late invention, for the convenience of writing. The alphabets
of the different nations contain the following number of' letters:English..26 German.. 26 Greekl. 24 Turkish.. 33
French..23 Sclavonic.. 27 lHebrew.. 22 Sanscrit.. 50
Italian.. 20 Russian.. 41 Arabic.. 28 and
Spanish.27 Latin.. 22 Persian.. 32 Chinese. 214
ALPHONSIPNE TABLES Celebrated astronomical tables, composed by command, and under the direction of, Alphonsus X. of Castile, surnamed the
Wise. This learned prince is said to have expended upwards of 400,000
crownts in completing the work, whose value was enhanced by a preface,
uritten by his own hand: he commencecl his reign in 1252.
ALTARS, were first raised to Jupiter, in Greece, by Cecrops, who also instituted and regulated marriages, 1556 B. c. He introduced among the Greeks
the worship of those deities which were held in adoration in Egypt.-Huce'odotxs. Christian altars in churches were instituted by pope Sixtus I. in 135;
andI they wvere first consecrated by pope Sylvester. The first Christian altar
in Britain was in G34.-Stowec. The Church of England, anid all the reformedl
churches, discontinue the nalme, and have abolished the doctrine that supported their use.
ALUM, is said to have been first discovered at Rocha, in Syria, about A. D. 1300;
it was found in Tuscany, in 1460; was brought to perfection in England, in
164 THE WrOLD'S PROGIRESS. [ AME
1608: was discovered in Ireland, in 1757; and in Anglesey, in 1790. Alum
is a salt used as a mordant in tanning; it is used also to harden tallow, and
to ywhiten bread. It may be made of pure clay exposed to vapors of sulphusic acid, and sulphate of potash added to the ley; but it is usually obtained'by means of ore called alum slate.
AMAZONIA, discovered by Francisco Orellana, in 1580. Coming fiom Peru,
Orellana sailed down the river Amazon to the Atlantic, and observing conmpanies of women in arms oni its baInks, he called the country Amazonia, and
gave tle name of Amazon to the river, which had previously been called
Maranon.
iT AZ-NS. Their origin is fabulous. They are said to have been the descend
ants of the Scythians inhabiting Cappaclocia, where their husbands having
made incursions, were all slain, being surprised in ambuscacdes by their
enemies. Their -widows, reflecting on the alarms or sorrows they underwent on account of the fate of their husbands, resolved to form a female,
state, and having firmly estabishecd themselves, they decreed that matrimony was a shameful servitude; but, to perpetuate their race, (hey, at stated
times, adcmitted the embraces of their male neighbors.- Qnc1tCs C'itists.
They were conquered by Theseus, about 1231 B. c. The Amazons were constantly employecl in wars; and that they might throw the javelin with morl
-force, their right breasts were burned off, whence their name from the
Greek, stoib and sesctmneCe. Their queen, Thalestris, visited Alexander the
Great, while he was pursuing his conquests in Asia, and cohabited with
lhim, in the hope of havingi issue by so illustrious a wvarrior; three hundred
females were in her train.-He'odotsts.
AMBASSADORS, accredited agents and representatives from one court to
another, are referred to early ages, and to almnost all nations. In most countries they have great and pieculiar privileges; and in England, among others,
they andc their servants are secured ag-ainst arrest. The Portugiese ambassaclor in England was imprisoned for debt, in 1653; and the Russian, by a
lace-merchant, in 1709, when a law, the statute of 8 Anne, passed for their
protection. Two men rwere convicted of arresting the servant of an asllbassador. They were sentenced to be conducted to the house of the almbassador, with a label on their breasts, to ask his pardon, andcl then one of them
to be imprisoned three months and the other fined, May 12, 1780.-Plhillips.
AMBER.. Of great repute in the world from the earliest time; esteemed as a
imedicine before the Christian era: Theophrastus wrote upon it, 300 B. c.
Upwards of 150 tons of amber have been found in one year on the sands of
the shore near Pillau.-PAillips. Much diversity of opinion still prevails
among naturalists and chemists respecting the origin of amber, some referring it to the vegetable, others to the mineral, and sonme to the animal kingdonl; its natural history and its chemical analysis affording sonmetling in'
favor of each opinion.
AMEN. This word is as old as the Hebrew itself In - that language it means
tr'se, faitlfel, certarin. EmIployedc in devotions, at the end of a prayer, it implies, so be it; at the termlination of a creed, so it is. It has been generally
used, botil in the Jewish and Christian churches, at the conclusion of prayer.
AMiENDE HONORABLE, originated in France in the ninth century. It was first
an infamous punishmient iinflficted oil taitors and sacrilegious persons: the
ofifnder was delivered into the hands of the hangman; his shirt wVas strippedi
off. a rope put about his neck, and a taper in his hand; lie was then led into
coutrt and was obligecd to pray pardon of God, the ksing, and the country. Death
or baisllllent soimetillles followed. Asctestde /teotocable is now a Jterm used for
making recantation in open court, or in the presence of the injured party.
AMII ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 165
AMERICA: See United States. Discovered by Christopher Colombo, a Genoese, better known as Christopher Columbus, A.D. 1492, on the 11th of October, on which clay he came in sight of St. Salvalor. See Baet/tca _sltcds.
This great navigator foundl the continent of' America in 1497, andc tile eastern coasts were found by Anmcrigo Vespucci (Americuns Vespucius) in 1498:
and from this latter discoverer cthe whole of Anmeric is nimed.
Newfoundland, the first British colony INew England, the second, by the Plyin this quarter of the world, discover- mnouth conmpany. 162(
ed by Cabot, and by him calledl New York, settled by tlhe Dutch.1614
Primea Vista..1497 [For other occurrences, see ITabular
Virginia, the first English settlemeint Vieies- Uniterc Sates. See also
on the main land. 1607 separate states, Mlaiie, &c.
AMERICA, SOUTH. The Spaniards, as being the first discoverers of this vast
portion of the Western World, had the largest and richest share of it. When'
they landed in Peru, A. D. 1530, they found it governed by sovereigns called
Incas, who were revered by their subjects as divinities, but the- were soon
subdued by their invaders under the commaand of Francis Pizarro. The
cruelties practised by the new adventurers wherever they appeared, will be
a reproach to Spain for ever.* Spanish America has successfully asserted
its fireedom within the present century. It first declared its independence
in 1810; and the provinces assembled, and proclaimed the sovereignty of the
people in July, 1814; since when, although the wars of rival and contending
chiefs have been afflicting the country, it has released itself firom the yoke
of Spain for ever. Its independence was recognized first by the United
States, chiefly through the influence of H. Clay; by England, in 18238, et seq.;
and by France, Sept. 30, 1830. See Bravzil, Colotbiai, Lisena, Perit, &c.
AM3'ERICAN LITERATURE. The American Almanac for 1840 gives a list of
776 names of American authors who had died previous to that year. This
did not include authors of mere pamphlets, w-hich would have swelled the
number three-fold; but the "authorship" of many in the list was of very
moderate amount or value. Of the 776 names, there were writers on Theology, Sermons, &c., 259; Poetry, 57; History and Biography, O80; Politics
and Law, 77. [In these numbers, writers on two or more of the subjects are
repeated.]
AMETHYSTS. When this stone was first prized is not known; it was the ninth
in place npon the breastplate of the Jewish high priests, and the name
Issachar was engraved upon it. It is of a rich violet color, and according
to Plutarch, takes its name from its color, resembling wine mixed with water.
One worth 200 rix dollars having been rendered colorless, equalled a diaminond in lustre valued at 18,000 gold crowns.-De Boot Hist. GestzeIztsze?.
Amethysts were cliscoveredl at Kerry, in Ireland, in 1755.-Biers' s.
AMIENS, PEACF O, between Great Britain, Holland, France and Spain; the
preliminary articles, fifteen in number, were signed by lord Hawlkesbury and
Ml. Otto, on the part of England and France, Oct. 1, 1801; and the definitive
treaty was subscribed on M[arch 27, 1802, by the marquis Cornwallis for
Enigland, Joseph Bonaparte for France, Azara for Spain, and Schimmelpenninclk for Holland.
AMMIONITES. Descended from Amemon, the son of Lot; they invaded the
land of Canaan and made the Israelites tributaries, but they were defeated,as Casas, in describing thep, barbarity of the Spaniards while pursuing their conquests, records
nmaiy instances of it that fill the nind with horror. In Janmaica, hlie says, they hanged thie unresisting natives by thirteen at a tilne, in honor of the thirteen apostles! and he has beheld them
throw the Indian infants to their dogs for food l "I have heard them,' says Las Casas, "borrew
the limb of a human being to feed thIeir dogs, and have seen them the next day return a quarter of'another victim to the lender!"
166 TH-I WORLD S PROGRESS. [ ANA
by Jephthah, 1188 i. c. They again invaded Canaan in the reign of Saul,
with an intention to put out the right eye of all those they subdued, butSaul overthrew them, 1093 B. c. They were afterwards many times vanquished; and Antiochus the Great took Rabboath their capital, and destroyed
all the Awalls, 198 B. c.-Josephml~s.
AMNESTY. The word as well as the practice was introduced into Greece by
Thrasybulus, the Athenian general and patriot, who commenced the expulsion of the thirty tyrants with the assistance of only thirty of his friends:
having succeeded, the only reward he would accept was a crown made with
two branches of olive. 409 B. c.-Hugne's Essays.
AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL: Established at Thermnopylm by Amlphictyon, for
the management of all affairs relative to Greece. This celebrated council,
which was composed of the wisest and most virtuous men of some cities
of Greece, consisted of twelve delegates, 1498 B. c. Other cities in process
of time sent also some of their citizens to the council of the Amphictyons,
and in the age of Antoninus Pius, they were increased to the number of thirty.
-SuLidas.
AMPHITHEATRES. They may be said to be the invention of Julius Causar
and Curio: the latter was the celebrated orator, who called the former;.,
full senate " 0O2s'ihnrg 716liCe'1L?, ViTirqnl,, Ct otMbiqW Vi'rorTz'e?soldiCT cit." In the
Roman amphitheatres, which were vast round and oval buildings, the people
assembled to see the combats of gladiators, of wild beasts, and other exhibitions; they were generally built of wood, but Statilius Taurus made one
of stone, under Augustis Csesar. The anlphitheatre of Vespasian was built. A. D. 79; and is said to have been a regular fortress in 1312. The amphitheatre of Verona was next in size, and then that of Nismles.
AMSTERDAM. This noble city was the castle of Amstel in A. D. 1100; and its
building, as a city, was commenced about 1203. Its famous exchanlge vwao
built in 1634; and the stadthouse, one of the noblest palaces in the world,
in 1648; this latter cost three millions of guilders, a prodigious sum at that
time. It is built upon 13,659 piles, and the magnificence of the structure is,
for its size, both in external and internal grandeur, perhaps without a parallel
in Europe. Amsterdam surrendered to the king of Prussia, when that prince
invaded Holland in favor of the stadtholder, in 1787. The French were
admitted without resistance, Jan. 18, 1795. The ancient government was
restored in November, 1813. See Holland.
AMULETS, on CHARMS. All nations have been fond of amulets. The
Egyptians had a great variety; so had the Jews, Chaldeans, and Persians.
Among the Greeks, they were much used in exciting or conquering the
passion of love. They were also in estimation among the Romnans.-Pliny.
Ovid. Among the Christians of early ages, amulets were madle of the woccd
of the true cross, about A. D. 328. They have been sanctioned by religion
and astrology, and even in modern times by medical and other scienceswitness the anodyne necklace, &c. The pope and Catholic clergy make and
sell amulets and charms even to this day.-Ashe.
ANABAPTISTS. This sect arose about A. D. 1525, and was known in England
before 1549. John of Leyden, Muncer, Storck, and other German enthusiasts, about the time of the reformation, spread its doctrines. The anabaptists of Munster (who are, of course, properly distinguishled from the existing
mild sect of this name in England) taught that infant baptism was a contriLrance of the devil, that there is no original sin, that men have a fiee will in
spiritual things, and other doctrines still more wild and absulrd. Munster
they called Mount Zion, and one Mathias, a baker, was declared to be the
king of Zion. Their enthusiasm led them to the maddest practices, and
AN ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 167
they, at length, rose in arms nnder pretence of gospel. liberty. MIUnster wad
taken about fifteen months afterwards, and they were all put to death. The
anabaptists of England differ iiom other Protestants in little more than the
not baptizing children, as appears by a confession of faith, published by the
1rel'esentatives of above one hundred of their congregations, in 1689.
ANACILEONTIC VERSE. Commonly of the jovial or Bacchanalian strain,
namencd after Anacreon, of Teeos, the Greek lyric poet, about 510 n. c. The
odes of Anacreon are much prized; their author lived in a constant round
of' dl unkenness and debauchery, and was choked by a grape stone in his
eighty-fifth year.-Stcaley's Lives of the Poets.
ANAGRAM, a transposition of the letters of a name or sentence; as from Mceay,
tile name of the Virgin, is made ca'mny. On the question put by Pilate to our
Saviour, " Quid est ver'itas?" we have this admirable anagram, " Est vir qHi
adest." The French are said to have introduced the art as now practised, in
the reign of Charles IX., about the year 1560.-HenlcZtt.
1ANATHEMAS. The word had four significations among the Jews: the anathema, or curse, was the devoting some person or thing to destruction. We
have a remarkable instance of it in the city of Jericho (see Joslztua vi. 17).
Anathemas were used by the primitive churches, A. D. 387. 6.uch ecclesiastical denu.nciations caused great terror in England up to the close of Elizabeth's reign.-Rapin. The church anathema, or curse, with excommuLnication, and other severities of the Romish religion, are still practised in Catholic
countries to this day.-Ashe.
ANATOMY. The structure of the human body was made part of the philosophical investigations of Plato and Xenophon; and it became a branch of
1edical art undcer Hippocrates, about 420 B. c. But Erasisttatus and Herophilus may be regarded as being the fathers of anatomy: they were the first
to dissect the human form, as anatomical research had been confined to
brutes only: it is mentioned that they practised upon the bodies of living
criminals, about 300 and 293 n. c. In England, the schools were supplied
with subjects unlawfully exhumed from graves; and, until lately, the bodies
of executed criminals were ordered for dissection. The first anatomical
plates were designed by Vesalius, about A.D. 1538. The discoveries of
Harvey were made in 1616. The anatomy of plants was discovered in 1680.
— lFeind's listory of Physic.
ANCHORITES. Paul, Anthony, and Hilarion were the first anchorites. Many
of the early anchorites lived in caves and deserts, and practised great austerities. Some were analogous to the fakeers, who impose voluntary punishments upon themselves as atonement for their sins, and as being acceptable to GoD; and their modes of torture were often extravagant and criminal. The order first arose in the fourth century.
ANCHORS seOR SHIPS, are of ancient use, and the invention belongs to the
Tuscans-PinSzy. The second tooth,-or fluke, was added by Anacharsis, the
Scythian.-Strcabo. Anchors were first forged in England A.D. 578. The
anchors of a first-rate ship of war (of which such a ship has four) will
weigh 90 cwt. each, and each of them will cost ~450. —Phillips.
ANEMOMETER, to measure the strength and velocity of the wind, was invented by Wolfius, in 1709. The extreme velocity was found by Dr. Lind
to be 93 miles per hour. See article Wi;nds.
ANGELIIC KNIGHTS op ST. GEORGE. Instituted in Greece, A. D. 456. The
An'gelici were instituted by Angelus Comnenus, emperor of Constantinople,
1191. The Angelicce, an order of nuns, was founded at Milan by Louisa,Torelli, A. D 1534.
i68 TIiE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ ANT
ANGELS. Authors are divided as to the time of the creation of angels. Some
will have it to have been at the same timne with our world; others, before
all ages, that is, from eternity. This latter is Origen's opinion. —C-1zc's
tlist. Litcr-t. The Jews had ten orders of angels; and the popes hav:e recognized nine choirs and three hierarchies.
ANGELS, IN COMMERCE. An ange!l was an ancient gold coin, wei-hing
four pennyweights, and was valuecd at 6s. 8d. in the reign of Henry VI., ind(
at 10s. in the reig'n of' Elizabeth, 1562. The angelot was an ancient gol-l
coin, value half an a'n -el, struck at Paris when that capital was in. the hands
of the English, in the reign of Henry VI., 1431. — Vood.
ANGLING. The origin of this art is involved in obscurity; allusion is incvt
to it by the Greeks and Romans, and in the most ancient books of the Bibl,as Amos. It came into general repute in England about the period of the
Reformation. Wynkin de Worde's 7Treatyse of Pyssfbiigfe, the first book
printed on angling, appeared in 1496. Isaac Walton's book was printed in
1653.
ANIlMAL MI',4AGNETISM. This deception was introduced by father HIehl, at
Vienna, about 1774; and had wonderful success in France, in 1788. It had
its dupes in England also, in 1789; but it exploded a few years afterwardlc.
It was a pretended mode of curing all manner of diseases by means of syqspcathetic rcffection between the sick person and the operator. The effect on the,
patient was supposed to depend on certain motions of the fingers and features
of the operator, he placing himself immediately before the patient, whos
eyes were to be fixed on his. After playing in this maimnner on the imagiln:
tion anc enfeebled mincl of the sick, and performing a number of clisto
tions and grimaces, the cure was said to be completed. —IHaydn.
ANGLO-SAXONS, oR ANGLES. The name of England is derived from a village near Sleswick, called Angl.en, whose. population joined the first Saun
fieebooters. Egbert called his kingdom Anglesland. Anglia East was a
kingdom of the heptarchy, founded by the Angles, one of whose chiefs,
Ufal, assumed the title of king, A. D. 575: the king'dom ceased in 792.-See.
Britai'n.
ANNIHILATION. The doctrine of annihilation was unknown to the HebrBws,
Greeks, and Latins: the ancient philosophers denied annihilation; the first
notions of which are said to have arisen from the Christian theology.-Dr.
~Bo'net.
ANNO DOMINI; in the year of our Lord; used by the Christian world, and
abbreviated A.n. This is the computation of time from the incarnation o.
ur1' Saviour' and is called the vilgar era; first adoptedl in the year 525. Sec
rfeza. Charles III. of Germany was the first sovereign who added " in tlU
ecar of our Lord " to his reign, in 879.
i'4ARCTIC. The south pole is so called, because it is opposite to the north
or arctic pole. A continent of 1700 miles of coast from east to west, anc
64 to 66 degrees south, was discovered in the Antarctic Ocean by Frenc,
and American Exploring Expeditions, under D'Urville and Wilkes, res,>ec.
tively on the same day, Jan. 19, 1840; a coincidence the more singular, a
the discoverers were at a distance from each other of 720 miles. It wa!
coasted by captain Wilkes for 1700 miles. Mr. Briscow, of the British Navy'
fell in with land, which he coasted for 300 miles in lat. 67, long. 50, in th(
year 1830.
AINTEDILUVIANS. According to the tables of M1r. Whiston, the number o
people in the ancient world, or world as it existed previous to the Fir
reached to the enormous amount of 549,755 millions, in the year of the1482. Burnet has supposed that the first ihuman pair might have left, sa:,,
.._iT I DICTIONARY OF DATES. 169
end of the first century, ten married couples; and from these, allowing
them to multiply il the same decuple proportion as the first pair did, would
rise, in 1500 years, a greater number of' persons than the earth was capable
of holding. He tlseriobre sugg:ests a quadiuple multiplication only; and
then exhibits the following' tnable of increase lduring the first sixteen centuries that preceded the Flood: —
I. 10 V... 2,560 IX... 655360 XII.. 167,142,160
I.. 40 VI...10,240 X. 2,621,440 XIV. 671,0OS,640
III.. 160 VII.. 40,960 XI. 10,485,760 XV.. 2 684,354.460
IV.. 640 VIII.. 163,840 XII.. 41,943;,040 XVI.. 10,737,418,2! 0
This calculation, although the imost moderate made, exceeds, it will be seen,
by at least ten times, the present number of mankind, which, at the higohest
estimate, amounts to only a thousand millions.
ANTHEMS, OR HYMNS. Hilary, bishop of Poitiers, ancl St. Ambrose, were
the first who composed theim, about the middle of the fourth century.Leuglet. They were introduced into the church service in 386.-Balcer-.
Ignatius is said to have introduced them into the Greek, and St. Ambrose
into the Western church. They were introduced into the reformed churches
in queen Elizabeth's reign, about 1565.
ANTHROPOPHAGI. Eaters of human flesh have existed in all ages of the
world. The Cyclops a.nd Lestrygones are represented as mlan-eaters, by
Homer; and the Essedonian Scythians were so, according to Herodotus.
Diogenes asserted that we might as well eat the flesh of men, as that of
other animals; and the practice still exists in Africa, and the South Sea
Islands, &c.
ANTIMONY. This mineral was very early known, and applied by the ancients
to various purposes. It was used as paint to blacken both men's and women's eyes, as appears from 2 Kixigs ix. 30, and Je'e'vsia/Z iv. 30, and in
eastern countries is thus used to this day. When mixed with lead, it malakes
types for printing; and in physic its uses are so various that, according to
its preparation, alone, or in company with one or two associates, it is sufilcient to answer all a phlysician desires ill an apothecary's shop. —Bo lc.
We are indebted to Basil Valentine f'or the earliest account of various pl'ocesses, about 1410. —Piesley?/.
ANTINOMIANS, the name first applied by Luther to John Agricola, in 1538.
The Antinomians trust, in the gospel, and not in- their deeds; alnd hold
that crimes are lnot crimes when committed by thle, that thleir own good
works are of no effect; that no ma1n should be troubled in conscience for
sin, and other equally absurd doctrines.
ANTIOCH, built by Seleucus, after the battle of Ipsus, 301 z. c. In one
day, 100,000 of its people were slain by the Jewos, 145 B. c. In this city. once
the capital of Syria, the disciples of the Redeemer were first called Christilnns. The Era of Antioch is much used by the early Christian write'rs
attached to the churches of Antioch and Alexandria: it placed the creation
5492 years a. c.
ANTIPODES. Plato is said to be the first who thought it possible that antipodes existed, about 308 a. c. Boniface, archbishop of Mentz, legate of
pope Zachary, is said to have denounced a bishop as a heletic for maintaining this doctrine, A. D. 741. Tlhe antipodes of England lie to the south-east
of' New Zealandcl; and near the spot is a slmall isla.l, callecl Antipodes
Island. —Bs'oo/:es.
ANTIQUARIES, AN ANTIQUE. The term'.oliquLe is applied to tile productions of' thle alrt.s from the age of Alexander to the time of the irruption
of the Goths ilnto Italy, in A. D. 400. A college of antiquaries is said to have
existed in hIeland 700 years a. c.; but this has very little pretensions to
8
170 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ AP
credit. A society was founded by archbishop Parker, Camlden, Stowe, and
others. in 1572.-Splelqcban. Application was made in 1589 to Elizabeth for
a charter, but her death ensued, and her successor, Jamces I., was far frora
favoring the design. In 1717 this society was revived, and in 1751 it received its charter of incorlporation from George II. It began to publish its
discoveries, &c. 1under the title of A'cizccoliogia, in 1770. The Society ot
Antiquaries of Edinburhgh was founded in 1780.
ANTI-RENTISM. In PRensselaer and Delaware counties, State of New-York,
an armed resistance of the tenants (chiefly those on the Van Rensselaer
estates) to the demland for the payment of rents, commenced in 1846.
See Riots. Gov. Young pardons eighteen anti-rent rioters, and releases thllem
from prison, Jan. 27, 1847.
ANTI-TRINITARIANS. Theodlotus of Byzantium is supposed to have been
the first who advocated the simple humanity of Jesus, at the close of the
second century. This doctrine spread widely after the reformation, when it
was adopted by Lelius and Faustus Socinus. Bayle.-See Ari/ivLS, Sociniaits, and Unitc'ia,,s.
ANTWERP. First mentioned in history in A. D. 517. Its fine exchafige built
in 1531. Taken after a long and memorable siege by the prince of Parmas,
in 1585. It was then the chief mart of Flemish commerce, but the civil war.'
caused by the tyranny of Philip II. drove the trade to Amsterdam. The
remarkable crucifix of bronze, thirty-three feet high, in the principal street,
was formed from the demolished statue of the cruel dluke of Alva, which
he had himself set up in the citadel. Antwerp was the seat of the civil war
between the Belgians and the house of Orange, 1830-31. In the late revoln.
tion, the Belgian troops having entered Antwerp, were opposed by th(
Dutch garrison, who, after a dreadful conflict, being driven into the citadel,
cannonaded the town with red-hot balls and shells, doing immense mischief
Oct. 27, 1830. General Chasse surrendered the citadel to the French aftec
a destructive bombardment, Nov. 24, 1832. See Belgiumsn.
APOCALYPSE, the Revelation of St. John, written in the Isle of Patmos, about
A. n. 95.-I-iereizs. Some ascribe the authorship to Cerinthus, the heretic,
and others to John, the presbyter, of Ephesus. In the first centuries msany
churches disowned it, and in the fourth century it was excluded from the
sacred canon by the council of Laodicea, but was again received by other
councils, and confirmed by that of Trent, held 1545, el seq. Rejected by
Luther, Michaelis, and others, and its authority questioned in all ages from
the time of Justin Marltyr, who wrote his first Apology for the Christians in
A. D. 139.
APOCRYPHA. In the preface to the Apocrypha it is said, " These books are
neyther found in the Hebrue nor in the Chalde."-Bible, 1539. The history
of the Apocrypha ends 135 n. c. The books were not in the Jewish canon,
but they were received as canonical by the Catholic church, and so adjudged
by the council of Trent, held in 1545, el seq.-Ashe.
APOLLINARIANS, the followers of Apollinarius, bishop of Laodicea, who
taught that the divinity of Christ was instead of a soul to him; that his
flesh was pre-existent to his appearance upon earth, and that it was Senti
down fi om heaven, and conveyed throgoh the Virgin, as througih a channel;
that there were two sons, one born of God, the other of the Virgin, &c.
Apollinauiris was deposed for his opinions in A. D. 378.
APOLIO, Trl MprEs or. Apollo, the gocl of all the fine arts, of medicine, im-sic,
poetry, and eloquence, had tenmples and statues elected to him in allmosit
every country, particularly Egypt, Greece. and Italyr. His most splendidk;
temple was at Delphi, built 1263 n. c. —See Delp pi. His tenmple at Daphn,.
thA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 17 1
built 434 a3. c., during a period in which pestilence raged, was burnt in A. n.
362, and the Clhristians accused of the crime. —-Leiglet.
ATPOSTLE'ES CREED. The stunmary of belief of the Christian faith, called the
Apostle's Cr1eed, is generally believed to have been composed a great while
after their time.-Pardeo. The repeating of this creed in public worship
was ordacined in the Greek church at Antioch, and was instituted in the
Roman church in the eleventh centuly; whence it passed to the church of
England at the period of the reformation, in 1534.
APOSTOLICI. The first sect of Apostolici arose in the third century; the
second sect Awas founded by Sagarelli, who was burned alive at Parma, A. D.
300. They wandered about, clothed in white, with long beards, dishevelled
hair, and bare heads, accompanied by women whom they called their spiritual sisters, preaching against the growing corruption of the church of
Rome, and predicting its downfall.
APOTHEOSIS. A ceremony of the ancient nations of the world, ny which they
raised their kings and heroes to the rank of deities. The nations of the
East were the first who paid divine honors to their great men, and the
Romans followecd their example, and not only deified the most prudent and
humane of their emperors, but also the most cruel and profligate.-Herodian.
This honor of deifying the deceased emperor was begun at Rome by Augustus, in favor of Julius Cisar, B. c. 13. —7Til/lcWOcet.
APPEAL or MURDER. By the late law of England, a man in an appeal of
murder might fight with the appellant, thereby to make proof of his guilt
or innocence. In 1817, a young maid, Mary Ashford, was believed to have
been violated and murdered by Abraham Thornton, who, in appeal, claimed
his right to his wager of battle, which the court allowed; but the appellant
(the brother of' the mlaid) refused the challenge, and the criminal escaped,
April 16, 1818. This law was imlmediately afterwardcs struck from off the
statute book, 59 George III., 1819.
APPRAISERS. The rating and valuation of goods for another was an early
business in England; and so early as 11 Edward I. it was a law, that if they
valued the goods of the parties too high, the appraiser should take them at
the price appraised. 1282.
APRIL. The fourth month of the year according to the vulgar computation,
but the second according to the ancient Romans, Numa Pompilius having
introclucecl JrbCC'iarus and,'brLc rins before it 713 B. c.-Pe0chaW?1.
AQUARIANS. A sect in the primitive church, said to have been founded by
Tatian in the second century, and who forbore the use of wine even in the
sacrament, and used nothing but water.
AQUEDUCTS. Appius Claudius advised and constructed the first aqueduct,
which was therefore called the AppiCa?-w.ley, about 453. c. Aqueducts of
every kind were amlong the wonders of Rome.-Livy. There are now sonre
remarkable aqueducts in Europe: that at Lisbon is of great extent and
beauty; that at Segovia has 129 arches; and that at Versailles is three miles
long, and of immense height, with 242 arches in three stories. The stupendous aqueduct on the Ellesmere canal, in England, is 1007 feet in length, and
126 feet high; it was opened Dec. 26, 1805..AQUITAINE, formerly belonged (together with Normandy) to the kings of
England, as descendants of William the Concqueror. It was erected into a
principality in 1362, and was annexed to France in 1370. The title of duke
of Aquitabine was taken by the crown of Enigland on the conquest of -this
duchy by Henry V. in 1418; but was lost in the reign of Henry VI.
ARABIA. This country is said never to have been conquered; the Arabians
made no figure in history till A. D. 622, when, under the new name of Sarta
172 TI-IE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ARtW
cens. they followed Mialholnet (a native of Arabia) as their general and prophet, and made considerable conquests.-Prcicstlcy.
ARBELA, BATTLE OF. The third and decisive battle between Alexander the
Great and Darius Codomenus, which decided the fate of Persia, 831.(.
The army of Darius consisted of 1,000.000 of foot and 40.000 horse; the
Macdcedonian army amiOlnted to only 400000 foot and 7,000 horse. —A'rzinb.
The gold an(d silver found in the cities of Susa, Persepolis, and Babylon,
which fell to Alexander friom this victory, amounted to thirty millions sterling; and the jewels and other precious spoil, belonging to Darius, sufficedl
to load 20,000 mules and 5,000 camlels. —Plct'rcA?.
ARCADIA. The people of this country were very ancient, and reckoned them.
selves of longer standing than the moon; they were more rude in theio
manners than any of the Greeks, from whom they were shut up in a valley,
surrounded with mountains. Pelasgus taught them to feed on acorns, as
being more nutricious than herbs, their former food; and for this discovery
they honored him as a god, 1521 B. c. Arcadia had twenty-five kings, whose
history is altogether fabulous. The Arcadians were {uond of military glory,
although shepherds; and frequently hired themselves to fight the battles of
other states.- Eistact/is. A colony of Arcadians was conducted by GCnotrus into Italy, 1710 i. c., and the country in which it settled was afterwardcl
called McgCa Gi recic. A colony under Evander emigrated 1244 B. c.-IdeMl.
ARCHBISHOP. This dignity was known in the East about A. D. 320. Athanasius conferred it on his successor. In these realms the dignity is nearly
coeval with the establishment of Christianity. Before the Saxons came into
England there were three sees, London, York, and Caerleon-upon-Usk; but
soonl after the arrival of St. Austin, he settled the metropolitan see at Canterbury, A. n. 596.
ARCHDEACONS. There are sixty church officers of this rank in England,
and thirty-four in Ireland. The name was given to the first or eldest deos
con, who attended on the bishop, without any power; but since the council
of Nice, his function is become a dignity, and set above that of' priest,
though anciently it was quite otherwise. The appointment is referred to
A. D. 1075. The archdeacon's court is the lowest in ecclesiastical polity: an
appeal lies from it to the consistorial court, stat. 24 Henry VIII. 1582.
ARCHERY. It originated, according to the fanciful opinion of the poet Clauclian, fiom the porcupine being observed to cast its quills whenever it was
offended. Plato ascribes the invention to Apollo, by whom it was coimmiunicated to the Cretans. The eastern nations were expert in archery in tilre
earliest ages, and the precision of the ancient archer is scarcely exceeded
by our skill in modern arms. Aster of Anophipolis, upon being slighted by
Philip, king of Macedonia, aimed an arrow at himl. The arrow, on whict,
was written "'Aimed at Philip's right eye," struck it, and put it out; and
Philip threw back the arrow with these words: "If Philip take the town.
Aster shall be hanged." The conqueror kept his world.
ARCHERY IN ENGLAND. It was introduced previously to A. D. 440. and Hla
sold and his two brothers were killed by arrows shot fir0om the cr0oss-boxi;n
of the Norman soldiers at the battle of IIHastings, in 1066 that which killcki
the king pierced him in the brain. Richard I. revived archery in Eilgl]an
in 1190, and was himself killed by an arrow in 1199. TLe victories of Crecy.
Poitiers, and Agincourt, were won chiefly by archers. The tlual rannge: oi
the long-bow was fronm 300 to 400 yards. Robi, Hood acd Little Joln, iL
is said, shot twice -that dlistance. Four thousancd aLchers surlro-s-idled the
houses of Parliament, readcy to shoot the kin aund tie nlemllers 21 Richard II. 1897. —Stooe. The citizens of London were formed into companies
of archers in the reign of Edward III.: they - were formed into a corporat
ARG J DICTIONARY OP DATES. 173
body by the style of " The Fraternity of St. George," 29 Henry VIII. 1538.
-NoeriT- oZldL's -fitsori/ (of LelodLn.
ARTCH-ES, TRIuSInPIAIr, are traced to the era of the BMIacedonian conquest by thle
hbsat Awritels. ZThe triumphal arches of the Rolans form a leading fCeaturo
in their archllitecturei. ihose of Traj'it (erected A. D. 114) and Constantine
were magnificedt.
i-iRCHITECTURE w as cultivated by the Tyrians, about 1100 a.c. Their
King, 1-inam, supplied Solomion wi i-th cedar, gold, silver, and other materials
for the Temple, in the building of which he assisted, 1015 $. c. The art
passed to Greece, and fiolm Greece to Rome. The style called Gothic canie
into vogue in the nint;h century. The Saracens of Spain, being engaged
(luring peace to build smiosques, introducecd grotesque carvings, &c., and the
pondel-ous sublimity of bad taste; whlich species is known by elliptic arches
and buttresses. The circular arch distinguishes the Norman-Gothic from
the Saracenic, and came in with Henry I. The true Grecian style did not
fully revive till about the reign of Jamnes I. 1603.
A-RCHONS. When r1yalty was abolished at Athens, the executive government was vested in elective m1agistrates called archons, whose office continues for life. MITIedon, eldest soni of Codrus, is the first who obtained this
dignity, 1070 D. C.
ARCOLA, BAiTTiLE OF, betwveen the French under general Buonaparte, and the
Austrians under field-marshal Alvinzy, fought Nov. 19, 1796. The result of
this bloody conflict, which was fought for eight successive days, was the
loss on the part of the Austrians of 12,000 men, in killed, wounded, and
prisoners, four fdi.g's, and eighteen guns.
ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS. Several have been undertaken by England, and
some by Russia and other countries. Sir Martin Frobisher was the first
Englishman who at;teiptecl to find a north-west passage to China, A. D. 1576.
Davis's expedition to the Arctic regions was undertaken in 1585. After a
number of similar adventui otus voya ges, Batfin, an Einglishman, attempted
to find a north-w est passage, in 1616. See Baffin's Bcay. For the subsequent
aicl dlate expeditions oftlis kiiind, includhing amliong the latter those of Buchan,
Franklin, Ross, Parry, Liddol, Lyon, Back, &c., see 1ehTorl.A- TIst Pacssc$ge.
AREOPAGITiE. A famnous coulcil saicd to have heard causes in the dark, because the j-dgoes were blind to all but facts, instituted at Athens, 1507 B. c.
-Awnzid. dI ciMblzs. The lniamle is deived firom the Greek Areos fagCos, the
firill of _c1a/s, because Mars was the first who was tried there for the murler of' Hallirhotilus, who had violated his dlaughter Alcippa. Whatever
causes were pleaded befbre thiem, were to be civested of all oratory and fine
speakinf, lest eloquence sliould eharn their ears, and corrupt their judgmlellt. Hence arose the lloe st ust and impartial decisioins.
ARIGENTARIA, B3ATTIEv OF. One of the most renowned in its times, fought in
Alsace, between the Alled:, —-!1nni ai l the Romians, the former being dclefeatedcl
by the latter with the loss fc1 moie than 85,000 out of 40Q000 men, A. D. 378,,VanGONAUTIC EXPEDITION, undeirtaken by Jason to avenge the death of
Phryxus, and recover his tretasures seized by the king of Colchis. The ship
inl whicll P1ryxSis had sailCedl to Colchis having' been aclorned with the
-eiure of a Il. iG indlluced the poet s to pretend t hat the journey of Jason
was folrl thie recverly of tlhe g'o!l.n fleece. Tl'is is tile filst naial ealDedition
on recordT; it made a great noise iii Greece, and many kings and the first
hleroes of the oge anccompaniedl Jaason. whose ship was called Alqo, from its
buildr, 1263 a. c.- Dlfeicsso/i.
5.RGOS. This hingidom was founded by Inachius, 1866 Bn. c., or 1080 years be
174 TIlE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ ARI
fore the first Olympiad.-Blcair. The nine kings from the founder were
called Inactcidce. of whom the fourth was Argus, and he gave his name to
the country. When the Heraclidm took possession of Peloponnesus, B. c.
1102, Temenus seized Argos and its dependencies. Argos was afterwards a
republic, and distinguished itself in all the waras of Greece.-Er,! epidcs.
Inachus founds the kingdom. C. c. 1856 ypermnestra, whlo saved her husPhoroneus reigns sixty years. 1S0" band, while her forty-nine sisters saApis reigns thirty-five years. 1747 crificed theirs. (See Flat1nl1beazex)B.. B 1425
The city of Argos built by Argus, son Lynceus, son of Egyptus, whose -e
of Niobe. 171 had been preserved by his wiIf, deCriasus, son of Argus, succeeds his thrones Danaus
father, and reigns.... 1641 Reign- of Abas.. 1384
Reign of Triopas; Polycaon seizes Reitgn of Prctus, twin-brother ofAcripart of the kingdom, and calls it af- sius.13tl
ter his wife, Mlessenia. 1552 Bellerophon comes to Argos; the pasReign of Crotopus.... 1506 sion for him of Sthenobcea. 13S1
Sthenelus reigns... 1485 Rebellion of Acrisius.. 1314
Gelanor is deposed by Danaus.. 1474 Perseus leaves Argos. and founds.yFeast of the Flambeaux, in honor of cenme (which see.) 13'3
Argos, in modern history, was taken from the Venetians, A. D. 1686. It was
lost to the Turks in 1716, since when it continued in their hands until 1826.
Argos became united in the sovereignty of Greece under Otho, the present
and first king, January 25, 1833. See Greece.
ARIANS. The followers of Arius, a numerous sect of Christians, who deny he
divinity of CIHRIST: they arose about A. D. 315. The Arians were condemned
by the council of Nice, in 325; but their doctrine became for a time the
reigning religion in the East. It was favored by Constantine, 319. Carriend
into Africa under the Vandals, in the fifth century, ancd into Asia under the
Goths. Servetus published his treatise against the Trinity, 1531, and hence
arose the modern system of Arianism in Geneva. Arius died in 336. Servetus was burnt, 1553.- Vacill cs, Hist de 1'H'rfsie.
ARITHMETIC. Where first invented is not known, at least with certaintV.
It was brought from Egypt into Greece by Thales, about 600 a. c. The
oldest treatise upon arithmetic is by Euclid (7th, 8th, and 9th books of' his
Elements), about 300 B. c. The sexagesimal arithmetic of Ptolemy was used
A. D. 130. Diophantus of Alexandria was the author of thirteen books of
Arithmetical questions (of which six are extant) in 156. Notation by nine
digits and zero, known at least as early as the sixth century in Hindostanintroduced from thence illto Arabia. about 900-into Spain. 1050 —into England, 1253. The date in Caxton's Mieroer' of t/le Won'ld, Arabic claracters.
is 1480. Arithmetic of decimals invented, 1482. First work printed ih
England on arithmetic (de Ate Supputtceedi ) was by Tonstall, bishop of Duirham, 1522. The theory of decimal fractions was perfected by lord Napier
in his Rabdologia, in 1617.
ARK. Mount Ararat is venerated by the Armenians, from a belief of its being
the place on which Noah's ark resteel, after the universal Deluge, 2347 a. c.
But Apamea, in Phrygia, claims to be:e spot; and medals have been strlcek
there with a chest on the waters, and the letters NOE, and two doves: this
place is 300 miles west of Ararat. The ark was 300 cubits in length. fifty in
breadth, and thirty high; but most interpreters suppose this cubitto be ab,;'iti1
a foot and a half, and not the geometrical one of six. There were, we aLre to]tli
three floors-the first for beasts, the second for provisions. and the tlilrd i;
birds. and Noah's fianily. It was not made like a ship, but came neall tSie
figure of a square, growing gradually narrower to the top. There wtNa. a
door in thle first floor, and a great wTindow in the third.
ARKANSAS, one of the United States, was a part of the Louisitena puircllase.
It was made a separate territory in 1819. and was admitted into the Union
in 1836. Population in 1830, 30,388; in 1840, 97,574, including 19,935 slaves
ARM ] DICTIONARY OF' DATES. 175
ARMADA, Tr- ITNVINCISLE. The famous Spanish armament so called consisted of 150 ships, 2650 great guns, 20,000 soldiers, 8000 sailors, and 2000
volunteers, uclder the duke of Meclina Sidonia. It arrived in the Channel,
July 19, 1588, and was defeated the next day by Drake and Howard. Ten
fire-ships having been sent into the enemies' fleet, they cut their cables, put
to sea, and endeavored to return to their rendcezvous belgwveel Calais and
Gravelines: the English fell upon them, took mllany ships, and admiral
Howard maintained a rtullling fight from the 21st July to the 27th, obli-gi-g
the shattered fleet to bear away for Scotland and Ireland, where a stori cdispersecl them, and the remainder of the armalnment returned by the North
Sea to Spain. The Spaniards lost fifteen capital ships in the engagmelent.
and 5,000 men; seventeen ships were lost or taken on the coast of Irelandl
and upwards of 5000 men were drowned, killed, or taken prisoners. The
English lost but one ship. —Reaia, Carlte, Ift1ie.
ARMAGHI-I, SEE OF, the first ecclesiastical dignity in Ireland, was founded by
St. Patrick, its first bishop, in 444.
ARMED NEUTRALITY. The confederacy, so called, of the northern powers,
against England, was coimmenced by tlie empress of Russia in 1780; but
its objects were defeated in 1781. The pretension was renewed, alind a treaty
ratified in order to cause their flags to be respected by the belligerent powers, December 16, 1800. The principle that neutral flags protect neutral
bottoms being contrary to the lmaritime system of England, the British
cabinet remonstrated, and Nelson and Parker destroyed the fleet of Denmiark before Copenhagen, April 2, 1801. That power, in consequence, was
obliged to secede from the alliance, and acknowledge the claim of England to
the empire of the sea; and the Armed Neutrality was soon after dissolved.
ARMENIA. Here Noah and his people resided when they left the ark, 2347
a. c. After being subject successively to the three great monarchies, Armenia fell to the kings of Syria. The Armenians were the original worshippers of fire: they also paid great veneration to VennLs Amncaiis, to whose
priests even the highest classes of the people prostituted their daughters,
prior to marriage.-Mctin's Mmoeezies sir L'Ar'qnbic.
City of Artaxarta built. B. B. 186 Artaxias is deposedi.. C. 30
i'ranes the Great reigns.. 93 -Ie is restored to his throne, and dies.iie is called to the throne of Syria, as- Blair 1
sumes the fastidious title of " King of Reign of Venones A. a. 16
Kings," and is served by tributary Zenon reigns. 18
princes... 83 Tigranes IV. reigns 36
Tigranes defeated by Lucullus. 69 Hle is cited to Rome, and deposed 37
Again defeated, and lays his crown at Tiridates dethroned, and RIoman power
the feet of Pomipey.. 66 paramount in Armenia.. 62!His son, Artavasdes, reigns. 54 Armenia reduced to a Persian province
Artavasdes assists Pompey against Ju- under Sapor.. 365
lius Caesar... 48 Subdued by the Saracens. 687
Artavasdes assists the Parthians against Irruption of the Turkls.. 755
Mlare Antony... 36 Again made a Persian province, under
Antony subdues, and sends him loaded Uffan Cassanes. 1472
with silver chains to Egypt, to grace Subdued by Selim II... 1522
his triumph.. 34 Overrun by the Russians. 1828
The Armenian soldiers crown his son, Surrenler of Erzeroum. July 1829
Artaxias.. 33 (See Syria.)
ARMENIAN ERA commllenced on the 9th of July, A. D. 552: the Ecclesiastical
year on the 11th Aulgust. To reduce this last to our time, acld 551 years
and 221 dclays; and in leap years subtract one ciday from Malch 1 to August
10. Tlhe Armenians use the old Julian style antd months in their correspondence with Europeans.
ARMILLARY SPIHIERE. Commonly made of brass, and disposed in such a
manner that the greater and lesser circles of the sphere are seen in their
176 TItE WVORLD'S PROGRESS. [ ARMi
natural position andl motion, the whole being comprised in a fi'ame. It is
said to have been invented by Eratosthenes, about 255 u. c.
ARMINIANS (the) chiefly contend for the doctrine of universal redernption,
and g0enerally espouse the principles of the Church of Engaland: especially
asserting the subordination of the Christian church to the civil powels.
T'hey also contend for the eficacvy of good works, as well as their seccssity/, in
securing man's salvation. James I. and Charles I. fiavoled the doctrines ol
thle Ariinians; and the principles of the sect prevail generally in HIollaind
and elsewhere, though condemned at the synod of Dost (see Doet) in 1618,
Areiniius, who was a divinity professor at Leyden, died in 1609. Brctldt.
ARIMORIAL BEARINGS became hereditary in fainilies at the close of tlhe
twelfth century. They took their rise firom the knights painting their banners with different figures, and were introduced by the Crusaders, in order
at first to distinguish noblemen in battle A. D. 1100. The lines to denote
colors in arms, by their direction or intersection, iwere invented by Colnhubiere in 1689. Armorial bearings were taxed in 1798-and again in 1808.
ARMOR. The warlike Europeans at first t espised any othert:leience haln
the shield. Skins and padded hides were first used; and brass and iroi
armor, in plates or scales, followred. The first body-arinor of the Britons
was skins of wild beasts, exchanged, after thle Roman conquest, for tle
well-tanned leathern cui'rass.- Tcfcitqts. This latter con tieiiecl till thle AngloSaxon eca. Hengist is said to havae had scale armor, A. n. 4-19. The heavy
cavalry were covered with a coat of mlail, Henry I!I. 1216. Solme horsenien
had visors, and skull capns same reign. Armor became exceedinglhy splendid
about 1350. The armor of plate commenced, 1407. Black arimolr, used,
not only for battle, but for mourning, Henry V. 14183. The armor of Henry
TII. consisted of a cuirass of steel, in the formn of a pair of stays, about 1500.
P rmor ceased to reach below the knees, Charles I. 1625. In the reign of
Charles II. officers wore lno other armor than a large gor5,get, which is commem l
orated in the diminutivse ornament known at the present day.-L'yric/C.
ARMS. The club wTas the first offensive weapon; then followed the mace,
battle-axe, pike, spear, javelin, sword, and dclgger. Among ancient missiles
were bows and arrows. Pliny ascribes the invention of the sling to th{e,
Phoenicians. See t/e vC a'iols wccaptoss ~t/7noutg the voilseve.
ARMY. Ninus and Semiramis had armies amounting to nearly two millions of
fighting men, 2017, a. c. The first guards and regular troops as a standing
army were formed by Saul, 1093 E. c.- Essscb is. One of the first standing
armies of which we hasve any account, is that of Philip of Macedon. The
first standing army, existing as such, in modern times, was maintained in
France by Charles VII. in 1445. Standing armies were introduced by
Charles I. in 1638; they were deelared illegal in England, 31 Charles II.
1679. The chief European nations have hacl in their service the following
armies: Spain 150,000 men; Great Britain. 810,000; Prussia, 350,000; Turkey, 450,000; Austria,; 00,000; Russia, 560,000; and France, 680,000.
ARMY, BRITISH. Statenment of the effective military strength of the United Kingdomn at the decennial periods respectively mentioned, and of the sums vote(d
for military expenditure, drawn from parliamentary returns and other official
records:
1780, Time of war; troops of the line. amount 110,000 men.. sum voted ~7,8-7,000
1S00, War.. ditto 16S,000 men. ditto 17,973,000i
18130, Wvar; army, including foreign troops ditto 300,000 men... ditto 26,7418,00C
1815, Last year of the war... litto 300,000 men. ditto 39,150,000
1820, Time of peace; war incumbrances ditto 89,100 men.. ditto 18,253,000
1830, Peace... ditto 89,300 men.. ditto 6,991,000
In 1845, the army, of all ranks, nlumbered 100,011 nen; and the sunl voted
was ~4,487,753. See M7iliitia and Vohbstteess.
;sSSS j DICTIONALrY O]P DAT:ES,. 77
ARTILLERY. The lirst piece was a smnall one, contrived by Schwartz, a German cordlelier, soon after the invention of gtunpowder, in 1330. Artillery
was used, it is said, by the 3Mfoors at Algoesiras, in Spain. in the siege of
1384:1 it wasI used, according to our historians, at the battle of Cressy, in
13146, when Edward III. had four pieces of' cannon. which cfained him the
battle. We had artillery at the siege of Calais, 1847. Thle Venitians first
emiployed artillery against the Genoese at sea, 1377.-Voltai'e. Cast in
EnLgland, together with mortars for bomb-shells. by Flemish artists in Sussex,
1543-.-Ryafer's z1de'ca. Alade of brass, 1635; improvements by Brsowne,
1728. See- Iron.
AIRTS. See LiteracttLce. In the eig-hth century, the whole circle of sciences w as
complosed of these seven liberal arts, namnely —grlammar, rhetoric, logic,
arlithmetic, music, geometry, aLnd astronoImy.-Hca,?-is. The Royal Society
of' England (which see) obtainecl its cllharter April 2, 1663. The Society of
Arts to promote the polite arts, comlllmece, manufactures, and mnechallics,
wAa,s instituted in 1754; it originatedi in the patriotic zeal of Mr. Shipley, anc
of its first president, lord Folkstone. TIhe first public exhibition by the
artists' of the British metropolis took place in 1760, at the srooms of this
society, and was repeated there for several years, till, in process of time, the
Royal Academy was foundedl. See RGoytal Acadcl?/, The Society of British Artists was instituted May 21, 1823, and their first exhibition w as opened April
19, 1824.-See Br'itisli Ailsena; Britisrh / Is Jtitteior; actioatl GallerJ, L4c.,IRUND]ELIAN MARBLES; containing the chronology of ancient history fioml
1582 to 355 r. c., and said to have been sculptnied 264 B. c. They consist of
87 statues, 128 busts, ani 250 inscriiptions, and were -found in the Isle of
Paros, in the reign of Janmes I., about 1610. They were purchased by lord
Arlndel, and given to the unisrersity of Oxfordl, 1627. T'he characters are
Greek. of liich there are two translations: by Seldef, 1628; by Psideai.,
1676.-See Kdld's Tracts; and Porsso's Ti-catiSC, 1789.
ASCALON, BATTLE OF; i wich Ricllhardcl I. of Engiand, commllnanding the Christian forces. defeated the sultan Saladin's army of 300,000 Saracens and other
infidels. No less than 40. 00 of the enemy were left dead on the field of
battle; and the victoious Richardcl marched to Jerusalellm, A. D. 1192.-R/'!Zc'sr.
A6SH-WEDNESDAY. The primitive Christians lid not commence their Lent
until the Sunday, now called the first in Lent. Pope Felix I1I. in t. D. 487,
first addedl the four clays preceding tlhe old Le-nt Sunday, to complete the
snumber of t'asting' days to forty; Gregory the Great intr oducecd the splrinkling of ashes on the fIrst of the four addlitional days. ancd hence the ncamle of
Dies Cir1mC'sc, or Ash-Wednesday: at the Refollrmation this practice was
abolished,' as being a mere shadow; or vain show."
ASIA; so called by the Greeks, from the nymph Asia, the cdaughter of Oceanus
and Tethys, a.nld wife of Japhet. Asia was the filst quarter of the world
peopled; here the law of GOD was first promulgated; here many of the
greatest monarchies of the,earth had their rise; and fioll henlce most of
the arts and sciences have been clerived.-Pardois.
_SPERNE, B.TvrTF OF, between the Austrian armly uncder the archdiuke Charles,
and the Fresnch, fouglht on the 21st May, 1809, ancl two following days. -In
this most san11ginary fight, thle loss of the former armwy exceeded 20,000
insl'n, inc t~1e loss of the French was msore than 30,000: it ended in the defeat
of Bonaparte. who commnandled in person, and was the severest check that he
Ihacl yet received. The bridge of the Danube was cdestroyed, and his retreat
endan-erled; but tl-e success of the Austrianrs had no beneficial effect on
the subsequent prosecCtion of the war.
ASSASSINATION PLOT. A conspiracy so called, fornmed by the earl of Aylesbury and others to assassinate king William III., near Richmond., Surrey, as
8*
178 ThE WORLLD'S PROGRESS. [ ASS
he came from hunting. The object of the conspiracy was to have been consummated February 15, 1695-6, but for its tinlely discovery by Prendergast.
-Hist. Enlglalnd.
ASSASSINS. A tribe in Syria, a famous heretical sect among the Mahometans,
settled in Persia, in A. D. 1090. In Syria, they possessed a large tract of land
among the mountains of Lebanon. They murdered the marquis of Montferrat in 1192; they assassinated Lewis of Bavaria in 1213; the khan of
Tartary was murdered in 1254. They were conquered by the Tartars in
1257; and were extirpated in 1272. The chief of the corps assulmed the
title of "Ancicnt of the Mo1n2tains."
ASSIENTO. A contract between the king of Spain and other powers, for furnishing the Spanish clominions in America with negro slaves. —Bu1n-he. It
began in 1689, and was vested in the South Sea Company in 1713. By the
treaty of Utrecht it was transferred to the English, who were to furnish
4800 negroes annually to Spanish Alnerica. This contract was given up to
Spain at the peace in 1748. See Guineca.
ASSIGNATS. Paper currency, to support the credit of the republic during the
revolution, ordered by the National Assembly of France, April, 1790. At
one periodl the enormous amount of eight milliarcls, or nearly 350 millions
of pounds sterling of this paper were in circulation in France and its depe?
dencies.-Alison.
ASSUMPTION. A festival observed by the church of Rome in honor of the
Virgin Mary, who, as the Catholics believe, was taken up to heaven in her
corporeal form, body and spirit, on August 15, A. D. 45. Mary is reported to
have been in her 75th year. The festival is said to have been instituted
in 813.
ASSURANCE. See Insul rence. The practice is of great antiquity. Suetonius
ascribes the contrivance to Claudius Cusar, A. D. 43. It is certain that assurance of ships was practised in the year 45. The first regulations concerning it are in the Len Ole'on, by which it appears to have been known in
Europe very generally in 1194. The custom of Lomlbard-street was made a
precedent for all policies at Antwerp, and in the Low Countries; but the
first statute to prevent fiauds fiom private assurers was made 43 Elizabeth,
1601.-MlolinerLux's Ler laeJeriatoricL.
ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. This is the earliest recorded empire-that of Bacchus
wanting records. It commenced under Ninus, who was the Jupiter of the
Assyrians, and the Hercules of the Chaldeans, 2069 B. c. It arose out of the
union of' two powerful kingdoms, Babylon and Assyria, or Nineveh, the latter
founded by Ashur, and ending with Sardanapalus, 820 B. c. When this lastnamed prince was conquered by Arbaees, he shut himself up in his palace,
with his concubines and eunuchs, and causing it to be set on fire, they all
perished in the flames. On the ruins of the empire were formed the Assyrians of Babylon, Nineveh, and the Median kingdom.-Lenglet.
The tower of Babel built.-Genesis x. Babylon and makes it the seat of her
6 x Xi. L.-Btlairt - - B-. c. 2247 dominion.-Leszglet - B. C. 2017
The kingdom of Babylon begins - 22i45 Semilamis invades Libya, Ethiopia,
Astronomical observations begun by and India.-Lenglet - -' - i.
the Chaldleans - 2234 The Arabs seize NIineveh - - -19'37
Belus reigns 55 years.- Ushe. 2124 1Belochus, the last kinog of the race of
Ninus, son of Belus, reigns in Assylia, Ninus. — Blair - - - -146
and naames his capital after himisceli- 2059) Ie makes his daughter, Artossa, surBabylon taken by Ninus, who, havin namled Semniramis II,, his associate
subdued the Armneniatns, Persians, onl the throne - -14133
Bactrians, and all Asia Minor, estab- Belatores reigns -. -1421
lishes what is properly the Assyrian * * *
monarchy, of whiclch Ninevehll was the The prophet Jonah appears in the
seat of empire.-Blair - - 2059 strets of Nineveh-Blai? - - 840
Semiramis enlarges and embellishes Nineveh taken by Arbaces.
~ ST ] THE WOEILD S PROGRESS. 179
ASSYRIA, PR1oPER. After the destruction of the first Assyrian monarchy, Phul,
the last king's son, was raised to the throne by the Ninevites, 777 B. c., and
the kingdom continued until 621 B. c., when Sarac, or Sardanapalus II., being
besieged by the Medles and Babyloniains, put his wife and children to death,
and burnt himself in his palace, a fate somewhat similar to that of Sardanapalus I. See recedi'ng aertricle. Nineveh was then razed to the ground,
and the conquerors divided Assyria.-Blabir. It was finally conquered by
the Turks in 1637 A. o.-P- iestlIey.
Phul raised to the throne, about the Sennacherib invades Judea, and his geyear.-Blair - - B..' 777 neral, Rabshalket, besieges Jerusat-e invades Israel, but departs without le,i when the aneel of the Lord in one
drawing a sword.-Blair; 2 KIing's night destroys 18O,000 of his army.xv. 19, 20 - - 770 Isaiah xxxvii. - B. C. 710
Tielath-Pileser invades Syria, takes [Comnmentators suppose that this mesDamascus, and makes great con- senlger of death was the fatal blast
quests.. - 740 known in eastern countries by the
Shalmanezer takes Samaria, transports name of Samiel. ]
the people, whom he replaces by a Esar-haddon invades Judea, and takes
colony of Cutheans and others, and Babylon.-Blair - - 690
thus finishes the kingdom of Israel. I-Is invades Judea -Blair -. - 677
-Blair - - - - 721 Holofernes is slain by Judith - - 677
tIe retires from before Tyre, after a Saosduchinus reigns.- Usher 6 - 667
siege of five years.-Blair 713 Ninevelh taken, anld razed to the ground' 621
ASTROLOGY. Judicial astrology was invented by the Chaldeans, and hence
was transmitted to the Egyptians, Greeks, and Ronmans. It was much in
vogue in France in the time of Catherine de MAedicis, 1533.-3 lenaclt. The
early history of astrology in England is very little known: Bedle was addicted
to it, 700; and so was Roger Bacon, 1260. Cecil, Lord Burleigh, calculated
the tiativity of Elizabeth; and she, and all the European princes, were the
humble servants of Dee, the astrologer and conjurer. But the period of the
Stuarts was the acmie of astrology in England.-Sir Walter Scott has made
ample use of sir William Lilly, the noted astrologer, in his tales of this
period; and it is certain that Lilly was consulted by Charles I. respecting
his projected escape from Carisbrook castle in 16347.-Perxsol.
ASTRONOMY. The earliest accounts wre lhave Qf this science are those of
Babylon, about 2234 u. c. —Blair. The study of astroonomy was much advanced in Chaldtea under Nabonassur; it Jwas known to the Chinese about
1100 u. c.; some say many centuries before. Lunar eclipses were observed
at Babylon with exceeding accuracy, 720 B. c. Spherical form of the earth,
and the true cause of lunar eclipses, taught by'Thales, 640 a. c. Further
discoveries by PIyt/atgoercas, who taught the doctrine of celestial motions, and
believed in the plurality of habitable worlds, 500 B. c. Hfippjrcrchcas began
his observations at Rllodes, 167 B. c.-began his newv cycle of the moon in
143, and muade great advances in the science, 140 B. c. The precession of
the equinoxes confirmed, and the places and distances of tle planets discovered, by PtoteMy, A. D. 130. After the lapse of nearly seven centuries, during
which time astronomy was neglected, it was resumed by the Arabs about 800;
and was afterwards brought into Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain,
but not sooner than 1201, when they also introduced geography.
The Alphonsine tables (zohich see) were The transit of Venus over the sun's disk
composed - - - D. 1284 first observed by Horrox, Nov. 24 A.D. 1639
Clocks first used in astrononm-y, about - 1500 Cassini draws his meridian line, after
True doctrine of the miotions of the pla- Dante.-See Bologna - - - 16;55
netary bodies reviedil by Copecrnicus 1530 The aberration of the lilght of the fixed
The science greatly advanced oby Tycllo stars discovered by Ilorrebow - 1659
1tralhe, about - - 1532 Discoveries of Picart - - - 1669
True laws of the planetary motions, by Map of the moon constructed by HeveKepler - - - 1619 lius -1670
Telescopes and other instruments used Motion of the sun round its own axis
in astronomy, about - - 1627 proved by Halley - - - 1676
The discoveries of Galileo were made Discoveries of Huygens - - 1686
about - - - 631 Newton's Principia published, and thb
180 THIE'WORLD S PROGRESS. [ AT-i
ASTRONOLY conltitnted.
system as now taught incontrovertibly Iterschel, March 13-See Geor'iszns
established -A. D. 1687 S'icls -.-17.
Catalogue of the stars made by Flam- Ie'1cancsiqtue Celeste, published by La
stead -1688 Place - - 1796
Satellites of Saturn, &c. discovered by Ceres discovered by Piazzi, Jan. 1 - 01
Cassini - - — 1701 PI'allas, by Dr. Olbers, March 2 - 1802
Aberration of the stars clearly explained Junlo, by Harding, Sept. 1 - - 10'-1
by Dr. Bradley. - - 1737 Vesta, by Olbers - - - 18
Celestial inequalities found by La Neptune, by Le Verrier
Grange - -1780 Uniied States astronomical expedition
Uranus and satellites discovered by to the SouthItemisphere, under Lieut.
Gillies, left Baltimore July 18 - 1- 19
The distance of the fixed stars is supposed to be 400,000 timels greater froins
us than we are from the sun, that is to say, 8S millions of millions of mniles;
so that a cannon-ball would take near nine millions of years to reach one of
them, supposing there were nothing to hinder it fiom pursuing its course
thither. As light takes about eight lminutes and a quarter to reach us frioln
the sun, it would be about six years in coming from one of those stars; bIlt
the calculations of later astronomcrs prove some stars to be so distlant that
their light niust take centuries before it cain reach us; and that every particle of light which enters our eyes left the star it comes firom three or four
hundred years ago. —Objccts of Scieatce.
ASYLUMS, OR PI)IILEcED PLACES. At first they were places of refstge for
those who, by accidclent or necessity had dcone things that rendered thess
obnoxious to the law. God commaianded the Jews to build certain cities for
this purpose. The posterity of Hercules is said so have built one at Althenl,
to protect themselves against such as their father had irritated. Cadlmus
built one at The bes aud Romulus one on ilount t Palatine. A while after the
comilig of Christianity into Englandcl, superstitious veneration ran so high,
thlat churches, mlonasteries, Clurch-yarcds, and bishops' hotlses becaime asylunms to all that fled to themnl, let the crime lbe what it would; of' which vei,
ill use was made, both by the clergy and laity. In London persons wsre
sec-ure from arrest in particular localities: these were tihe Minories, Saiisbury-court, Whitefriars, Fulwood's-rents, Mlitre-court, Baldc inl's-gardens
the Savoy, Cliniz, Iealsdman's-place, Montaranue-close, and thle Aint. I'lhs
security was abolished A.n. 1(;60; bltt tile last was not wh0olly suppressed
until the reign of George I.-See Porivileced Places andac SaCCcftca'ics.
ATHANASIAN CREED AND CONTROVERSY. The great controversy regardling the divinity of Christ, arose and extended between A. D. 333 and 351
Atllanasius, who was a native of Alexandtia, encounterecd great persecutioi
at the hasnds of' tle Arians for his reSligious cloctrines, and was exiled fti
them again ancd agaain. The creecl which goes by his namnae is suplposed by
most authorities to haave beeon w ritten about the yearL 340; but it is afrltelladby other writers to be the compilation of an Afitican bishtop in the fifth century. Die Piet.
ATHEISM. This absurd doctline has had its votaries and its martyrs. Spinosa, a foreigner, was its noted defendlel in the 17th centuiy. Lucilio Vanini
publicly tautght atheism in France, aild awas condemned to be bulrnt at To,
lotse in 1619. Mathias Knutzen, of'Holstein, opaenly professecl atheism; aind
had upwarcds of a thousandcl disciples in Ger-laany about i 67; he tiravelled
to imake proselytes, and his Sollowers were called Coulsciccia.ess, becaulse
they held that there is no other deity than conscience. c Many eminent mita
of various countries have been professors of Atheism, and even in Englasnd
we have had writers tincturecd wtl ith it.- ic/trdso,, Ass. "As l.'llThough a small
draught of phlilosophy msay lead a mall into atheism, a decp dractugt wsill
certainly brinog him back agauin to the belief' of a Gocd." —t ovlt Bacon.' Si'
ATT ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 18
Diei qb'existcait pas il fauC'dr'it l'invente7:" If a God did not exist, it would
be necessary to invent one.- Voltcai'e.
ATHENZEA. These were great festivals celebrated at Athens in honor of
MIlinerva. One of them was called Panatllenmea, and the other Chalcea
they were first instituted by Erectheus or Orpheus, 1397 B. C.; and Theseus
afterwards renewed them, and caused them to be observed by all the people
of Athens, tile first every fifth year, 1234 B. c.-Plidtarclb.
Al'HENREUM. A place at Athens, sacred to Minerva, where the poets and
philosophers cleclaimed and recited their compositions. The most celebrated
Athenuca were at Athens, Rome, and Lyons: that of Rome was of great
beauty in its building, and was erected by the emperor Adrian, A. D. 125.Tillevoet's Life of AdriaCb.
ATHENS. The once celebrated capital of ancient Attica, whose magnificent
rLins vet attest its forller grancleul-the seat of' science and theatle of valo?'.
Th'lle first sovereign of whomll we have any knowlecdge is Ogyges, who reigned
in B3otia, and was master of Attica, then called Ionia. In his reign a deluge
took llace (by some supposed to be no othlier tlhan the universal deluge, or
iNoah's flood) that laid waste the country, in whlicl stte it remained two
hundred years, until the arrival of the Eyvptian Cecrops aind a colony, by
whom tile lancd was epeopled, and twelve cities founded, 1556 B. c. The first
state of Atllens was uncle sevenllteen ki:gs, comprising a period of 487 yearsl
but the'history of its first twelve mo1narchs is mostly ftbulous; in its second
state it vwas governed by thirteen perpetual archllons a period of 316 years; in
its tllirl1 state by seven decennial archons, whose rlule extended over 70 years,
and,c. lastly, il its fourth state by annual archllos, who ruled for G0 years.
Unlcder this demlocracy Atllhens became unrivallec, alnd herl people signalized
themselves by their valor, munitlcence, and cultaure of the iine arts; and
perhaps not one other single city in the world can boast, ill such a short
space of time, of so gleat a number of illustriolus citizens. The ancients, to
distinguish Atheins in a noorie peculiar illanner, called it Astit, one of the eyes
of Greelce.-PhlLtcLchA. The Venetians got possession of Athens in A. D. 1204,
and the Turks in 1687.-Piicstl ey. It becname the capital ofLivadia, a province of European Turley; anC is now that of the new kingdloill of Greece,
antd the seat of its legislature, established unlder King Otllo I.: January 25th,
1833. —Se Greece. For events in the history of Atheis, see Tabdes from
B. C. 1556 to a. c. 21.
ATMOSPHERsE. Po sidonius first calculated the height of the atmoslphere,
stating it to be 8030 staclia, nearly iagrieein- with our modernil ideas, about 79
B. c. Its weight was deterlmined by Galileo and Terricellius. about 1630;
its clensity and elasticity by Boyle; andl its relation to light anci sound by
Hoolke, Newton, and Derihalll. The comlposition of the atmosplhere was
ascertained by IITales, Black, Priestley, Scheele, Lavoisier, and Cavendish;
and its laws of refiaction were investigated by Dr. Bradley, 1737.
ATTAINDER, ACTS OF, have been passed in numerous reigns: two witnesses
in cases of high treason are necessary where corruption of blood is incurred,
unless the parlty accusetd sliall confess, or stand mute, 7 and 8 Williaill III.
1691-5.-5 Blatc4slcone. The attailnder of Lord Russell, who was beheaded in
Lincolsn's-inn-Fields, July, 21, 1683, was reversed unider William, in 1689.
The rolls anld records of the acts of attainder passed in the reign of king
Jamles II. were cancelled and publicly burnt, Oct. 2, 1695. Several acts were
reversed in subsequent reigns. Amlong the last acts so reversedc, not the least
interesting was -the attaint of the children of lord Eclwardi Fitzgerald (who
was implicated in the rebel0llion ii Ireland of 1798), July 1, 1819.
ATTILA, surnamled the:: Scouro e of God," and thus dlistinguishecd for his conquests and his crimes, ravaged all Europe, A. D. 447. He invaded the Ro
182 T'I-LE WORLD'S PRO0GRESS. [ AUG
man empire writh an arlmy of 500 000 Huns, and laid waste all the provinces.
He died on the night of his nuptials -with a beautiful virgin named Ildico,
about A. D. 453. —- Gods/mitl/.
ATTORNEY-GENERAL. A great officer of the crown, appointed by letters
patent. It is among his duties to exhibit informations aud prosecute for
the king in matters criminal; and to file bills in Exchequer, for any claims
concerning the crown. in inheritance or profit; and others may bring bills
against the king's attorney. The first Attorney-General was William lde
Gisilham, 7 Edward I. 1278.-Bceatson.
ATTORNEYS. The number practising in Edward III.'s reign was under 400
for the whole kingdom. In the 32d of HIenry YI. 1454, a law reduced the
practitioners in Norfolk, Norwich, and Suffolk, from eighty to fourteen, and
restricted their increase. The number of attorneys now practising inl Englancl, or registered, or retired, is about 13,000. The number sworn, and
practising or retired. in Ireland, is stated at 2000. A list of 19,527' pr.acis-'ing1 lwycr s" in the United States is given in the Lcawyer's Directowy, 1850.
ATTRACTION. Copernicus described attraction as an appetence or appetite
which the Creator impressed upon all parts of matter, about 1520. It was
described by Kepler to be a corporeal affection tending to union, 1605. In
the Newtoeian philosophy, it is an original power which restores lost motion;
a principle whereby all bodies mutually tend to each other.-See AstrvoJntomy.
AUCTION, a kind of sale known to the Romans. The first in Britain was
about 1700, by Elisha Yale, a governor of Fort George, in the East Indies, of
the goods he had hrought homle wvith him. Auction and sales' tax began, 1779.
AUERSTADT, BATTLE OF. In this most sanguinary conflict between the French
and Prussian armies, they werse commanded by their respective sovereigns,
and Napoleon obtained a deci-sive victory. The Prussians were routed on
every side, and lost 200 pieces of cannon, thirty standards, and 28,000 prisoners, leaving 30,000 slainr upon the field, Oct. 14, 1806. The French
emperor immliediately afterwarids enteredc Berlin, fiom whence he issued. his
lmemorable Berlin decree.-See Bt/'li? Decree.
AUGSBURG CONFESSION or FAITH. The confession of articles of fith
dlraw n up at Augsburg by Melancthon, and by himl and Luther presented te
the emperor Charles V. in 1530. It was divided into two parts, the first
consisting of twenty-one articles, and the second of seven, directly opposed
to the abuses that had crept inlto the Chulrich of Rome. The elector of Saxony, his son, and several other princes of' Germany, signed this confession,
which was d'elivered to the emperor in the palace of the bishop of Augsburg, and hence it is called the Confession of Augslburg.
AUGSBURG, EFAGUE OIr. A mlemorable treaty concluded between Hollanfl
and other Eur opean powers, which lhacd for its obiject the causing the treaties of Munster and Nimeguen to be respectecd, 1686.-See MiJnstcr and Ni-??Ze uCe'l.
AUGURY. Husbleandry was in part reg-ulatecl by the coming or going of birds,
long before the time of Hesiocl. Agurs instituted at Rome, with vestals
and several orders of the priesthood, by Nulal, 710 u. c. There wras a COlnmIunity of them, appointed to foretell events by the flig'ht of birds. and
other circumstances. The king Car, fi'oiw whom Caria inl Asia:Minor is
namled, was the inventor of augurT by blirds.-Toussints. The augurs of'
Rome drewl' omlIs hfrom t le phenonmena of the hlea'vens, the chirping and
flight of lbirds, and various strange casualties.-Livy.
AUGUST. The eighth month of the year. It was dedicated to the honor of
Ang-ustus Casar, friom whom it was named in the year 8. c., because in
this imont-h lie was bolrn, was created consul, or chief magistrate, thrice
AIS ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 183
triumphed in Rome, subdued Egypt to the Roman empire, and made an
end of the civil wars. It was previously called Sextilis, or the sixth from
Mlarch.
AUSTERLITZ, BATTLE OF, between the French and Austrian armies, gained by
tlhe former. Three emperors commanlded at this battle. Alexander of Russia, Francis of Austria, and Napoleon of France. The killed and wounded
exceecled 40,000 on the side of the allies, who lost, besides, forty standards,
150 pieces of cannon, and many thousands of prisoners. This decisive victory of the French led to the treaty of Presburg, which was sig'ned Dec. 26,
same year. The battle was fought Dec. 2, 1805. See Ps'esbzrtg.
ATUSTRALASIA, includes New Holland, Van Diemen's Land, New Guinea,
New Britian, New Zealandcl, &c., mlostly discovered within two centuries. Of
a population of twenty-two millions, the native inhabitants are not supposecl
to exceed one hundred thousand. Several settlements froml Europe have
been made since the commllencement of' the present century. Act to provide for the go.vernment of Western Australia, 10 George IV. 1829. Act
to erect South Australia into a British province, 4 and 2 William IV. 1834.
New act, 5 and 6 William IV. 183iS5. Several companies and institutions connected with Australia hasve lately been formedl in London.
A.JSTRIA, anciently the Belgic Gaul of the Romans. It was taken froim Hungary and annexed to Germany, when it received its present name, about.. D.
1040. This ras after Charlemaglne had re-established the Western Empire,
Austria being a part of xrwhat xwas called Eastern France, which its namel in
the German langauagte iimplies.
Itodolphi, count of tIapsburg, seizes The emperor issues his declaration
Austria firom iBohemia, anrd makes against France - - Au. 5, 1805
himliself archduke - 1273 Napoleon, after many victories. enters
RIevolt of' Switzerland fi'om the house Vienna - - Nov. 14,1805
of Austria, in the reign of Albert I. - 1307 Vienna evacuated by the French,
Albert 1I. dulke of Austria, succeeds to Jan. 12, 1806
three crowns-the imperial, and They again capture it - MIay 13, 1809
those of IIsn-ary antd ohlemia; his But restore it at the peace Oct. 24, 1809
family still possess the empire, - 1438 Napoleon marries the archduclless
Burgundy accrues to Austria by the i Maria Iouisa, the daughter of the
iuarria-e of' Maximilian with the' emperor April 1, 1810
heiZess of that province - 1477 Congress at Vienna Oct. 2, 1814
Also Spain, by the marri.ge of Philip Treaty of Vienua. eb. 25, 1815
i. ol' Austria wvith the heiress of Ara- Death of Francis I., and accession of
gon and Castile - - - 14,1 Ferdinand - - March 2, 1835
CIarlces V. reigning over Germany, New treaty of conmmierce with England
Austria, Bohemia, Itutalyar, Slain, Jlly 3,1833
tie Netherlandlllls. and their dependen- Ferdinandl is crowned with great splencies, abdicates, andl retires fi-om the;dor at M1illn Sept. 6,1838
woric, leavint his German dominions Tumnult at Vienna, agitation for roeto ihis brother Ferldinandand Spain fob s; Metternich resigns and flies;
and the Netherlands to his son, Philip freedom of the press and national
II.-See SIpaine - 1557 guard oranted by the emperor
The Protestant princes of Germany, a yMarch 13, 1848
being oppressed by the house of Aus- The emperor publishes, at MIilan, abotria, call in the aid of Gustavus Adol- lition of the censorship and convenphus of Swreden, and this leads to the tion of the states; the people demand
treaty of WVestphaliat - - - 168 more, and are refstted March 18,
Leopold I reigns. —See Gelzaniy - 1658 Mlilan revolts, and contends successflully
Accession of Ftrancis, duke of Lorraine, with the soldiery - March 23,
who marries the celebrated queemn ofi Austrians retire to Manltua; Milan enIfungary, T!aria Theresa., datughter of tered by Charles Albert of' Sardinia
the deceased elmperor, Charles VI. - 1745 March 23,
Reign of Joseph II. - - 1765 Iomardy and the Tyrol in rebellion
nteligious toleration g'ranted - 1776 Mtarch,
T'he emperor controls the pope - 1782 The emlaperor retires to Innsbruclc
1leign of I,eopold II. - 1790 May 18, "
Reign of IFrancis II. - 1792 Austrian army under Radetsky holds in
Austria becomes a distinct empire, and clleck Charles Albert of Sardinia, in
Francis II. of Germany takes the title Lotnbaurdy - - May- -
of I. of Austria - Aug. 9, 1804 Is deieated and driven to Mantua May 29, "
184 THE WORL)D S PPROGRESS. A az
AUSTRIA, contsiqnted.
Diet of the Croatian-Sla-vonic nation Ferdinand I. abdicates; his brother,
summoned by tile Ban of Croatia Francis Charles, declines the throne;
1May 20, 1848 it is taken by his son, Francis Joseph
Insurrection at.Rome; order re-esta- Dec. 2, 184E
blished after bombardmient, June 12-15" The emperor gives a neow constitution'
Vicenza and 1Padlua subdued by Ra- tIarch 4-l, 1849
detslky June " Iaynan takes Brescia, aftier great
Mfilan retaken Autg. 4, slaughter, and sacks it March 30,
The emperor returns to Vienna " 12, " Bologna taken, alter a siege of 8 days
Insurrection at Vienla; Count Latour, hIay 16,
minister of var kiilled by the mob; IHaynau takes comnmand of the Austhe diet demands the retraction of the trian army in Huntary June —,
measures a-asinst H-ung'ary, and a Ancona taken, after bombardmlent
new ministy,; the eimperor flies Junle11,'
Oct. 6, " Venice taken by Radetsky Aug. 22,
Thle Itunarian army advanced within Ihungarialn war finishlled by the surrensix miles of Viellsat - Oct. 1, " tier of Glirgey Au. 11,
Prince VWindisch-ratz appointed cotn- Followed by nusmerous executionts.
mtander-in-clhief, Oct. 16; and be- See Getrma-ty, VietrCa, &c.
siegres Vienna, 1l7th; bomtbards the
city and mlasters it Nov. 2, "
Before the establishment of the Confeideration of the Rhine in 1806, Francis ceased to be emperor of Germany, and became hereditary emperor of
Austria, under the title of Francis I. Upon the formation of the Germante
Confederation in 1815, the emperor of Austtia was dleclared herecitary head
of that body.
AUTHORS. For laws securing copyright, see Copyright and L iiterar Propesty.
AUTO DA F:E. See Inoqsuisitione. The punishment, often by burning alive, of
a heretic. This is called atn act of Faith, and is coeval with the Inquisition;
and since its first practice in A. D. 1203, mi-ore than one hundred thousand
victims have been sacrificecl by the sentence of the Incquisitions of Roman
Catholic countries on the burning' pile. One of the last executions of thtis
kind was at Goa, where, for the glory of the Chlllistiant religion (!) and in
vindication of the Catholic faith. twrenty sufferer s perished in the flames,
1787. These horrible sacrifices have ceased in Spain.-As/se.
AVIGNON, ceded by Philip III. of France to the Pope in 1273. The papal seat
was removed for seventy years to Avignon, in 1308. It was seized several
times by the French, by whomr it was taken friom the pope in 1769, but was
restored on thse suppression of the Jesuits, 1773. Declared to belong to
France by the National Assembly, 1791. -Iorriible msassacres in October of
that year. Continued to France by the Congress of sovereigns, in 1815.
AXE, WEDGE, WIMBLE, &c. These instruments, with the lever, and various others of a coarse construction, and still in commlllon us'e, are said to
have been invented by Dmdalls, an artificer of Athens, to whom also is
ascribed the invention of masts and sails for ships, 1240 3. c.
AZORES, on WESTERN ISLES, supposed to be the site of the ancient Atalantis: they were discovered by VaLndenburg, A. D. 1439; and were settiled
by the Portuguese, in 1448. MIartin Behem found one of them covered with
beech-trees, and he called it thelrefore Fc.ayal; another abounding in sweet
flowels, and he therefore called it FPlores; and all full of hawkls, and he
therefore named them thle Azores. A violent concussion of tl;he earth took
place here for twelve clays, in 1591. A devastating earthquake, in 1757.
Here are fountains of boilin-g water. A volcano at St. George's c destroyed
tihe town of Ursulina. MAay, 1808; and in 1811, a volcano appeared near St.
Mltichael's in the sea,, where the water was eighty fathoms deep. An island
called Sabrilla gradlually disappeared, Dec. 1812.
IAC 1 DICTIONARY O DATES, 185
B.
BABEL, THE TOWER or, built by Noah's posterity, 2247 B. c. The temple of
Belus, originally this celebrated tower, was the most magnificent in the
world; it had lofty spires, and was enriched with many statues of gold, one'of them forty feet high. In the upper part of this temple was the tomb of
the founclder, Belus (the Nimrod of the sacred ScriptU-res), who iwas deified
after death; and in an adjoining apartment was a magnificent bed, whither
the priests daily conducted a ibmale, who, as they pretended, was there
honored with the company of the god.-Blai'r.
BABINGTON'S CONSPIRACY, formed in the cause of Mary against Elizabeth,
for which the chief conspirator, with thirteen others, suffered death. Babington was a gentleman of Derbyshire, and he associated with persons of his
own persuasion (the Roman Catholic), with a design to assassinate the
queen, and deliver Mary. He seems to have been principally induced to
this rash conspiracy by a romantic hope that Mlary, in gratitude, would
accept of him as a husband. 1586.
BABYLON, EMPIRE OF, founded by Belus, supposed to be the Nimrod of holy
writ, the son of Chus, and grandson of Ham, 2245 a. c.-Leng-let. Ninus of
Assyria seized on Babylon, and established what was properly the Assyrian empire, by uniting the two sovereignties, 2059. c. According to
Eusebius this emlpire existed 1240 years; according' to Justin, 1300 years;
according to Herodotus, 500 or 600 years. Of these opinions Blair has
adopted the first, which calculates from the foundation of the empire by
Ninus, B.C. 2059, to the close of the reign of Sardanapalus, who was cethroned by his generals, and his kingdoim divided into the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Median kingdoms, 820 E. c.-See Assyria.
The tower of Babel built B. c. 2247 and names his capital after himself,
The kingdom of Babylon begins - 2245 Ninevteh.-Lenglet -. c. 2069
Ashur builds a city, afterwards called Babylon taken by Ninus - 2059
Nineveh -- - 2245 The Assyrian empire ends - 820
The astronomical observations are be- Belesis governs in B'abylon - 766
gun at Babylon by the Chaldeans.- Babylon talken by LEsar-huaddon 680
Blair; Les.glet - - 2234 Nebuclhadnezzar reigns - - 604
Belus, kinag of Assyria, extends hlis emr- lIe takes Jerusalem. -Leglet 587
pire over the neig-hboring states, dce- He is driven firom among mnen 569
feats the Babylonians, and malkes Babylon talken by the Aiedes and Perthem tributary.- Usher - - 2124 sians, under Cyrus - - - 53
Ninus, son of Belus, reigns in Assyria, Taken by Darius.- Us/' - - 51
The city of Babylon was, anciently, the most llagnificent in the world; and
in later times famous for the empire established under the Seleucidmc. Its
greatness was so reduced in succeeding ages, that Pliny says, in his time it
was but a desolate wilderness; and at present the place where it stood is
scarcely known to travellers.-Rolli'a's Asecienlt Hist.
BACCHANALIA, games celebrated in honor of Bacchus. They arose in
Egypt, and were brought into Greece by Melampus, and were there called
Diosslsia, about 1415 n. c.-Diodor's. They were celebrated in Rome under
the name of Bacclhacalica.
BA.CHELORS. The Roman censors frequently imposed fines on unmnarried
men;'and men of full age were obliged to marry. The Spartan women at
certain games laid hold of old bachelors, dragged them round their altars,
and inflicted on them various muarks of inlfamy acld disgrace.- Vossi7cs. After
twenty-five years of age, a tax was laid upon bachelors in England, 121. 10s.
for a duke, andcl for a common person, one shilling, 7 Williamn III. 1695.
Bachelors were subjected to a double tax on their nmale and female servants,
in 1785.
BACKGAMMON. Palamedes of Greece is the reputed inventor of this game
(decidedly one of the oldest known to our times), about 1224 -. c. It is
186 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ BLR
stated by some to have been invented in Wales in the period preceding tlhe
Conquest.-HeqJy.
BADAJOS, SIEGE OF. This important barrier fortress had surrendered to the
French, Mlarch 11, 1811, and was invested by the British under lord Wellington on Mlarch 18, 1812, and stormed and taken on April 6, following.
Thils victory was not only a glorious military achievement in itself, but it
obliged the French, who had entered Portugal for the purpose of plunder,
to commence a precipitate retreat fiom that kingdom.
BADEN, HousE orF, descended from Herman, son of Berthold I. duke of Zahringen; who died A. D. 1074. From Christopher, who united the branches
of Hochberg and Baden, and died in 1527, proceed the branches of Baden —
Baden, and Baden-D)ourlach. This family makes a most conspicuous figure in
the annals of Germlany, and is allied to all the principal families in the empire.
BADEN, TREATY or, between France and the emperor, when Landau was
ceded to the former, Sept. 7, 1714. Baden was formerly a marglravate; it
was erected into a grand duchy, as a member of the Rhenish Confederation,
in 1806. Its territorial acquisitions by its alliances with France, were guaranteed by the congress of Vienna, in 1815. The grand Duke granted his
people freedom of the press, a burgher guard, trial by jury, and the right
of public meeting, Feb. 29. Troops revolt at Rastadt, May, 1849. Insurrection at Carlsrue; —the grand Duke flees, May 13, 1849. Insurrection
subdued by the Prussians, June, 1849.
BAFFIN'S-BAY, discovered by William Baffin, an Englishman, in 1616. The
nature and extent of this discovery were much doubted until the expeditions
of Ross and Parry proved that Baffin was substantially accurate in his statement. These voyagers returned home in 1818. See article Nortl/ West
Passage.
BAGDAD, built by Almansor, and made the seat of the Saracen empire, A. O.
762-taken by the Tartars, and a period put to the Saracen rule, 1258. It
has since been often taken by the Persians, and. from them again by the
Turks.-Blcair.
BAGPIPE. This instrument is supposed by some to be peculiar to Ireland a-d
Scotland; but it must have been known to the Greeks, as, on a piece of
Grecian sculpture of the highest antiquity, now in Rome. is represented a
bagpiper dressed like a modern highlander. Nero is said to have played
upon a bagpipe, A. D. 51.
BAHAMA ISLES. These were the first points of discovery by Columbus.
San Salvador was seen by this great navigator on the night of the 11th October, 1492.-The Bahamas were not known to the English till 1667. Seized
for the crown of England, 1718, when the pirates who inhabited themn surrendered to Captain Rogers.
BAIL. By ancient common law, before and since the Conquest, all felonies
were bailable, till murder was excepted by statute; and by the 3d Edward
I. the power of bailing in treason, and in divers instances of felony, was laken
away, 1274. Bail was further regulated, 23 HIenry VI.; 2 Philip and Maury,
and in later reigns.
BAILIFFS OR SHERIFFS, are said to be of Saxon origin. London had its s/ir'erecve prior to the Conquest, and this officer was generally appointed for
counties in England in 1079. Sheriffs were appointed in Dublin under the
name of bailiffs, in 1308; and the name was changed to sheriff. 1548. There
are still some places where the chief-llagistrate is called bailiff, as the high
bailiff of Westminster. The term Butn-bailiffis a corruption of bound-bailiff,
every bailiff being obliged to enter into bonds of security for his good behavior.-Blac/cstone.
BAL DICTIONARY OF DATES. 187
BALANCE or POWER, to assure the independency and integrity of states, and
control ambition; the principle is said to be a discovery of the Italian politicians of the fifteenth century, on the invasion of Charles VIII. of FranceRobeitson. By the treaty of Mlunster, the principle of a balance of power
was first recognized by treaty October 24, 1648.
BALLADS. They may be traced in British history to the Anglo-Saxons. —
2Tinlner. Anllclhele, who died A. D. 709, is mentioned as the first who introducecd ballads into England. "The harp was sent round, that those might
sing- who could.;'-Bede. Alfred sung ballads.-.M3Cldlsb'ry~J. Canute composed one.-Tnneer. Minstrels were protected by a charter of Edwardl IV.;
but by a statute of Elizabeth they were made punishable ansong rogues,
vagabonds, and sturdy beggars.- Viner.
BALLADS, NATIONAL. " Give ule the writing of the ballads, and you may
malke the laws."-flletcer' of Sciltoeb. A British statesman has said, " Give
ume the writing of the ballads of the country, and while I place at youi conmmancl every other species of comllposition, I will fix public opinion, and rule
public'feeling-, and sway the popular sentiment, more powerfully than all
your writers, political and moral, call do by any other agency or influence."
The beautiful and fiequently touching ballads of Dibdin, particularly those
of the sea, inspired lssany a brave defender of his country in the late war;
Dibdin died Jan. 20, 1833.:BALLETS. They arose in the meretricious taste of the Italian courts. One
performed at the interview between Hen. VIII. of Eng. & Francis I. of France,
in the field of the Cloth of Gold, 1520.-Gluiccic/lrdili. In the next century,
they reached the suinmit of their glory in the splendici pomps of the courts
of Tuscany and Lorraine; and their most zealous patron, Louis XIV., bore
a part in one, 1664.
BALLOON. Galien of Avignon wrote on aerostation, in 1755. Dr. Black gave
the hint as to hydrogen, in 1767. A balloon was constructed in France by
3'IMM. TMontgolfier, in 17803, wheln Rozier and the msarquis d'Arlandes ascended
at Paris. Pilatre Desrozier and M. RoLnain perished in an attemlpted voyage
frons Boulogne to Englancid, the balloon having taken fire, June 14, 1785. At
the battle of Fleurus, the French made use of a balloon to reconnoitre the
enemy's armiy, and convey the observations by telegraph, June 17, 1794.
Garnerin ascended in a balloon to the height of 4;000 feet,. and descended by
a parachute, Sept. 21. 1802. Cay-Lussac ascended at Paris to the height of
23.000 feet, Sept. 6, 1804. Maclame Blanchard ascended from Tivoli at night,
and the balloon, being surrounded by fire-works, took fire, and she was precipitated to the grounod, and killed, July 6, 1819.
BALLOON, TIIE NAsssu. The great Nassau balloon. of imniense dimensions,
anld wrhich had for sonime time previously been exhibited to the inhabitants
of London in repeated ascents from Vauxhall aardens, started fromn that
place on an experimsental voyage, having three individuals in the car, and,
after lhaving been eigohteen hours in the air, descended at Weilburg, in the
duchy of Nassau, Nov. 7, 1836.;'ALTIMORE, the third city in population and fifth in commerce in the United
States; foundlecl 1729; inamecl from lord Baltimore, the proprietor of the
Marlyl,ad patent. In 1765 it contained but 50 houses; charterecd as a city
in 1797. Population in 1790, 13.503; in 1810, 35.588; in 1830, 80:62.5; in
1840, 102:8 313, inclding 3,199 slaves. A hlandsomee imonlumsent in the city
commem oriat, e s its successful dcefence agminst the attack of the British unlder
general Ross, Sept. 12, 1814.
BALTDIMORE, BATTLE OF, between the British army under general Ross and
the seiicanss the British in umakiang an attack upon the town were unsuc
t88 TIEI S WOLD7S PROGRESS. L BAN
cessful, and after a desperate engagement were repulsed with great loss;
the gallant general who led the enLterprise was killed, Sept. 12, 1814.
BANK. T:le first established was in Italy, A. a. 800, by,the Iombard YJeTws, of
whom some settled in Lombaird-stieet, London, where many bankers still
reside. The nanme bank is cleivecld fiom?enco, a bench, which was erected
in the maraket-place fosr thle exchange of money. The lint in the tolwer!.f
London was anciently the depository for merchants' cash, until Charles I.
laid his hands upon the money, and dccstroyed tthe credit of the mint, in 1640.
The traderls i were thus dcrivenl to some other place of security for their gold,
which, when kept at home, their apprentices frequlently absconlecl with to
the arlmyr. In 1645, therefore, they consented to lodge it with the goldsmitiss
in Lombard-street, crwho wrere providcld with strlong chests for their own valuable wares; and this becam'e the origin of bankling in England.Bank of Venice lbrmed - - 1157 Bank of Hamburgh - 1619
Bank of Genea -. 1345 Bank of liotterdam - - 16t1
Bank of Barcelona -1401 Bank of Stockholmn L. -1683
Bank of Genoa 1407 Bank of1 ELnland - - 694
Bank of Amsterdam - 1607 Bank of the United States - 1791 and 1816
BANeK oi EANGLAND, (See p~'ecedciagr es/icc,) originally projected by a merchlat nanmeld Patterson. It was incorporated by Williamc III. in 1694, in coosiCderation of 1,200.0001., the then a'mount of its capital, being lent to goverinent. Thlle capital has gone on increasing fronm one periocd to another up
to the present time, as the discretion of parliament allowedcl; and the salBe
authority has also at diffLerent intervals prolonged the privileges of the bank,
and renewecl its charter. When first established the notes of the bank were
at 20 per cent. discount; and so late as 1745, they were under par. Bank
bills were paid in silver, 1745. The first balcnk post-bills were issuecd 1754;
small notes were issuec 1759; cash payiments were cliscontinued February 25,
1797, wlhen notes of one and c tao pounds were put into circulation. Silver
tokens appea ed in January, 1798; andl afterwarfds Spanish dollars, with the
head of Georgle IIi. stamlpecd oin the neck of Charles IV., were made current.
Cash paymenlts w-ere resueculed partially, Sept. 20,) 1817, ancd the restriction
had altogether ceased in 1821. For a numiber of years the financial tneasures of the crown have been largely aided by loans fi om this great reselvoir of vwealth. The average amlount of the 3Bank of Eanglandc notes in circulation is as follows:In 1718 (earliest account) - 1.829;930 In 1815 - ~26,803,20
1778 - 7,030,G80 1820 -. - 27,174,000
1790 - - - - 10,217,000 1830 - o - 20,620,00,
1800 - 15,450,000 1835 - 18,215,220
1810 - - - -23,904,000 1840 - - -17,231,000
The circulation of notes, in 18415, exceeded 27 millions, and tlhe bullion in
tlhe bank fluctuated between 15 and 16 scillilons. The retlurcns of issues, &c.
are now made weeldly. To secure the credit of the Bank it was enacted,
" that no other banking comepany should consist of more than six persons,"
6 Anne 1707. There are branch banks of the Bank of England in many of
tlhe chief towns of the kingdom; as Birmlingham, Bristol, Exeter, Gloucester, Hull, Leeds, Liverpool, IManchester, Newcastle, Norwich, Swvansea, &e..:
all formecd since 1828. See Fltnds.
BANK oP TrII UNITED STATES. flrst one establisled 1791. Cap. $10,000,000.
-A iewr one with cap. of ~853o.000.000, 1816. The tct of Congress recharterina' it vetoed by president; Jaclkson, July 10, 1882. The " removarl cf
tlhe deposiis " of the U. S. governlment foiom the batnlc, by order of president Jack.son, signed by R. B. Taney, secretary of the Treasuey, (IW. J.
D'eane thle late secretary lhaving refnusel to sigln the older,.) Sept. 23, 1833.
Resolution of tfhe Senate that the rellloval cwas nucalled for, and the responsibility assum'ecd by thle presiclenlt unconstitutional, &c., introcluced by Mi
BAP J DICTIONArIY OF DATES. 189
Webster and passed (26 to 20) March 28, 1884. Senate refused.c to enter on
their journal the president's protest'aoainst their resolution, May 7, 1884.
Noted resolution of the Senate "cxpungin g" fiom their journals their resolution of 1834, passed 24 to 19, Jan. 16 11873.-Sub-Treasury B3ill passed
Jain. 1840, repealed Aug. 9, 1841. The U. S. Bank newly incolrporated by
Pennsylvania, l\archl 29, 103 6: susplended payent Feb. 5, 1841. Bill Rbr
establishing a " Fiscal Bank of the U. S." passed the I-Iouse of RIepresentatives Aug. 6, 1841; vetoed by president Tyler Ang. 16. Another bill for a
"Fiscal Corporation " vetoed Sept. 9, 1841, followecl by a resignation of all
the Cabinet, except Mlr. Webster.
BANKRUPTCY. Suspension of specie payments by the banks of New England and New-York, M2ay 10-16, 1837;-legalized for one year by legislature of N. Y. Banks of Philadelphllia, Baltimore, &c., also suspended sanome
month. General bankruptcy law passed by Congress Aug. 9, 1841.
BANKRUPTS, IN ENGLAND, first law enacted regarding them, 85 Henry VIII.
1548. Again, 3 of Elizabeth, 1560; again, 1 James I. 1602; again, 1706;
and more recently. It was determined by the King's Bench that a bankrupt
may be arrested except in going and, coming from any examination before
the commissioners, May 18, 1780. The lord chancellor (Thurlow) refuseci
a bankrupt his certificate because he had lost five pounds at one time in
gailling, J:uly 17, 1788. Enacted that members of the house of comlmonls
becoming bankrupts, and not paying thleir debts in full, shall vacate their
seats, 1812. The new bankrupt bill, constituting a new bankrulpt court,
passed October 1.831 -S-ate/es at Lctrg'e.
NUMBEnR OF BANKRIUPTS IN GREAT BRITAIN AT DIFFERENT PERIODS.
1700 ~ - - - 3811800 - - - 1339 1830 - -1467
1725 - - - -416 1810 - 2000 1835 - - 954
1750 - - - 4:32 1820 - - -135 135 10 - - 1308
1775. 520 1825 - 2683 18-4 - - - 1064
According to a returiln to parliament made at the close of February 1826,
there had become bankrupt ins the fo-r iaOnttlts pnrecedigz, 59 banking-housles,
comprising 144 partners; and 20 otiler banking establishments had been
declared insolvent. Every succeeding week continued to add from seventy
to a hunidreci merchants, traders, and lmanu:facturers to the bankrupt list.
This was, however, the period of' bubble speculation, and of unprecedented
comilmercial embarrassmllent ancd ruin.
BANNOCKBURN, BATTLE Op, between king Robert Bruce, of Scotland,. and
Edward II. of England; the army of Bruce consisted of 80,000 Scots, and
that of Eclwrrd of 100,000 English, of whoml 52,000 were archers. The
Englishl crossed a rivulet to the attack, and iBruce having dug pits, which
he had covered, they fell into them, and were thrown into confusion. The
rout was comlplete, the king narrowly escaping, andcl 50,000 English wvere
killed or taken prisoners, June 25, 1314.-Baaboati.
BANNS. In the feudal law, banns were a solemn proclamation of any thing,
andcl hence arose the customll of asking banns, or giving notice before marriage.
The use of matrimonial banns is saidc to have been introduced into the CGallican church, about A. D. 1210; and banns of marriage are proclaimed in the
church of England to this day.
BAPTISM. The sacramlenlt of admission instituted by Christ and practised by
all sects professing Clristianity, except Qualters. St. Jolln, the forerunner
of our Saviour, is eminently called th/e Bapttist, as being the first that publicly
baptized v with a spiritual intention. Christ camlle froio Galilee to Jordan,
and was baptized by Johnl A. a. 30. Originally the people were baptized in
rivers; but in the reign of Constantine, A. D. 319, in great cities they built
chapels, or places specially to bap,-tize in, which in the eastern countries was
190 TEIE VORLLD S PROGRESS. L BAR
by dipping the person all over. Now, in the western and colder parts, they
use sprinkling; at first every church had not a baptistery belonging to it;
our fonts answer the same end.-Pardobn.
BAPTISTS, oR ANABAPTISTS, a sect distinguished from other Chiistians by their
opinions respecting baptism, began their doctrine about A. D. 1525, but much
ear-lier dates are mentioned. They suffiecrd much persecution in England in
the sixteenth century. Rhode Island, America, was settled by Baptists in
1635. Of Baptist missions. it may be said, that the Moravrian brethren led
the way to their benevolent enterprises, about 1732.-See A labacpists.
B ARBADOES, the first English settlement in the West Indies. This mother
plantation gave rise to the sugar trade in England about 1605; and was,
with other Caribbee islands, settled by charter granted to the earl of Marlborough, 2 Charles I. 1627. Barbadoes has suffered severely from elemental
visitations: in a dreadful hurricane in 1780, more than 4000 of the inhabitants lost their lives. A large plantation with all its buildings was destroyed,
by the land removing froniom its original site to another, and covering eveiy
thing in its peregrination, Oct. 1784. An inundation, Nov. 1795; and two
great fires, May and Dec. 1796. Awful devastation, with the loss of thousands of lives, and of immense property, by a hurricane, August 10, 1831.
The history of I/b/le anid Yar-ico, which Addison, in his Spectator, has.iecorded for the detestation of mankind, took its rise in this island.
BARBER. This trade was practised at Rome in the third century B. c. In
England, barbers formerly exhibited a eacd, or pole, at their doors; and the
barber's pole until lately used by them Awas a burlesque imitation of thle
former sign.
BARBER-SURGEONS. Formerly the business of a surgeon was united to that
of a barber, and he was denorminated a barber-surgeon. A company was
formed under this name in 1308. and the London company was incorporated,
1st Edward IV. 1461. This union of profession was dissolved by a statute
of Henry VIII.
BARDS. The profession of bard appeared with great lustre in Gaul, Britain,
and Ireland. Demodocus is mentioned as a bard by Homer; Alexander the
Great hacd a bard named Cherylus; and we fincd bards, according to Strabo,
among the Romans before the age of Augustus. The cldruis among the
English were philosophers and priests, anrcl the bards were their poets.
They were the recorders of heroic actions, in Ireland and Scotland, almnoK(:.
down to our own times. Ossian flourished in the third century, Merlin in
the fifth. The former speaks of a prince who kept a hundred bards. Irish
sonnets are the chief foundations of the ancient history of Ireland. —See
Ballads.
BARNET, BATTLE OF, between the houses of York ancl Lancaster, when Edward IV. gained a decisive and memorable victory over the earl of Whirwick, Easter-day, April 14, 1471. —Broofcs.
BAROMETERS. Torricelli, a Florentine, having discovered that no principle
of suction existed, and that water did not rise in a pump owing to nature's
abhorrence of a vacuumni, imitated the action of a pump with mercury, a -4
made the first barometer, in 1643, and Descartes explained the phenomenel.
Wheel barometers were contrived in 1668; pendant barometers in 1695;
marine in 1700.
kRONS. The dignity of baron is extremely ancient: its original name. in
England wvas Vac;vasour, xwhich, by the Saxons was changed iilto T/tzlt'e, and
by the Normans into Baron1. Many of this rank are named in the history of England, and undoubtedly had assisted in, or had been summone(
to parliament; but such is the deficiency of public records, that the fir.
AT ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 191
precept to be found is of no higher date than the 49th Henry III., 1265. The
first who was raised to this dignity by patent was John dce Beauchamp,
created Baron of Kidderminster, by Richard II., 1387. Barons first summooned to parliament, 1205. Took arms against king John, and compellecl him to sign the great charter of our liberties, and the charter of tile
forests, at Runnymccde, near;Vindsor, June 1215. Charles II. granted a
coronet to barons on his restoration: they attended parliament in complete
armlor in the reign of Henry III.-Bcaltson.
BARO)NETS, the first among the gentry, and the only knighthood that is hereditary: instituted by James I., 1611. The baronets of Ireland were created
in 1619. Baronets of Nova Scotia were created, 1625.
i3ARRISTERS. They are said to have been first appointed by Edward I.
about 1291; but there is earlier mention of professional advocates in England. There are various ranks of barristers, as King's Counsel, Sergeants, &c.
BAhRROW'S STRAITS. Discovered by Parry, who penetrated as far as Melville Island, in lat. 740 26' N., and long. 113~ 47' W. The strait was entered
on the 2cd August, 1819. The lowest state of the thermometer was 55~0
below zero of Fahrenheit.
BARTHOLOMEW, MASSACRE oF ST. This dreadful massacre in France commenced at Paris on the night of the festival of St. Bartholomew, August 24,
1572. More than seventy thousand Hugonots, or French Protestants, were
imurdered throughout the kingdom, by secret orders from Charles IX., at
the instigation of the queen-dowager, Catherine de Medicis, his mother.
The masaacre was attended with circumstances of demoniacal cruelty, even
as regarded the female and the infant.
BASTILE oF PARIS. A royal castle, built by Charles V. king of France, in
1369, et seq. for the defence of Paris against the English, completed in 1383.
It was afterwards used as a state prison, like the Tower of London, and became the scene of the most deplorable suffering and frightful crimes. It
was of such strength that Henry IV. and his veteran army assailed it in
vain in the siegoe of Paris, during the intestine war that desolated France
between the years 1587 and 1594; yet it was pulled down by the infuriated
populace, July 14, 1789, and thus was commenced the French revolution.
On the capture of this great monument of' slavery, the governor and other
officers were seized, and conducted to the Place de Gr6ve, and having had
their hands cut off, they were then beheaded. The furious citizens having
fixed their heads on pikes, carried them in triumph through the streets.
"The man 7with the iron mask," the most mysterious prisoner ever known,
cliedl here, November 19, 1703.-See Iroes M.askl.
BATAVIA. The capital of Java, and of all the Dutch settlements in the East
Indies, fortified by that people, 1618. Twelve thousand Chinese massacred
here in one day, 1740. Taken by the English, January, 1782. Again, by
the British, under general sir Samuel Auchmuty, to whom the garrison
surrendered, Aug. 8, 1811.
BRLTHS, long used in Greece, and introduced by M5 fcenas into Rome. The
therame of the Romans and gynmnasia of the Greeks were sumptuous. The
marble Laocoon was found in the baths of Titus, and the Farnese Hercules
in those of Caracalla. —Stracbo.
BATTEL ROLL. After the battle of Hastings, which decided the fate of
England, aCnd subjected it to the Norman yoLe, a list was taken of Willians's
chiefs, amounting to 629, and called the Battel-roll; and among these chiefs
the lands and distinctions of the followers of the defeated Harold were distributed, 1066.
192 THE WVORLDtS PROGRESS. L[
BATTLE, WAGER oF. A trial by combat, formerly allowed by English laws,
where the defendant in an appeal of mlurdcer might fight with the appellant,
and make proof thereby of his guilt or innocence. In a case of' appeal of
murder, Asl4/o'd, v.'rv eoerl to0b, before the King's Bench in London, April 1818,
the court allowied that the law gave the defendant a right to his wager of
battle; but the appellant, the brother of a lovely girl, whom Thornton had
first violated and then murdered, not accepting the challenge, the mcurderer
was discharged. A statute was immediately passed, putting an end to this
nmode of trial, 59 George III., 1819.-Staticles at large.
B ATTERING-RAM. T'Pestuldo Arietarica, with other military implements, some
of which are still in use, invented by Artemones, about 441 B. c. These
ponderous engines by their own weight exceeded the utmost effucts of bour
battering cannon.-Desaoo-dierss. Sir Christopher Wren employed a battering-ram in demolishing the old walls of St. Paul's church, previously to rebuilding the new edifice in 1675.
BATTLES. Palamedes of Argos was the first who ranged an army in a regular line of battle, and placed sentinels round a camp, ancl excited the soldier's vigilance by giving him a watch-worcl.-Lekglet. The following are
the principal and most memorable battles mentioned in ge-neral history, and
are those also that are most commonly referred to;
sB. C.A. D.
Actium (the ezpjire of 2ome is con- Berwick - - 1378
firzeed to Acgzustes) - - - 31 Bilboa (British legion) De. 24, 1836
Arbela (I'all of Per-sia) - 331 Blackheath (Conicsh _Rebels defeated) 1497
A. D. Blaclkrock (A?7eer. 4t B2rit.) - Dec. 3, 1813
Aboukir (Toieks) July 26, 1.799 Bladensburg - - Aug. 24, i14
Acre (Siege ( cosomeencerd) - lar. 1, 1799 Blenheim (lairclborouglh) Aug. 2, 1704
(,Sir Sycdieey S',ith) Mlay 27, ibid Borodina - Sept. 7, 1812
(,S'torming ofg) -'iov. 3, 1840 Bosworth - - Aug. 22, 14.:
Adrianople (Conostanztine) - - 323 Bothwell Bridg e, Scotland - 1679
Albuera - - - May 16, 1811 Boyne, Ireland - - July 1, 1690
Alford (Covenzanters) - July 2, 1645 Bovines (Fr-ench acnd Genroze? s) - - I 14
Alexandria (Aberc'oebie) - SMar. 21, 1801 Boxtel - Sept. 17, 1794
(Abercerombie) May 17, 1799 Brandywine - - Sept. 11, 1777
Algiers (veee0zoehL) - - Aug. 27, 181. Brechin, Scotland - - 1452
( (Fre.ech) July 4, 1830 B 3renau (Azestelrias and Beavacrians) - 1743
Alclerton MIoor - - 1643 Breslau - - Nov. 22, 1757
A'incourt - Oct. 25, 1415 Briar's Creek - - - - 1779
Aliwal (izdia) - - 3n. 20, 19816 rienne - - - Feb. 29, 1814
Alnmanza., in Spain - April 4, 1707 lBridgewater (Awei'icanls ad Br1itish)
Amoy (City taCee2) - - Au'. 27, 1841 July 25, 1814
Alineida - Au'. 5. 1811 Buena Vista (Aner. and 3Idexicans)
Anjou, or BTreagne - 1421 Fel). 22, 1.47
Antoig - - - Aug. 13, 1792 Buenos Ayres (Popha2) - June 21, 1806
Arcola Nov. 19, 1796 (TYhiteilock) July 6, 1807
Ascalon (lichtarod I.) - Sept., 1191 Blnelrer's Hill June 17, 1775
Assaye ( J'tellesley) - Sept. 23, 1.803 Busaco - - - Sept. 27, 1810
Auerstadt - Oct. 14, 18i5 Brvowenstownr (Canada) Aug. 8, 1851
AugsbLrg - Aug. 24, 1796 5..
Austerlitz - Dec. 2, 1805 Cannae ( Viclo?ry )of Iazeibal) - 21
Badajos - - - la. 11, 1811 Calrthage (tlaene by PetbliuZs Scipio) 14(
Ballkan, passage of the - July 26, 1829 Chceronea (7'otlziclas) - 447
Baltinore - - Sept. 12, 1814 (Phtili) 33.18)
Bannoclburn - - June 25, 1314t (1yla) - 86
Biarnot (EdZvarC' d IV.) Aprit 14, 1471 Cnidos (Lysanzler killed) "-.. 994
Blarrosa - - - ar. 6, 1811 Cranol, i Thessly - -
Bautzen - - 5ay 20, 1813 Cyzicou- 4f!(
BIayonne - ] lar. 19, 1794 _A. D.
Ielgradce -156 Ca.lais taken - 7, 15;)
- 1717 Calcuttall (DIdia) J-n.Ie 175cr
Bennlington (A-zer. - tDrit.) A- urr. 1.77 C'amlden (Aler. ~ tre i.) - Auoe.!6, 1781'
erlgerlc - - pri 13,p 17.59 p — (ell'3e7. ~' 13 lit.) Ap-il 25!78i
Sept. 19 an(l Oct. 2, 1799 Calmpo S;to - - 17io
Bergell-op-Zo n (tale'.) - - 1747 Cancton (Boeg e,be'ts talen) Feb. 26, 184
- - S c G. 1 1-4 Castel Nuovo Sept. 29. ]S0"
Bleresina - - Sept. 7, 1,12 Castella - April 3. 181'
BAT ] DIC)TIONARY OF DATES. 193
BATTLES, contbiued.
A. D. A. D.
Cassano (Prince Eiugene) - 1705 Jarnac - Mar. 3, 1569
Castlebar (French) - Aug. 28, 1798 Jemappo - Nov. 5, 1792
Castiglione July 2, 1796 Jena -. - Oct. 14, 1806
Castillon. in Guienne - - 1453 Ket and Warwick - - 1549
Charleroi - - - 1690 Killiecrankie, Scotland - July 27, 1689
Charleroi Fleurus - June 17, 1794 Kowno - - - Dec. 14, 1812
Charleston (taken by the British) Krasnoi -. Nov 16, 1812
IMay 12, 1780 B. o.
Chepultepec (Am.nluMex.) Sept. 12-14, 1848 Leuctra. - - 370
Chippewa - July 5 and 25, 1814 A. D.
- - - Oct. 1814 Laffeldt (Dueke of Cumberland) - - 1747
Ciudad Rodrigo (invested) June 11, 1812 Landshut (Prussians and Austrians) 1745
-- (stored) - Jan. 19, 1812 - (Austrians) - April 21, 1809
Clontarf, Ireland - - 1039 Lanside - - May 13, 1568
Constantina (Algiers) - Oct. 13, 1837 Leipzic - - - Oct. 16, 1813
Contreras (Amer. and M1lexicans) - 1848 Lepanto (Greeks) - - May 9, 1829
Corunna, (l/oolre) - - Jan. 16, 1809 Lewes - - - Mlay 14, 1264
Cowpens (Aner. cJ' Brit.) - 1781 Lexington (Agzer.?evolzution) April 19, 1775
Craney island (Anzericans and Brit.) Ligny. - June 16, S15
June 21, 1813 Lincoln - - Fel 2, 1141
Cressy (Iclh Dien) - Aug. 25, 1346 - - - May 19, 1217
Culloden (Pretenzder) April 16, 1746 Lisle (taken by the Allies) - 1708
Cunnersdorf- - - Aug. 12, 1759 Lissa - - Dec. 5, 1796
Detroit (surrendered) - Aug. 16, 1812 Lodi - - - May 10, 1757
Dettingen (George II.) - 1743 Long Island - - Aug. 27, 1776
Dresden - - Aug. 26, ]813 Lutzen - - - May 2, 1813
Dreux. in France - - - 1562 Lutzingen (Gustavus slain) - 1632
Drogheda (taken by storm) - - 1649 B..
Dumblain (Sheriff lMluir) - Nov. 12, 1715 Mantinea (Epaminondas slain) - 363
Dunbar - - - Sept. 3, 1650 Munda, in Spain - - - - 45
(Kinsg of Scots takeon) - - 1296 A. D.
-, iege of, - 1337 McHenry, Fort (Americasns and BDit.)
Dungan Hill - - July 10, 1647 Oct. 13, 1814
Dunkirlk - Sept. 7, 1793 Malplaquet (Maiarlboorsgh) - - 1709
Dunsinane - - - 1054 Manheim May 30, 1793
Durham, Nevil's Cross - 1346 - - July 12, 1794
Eastport (Asnzericanzs and British) - - Sept. 23, 1795
July 1814 Mantua - - May 29, 1796
Edgehill fight - Oct. 23, 1642 - - - Jan. 31, 1797
Erie, Fort - - Aug. 15, 1814 Marengo - - - June 14, 1800
Erzeroum (Turcks and Prussians) - 1745 Marignan, Italy Sept. 15, 1515
Eutaw Springs - - - 1781 Marston Moor - July 3, 1644
Evesham - Aug. 4, 1265 Mexico - - Sept. 12-14, 18-48
Eylau - - Feb. 8, 1807 Milan - - - April 27, 1799
Fairfield (Asmer. $~ Brit.) - - 1779 Minden - - - Aug. 1, 1759
Falkirk, (W>Vallace) - - July 22, 1298 Mittau (Sweedes anzd R2ssians) - 1705
Flatbush, L. I. (Amn. ( Bilt.) Aug. 27, 1776 Mockern - April 1, 1813
Flodden - - - Sept. 9, 1513 - Oct. 14, 1813
Fontainebleau - Feb. 17, 3814 Mohartz, Hungary - - - 1687
Fontenoy - - April 30, 1745 Molwitz - April 10, 1741
Fort du Quesne - July 9, 1755 Monmouth (Amzer. 13 Bit.)- June 28, 1778
French Town, Canada Jan. 22, 1813 Monterey (Mlexico) Sept. 24, 1846
Friedburg June 4, 1745 Montmorenci - Aug. 10, 1759
Friedland - - June 14, 1807 Moodlcee, India - - Dec. 18, 1845
a. c. Morea (Castle surrenders) Oct. 28, 1828
Granicus- - 334 Moscow (burnt) Sept. 4, 1812
A. D. Moskwa - Sept. 7, 1812
Germantown - - Oct. 4, 1777 Moscow (retaken) Oct. 22, 1812
Gisors (Dieu et seson droit) - 1198 Narva (Charles XII. of Sweden) - 1700
Guilford - - Mar. 16, 1781 Naseby - - June 14, 1645
Halidon Hill, Berwick - July 19, 1333 Newark - - 1644
Halle (Bernadotte) - Oct. 17, 1806 Newbury - 1643
Hanau (V rede) - Oct. 29, 1813 -(seconld batte). Oct. 20, 1646
Hastings (Conquest) - Oct. 14, 1066 New London (buront by the British) - 1781
Hexhan (Yorkists defeated) May 15, 1464 New Orleans - Jan 8, 1815
Hochkirchen - Oct. 14, 1758 Niagara, Fort - - Nov. 1813
liohenlinden - Nov. 3, 1800 Nisbet - - - May 7, 1402
B. C. Norfolk (burnt by the British) June 1779
Ipsus (Antigonues slainz) - 301 Northallerton, (or the battle of the
Issus (110,000 Persians slain) - 333 Standard) - 1138
9
194 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. L BAV
BATrtLES, continued.
A. D. A. D.
Norwalk (burnt by the Brit.) Aug. 22, 1779 Sobraon (India) - Feb. 1', 13t16
Novi (Suwarrow) - Aug. 16, 1799 Solway Moss - - Nov. 25, 1342
- - - -J -n Jan. 8, 1800 St. Albans (York and Lancaste) - 14155
Ogdensburg (British and Americans) -- (second) - - 14
Feb. 22, 1813 St. Denis (Mlsonlzaorenci) - 1567
Oporto - - - May 11, 1809 St Dizier, FIance - Jan, 27, 1814
Otterburn (Chevy Chase) - - - 1308 j St. Sebastian - - May 5, 1736
Oudenard (1i2artlborough) July 11, 1708 SStaford - - - Mar. 13, 1470
1s. C. Stoy Point (takeen by the Asssericzsns) 1779
Pharsalia - - 48 Stratton (poet atlller) May 16, 16d13
Philippi (Roaszan Re pzblic ezds) - 42 talavera de la Reyna - July 27, 1809
A.D. Tarra-ona - - - Jan. 24, 1812
Pcalo Alto (Ist ofAner. Mfe.zx.) MIay 8, 1816 Tewkesbury - - May 4, -- 1
Parma (Austriazns and Freenlch) - 1734 Thames (Anerica.* asnd EBrit.) Sept. 1813
(Suwarroow)- - July 12, 1799 Thermopylae (Greeks) - July 13, 1822
Patay (Joan of Ace and the Egsglish) 1429 Tirlernont (French acnd Allies) - 1705
Pavia (Ferench andAustriaezs) Feb. 24, 1525 Toplitz (Austrians asd Priussians) - 1762
Pensacola (takeen by general Jackson) - - - Aug. 30, 1813
Nov. 20, 1814 Tournay - * May 8, 1,'93
Peterwarden - Aug. 5, 1717 Toulon - - Oct. 1, 1793
Pfaffendorf - - Aug. 15, 1760 Toulouse - April 10, 1814
Pinley - - - Sept. 10, 1547 Towton - - - Mar. 29, 1461
Plattsburg (Asssericans aszd British) Trenton (Ailer. - Brit.) - Dec. 26, 7, 1776
Sept. 11, 1814 Turin (Frelch and Gersnasns) - 1706
Poitiers - - Sept. 19, 1356 Ulm - - - - June 21, 00
Prague - - - Nov. 9, 1620 - (ssurrenderedC). Oct. 29, 1805
_ -___ - - IMay 6, 1757 Valenciennes - - Iay 23, 1793
Princeton (Amzer.' Brit.) Jan. 2, 1777 Varna (surrenders) - Oct. 11, 515
Pultowa (Charles XI.) -.uly 8, 1709 Vera Cruz (takez by Asner. Gess. Scott)
Pultusk - Dec. 26, 1806 March 27, 1847
Pyrenees - July 28, 1813 Villa Franca - April 10, 1812
Quatre Bras - - June 16, 1815 Vimiera ( lWellington) - Oct. 21, 1808
auebec (or the plains of Abrahamlz) Vittoria, Spain - - - 1702
Sept. 13, 1759 -. June 21, 181.
(death ofI1onstgonzery)Dec. 21, 1775 Wagram - - July 5, 1809
- -.- - -April 28, 1760 Wakefield Dec. 31, 14C1q
queenstown (Asner. f Brit.) Oct. 13, 1812 Warsaw - Oct. 10,:;94
Ramilies (111Marlborough) - May 23, 1706 - - Nov. 8, ibid
IPesaca de la Palma (lVexico) -May 9, 1846 - (taken) - Sept. 8, 1831
Rosbacl - - Nov. 17, 1382 Washington (burnt by the British)
- Nov. 5, 1787 Aug. 1814
asclkett's IIarbor (Americans and Waterloo - - June 18, 1815
British) - - 1813 White Plains (Aener. y Brit.) Oct. 28, 1776
Salamanca - - - July 22, 1812 - Nov. 30, ibid
5nan Maretal (Spaniards) Aug. 4, 1813 Wilna (Poles) - June 12, 183s
Saratoga (Burgoyne's surrender) Worcester - Sept. 13, 16'2
Oct. 17, 1777 -- (Charles II)'* - 1051
Savannah (taken by the British) Wyoming massacre - - July':77
Dec. 29. 1778 York (Canada) captured by AnleriSchwerdcnitz - Aug. 16, 1762 cans - April 27, 1813
Sedgemoor - July 5, 16%5 York Town (ssurrenzder of Corznwallis)
Seidlitz (Poles) - - 3ar. 31, 18.31 Oct. 19, 1781)
Sermpach - - July 9, 1386:.
Seringapatan - - - - 1791 Zama (Scipio aesd Ilannibal) 20:;
- (Tippoo reduced) - - 1791 Zela (Caesar: veni, vidi, vici) - 4'
- - ----- ((Tippoo killed) MIay 4,1799 I A. J.
Shrewsbury - - July 21, 14,03 Zeuta, Hungary (Prince Etugene) - 1697
Slkenesborough - July 7, 1777 Zurich.- 199
Smolensko - - Aug. 27, 1812
BAVARIA, HOUSE oF. The dukedom founded in the eleventh century: ihis
house has the same origin as that of Saxony, and is a branch of the Guel..
phian family; Henry Guelph was made duke of Bavaria by Conrad II., emperor of Germany, who reigned in 1024. Otho, count Wittelpatch, nw.r
made duke in 1179; and Maximilian I. elector in 1624. Bavaria was
* This battle and defeat of Charles put a period to the civil war in England.
N. B. —Many of the above battles are described more fully under each name.
biEA A DICTIONARY OF DATES. i95
erected into a kingdom by Bonaparte in December 1805; and obtained by
the treaty of' Presburg the incorporation of the whole of the Italian and
Geriman Tyrol, the bishopric of Anspach, and lorciships in Gerlmainy. This
kingdom joined the coalition against France in Oct. 1813. Bavarian chamber recommends freedom of the press, &c., by almost unanimnous vote, Oct.
17, 1847. Riots at Munich on account of Lola Montes, the king's mistress,
Feb. 9, 1848. Violent movemnent at Munich; the king abdicates in favor of
his son, Iaximillian II., Malrch 22, 1848.
KINGS OF BAVARIA. I 1825 Louis, 13th October;-abdicated,
1805 Maximilian Joseph, the preceding elec- March 22, 1848.
tor, created king. 1&8 Maximilian II.'BAYEUX TAPESTRY. This important historical document was wrought by
Matilda, the queen of William I., and represents the facts of the Conquest,
from the signature of the will of the Confessor down to the crowning of
William, 1066.-RRaepi. This curious monument of antiquity embroidered
by Matilda, is 19 inches wide, 214 feet long, and is divided into compartments showing the train of events, commencing with the visit of Harold to
the Norlman cour't, and ending with his death at Hastings; it is now preseit ed
in the town-house of Rouen. —Agsres Stt'icklaeled.
BAYONETS. The short sword or dagger fixed at the end of a musket. This
weapon was invented at Bayonne, in France (whence the name), about 1670.
According to the abbe Lenglet, it was first used in battle by the French, in
1603, " with great success against an enemy unprepared for the encounter
with so formidable a novelty."
BAZAAR, OR COVERED MARKET. The word is of Arabic origin. The bazaar
of Ispahan is magnificent, yet it is excelled by that of Tauris, which has
several times held 30,000 men in order of battle.
BEADS. The Druids appear to have used beads. They were early used lby
Dervises and other holy men of the East. They were in general use in
Roman Catholic devotions, A. D. 1213. The bead-roll was a list of deceasedc
persons for the repose of whose souls a certain nujmer of prayers were recited, which the devout counted by a string of beacds.-Bzetler.
BEARDS. Various have been the customs of most nations respecting them.
The Tartars, out of a religious principle, waged a long and bloody war with
the Persians, declaring them infidels, because they would not cut their
beards after the rites of Tartary. The Greeks wore their beards till the
time of Alexander, who ordered the Macedonians to be shaved lest the
beard should give a handle to their enemies, 330 s. c. Beards were worn
by the Romans, 297 B. c. They have been worn for centuries by the Jews.
In England, they were not fashionable after the Conquest. A. D. 1066, until
the thirteenth century, and were discontinued at the Restoration. The
Russians, even of rank, did not cut their beards until within these few
years; and Peter the Great, notwithstanding his enjoining them to shave,
was obliged to keep officers on foot to cut off the beard by force.
BEARDS ON WOMEN. A bearded woman was taken by the Prussians at the
battle of Pultowa, and presented to the Czar, Peter I. 1724: her beard
nmeasured I1 yards. A woman is said to have been seen in Paris with a bushy
beard, and her whole body covered with hair.-Dict. de T'rvox.z'. The
great Margaret, governess of the Netherlands. had a very long stiff beard.
In Bavaria, in the time of Wolfius, a virgin had a long black beard.
BEAUVAIS, HIIEOINES OF. On the town of Beauvais being besieged by
Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, at the head of 80,000 men, the women
under the conduct of Jeanne de la Hachette, or Laine, particularly distinguished themselves, and the duke was obliged to raise the siege, July 10,
1472. In memory of their noble exploits during the siege, the females of
196 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. BaiF
Beauvais walk first in a procession on the anniversary of their deliverance
-IenaulCt.
BECKET'S MURDER. Thomas, archbishop of Canterbury, was murdered'a.
the altar, Dec. 29, 1171. Four barons hearing Henry II. say, in a momen%
of exasperation, " What an unhappy prince am I, who have not about me
one man of spirit enough to rid me of this insolent prelate," resolved upon
Becket's assassination; and rushing with drawn swords into the cathedmial
of Canterbury, where he was at vespers, they announced their design, when
he cried out, "I charge you, in the name of the Almighty, not to hurt any
other person here, for none of them have been concerned in the late transactions." The confederates then strove to drag him from the church; but
not being able to do so, on account of his resolute deportment, they killed
him on the spot with repeated wounds, all which he endured without a
groan. The bones of Becket were enshrined in gold and set with jewels, in
1220; and were taken up and burned in the reign of IHenry VIII. 1539.l-owe.
BED. The practice was universal in the first ages, for mankind to sleep upon the
skins of beasts.- W/hittcacer. This was the custom of the early Greeks and
Romans, and of the Britons, before the Roman invasion. They were after-wards changed for loose rushes and heather. Straw followed, and was uce,in the royal chambers of England so late as the close of the fifteenth century. The Romans were the first who used feathers.
BEER. See Ale. A beverage of this sort is made mention of by Xenophon, in
his famous retreat, 401 B. c. Beer was drunk generally in England in the
thirteenth century. By a law of James I., when there was a kind of duty
paid on " ce called bere," one quart of the best thereof was to be sold for a
penny. Subjected to excise in 1660. In England the number of retailers il
1834 amounted to about 60,000. See Brewers.
BEES. Mount Hybla, on account of its odoriferous flowers, thyme, and abu,~dance of honey, has been poetically called the " empire of bees." Hymettus,
in Attica, is also famous for its bees and honey. The economy of bees was
admired in the earliest ages; and Eumelus, of Corinth, wrote a poem on
bees, 741 B. c. There are 292 species of the bee, or capis genus, and 111 in
England. Strange to say, bees were not originally natives of New England:
they were introduced into Boston by the English, in 1670, and have since
spread over the whole continent; the first planters never sawvany.-Hardie's
America.
BEET-ROOT. It is of recent cultivation in England. Margraff first producer,
sugar from the white beet-root, in 1747. M. Achard produced excellent,
sugar froml it in 1799; and the chemists of France at the instance of Bonaparte, largely extracted sugar from the beet-root in 1800. A refinery om
sugar from beet-root was lately erected at the Thames-bank, Chelsea.
BEGUINES. Nuns, first established at Liege, and afterwards at Nivelle, in
1207. The' Grand Beguinage " of Brutes is the most extensive of modern
times.-Some of these nuns once fell into the extravagant error that they
could, in this life, arrive at the highest moral perfection, even to imp.
cability. The council of Vienne condemned this error, and abolished.:i
branch of the order in 1311.
BEHEADING-or Decollatio of the Romans, introduced into England from Normandy (as a less ignomlinious'mode of putting high criminals to deatllh)'by
Williamn the Conqueror, 1074, when Waltheof, earl of Huntingdon, Northampton, and Northunmberland, was first so executed. -S'almon's ClAron.
English history is filled with instances of this mode of execution, particu
BIL ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 19/
larly in the reigns of Henry VIII., and Mary, when even women of the noblest
blood, greatest virtues. and most innocent lives, thus suffered death.*,L]HRING'S STRAIT. Explored by a Danish navigator in the sdrvice of Russia whose name it bears. Behring thus established that the continents
of Asia and America are not united, but are distant from each other about
thirty-nine miles, 1728.
BELGIUM. Late the southern portion of the kingdom of the Netherlands,
and anciently the territory of the Belg,, who were conquered by Julius
Ciesar, 47 B. c. Under the dominion of France so late as A. D. 1369; formed
into a kingdom in 1831.
Became an acquisition of the house of by the Allied Powers, announced by
Austria 1477 Van der Weyer - - Dec. 26, 1830
Charles V. annexed the Netherlands to Dule de Nemours elected Iking; but
the crown of Spain - - - 1556 his father, the king of France, refuses
Seven provinces, under William, prince his consent - - Feb: 3, 1831
of Orange, revolt, owing to the tyranny M. Surlet de Chokier is elected regent
of Philip I..; freed - 1579 of Belgium - - Feb. 24, 1831
The ten remaining provinces are given Leopold, prince of Coburg, is elected
to the archduke - -1598 king -. July 12, 1831
These again fall to Spain - - - 1.648 e enters Brussels - - July 19, 1831
Seven again ceded to Germany - 1714 The ling of the Netherlands recomAnd three to France - 1748 mences the war A Aug. 3, 1831
Austrians expelled; but their rule after- [France sends 50,000 troops to assist
wards restored - - 1789 Belgium, and an armistice ensues.]
The French entered Belgium Nov. 1, 1792 A conference of the ministers of the five
United to France - Sept. 30, 1795 great powers is held in I.ondon, which
Placedl under the sovereignty of the terminates in the acceptance of the
house of Orange - - - 1814 24 articles of pacification - Nov. 15, 1831
The revolution commences at Brussels Leopold marries Louise, eldest daughter
Aug. 25, 1830 ot Louis Philippe - - Au. 9,1832
The Provisional Government declares The French army returns to France
Belgium independent - Oct. 4, 1830 Dec. 27, 1832
The Belgian troops take Antwerp; the Riot at Brussels (see Bruessels); much
Dutch are driven to the citadel, from Inischief ensues - - April 6, 1834
whence they cafinonade the town, Treaty between Holland and Belgium,
Oct. 27, 1830 signed in London - April 19, 1839
Belgian independence acknowledged
This last treaty arose out of the conference held in London on the Belgian
question; by the decision of' which, the treaty of November 15, 1831, was
maintained, and the pecuniary compensation of sixty millions of francs,
offered by Belgium for the territories adjudged to Holland, was declared inadmissible.
BELGRADE, BATTLE OF, between the German and Turkish armies, in which
the latter was defeated with the loss of 40,000 men, fought 1456. Belgrade
was taken by Solymaan, 1522; and re-taken by the Imperialists in 1688, froom
whom it again reverted to the Turks in 1690. Taken by prince Eugene in
1717 (see next article), and kept till 1739, when it was ceded to the Turks.
It was again taken in 1789, and restored at the peace of Reichenbach, in
1790.
BELGRADE, SIEGE OF. The memorable siege, so often quoted, was undei.
taken in [May, 1717, under prince Eugene. On August 5, of that year, the
Turkish army, of 200,000, a)proached to relieve it, and a battle was fought,
in which the Turks lost 20 000 men; after which Belgrade surrendered.
Belgrade has been frequently besieged. See Sieecs.
* Among other instances (besides queens of England), may be mentioned the Lady Jane Grey,
belhc.tded, Feb. 12, 1554; and the venerable countess of Salisbury —the latter rernarkablue for her,esistance of the executioner. When lhe directed her to lay her head on the bloclk, she refused to
do it; telling him, that she knew of no guilt, and would not submit to die lilce a criminal. He pursued her round and round the scaffold, aiming at her hoary head, and at length tool it off, after
mangtling the neck and shoulders of the illustrious victim in ahorrifying manner. She was daughter
)f Georgse, duke of Clarence, and last of the royal line of Planta-enet. MIay 27, 1541. —Hume.
198 THE WORLD9S PROGRESS. [ BEN
BELL, BOOK, AND CANDLE; an ecclesiastical ceremony of the Romish
churchll; used in excommunication, whticb see.
BELLES-LETTRES, OR POLITE LEARNING.'We owe the revival of the belles
lettres in Europe, after the darkness of previous ages to Brunetto, Latini
and other learned men in different countries, about A. D. 1272. —Geml. His'
Learning greatly promoted by the Mledici family in Italy, about 1550. —1i'oe
tante. Literature began to flourish in France, Germany, and England, about
this time. The belles-lettres commenced in England in the reign of' Elizabeth, and flourished in that of Anne.
BELLOWS. Anacharsis, the Scythian, is said to have been the inventor o:;
them, about 569 3. c. To him is also ascribed the invention of tinder, tb1,
potter's wheel, anchors for ships, &c. Bellows were not used in the fi\rnaces of the Romans.
BELLS. Used among the Jews, Greeks, Roman Catholics, and heathens. The
responses of the Dodonrean oracle were in part conveyed by bells. —Stra.bo.
The monument of' Porsenna was decorated by pinnacles, each surnmounted
by bells.-Pliny. Introduced by Paulinus, bishop cf Nole, in Camlpagna,
about A. D. 4(Q0. First known in France in 550. The army of Clothair II.,
king of Franoce, was frighted from the siege of Sens by the ringing of thr
bells of St. Stephen's church. The second Excerption of our kling Egbe
commands every priest, at the proper hours, to sound the bells of his churche.
Bells were used in churches by order of pope John IX., as a dcfetce, byo rilsgincg 1l]te, cgoceiglst t/hllLde' Cnd lio-htnivzg, about 900. First Cast in En gland
by Turkeytel, chancellor of England, under Edmund I. Ills successor improved the- invention, and caused the first tunable set to be put up at
Croyland abbey, 960. —Stowe.
Great Bell of St. Pauls, weighs - lbs. 8,400 St. Peter's, at Route lbs. 18 66.
Great Tom of I,itocoln - - 9,894 Great Bell at Erfrti - 28,22
Great Tom of Oxford - - - 17,000 St. Ivan's Bell, Moscow - - 127 Q`
Bell of the Palazzo, Florence 17,000 3oell of the Kremlin - 443;.%i'4
The last is the great unsuspendclecl bell, the Awonder of travellers. Its met,,.
alone is valled, at. a very low calellation, at ~66.565 sterling. In its fusion,
great quantities of gold and silver were thrown in as votive offerings by the
people.
BELLS, BAPTISM Of. They were early anointed and baptized in churches.Dutc F''csLto?/. The bells of the priory of Little Duntow, in Essex, Telre
baptized by the name of St. Michael, St. John, Virgin Mary, Holy lTrinity,
&c., in 1501. —Weever. The great bell of Notre Dame, in Paris, was'r,'
tized by the namne of Duke of Angouleme, in 1816. On the Continent.,
the Catholic states, they baptize bells as we do ships, but with religious
solemunity.-Aslte.
BENEDICTINES. An order of monkls founded by Benedict, who wasthit
first that introduced the monastic life into the western part of Europe, in
the beginning of the sixth century. No religious order has been so remarkable for extent, wealth. and men of note, as the Benedictine. It spread
over a large portion of Europe, but was superseded in the vast influence ih
possessecl over other relig-ious communities, about A. D. 1100. The B&
dictines appeared early in Englancl and William I. built them an abl)ey
the plain where the battle of Halstings was fougfht, 1066.
Williaml de Warrenne. earl of Warren, built them a convent at Lewes, it
Essex. in 107 7. At Hammersmith is a nunnery, whose inmates are deno111inated Benedictine dcames.-Ltiys. Of this order, it is reckoned that thert
have been 40 popes, 200 cardinals,,50 patriarchs, 116 archbshops, 4601
bishops, 4 emperors, 12 empresses, 46 kings, 41 queens, and 8600 saints,
Their founder was canonized.-Ba?'onliss.
iEN ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 199
BENEFICES. Clerical betefices originated in the twelfth century; till then
the priests were supported by alms and oblations at mass. All that should
h.:om e vacant in the space of six months were given by pope Clement VIT.
to his nephew, in 1534.-Notiti(a Mocallsticac. The number of benefices in
England, according to parliamentary returns, is 10.533, and the number of
glebe-houses 5,527; these are exclusive of bishoprics, deaneries, canonries,
prebendaries, priest-vicars, lay-vicars, secondaries, and similar church preferments. The number of parishes is 11,077, and of churches and chapels
about 12,000. The number of benefices in Ireland is 1456, to which there
are not more than about 900 glebe-houses attached, the rest having no
glebe-houses.-See C/aluncl of EJtgglcand.
WENEFIT or CLERGY. A privilege first enjoyed only by clergymen, but
afterwards extended to lettered laymen, relating to divers crimes, and particularly manslaughter. The ordinary gave the prisoner at the bar a Latin
book, in a black Gothic character, from which to read a verse or two; aidcl
if the ordinary said " Legit t clceric.ts," the offender w, as only burnt in the
hand, otherwise he suffered death, 3 Edclarcl I., 1274. This privilege was
abolished with respect to murderers and other great criminals, as also the
claim of sanctuary, by Henry VIII., 1513. —S/owe. Benefit of clergy was
wholly repealed by statute 7 and 8 George IV., June 1827.
BENEVOLENT INSTITUTIONS, PUBLIC CHARITIES, &C., IN THE UNITElc
STATES. The known voluntary contributions by citizens of Boston alone,
during 45 years, ending 1845, was ascertained to be (see details in American
Almanac, 1846) as follows:
For theological education and other For miscellaneous objects (such as
religious objects - - $1,054,966 I monuments, &c.) - -. 438,321
For purposes of instruction - 1,095,594
For charitable purposes - 2,162,412 Total - $4,751,293
[Exclusive of the contributions in churches, for the poor, &c. The population of Boston, in 1800, was about 25,000; in 1845, about 114,000. Few
cities can boast of such munificence, in proportion to the number of inhabitants.]
BENEVOLENT SOCIETIES-some of the principal in the United States.
Fo"rmned. Isncone, Forrmzed. Income.
Amer. Board ofCom. Foreign 1849. 1849.
Missions - - - 1810 - 5260,897 Amer. Education Society - 1816 - $32,754
Amer. Sunday Sch. Union - 1824 207,764 4' Colonization Society 1819 17,414
"' Bible Society - -1816 - 284,514 " Seamen's Friend Society - 23,497
" Tract Society - - 1814 - 308,428 Miss. Soc. Methodist Church 1819 - 99,635
" Home Miss. Society - 1826 - 157,460 Presbyterian Board Missions 126,013
United States ship, Jamestown, sailed from Boston for Cork, loaded with provisions, to be
given to the distitute Irish, March 28th, 1847. The frigate Macedonian sailed friom
New York on same errand, July 8, 1847.
Abbott Lawrence gave $50,000 to Harvard College, for scientific department, June, 1847.
BENGAL. Of the existence of Bengal as a separate kingdom, there is no
record. It was ruled by governors delegated by the sovereigns of Delhi in
1340, when it became independent, until 1560. It afterwards fell to the
Mogul empire.-See Idia.
The English were first permitted to Calcutta taken by Surrjah Dowla; and
trade to Bengal A- -. D. 1534 the dreadful affair of the Black-hole - 1756
Factories of the French and Danes - 1664 Retaken by Colonel Clive - 1757
First factory at Calcutta - - 1690 Imperial grant, vesting the revenues of
The settlements first placed in a state Bengal in the Company, by whtch
of defence - - - - 1694 the virtual sovereignty of the country
Calcutta bought, and fortified - - 1700 was obtained - - Aug. 12, 1765
Its garrison consisted of only 129 sol. Celebrated India-bill; Bengal made the
diers, ofwhom but 55 were Europeans 1706 chief presidency - - June 16, 1773
See India.
200 THlE WORLD'S PROtGRESS. [ BEr
BERESINA, BATTLE OF. Total defeat of the French main army by the Russians on the banks of the Beresina, followed by their disastrous passage of
it when escaping out of Russia. The French lost 20,000 men in the battle
and in their retreat the career of their glory was closed, Nov. 28, 1812.
BERGEN, BATTLE OF, between the French and allies, the latter defeated, April
14, 1759.- The allies again defeated by the French with great loss, Sept. 19,
1799. In another battle, fought Oct. 2, same year, the allies lost 4,000 men;
and on the 6th, they were again defeated before Alkmaer, losing 5,000 men.
On the 20th, the duke of York entered into a convention by which he
exchanged his army for 6,000 French and Dutch prisoners in England.
BERGEN-OP-ZOOlM, whose works were deemed impregnable, taken by tlhe
French, Sept. 16, 1747, and again in 1794. Here a gallant attempt was
made by the British, under Graham, to carry the fortress by storm, but it
was defeated; after forcing an entrance their retreat was cut off, and a
dreadful slaughter ensued; nearly all were cut to pieces or made prisoners,
March 8, 1814.
BERLIN. Founded by the margrave Albert, surnamed the Bear, in 1163. Its
five districts were united under one magistracy, in 1714; and it was subsequently made the capital of Prussia. This city was taken by an army of
Russians, Austrians, and Saxons, in 1760, ibut they were obliged to retire in
a few days. On Oct. 27, 1806, thirteen days after the battle of Jena, the
French entered Berlin, and from its palace Napoleon issued his famous
Berlin decree.-See e.xt article.
BERLIN DECREE, a memorable interdict against the commerce of Englancl.
It declared the British islands to be in a state of blockade, and all Englishmen found in countries occupied by French troops were to be treated as
prisoners of war; the whole world, in fact, was to cease from any communication with Great Britain: issued by Bonaparte from the coult of the
Prussian king, shortly after the battle of Jena' (which, for the time, decided
the fate of Prussia), Nov. 21, 1806.-See Joenn.
BERMUDAS, on SOMMERS' ISLES, discovered by Joao Bermudas, a Spaniard,
in 1527; but they were not inhabited until 1609, when sir Gborge Sommers
was cast away upon them. They were settled by a statute of 9 James I.,
1612. Awful and memnorable hurricane here, October 81, 1780. Another,
by which a third of the houses was destroyed, and all the shipping driven
ashore, July 20, 1813.
BERNARD, MOUNT ST. Hannibal, it is said, conducted the Carthaginian
allrmy by this pass into Italy; and it was by the same route that Bonaparte
led his troops to the plains of Lombardy, before the battle of Marengo,
fought June 14, 1800.
BERNARD1NE MONKS. This order was founded by Robert, abbot of Moleme, in the twelfth century. On the summit of the Great St. Bernard is a
large community of monks, who entertain in their convent all travellers
gratis for three days.-Br'ooke.
BERWICK. This town was the theatre of many bloody contests between the
English and Scots; and while England and Scotland remained two kingdoms, was always claimed by the Scots as belonging to them, because it
stood on their side of the river. Berwick was burned in 1178, and again in
1216. It was taken from the Scots, and annexed to England, 1338; and
after having been taken and retaken many times, was finally ceded to England in 1502. The town surrendered to Cromwell in 1648, and afterlwards
to general Monk. Since the uhion of the crowns (James I. 1603), the fortifications, which were formerly very strong, have been much neglected.
BETHLEHEM11, the birth-place of CHRIST. The Bethlehemite monks, who
BIJB J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 20 1
had an order in England in 1257, are named from this once distinguished
city. It now contains a church, erected by the famous St. Helena, in the
form of a cross; also a chapel, called the Chapel of the Nativity, where
they pretend to show the manger in which Christ was laid; another, called
the Chapel of Joseph; and a third, of the Holy Innocents. Bethlehem is
much visited by pilgrims.-Ashe.
BEYROUT. This city, which was colonized from Sidon, was destroyed by an
earthquake, A. D. 566. It was rebuilt, and was alternately possessed by the
Christians and Saracens; and after a frequent change of masters, fell into
the power of Amurath IV., since when it remained with the Ottoman empire up to the revolt of Ibrahim Pacha, in 1832. Total defeat of the Egyptian army by the allied British, Turkish, and Austrian forces, and evacuation of Beyrout, the Egyptians losing 7000 in killed, wounded, and prisoners,
and 20 pieces of cannon, Oct. 10, 1840.
BIARCHY. When Aristodemnus, king of Sparta, died, he left ~wo sons twins,
Eurysthenes and Procles; and the people not knowing to whom precedence
should be given, placed them both upon the throne, and thus established
the first biarchy, 1102 a. c. The descendants of each reigned alternately
for 800 years.-IHerodotxls.
BIBLE. The first translation from the Hebrew into the Greek was made by
seventy-two interpreters, by the order of Ptolemy Philadelplhus; it is thence
called the Septuagint version, and was completed in seventy-two days, at
Alexandria, 277 B. c.-J-oseplis. It was commenced 284 a. c.-Lexglet. In
283.-Blair. The Jewish sanhedrinm consisted of seventy or seventy-two
members; and hence, probably, the seventy or seventy-two translators of
Josephus.-Hewlett. The seventy-two were shut up in thirty-six cells, and
each pair translated the whole; andc on subsequent comparison, it was
found that the thirty-six copies did not vary by a word or a letter.-JLst'irb
Martyr?'.
BIBLE, ANCIENT COPIES OF THE. The oldest version of the Old and New Testament belonging to the Christians, is that in the Vatican, which was written in the fourth or fifth century, and published in 1455. The next in age
is the Alexandlrine 3MIS., in the British Museum, presented by the Greek
patriarch to Charles I., and said to have been copied nearly about the same
time. The most ancient copy of' the Jewish Scriptures existed at Toledo,
about A. D. 1000; and the copy of Ben Asher, of Jerusalem, was made about
1100.
BIBLE, BisuIOPs'. Bishop Alley prepared the Pentateuch; bishops Davis and
Sandys, the Historical Books: bishop Benthaui, the Psalls, &c.; bishop
Horne, the prophets; bishop Grindal, the Minor Prophets; bishops Parkhurst and Barlow, the Apocrypha; bishop Cox, the Gospels and Acts; and
archbishop Parker, the remainder. Printed A. D. 1568.
BIBLE, DIvIsIoN OF THE. The Bible was divided into twenty-two books by the
Jews, the number of letters in their alphabet. The Christians divided the
Bible into thirty-nine books. The Hebrew division into chapters was made
by the rabbi Nathan, about 1445. Our Bible was divided into chapters, and
a part into verses, by archbishop Langton, who died in 12-28; and this
division was perfected by Robert Stephens, about 1534.
BIBLE, ElDITIONS OF THE. The vulgate edition, in Latin, was made by St. Jerome, A. D. 405; and is that acknowledged by the Catholic church to be
authenltic: it was first printed by Guttenberg at Mayence, 1450-55. (See
Bool/s.) The first perfect edition in English was finished, as appears from
the colophon, by Tindal and Coverdalhe, Oct. 4, 1535. A revision of this
edition was made, 1538-9. This last was ordered to be read in churches,
9*
202 TIE WORLD'S PROGRESS. L[ l
1549. In 1604, at the conference at Hampton-court (see Conference), a new
translation was resolved upon; which was executed 1607-11, and is that now
generally used in Great Britain. J. Eliot's Indian Bible, one of the firm'
books printed in North America, at Cambridge, 1663. The Bible was first
printed in Ireland, at Belfast, in 1704. Permitted by the pope to be translated into the language of the Catholic states, 1759. The Bible was printed
in
Spanish -1478 Russian - 1581 Manks- -1771
German - -1522 Hungarian. - 1589 Italian - - 1776
English - 1534 Polish - - 1596 Bengalee - 1801
French - - -1535 Modern Greek -1638 Tartar - - -1813
Swedish - 1541 Turkish - - 166 Persian o -1815
Danish - -1550 Irish - - 1685 African - 1895
D utch - 150 j Portuguese - - - 1748 Chinese - 1820
Editions of the Old and New Testament. separately, appeared in several instances at earlier dates, particularly in European languages. The Polyglot
Bible, edited by Walton, bishop of Chester, in the Hebrew, Syriac, Chaldee,
Samaritan, Arabic, Ethiopic, Persic, Greek, and Latin languages, 1657.TW~ood's Facsti. Oeson.
BIBLE SOCIETIES. Among the principal and oldest societies which have
made the dissemination of the Scriptures a collateral or an exclusive object,
are the following:-The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge wa s
formed 1698; Society for Propagating the Gospel in Foreign Parts, 1701;
Society, in Scotland, for Promloting Christian Knowledge, 1709; French
Bible Society, 1792; British and Foreign Bible Society, 1801; Hibernian
Bible Society, 1806; City of London Auxiliary Bible Society, 1812; Americen
Bible Society (which now has numerous branches), founded 1816; American and Foreign Bible Society (Baptist), founded at New-York, 1838. A
bull from the pope against Bible Societies appeared in 1817.
BIGAMY. The Romans branded the guilty parties with an infamous mark:
with us, the punishment of this offence, formerly, was death. The first act
respecting it was passed 5 Edward I. 1276.-Viner"s Statutes. Declared to
be felony, without benefit of clergy, I James I. 1602. Subjected to the
salme punishments as grand or petit larceny, 35 George III. 1794.-Statutes
at lacge.
BILL oF RIGHTS. One of the great foundations of the British constitution,
was obtained from Charles I. by parliament, 1628. This bill recognized the
legal privileges of the subject; and notwithstanding- the employment of all
manner of arts and expedients to avoid it, Charles was constrained to pass
it into a law. The Bill of Rights, declaratory of the rights of British subjects,
passed 1 William and Mary, February 1689. This is the only v-ritteab law
respecting the liberties of the people, except MlfaLa CIGceatcc.-Viner's
SlatbLtes.
BILLS oF EXCHANGE. Invented by the Jews, as a means of removing their
property from nations where they were persecuted, A. D. 1160.-Anderson.
Bills were used in England, 1307.-The only legal mode of sending money
from Engsland, 4th Richard II., 1381. Regulateld, 1698-first stamped, 1782
-duty advanced, 1797-again, June 1801; and since. It was made capital
to counterfeit bills of exchange in 1734. In 1825, the year of disastrous
speculations in bubbles, it was computed that there were 400 millions of
pounds sterling represented by bills of exchange and promissory notes.
The present amount is not supposed to exceed 50 millions. The many
statutes regarding bills of exchange were consolidated by act 9 George IV.
1828. A new act regulating bills of exchange, passed 3 Victoria, July 1839.
BILLS OF MORTALI'TY FoR LONDON. These bills were first compiled about
A. D. 1536, but in a more formal and recognized manner in 1593, after the
..IS ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 200
great plague of that year; and however imperfect they still are, they yet
afford valuable materials for computation on the duration of life; no complete series of them has been preserved. The following are returns, showing the numbers at decennial distances, within the last sixty years:In the year 1780, Christenings - 16,634 In the year 1780, Burials - - 20,507
1790, Christenings - 18,980 - 1790, Burials - - 18,038
1800, Christenings - 19,176 1800, Burials - 23,068
1810, Christenings 19,930 1810, Burials - 19,892
1820, Christenings 26,158 1820, Burials 19,348
1830, Christenings 27,028 1830, B13urials - 23,524
1840, Christenings - 30,387 1840, Burials - - 26,774
BILLIARDS. Invented by the French, by wihom, and by the Germans, Dutch,
and Italians, they were brought into general vogue throughout Europe.JNostv. Dict. The French ascribe their invention to Henrique Devigne, an
artist, in the reign of Charles IX., about 1571. Slate billiard-tables were
introduced in England in 1827.
BIRDS. Divided by Linnueus into six orders; by Blumenbach into eight; and
by Cuvier into six. Man is especially enjoined not to harm the nest of the
bird: " If a bird's nest chance to be before thee in the way in any tree, or
on the ground, wohether they be young ones or eggs, and the dam sitting upon
the young, or upon the eggs, thou shalt not take the dalm with the
young."-.Drtee?'onosy, xxii. 6.
BIRMINGHAM, ENGLANDn. This town existed in the reign of Alfred, A. D. 872;
but its importance as a manufacturing town commenced in the reign of William III. Birmingham was besieged and taken by prince Rupert in 1643.
The great works of Soho were established by the illustrious engineer, Matthew Boulton, in 1764.
BIRTHS. Parish registers of them, and of marriages and burials, were instituted by Cromwell, earl of Essex, 28 Henry VIII. 1536. The births of children were taxed in England, viz.: birth of a duke, 301.-of a common
person, 2s.-7 William III. 1695. Taxed again, 1783. The instances of
four children at a birth are numerous; but the most extraordinary delivery
recorded in modern times is that of a woman of Konigsberg, who had five
children at a birth, September 3, 1783.-Phillips. The wife of a man named
Nelson, a journeyman tailor, of Oxford-market, London, had five children at
a birth, in October 1800.-Ansls of LoEdob.
BISHOPS. The name was given by the Athenians to those who had the inspection of the city. The Jews and Romans had also a like officer; but
now it means only that person who has the government of church affairs in
a certain district. In England, the dignity is coeval with Christianity. St.
Peter, the first bishop of Rome, was martyred A. D. 65. The bishops of
Rome assumed the title of pope in 138, the rank was anciently assumed by
all bishops; but it was afterwards ordained that the title of pope should
belong only to the occupant of St. Peter's chair.- Waerner.
BISHOPS or ENGLAND. The first was appointed in A.D. 180. See Yorlc,
London,. They were made barons, 1072. The Congb d' Elire of the king
to choose a bishop originated in an arrangement of king John with the
clergy. Bishops were elected by the king's Cosegd d' Elire, 26 Henry VIII.
1535. Seven were deprived for being married, 1554. Several suffered martvrdom under queen Mary, 1555-6. See Crrmnizer. Bishops were excluded
from voting in the house of peers on temporal concerns, 16 Charles I. 1640.
Twelve were committed for high treason, in protesting against the legality
of all acts of parliament passed while they remained deprived of their votes,
1641. Regained their seats, Nov. 1661. Seven were sent to the tower for not
reading the king's declaration for liberty of conscience, contrived to bring
the Catholics into ecclesiastical and civil power, and were tried and acquit
204 THE WORLD S PROGREss. [ BLA
ted, June 29-30, 1688. The archbishop of Canterbury (Dr. Sancroft) and
five bishops were suspended for refusing to take the oaths to William and
Mary, 1689, and were deprived 1690.- Wacrner's Eccles. j1rist. The sees of
Bristol and Gloucester were united, and that of Ripon created, in 1836. An
order in council, in Oct. 1838, directed the sees of Bangor and St. Asaph to
be united on the next vacancy in either, and Manchester, a new see, to be
created thereupon. This order, as regarded the union of the sees, rescinded
in 1846.-See Manchester.
BISHOPS or IRELAND. Bishops are said to have been consecrated in this
country as early as the second century. The bishopric of Ossory, first
planted at Saiger, was founded A. n. 402, thirty years before the arrival of
St. Patrick.
BISHOPS oF SCOTLAND. They were constituted in the fourth century. The
see of St. Andrew's was founded by Hergustus, king of the Picts, who,
according to a legendary tale of this prelacy, encouraged the mission of
Regulus, a Greek monk of Patrre, about A. D. 370. The bishops were deprived
of their sees, and episcopacy abolished in Scotland at the period of the revolution, 1688-9. Wcarner's Eccles. Hist.-There are now, however, six bishops
belonging to the Scotch Episcopal Church, viz: Aberdeen, Brechin, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Moray, and St. Andrew's.
BISHOPS, PRECEDENCY OF, was settled by statute 31 Henry VIII. to be,ext to
viscounts, they being barons of the realm, 1540; and they have the title of
Lord, and Riol-t Rev. Father? in God. The archbishops of Canterbuiry and
York, taking place of all dukes, have the title of Grace. The bishops of
London, Durham, and Winchester have precedence of' all bishops; the
others rank according to the seniority of consecration. A late contest in
Ireland between the bishops of Meath and Kildare for precedency was decided in favor of the former, who now ranks after the archbishop of Dublin.
The others rank according to consecration.
BISHOPS IN AMERICA. The first was the Right Rev. Doctor Samuel Seabury, consecrated bishop of Connecticut by four nonjuring prelates, at
Aberdeen, in Scotland, Nov. 14, 1784. The bishops of New-York and Pennsylvania were consecrated in London, by the archbishop of Canterbury,
Feb4. 1'787; and the bishop of Virginia in 1790. The first Catholic bishop
of the United States was Dr. Carroll of Maryland, in 1789.
BISSEXTILE on LEAP YEAR. An intercalary day was thrown into every
fourth year to adjust the calendar, and make it agree with the sun's course.
It originated with Julius Cmesar, who ordered a day to be counted beforel
the 24th of February-, which amo1g01 the Romans was the 6th of the calends,
and which was therefore reckoned twice, and called bissextile: this added
day we name the 29th of February every fourth year, 45 B. c.-See Calendar and Leapc Year.
BITHYNIA. Conquered by Crcesus, about 560 a. c.; and again by Alexander,
332 B. c. It afterwards recovered its liberty; but its last king bequeathed
it to the Romans, 40 B. c. In modern history Bithynia makes no figure,
except that fiom its ruins rose the Othman Turks, who, in A. D. 1327, took
Prusq its capital, and made it the seat of their empire before they possessed
Constantinople.
BLACK BOOK, a book kept in the English monasteries, wherein details of the
scandalous enormities -practised in religious houses were entered for the
inspection of visitors, under Henry VIII., 1535, in order to blacken them and
hasten their dissolution; hence the vulgar phrase " I'll set you down in the
black book."
BLASPHEMY. This crime is recognized both by the civil and canon law of
tLO ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 205
England. Justinian adjudged it the punishment of death. In Scotland, the
tongue was amputated. Visited by fine and imprisonment, 9 & 10 William
Ill., 1696-7.-Statutes at laige. In England this offence has been subjected,
on some late occasions, to the visitation of the laws. Daniel Isaac Eato.n
was tried and convicted in London of blasphemy, 13th March, 1812. A protestant clergyman, named Robert Taylor, was tried in London twice for the
same crime, and as often convicted. Taylor was last brought to the bar,
and sentenced to two years' imprisonment, and largely fined, for (among
other things) reviling the Redeemer in his discourses, July, 1831. Even as
late as in Dec. 1840, two prosecutions against publishers of blasphemous
writings, subjected the offenders to the sentence of the court of Queen's
Bench.
BLAZONRY. The bearing coats-of-arnms was introduced, and oecame hereditary in families in France and England, about A. D. 1192, owing to the
knights painting their banners with different figures, thereby to distinguish
them in the crusades.-Duegdale.
BLEACHING. This art was known early in Egypt, Syria, and India. Known
in ancient Gaul.-Plin?/. In the last century an improved chemical system
was adopted by the Dutch, who introduced it into England and Scotland in
1768. There are now immense bleachfields in both countries, particularly
in Lancashire, and in the counties of Fife, Forfair, and Renferew, and in the
vale of the Leven, in Dumbarton. The chemical process of Berthollet was
introduced in 1795.-Blanclmtiameat des Toiles.
BLENHEIM, BATTLE OF; between the English and confederates, commanded
by the duke of Marlborough, and the French and Bavarians, under marshal
Tallard and the elector of Bavaria, whom Marlborough signally defeated
with the loss of 27,000 in killed, and 13,000 prisoners, Tallard being among
the latter: the electorate of Bavaria became the prize of the conquerors.
The nation testified its gratitude to the duke by the gifts of the honor of
Woodstock and hundred of Wotton, and erected for him one of the finest
seats in the kingdom, known as the domain and house of Blenheim.
Fought Aug. 2, 1704. —fme.
BLINDING, by consuming the eyeballs with lime or scalding vinegar, a punishment inflicted anciently on adulterers, perjurers, and thieves. In the middle ages they changed the penalty of total blindness to a diminution of
sight. Blinding the conquered was a practice in barbarous states; and a
whole army was deprived of their eyes by Basilius, in the eleventh century.
See Btldgarians. Several of the Eastern emperors had their eyes torn from
their heads. See article Easterne Empire.
BLISTERS. They were first made, it is said, of cantharides.-TFeind. Blisters
are said to have been first introduced into medical practice by Aretmus, a
physician of Cappadocia, about 50 B. c.-Le Clerc's I-ist. of Physic.
BLOOD, CIRCULATION OF THE, through the lungs, first made public by Michael
Servetus, a Spanish physician, in 1553. Cisalpinus published an account of
the general circulation, of which he had some confused ideas; improved
afterwards by experiments, 1569. Paul of Venice, commonly called Father
Paolo, whose real name was Peter Sarpi, certainly discovered the valves
which serve for the circulation; but the honor of the positive discovery of
the circulation of the blood belongs to Harvey, an English physician, by
whom it was fully confirmed, 1628.-Freind's Hist. of Physic.
BLOOD, DRINKING oF. Anciently a mode was tried of giving vigor to the systen) by administering blood as a draught. Louis XI., in his last illness,
drank the warm blood of infants, in the vain hope of restoring his decayed
206'TE WO]ILD'S o PROGRESS. L WEi
strength, 1488. —Henuecelt. Eating blood was prohibited to Noah, Ge.' ix.
and to the Jews, Lev. xvii. The prohibition repeated by the apostles.t
the council of Jerusalem, Acts xv.
BLOOD, TRANsFusIoN OF. In the fifteenth century an opinion prevailed that
the declining strength and vigor of old people might be repaired by tranlsfusing the blood of young persons, draxwn from their veins, into those of the
infirm and aged. It was countenanced in France by the physicians, ancprevailed for many years, till the most fatal effects ensued from the operation. Some of the principal nobility having died, and others turned raving
mad, it was suppressed by an edict. Attempted in France in 1797. Practised more recently there, in a few cases, with success; and in Englan:d
(but the instances are rare) since 1823.-i- ed. Jour. " One English physician, nalmed Louver, or Lower, practised in this way; he died in 1691."hr'eiecd's Hist. of Physic.
BLOOD'S CONSPIRACY. Blood, a discarded officer of Oliver Cromwell's
household, and his confederates, seized the duke of Ormlond in his coach,
and had got him to Tyburn, intending to hang him, when he was rescued
by his friends. Blood afterwards, in the disguise of a clergyman, stole the
regal crown from the Jewel-office in the Tower: yet, notwithstanding these
and other offinces, he was not only pardoned, but had a pension of ~500
per aeCoLnZL settled on him by Charles II. 1673.
BLUE STOCKING. This term is applied to literary ladies, and was originally
conferred on a society of literary persons of both sexes. One of the most
active promoters of the society was Benjamin Stillingfleet, the distinguished
naturalist and miscellaneous writer, who alhays wore blue worsted stockings, and hence the name: the society existed in 1760, et seq.-A.aec. of
Bowye'. The beautiful and fascinating Mrs. Jerningham is said to have
worn blue stockings at the conveiscacziones of lady Montague; and this peculiarity also fastened the naime upon accomplished women.
BOARD oF TRADE AND PLANTATIONS. Charles II., on his restoration,
established a council of trade for keeping a control over the whole cooimerce of the nation, 1660; he afterwards instituted a board of trade and
plantations, which was remodelled by William III. This board of superilspection was abolished in 1782; and a new council for the affirs of trade
w-as appointed, Sept. 2, 1786.
BOATS. Their ilvention was so early, and their use so general, the art cannot
be traced to any age or country. Flat-bottomed boats were made in England in the reign of the Conqueror: the flat-bottomed boat was ag'ain
brought into use by Barker, a Dutchman, about 1690. The life-boat was
first suggested at South Shields; and one was built by Mr. Greathead, the
inventor, and was first put to sea, Jan. 30, 1790.
BOCCACCIO'S BOOK, IL DECAMERONE, a collection of a hundred stories or
novels, not of moral tendency: feigned to have been related in ten days, and,
as is said by Petrarch, "possessing many charms." A copy of the first
edition (that of Valdclafer, in 1471) was lnocked down, at the duke of Roxburgh's sale, to the duke of Marlborough, for ~2260, June 17, 1812. Th';
identical copy was afterwards sold, by public auction, for 875 guineas,
June 5, 1819.
B(EOTIA, the country of which Thebes was the capital. Thebes was equally
celebrated for its antiquity, its grandeur, and the exploits and misfortune,
of its kings and heroes. The country was known successively as Aonia
Messapia, Hyantis, Ogygia. Cadcleis, and Bceotia; and it gave birth to Pindalt, Hesiod, Plutarch, Democritus, Epaminondas, and the accomuplished
and beautiful Corinna.
D3 J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 207
B(EOTIA continaeoed.
Arrival of Cadmus, the founder of Cad- Thebes besieged and taken - B. c. 1216
mnea B. c. 1493 Thersander rei2ns in Thebes - - 1215
Reign of Polydore -. - 1459 The Thebans abolish royalty, and ages
Labdacus ascends the throne - 1430 of obscurity follow - - 1128
Amphion and Zethus besiege Thebes, * * * * *
and dethrone Laius - - - 1388 Battle of Chteronea, in which the The(Edipus, not knowing his father Laius, bans defeat the Athenians - - 447
ikills him in an affray, confirming the Epaminondas defeats the Lacedernooracle as to his death by the hands of nians at Leuctra, restores his country
his son -1276 to independence, and puts it in a con(Edipus encounters the Sphinx, and re- dition to dictate to the rest of Greece 371
solves her enigmas - - 1266 Philip, king of Macedon, defeats the TheWVar of the Seven Captains - 1225 bans and Athenians, near Chweronea - 338
Here the greatness of this country ends. Alexander destroyed Thebes, the
capital, 335 B. c., when the house of' Pindar alone was left standing, and all
the inhabitants were either killed or sold as slaves. —Stcabo.
BOGS. Commonly the remains of fallen forests, covered with peat and loose
soil. Moving bogs are slips of land carried to lower levels by accumulated
water. Acts relating to Ireland, for their drainage, passed, March, 1830.
The bog-land of Ireland has been estimated at 3,000,000 acres; that of Scotland, at upwards of 2,000,000; and that of England, at near 1,000,000 of acres.
d3H, a fierce barbarian general, son of Odin, lived 60 B. c. The exclamation
of his name petrified his enemies, and is yet used to frighten children.
BOHEMIA. This country was originally governed by dukes: the title of king
was obtained firom the emperor Henry IV. The kings at first held their
territory of the Empire, but they at length threw off the yoke: the crown
was elective till it came into the house of Austria, in which it is now hereclitary.-See Geroeasyg.
The Sclavonians, seizing Bohemia, are John Hiuss and Jerome of Prague, two
ruled by dules - A.D. 550 of the first Reformers, are burnt for
City of Prague founded - - 795 heresy, which occasions an insurrecintroduction of Christianity - 894 tion; when Sigismund, who betrayed
Bollemia conquered by the emperor them, is deposed, and the Imperialists
Henry III., who spreads devastation are driven fiom the kindom 1415 & 1416
through the country - - - 1041 Albert, duke of' Austria, marries the
The regal title is conlbrred onl Uratislas, daughter of the late emperor and
the first ing - - 1061 Icing, and receives the crowns of Bo3Tihe regal title is farther confirmed to hemia and Hungary - - - 1437
Ottoacre 1. - - 1199 The succession inlfiinged by Ladislas,
Iteign of Ottoacre II., who carries his son of the ting of' Poland, and George
arms into Prussia - - - 1258 Podiebrad, a protestant chief' 1440 to 1458
Ottoa.'re, refusing to do homage to the Ladislas,VI., Iking of Poland, elected
emperor Rodolphus, is by him van- king of Bohenmia, on the death of Poquished, and deprived of Austria, diebrad -1471
Styria, and Carniola - - -1282 The emperor Ferdinand 1. marries
In the reign of' Winceslas III. mines of Anne, sister of Louis the late king,
silver are first discovered, and agri- and obtains the crown - -1527
culture is encouraged and improved The elector palatine Frederick is driven
(et seq.) - - - -1284 fiomn Bohemia - - - 1618
Winceslas IV. becoming odious for his The crown is secured to the Austrian
vices, is assassinated - - -1305 family by the treaty of - -1648
John, count of Luxemburgh, is chosen Silesia and Glatz ceded to Prussia - 1742
to succeed - - - - 1310 Prague talcken by the Prussians - - 1744
Silesia is made a province of Bohemia 1342 The memorable siege of Prague -1757
King John slain at the battle of Crecy, Revolt of the peasantry - - 1775
fought with the English - - 1346 The Frenchl occupy Prtgue - - 1806
See Gern-anoy.
BOILING TO DEATH. A capital punishment in England, by statute 23 Henry
VIII., 1532. This act was occasioned by seventeen persons haviang been
poisoned by Rouse, the bishop of Rochester's cook, when the o-ffnce of
poisoning waNts mlade treason, nacd it was enacted to to be punished by boiling the crininal to death! Marg-aret Davie, a young woman, suffered in the
same imanner fort a similar crime, in 1541.
208 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ BOe'
BOLOGNA. Distinguished for its many rare and magnificent specimens of
architecture. Its ancient and celebrated university was founded by Theodosius, A. D. 433. Pope Julius II., after besieging and taking Bologna, madea
his triumphal entry into it with a pomp and magnificence by no means fitting
(as Erasmus observes) for the vicegerent of the meek Redeemer, Nov. 10,
1506. Here, in the church of St. Patronius, which is remarkable for its
pavement, Cassini drew his meridian line, at the close of the seventeenth
century. Taken by the French, 796; by the Austrians, 1799; again by the
French, after the battle of Marengo, in 1800; restored to the pope in 1815;
Austrians expelled by the people, August 8, 1848.
BOMBAY, INDIA. Given as part of the marriage-portion of the princess Catherine of Portugal, on her marriage with Charles II., 1661. Granted by Wiiliam III. to the East India Company in 1688, and it now forms one of the
three presidencies. An awful fire ra~ged here, and a number of lives were
lost, Feb. 27, -1803.-See Inbdica.
BOMBS, invented at Venlo, in 1495, but according to some authorities near a
century after. They came into general use in 1634, having been previously
used only in the Dutch and Spanish armies. Bomb-vessels were invented in
France, in 1681. —Voltaire. The Shrapnel shell is a bomb filled with balls,
and a lighted fuse to make it explode before it reaches the enemy; a thirtee-,inch bomb-shell weighs 198 lbs.
BONDAGE, oa VILLANAGE, was enforced under William I. A villain in
ancient times meant a, peasant enslaved by his lord. A release from this
species of servitude was ordered on the manors of Elizabeth, in 1574. See
Villain.
BONE-SETTING. This branch of the art of surgery cannot be said to have
been practised scientifically until 1620, before which time it was rather imperfectly understood.-Bell. The celebrity obtained by a practitioner at
Paris, about 1600, led to the general study of bone-setting as a science.
-Il'reind's Hist of Physic.
BOOKS. Ancient books were originally boards, or the inner bark of trees; and
bark is still used by some nations, as are also skins, for which latter parchment was substituted. Papyrus, an Egyptian plant, was adopted in that
country. Books whose leaves were vellum, were invented by Attalus, king
of Pergamlus, about 198 a. c., at which time books were in volumes or rolls.
The MSS. in Herculaneum consist of papyrus, rolled and charred, and matted
together by the fire, and are about nine inches long, and one, two, or three
inches in diameter, each being a separate treatise. The Pentateuch of
Moses, and the history of Job, are the most ancient in the world; and in
profane literature, the poems of Homer, though the names of others still
more ancient are preserved.
BOOKS, PRICES oF. Jerome states that he had ruined himself by buying a copy
of the works of Origen. A large estate was given for one on cosmography,
by Alfred, about A. D. 872. The Ronman de la Rose was sold for above 301.;
and a Homily was exchanged for 200 sheep and five quarters of wheat; and
they usually fetched double or treble their weight in gold. They sold -;t
prices varying from 101. to 401. each, in 1400. In our own times, the value
of some volumes is very great. A copy of Mlacklin's Bible, ornamented by
Mr. Tomkins, has been declared worth 500 guiheas.-Buttler. A yet more
superb copy is at present insured in a London office for 3,0001. —Timzes. II
Decamerodne of Boccacio, edition of 1471, was bought at the duke of Roxburgh's sale by the duke of Marlborough for 22601.. June 17, 1812. —Phillips.
A copy of the " Mazarin Bible," being the first edition and first book ever
printed (by Guttemberg at Mentz in 1455) was sold at auction in London
~OO ] )DICTIONARY OF DATES. 209
in April 1846 for 5001. This copy, the only one known to exist except 19
in public libraries, is now in a private library in New York.
B3OOKS, PRINTED.' The first printed books were trifling hymns and psalters, and
being printed only on one side, the leaves were pasted back to back. The
first printing was, as a book, the Boo/k of Psalms, by Faust and Scheffer, his
son-in-law, Aug. 14, 1457. Several works were printed many years before;
but as the inventors kept the secret to themselves, they sold their first printed
works as manuscripts. This gave rise to an adventure that brought calamity
on Faust; he began in 1450 an edition of the Bible, which was finished in
1460. See article Devil and Dr. FauSt'zls. The second printed was Cicero de
Oficiis, 1466. —Blair. The first book printed in England was The Game and
Play of the Chesse, by Caxton, 1474. The first in Dublin was the Litr'gy,
in 1550. The first classical work printed in Russia was Corn. lNepotis Vite,
in 1762. Lnucian's Dialogues was the first Greek book printed in America
(at Philadelphia), 1789. Books of astronomy and geometry were all destroyed in England as being infected with magic, 6 Edward VI. 1552.Stowe's Chr'onicles.
The above is from HIydn; but according to Petligyrew, (Diblio. Sessex.)
the first book printed with movable types was the Latin Bible, printed by
John Guttemberg at Mayence, about 1455. It was in two folio volumes;
and so excellent was the workmanship, both in type, ink, paper, and presswork, that it has scarcely been surpassed since. The succeeding editions
for 200 years were much inferior. This edition is called the Mazarin Bible,
as a copy was first found in the library of cardinal Mazarin. Only 20 copies
are now known to exist-all but one being in public libraries in Europe.
[See previous article.] Specimens of the block books, printed with engraved
wooden blocks, instead of type, are now very rare. Of the Blibliac Pacpnermnz,
done in this way, only two copies exist, one of which belongs to a citizen of
New York.
BOOK-BINDING. The book of St. Cuthbert, the earliest ornamented book, is
supposed to have been bound about A. D. 650. A Latin Psalter in oak boards
was bound in the ninth century. A MS. copy of the four evangelists, the'
book on which our kings fiom Henry I. to Edclwarcl VI. took their coronation
oath, was bound in oaken boards, nearly an inch thick, A. D. 1100. Velvet
was the covering in the fourteenth century; and silk soon after. Vellum
was introduced early in the fifteenth century; it was stamped and ornamented about 1510. Leather came into use about the same time. Cloth
binding superseded the common boards, generally, about 1831. Caoutchouc,
or India-rubber backs to account-books and large volumes introduced 1841.
BOOK-KEEPING. The system by double-entry, called originally Italian bookkeeping, was taken from the course of algebra which was published by
Burgo, at Venice, then a great commercial state, in the fifteenth century.
It was made known in England by James Peele, who published his Bookkcceping in 1569.-Ander'son.
BOOK TRADE of Great Britain, France, and Germany. The number of new
works published in successive years is thus stated:
Gt. Brit. France. Germany. Gt. Brit. France. Germany.
1828 842 - 5,654 1816 1 332 -. 7,891
1830 - 1,142 - 5,926 1849 -. -
1834 - 1,220 -- 6,074 1850 - -. 7,208 -
The number of printed books received from 1814 to 1847 inclusive, under
the copyright acts, from the trustees of the British Museum, amount to
55,474, or 1681 each year.
England.-The whole number of books printed in England during 14 years,
from 1666 to 1680, was 3,550; equal to 253 yearly;-but deducting the
21 0 THiE WORLD'7S PROGRESS. [ Bos.
reprints, pamphlets, single sermons, and maps, the ann-ulI average of new
books may be computed at much less than 100.
The number of new works, exclusive of "all pamphlets and other tracts;'(
issued during 56 years, as appears from a " Complete Catalogue of Modern
Books published from the beginning of the century (1700) to 1756," was
5,280; equal to a yearly average of 94.
The number of new works, exclusive of reprints and plamphlets, issued
during eleven years, from 1792 to 1802 inclusive, was 4,096; equal to 372
each year.
The number of new publications issued in 27 years, from 1800 to 1827, including reprints altered in size and price, but excluding pamphlets, was.
according to the London Catalogue, 19,860:-deducting one fifth for reprints,
we have 15,888, equal to 588 each year.
MIr. McCulloch estimates the number of volumes of new publications produced annually in Great Britain (exclusive of reprints, pamphlets, and
periodical publications not in volumes) at about 1,500; and the average
impression of each volume at 750 copies;-annual total, 1,125,000 volumes:
-value at 9s. a volume, ~506,250. " The number of reprinted volumes,
particularly of school-books, is very great; and if to these we add the
reviews, magazines, pamphlets, and all other publications, exclusive of new:.papers, the total publication value of the new works of all sorts, and new
copies of old works that are annually produced, may be estimated at about
~750,000."
France.-The activity of the French press has been very greatly increased
since the downfall of Napoleon. The count Daru, in a very instructive
work (Notions Statistiqes sur' lac Librarie), published in 1827, estimated the
number of printed sheets, exclusive of newspapers, produced by the French
press in 1816 at 66,852,883; and in 1825, at 128,011,483; and we believe
that the increase from 1825 down to the present period has been little if,y
thing inferior.
The first six months of the year 1837, as stated by the "Foreign Quarterly
review," there were printed in France, 3,413 works, in French and other
languages; also 571 engravings and lithographs.
Germavny.-The book-trade of Germany is greatly facilitated by the bookfairs held at Leipsic at Easter and Michelmnas, which are attended by the
booksellers of Germany, and by many of those of the neighboring countries,
as France, Switzerland, Denmark, &c. This trade began to flourish in 1814;
the number of works then annually offered for sale was about 2,000; bttl
the number has been gradually increasing, having for the first time exceeded
5,000 in 1827; and it now exceeds 7,000.' An Augsburg paper states," (says the " Foreign Quarterly Review," 1886,)
" that, on a moderate calculation, 10,000,000 of volumes are annually printhd
in Germany, and as every half-yearly fair catalogue contains the names of
more than 1,000 German writers, it may be assumed, that there are now
living upwards of 50,000 persons who have written one or more books. Thle
total value of all the books published annually in Germany is estimatec
fiom 5 to 6,000,000 dollars."
RPssia.-In the year 1836, 674 original works, and 124 translations were
published in Russia, exclusive of 46 periodicals.
Sweden. —There are only 28 or 30 printing presses in Sweden; 10 in Stockholm, 3 in Gottenburg, 2 in Upsal, 2 in NorkSping, and 1 in several other
places.
BOOK-TRADE o0 THE UNITED STATES. The number of new works which
appeared in the United States, in 1834 and 1835, amounted to 1,013, formi:le
lIOR] I DICTIONARY OF DATES. 21 1
1,300 volumes, and the cost of which may be estimated at $ 1.220,000. In
1836, the number was considerably increased, and the cost of the books,published in that year cannot be computed at less than $ 1,500,000. Boston,
New York, Philadelphia, and Hartford furnished 19 20ths of the amount.
Another statement for the years 1833, 1834, and 1835, is as follows:-originals
1,030, reprints, 854; total, 1,884;-number of volumes printed (1,000 for
each edition), 1,884,000.
In most cases the editions of one and the same work are larger and more
frequent in the United States than in any other country. Many reprinted
English works have here passed three or four editions, while the publishers
of the original in England have but one. In one instance, the sale cf a
book in America amounted to 100,000 copies, whereas in England only four
editions, of 1,000 copies each, were disposed of.
The amount of literary productions in America has more than doubled
during the last ten years. The sales of five book-selling establishments
amounted in 1836, to $ 1,350,000.
The following statement will show the relative proportion of native and imported literary productions in 1834:
Original. Reprint. Plzgznai. Reprint.
Education - - 73 - 9 Poetry - - 3
Divinity - - 37 - 18 Travels - 8 10
Novels and Tales 19 95 Fine Arts - 8 0
History and Biography - 19 o 17 Miscellaneous works - 59 - 43
Jurisprudence - - 20 3
Thus it appears in American literature the scientific and practically useful
predominate, and that works of imagination are chiefly derived firom
foreign sources. The school-books are almost all written or compiled in the
United States; and some idea of the extensive business done in them may
be formed from the circumstance, that, of some of the most popular comip-iitions in geography, from 100,000 to 300.000 copies have been sold in ten
years; so that, in many instances, works of this kind produce a permanent
income, as well to the author as the publisher. During the last five years,
the number of American original works in proportion to reprints, has nearly
doubled.
[The preceding paragraph is derived from statistics in the Booeksellers' Advertiser, edited by
G. P. Putnam, New York, 1835. Since then, no complete register has been kept of publications in successive years: but the following list is compiled from the semi-monthly register
in the Literary Wsorld.]
AnaMERICAN PUBLICATIONSs-JaltGCary to June, 1849.
Original. Reprint. Original. Reprint.
Education - 36 - 7 Travels - - 21 - 7
Divinity - - 25 - 25 Metaphysics - - 3 8-
Novels and Tales 18 28 Miscellaneous - 25 10
History - - 20 - 12 Law
Biograrphy - 15 - 6 Juvenile not ascertained.
Political Economy 3 - 0 Periodical
Medicine 12 - 11
Science - 11 - 9 For six months - 200 - 128
Poetry - 11 - 6 Total, 323.
The number of new publications for the year 1849 would thus be 656, exclusive of law and juvenile books, and occasional pamphlets and periodicals.
BOOTS. They are said to have been the invention of the Carians. and were
made of iron, brass, or leather; of the last material some timle after their
invention, boots were known to the Greeks, for HIomer lnentions them about
907 B. C.
BORODINO oR MOSKWA, BATTLE OP, one of the most sanguinary in the
records of the world, fought Sept. 7, 1812, between the French and Russians;
commanded on the one side by Napoleon, and on the other by Kutusofi,
212 TIHE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ BOT
240,000 men being engaged. Each party claimed the victory, because the
loss of the other was so immense; but it was rather in favor of Napoleon,,
for the Russians subsequently retreated, leaving Moscow to its fate. The
road being thus left open, the French entered MVloscow. Sept. 14, with little
opposition. But a signal reverse of fortune now tool place, which preserved
the Russian empire from ruin, and paved the way to the downfall of the
French military power over Europe. See /oscow.
BOROUGH. Anciently a company of ten families living together. The term
has been applied to such towns as send members to parliamnent, since the
election of burgesses in the reign of Henry III. 1265. Burgesses were first
admitted into the Scottish parliament by Robert Bruce, 1326-and into theIrish, 1365.
BOROUGH ENGLISH. This was an ancient tenure by which the younger son
inherits. Its origin is thus explained: in feudal times the lord is said to
have claimed the privilege of spending the first night with the vassal's bride
and on such occasions the land was made to descend to the next son, in consequence of the supposed illegitimacy of the elder. This kind of tenure is
mentioned as occulrring A. D. 834. It existed in Scotland, but was abolished
by Malcolm III. in 1062. —Hiaydb.
BOSPHORUS, now called Circassia. The history of this kingdom is involved
in obscurity, though it continued for 530 years. It was named Cimmerian,
from the Cimmerze'i, who dwelt on its borders. The descendants of Archeanactes of Mytilene settled in this country, but they were dispossessed by
order of the emperor Spartacus, in 438 B. C. Mithridates conducted a prisoner to Rome, by Claudius, and his kingdom soon afterwards made a province of the empire, A. D. 40. The strait of the Bosphorus was closed by the
Turks, Sept. 8, 1828. It was blockaded by the Russian squadron under admiral Greig, Dec. 31, same year. See Dcartdanlcles.
BOSTON, the capital of Massachusetts, founded in August 1630. Here commencedc the American Revolution. British soldiers fired on the people, 1770.
The celebrated "Tea-party" here, toolk place 1773. The port closed by parliament 1774. British army evacuatedcl Boston in March 1776. [See Lexinigton and Bnnler' Hlill.] The cause of American freedom was nowhere more
actively sustained than by the people of Boston. Benjamin Franklin was
born here, Jan. 17, 1706. John Hancock, the first signer of the Declaration
of Independence, was a Bostonian. Boston incorporated as a city, 1822.
Population in 1700, 7000; in 1790, 18,038; in 1810, 33,250; in 1820, 43,298 -
in 1830, 61,391; in 1845, 114,366. Tonnage of vessels in 1840, 220,243 tons.
BOSWORTH FIELD, BATTLE OF, the thirteenth and last between the houses
of York and Lancaster, in which Richard III. was defeated by the earl of
Richmond, afterwards Henry VII., the former being slain, Aug. 22, 1485..
The crown of Richard was found in a hawthorn bush, on the plain where the
battle was fought, and Ilenry was so impatient to be crowned, that he had
the ceremony performed on the spot with that very crown. In the civil contests between the "Roses," many of the most ancient families in the kingdom were entirely extinguished, and no less than 100,000 human beings lost
their lives.
BOTANY. Aristotle is considered the founder of the philosophy of botany.
The Historia Plantarsds of Theophrastus, written about 320 B. c. Authors
on botany are numerous fromn the earlier ages of the world, to the close of
the 15th century, when the science became better understood. The study
was advanced by Fuchsius, Bock, Bauhin, Cmsalpinus, and others, between
1535 and 1600.-Melchior Adamn. The system and arrangement of Linnmeus,
the first botanist of modern times, made known about 1750. Jussieu's sys
BOU ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 213
tem, in 1758. At the time of Linn.eus's death, A. D. 1778, the species of
plants actually described amounted in number to 11,800. The number of
species of all denominations now recorded cannot fall short of 100,000.
BOTANY BAY, originally fixed on for a colony of convicts from Great Britain.
The first governor, Phillips, who sailed from England in May, 1787, arrived
at the settlement in January, 1788. The bay had been discovered by captain Cook in 1770, and the place took its name from the great variety of
herbs which abounded on the shore. The colony was fixed at Port Jackson,
about thirteen miles to the north of the bay. See New SoutbC Wales and
Tr'aensportation.
POTTLES, of glass, were first made in England, about 1558.-See Glass. The
art of making glass bottles and drinking glasses was known to the Romans
at least before 79 A. D., for these articles and other vessels have been found
in the Ruins of Pompeii. A bottle which contained two hogsheads was
blown, we are told, at Leith, in Scotland, in January, 1747-8.
BOULOGNE, FRANCE. Taken by the British in 1542, but restored to France
uepon the peace, 1550. Lord Nelson attacked Boulogne, disabling ten vessels,
and sinking five, Aug. 3, 1801. Prince Louis Napoleon made a descent here
with about fifty followers, 4g. 6, 1840.-See e.xt article and Frwance.
BOULOGNE FLOTILLA. This celebrated armament against England excited
much attention for some years, but the grand demonstration was made in
1804. In that year, Bonaparte had assembled 160,000 men and 10 000 horses,
and a flotilla of 1300 vessels and 17.000 sailors to invade England. The
coasts of Kent and Sussex were covered with martello towers and lines of
defence; and nearly half the adult population of Britain was formed into
volunteer corps. It is supposed that this French armament served merely
for a demonstration, and that Bonaparte never seriously intended the invasion.
BOUNDARY QUESTIONS, IN THE UNITED STATES. Award of the king of the
Netherlands on the boundary between Maine and the British possessions,
Jan. 10, 1831 (rejected by both parties). Collisions between the people of
Maine and New Brunswick in the disputed territory on the Aroostock, 1838-9,
suspended by a mutual agreement between sir J. Harvey, Governor of New
Brunswick, governor Fairfield, of Maine, and general Scott, of the U. S.
army, March 21, 1839. This boundary settled by the Treaty of Washington, 1842. Oregon boundary-49th parallel agreed upon as the northern
boundary of the United States, in Oregon, by treaty signed at Washington,
June 1846.
BOUNTIES. They were first granted on the exportation of British commodities-a new principle introduced into commerce by the British parliament.
The first bounties granted on corn, were in 1688. First legally granted in
England for raising naval stores in America, 1703. Bounties have been
granted on sail-cloth, linen, and other goods.-Elements of Commerce.
BOUNTY, MUTINEERS oF THE SHIP. Memorable mutiny on board the Bounety,
armed ship returning from Otaheite, with bread-fruit. The mutineers put
their captain, Bligh, and nineteen men into an open boat, near Annamooka,
one of the Friendly Islands, April 28, 1789, and they reached the Island of
Timor, south of the Moluccas, in June, after a perilous voyage of nearly
4000 miles, in which their preservation wras next to miraculous. The mutineers were tried Sept. 15, 1792, when six were condemned, of whom three
were executed. See Pitcaiir's Islanvd.
BOURBON, HousaE or. Anthony de Bourbon was the chief of the branch of
Bourbon, so called from a fief of that name which fell to them by marriage
with the heiress of the estate. Henry IV. of France and Navarre, justly
214 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ BOY
styled the Great, was son of Anthony, and came to the throne in 1589. The
crown of Spain was settled on a younger branch of this family, and guaranteed by the peace of Utrecht, 1713. —RIpirn. The Bourbon Family Compact
took place, 1761. The Bourbons were expelled France, 1791, and were
restored, 1814. -Re-expelled, and again restored, 1815. The elder branch
was expelled once more, in the persons of Charles X. and his family in 1830,
a consequence of' the revolution of tile imemorably days of July in that
year.-See Fria'~nc.
BOURBON, ISLE oP, discovered by the Portuguese, in 1545. The French
first settled here in 1672, and built several towns. The island surrendered
to the British, July 2, 1810. It is near the Isle of France, and the two are
styled the Mauritius. There occurred an awful hurricane here in February
1829, by which immense mischief was done to the shipping, and in the
Island. See Z[lcar?'itiues.
BOURDEAUX (or BORDEAUX) was united to the dominions of Henry II. of
England, by his marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine. Edward the Black
Prince brought his royal captive, John, king of France, to this city after the
battle of Poitiers. in 1356, and here held his court during eleven years: his son,
Richard II., (of Eng.) was born at Bourdeaux, in 1362. The fine equestrian
statue of Louis XV. was erected in 1743. LBourdeaux was entered by the
victorious British army, after the battle of Orthes, fought Feb. 25, 1814.
BOURIGNONISTS, a sect founded by Madame Antoinette Boig'/'non, a fanatic,
who, in 1658, took the habit of St. Augustin, and travelled into France,
Holland, England, and Scotland. In the last she made a strong party and
some thousands of sectarists. about 1670. She maintained that Christianily
does not consist in faith or practice, but in an inward feeling and supernatural impulse. This visionary published a book entitled the Liyht of the
Worild, in which, and in several other works, she maintained and taught her
pernicious notions. A disciple of hers, named Court, left her a good estate.
She died in 1680.
BOWLS, oR BOWLING, an English game, played as early as the thirteenth
century, and once in great repute among the higher ranks. Charles I.
played at it. It formed a daily share in the diversions of Charles II., at
Tunbridge.-ZTniieoircs dle Gralnonont.
BOWS AND ARROWS. See Archer'y. The invention of them is ascribed to
Apollo. Known in England previous to A. D. 450. The use of them was
again introduced into England by the Conqueror, 1066; and greatly encouraged by Richard I., 1190. —Bclcer's C'hronicle. The usual range of the lono
bow was from 300 to 400 yards; the length of the bow was six feet, and
the arrow three. Cross-bows were fixed to a stock of iron or wood, and
were discharged by a trigger.
BOXING, oR PRIZE-FIGHTING, the pnogilaltns of the Romans, and a favorite
sport with the British, who possess an extraordinary strength in the arm, an
advantage which gives the British soldier great superiority in battles decided by the bayonet. A century ago, boxing formed a regular exhibition, and
a theatre was erected for it in Tottenlham-court-Broughton's anmphitheatre.,
behind Oxford-road, built 1742. Schools were opened in England to tears
boxing as a science in 1790. Owing to the dishonest practices in the " ring,"
selling the victory, and one combatant allowing the other to beat him, &c.,
the fights have been fewer of late, and the number of the patrons of boxing
have declined.
BOYLE LECTURES. Instituted by Robert Boyle (son of the great earl of
Cork), an exceedingly good man and philosopher, distinguished by his
genius, virtues, and unbounded benevolence. He instituted eight lectures
in vindication of the Christian religion, which were delivered at St. Mary-l -
BRA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 215
Bow church, 6n the first Monday in each month, from January to May, and
September to November-endowed 1691.
BOYNE, BATTLE OP, between king William III. and his father-ini-law, James II.,
fought July 1, 1690. The latter was signally defeated, his adherents losing
1500 men, and the Protestant army about a third of that number. James
immediately afterwards fled to Dublin, thence to Waterford, and escaped to
France. The duke of Schomberg was killed in the battle.
HABANT. It was erected into a duchy A. D. 620, and devolved upon Lambert I. count of Louvain, in 1005, and from him descended to Philip II. of
Burgundcly, and in regular succession to the emperor Charles V. In the
seventeenth century it was held by Holland and Austria, as Dutch Brabant,
and Walloon. These provinces underwent many changes in most of the
great wars of Europe. The Austrian division was taken by the French 1746
-again in 1794 by their Republic; and it now forms part of the kingdom
of Belgium, under Leopold, 1831. See Belgitan.
RACELETS. They were early worn and prized among the ancients; we read
of them in almost all nations; those that were called cnttillce were usually
distributed as rewards for valor among the Roman legions.-Non/v. Dict.
Those of pearls and gold were worn by the Roman ladies; and armliets are
female ornaments to the present day.
BRAGANZA, HousE op, owes its elevation to royalty to a remarkable and
bloodless revolution in Portugal, A. D. 1640, when the nation, throwing off
the Spanish yoke, which had become intolerable, advanced John, duke of
Braganza, to the throne, on which this family continues to reign.-Abb6
Fertot.
BRAHMINS, a sect of Indian philosophers, reputed to be so ancient that Pythagoras is thought to have learned from them his doctrine of the Metempsyc/osis; and it is affirmed that some of the Greek philosophers went to
India on purpose to converse with them. The modern Brahmins derive
their name from Brahme, one of the three beings whom God, according to
their theology, created, and with whose assistance he formed the world.
They never eat flesh, and abstain from the use of wine and all carnal enjoyments. —Strabo. The modern Indian priests are still considered as the depositaries of the whole learning of India.-Holwell.
BRANDENBURGH, FAMILY OF, is of great antiquity, and some historians say
it was founded by the Sclavonians, who gave it the name of Banbber, which
signifies Guar'd of the Forests. Henry I., surnamed the Fowler, fortified
Brandenburgh, A. D. 923, to serve as a rampart against the Huns. He bestowed the government on Sifroi, count of Ringelheim, with the title of
Margrave, which signifies protector of the marches or frontiers, in 927.
The emperor Sigismund gave perpetual investiture to Frederick IV. of Nuremberg, who was made elector in 1417. See Prussia.
BRANDYWINE, BATTLE OF, between the British royalist forces and the Americans, in which the latter were defeated with great loss, and Philadelphia fell
to the possession of the victors, September 11, 1777.
/iASS. Its formation was prior to the Flood, and it was discovered in the
seventh generation from Adam. LIBible. Brass was known among all the
early nations.- Us/Ler. The Britons from the remotest period were acquainted
with its use.- Wlittakeer. When Lucius Mumonius burnt Corinth to the
ground, 146 B. c., the riches he found were immense, and during the conflagration, it is said, all the metals in the city melted, and running together,
formed the valuable composition since known under the name of Corinthians Brass. This, however, may well be doubted, for the Corinthian artists
had long before obtained great credit for their method of combining gold
216 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [R BtR
and silver with copper; and the Syriac translation of the Bible says, tha'
Hiram made the vessels for Solomon's temple of Corinthian brass. Article!
made of this brilliant composition, though in themselves trivial and insig
nificant, were yet highly valuedl.-Dar Pr[resnoy.
BRAZIL. It was discovered by Alvarez de Cabral, a Portuguese, who was
driven upon its coasts by a tempest in 1500. He called it the Land of the
Holy Cross; but it was subsequently called Brazil on account of its ree
wood, and was carefully explored by Amerigo Vespucci, about 1504. Th,
guld mines were first opened in 1684; and the diamond mines were discov
ered 1730 (see Diamzonds). The French having seized on Portugal in 180i
the royal family and most of the nobles embarked for Brazil. A revolutin,
took place here in 1821. Brazil was erected into an empire, when Do
Pedro assumed the title of emperor, in November 1825. He abdicated th
throne of Portugal, May 2, 1826; and that of Brazil, in favor of his infar
Son, now emperor, April 7, 1831, and returned to Portugal, where a civ:
war ensued.-See Portebgal..BREAD. Ching-Noung, the successor of Fohi, is reputed to have been th
first who taught men (the Chinese) the art of husbandry, and the metho,
of making bread from wheat, and wine from rice, 1998 B. c.- Univ. His&
Baking of bread was known in the patriarchal ages; see Exodnus xii. l;.
Baking bread became a profession at Rome, 170 B. c. During the siege of
Paris by Henry IV., owing to the famine which then raged, bread, which
had been sold whilst any remained for a crown a pound, was at last made
from the bones of the charnel-house of the Holy Innocents, A. D. 1594.IFenaalt. In the time of James I. the usual bread of the poor was made of
barley; and now in Iceland, cod-fish, beaten to powder, is made into bread;
and the poor use potato-bread in many parts of Ireland. Earth has been
eaten as bread in some parts of the world: near Moscow is a portion of
land whose clay will ferment when mixed with flour. The Indians of Lenisiana (l) eat a white earth with salt; and the Indians of the Oronooko eat
a white unctuous earth.-Greig; PAillips.
BREAKWATER AT PLYMOUTH. The first stone of this stupendons work
was lowered in the presence of the army and navy, and multitudes of the
great, August 12, 1812. It was designed to break the swell at Plymouth,
and stretches 5280 feet across the Sound; it is 360 feet in breadth at the
bottom, and more than thirty at the top, and consumed 3,666,000 tons of
granite blocks, from one to five tons each, up to April, 1841; and cost al
million and a half sterling. The architect was Rennie. The first stone vthe lighthouse on its western extremity was laid Feb. 1, 1841.
BREAST-PLATES. The invention of them is ascribed to Jason, 937 B. c. The
breast-plate formerly covered the whole body, but it at length dwindled in
the lapse of ages to the diminutive gorget of modern times. See Arnmor.
BREDA. This city was taken by prince Maurice of Nassau in 1590; by the
Spaniards in 1625; and again by the Dutch in. 1637. Charles II. resided
here at the time of the Restoration, 1660. See.Restoration. Breda was
taken by the French in 1793, and retaken by the Dutch the same year. Tic;
French garrison was shut out by the burgesses in 1813, when the power of
France ceased here.
BREECHES. Among the Greeks, this garment indicated slavery. It was
worn by the Dacians, Parthians, and other northern nations; and in Italy,
it is said, it was worn in the time of Augustus Cm.sar. In the reign of Honorius, about A. D. 394, the bracca~ri, or breeches-makers, were expelled from
Rome; but soon afterwards the use of breeches was adopted in other countries, and at length it became general.
UI:] DICTIONARY OF DAT1':rS. 217
iREMEN, a venerable Hanse town, and duchy, sold to George I. as elector of
Hanover, in 1716. It was taken by the French in 1757; they were driven
out by the Hanoverians in 1758; and it was again seized in 1806. Bremen
was annexed by Napoleon to the French empire in 1810; but its inclependence was restored in 1813. See HIanse To.Vws.
RESLAU, BATTLEi Or, between the Austrians and Prussians, the latter under
prince Bevern, who was defeated, but the enogagement was most bloody on
both sides, Nov. 22, 1757, when Breslan was taken; but was regained the
same year. This city was for some time besieg:ed by the French, and surrendered to them January 5, 1807, and again in 1813.
REST. It was besieged by Julius C-esar, 54 a. c.-possessed by the English,
A. D. 1378-given up to the duke of Brittany, 1391. Lord Berkeley and a
British fleet and army were repulsed here with dreadful loss in 1694.
The magazine burnt, to the amount of some millions of pounds sterling,
1744. The marine hospitals, with fifty galley-slaves, burnt, 1766. The
magazine again destroyed by a fire, July 10, 1784. From this great depot
of the French navy, numerous squadrons were equipped against England
during the late war.
RETHREN IN INIQUITY. The designation arose from persons covenanting
formerly to share each other's fortune, in any expedition to invade a country, as did Robert de Oily and Robert de Ivery, in William I.'s invasion of
England, 1066.
BRETIGNY, PEACE OF, concluded with France at Bretigny, and by which England retained Gascony and Guienne, acquired Saintonge, Agenois, Perigord,
Limousin, Bigorre, Angoumois, aud Rovergne, and renounced her pretensions to Maine, Anjou, Touraine, and Normandy; England walas also to
receive 3;000,000 crowns, and to release king John, who had been long
prisoner in London, May 8, 1360.
BREVIARIES. The breviary is a book of mass and prayer used by the church
of Romle. It was first called the cucstos, and afterwards the breviary; and
both the clergy and laity use it publicly and at home. It was in use among
the ecclesiastical orders about A. D. 1080; and was reformed by the councils
of Trent and Cologne, and by Pius V., Urban VIII., and other popes. The
quality of type in which the breviary was first printed gave the name to the
type called brevier at the present day.
BREWERS. The first are tracedl to Egypt. Br1ewing was known to our AngloSaxon ancestors.- Tidarl. "One William Murle, a rich maultman or bruer,
of Dunstable, had two horses all traped with gold, 1414."-S/owe. There
are about 1700 public brewers in England, about 200 in Scotland, and 250 in
Ireland: these are exclusively of retail and intermediate brewers, of which
there are in England about 1400; there are, besides, 28,000 victuallers, &c.,'who brew their own ale. In London, there are about 100 wholesale brewers,
many of them in immense trade. Various statutes relating to brewers and
the sale of beer have been enacted from time to time. See Beer.
B2IBERY. In Englanclan indictable offence to bribe persons in the administration of public justice. Thomas de Weyland, a judge, was banished the
land for bribery, in 1288; he was chief justice of the Common Pleas. William de Thorpe. chief justice of the King's Bench, was hanued for bribery
in 1351. Another judge was fined 20,0001. for the like offence, 1616. Mr.
Walpole, secretary-at-war, was sent to the tower for bribery in 1712. Lord
Stranigford cwas suspended fiom voting in the Irish I-louse of Lords, for soliciting a bribe, January 1784.:RIBERY AT ELECTIONS, as in the preceding cases, made an indictable
"Tence. Messrs. Sykes and Rumbold fined and imprisoned for bribery at
10
218 THE WOR LD'S PROGRESS. L BI;
an election, March 14, 1776. An elector of Durham convicted, July 1803
and several similar instances have occurred since.
BRICKS, for building, were used in the earliest times in B1abylon, Egyp.
Greece, and Rome. Used in England by the Romans, about A. D. 44. MBad.
under the direction of Alfied the Great, about 8$6. —Saxzo, Chkroem. Th
size regulated by order of Charles I. 1625. Taxed, 178-4. The number
bricks which paid duty in Englanci in 1820 was 949,000,000; in 1830, th:
number exceedl 1,100,000,000; and in 1810 it anmounted to 14,000,000,00(
See Building.
BRIDAL CEREMONIES. Anmong the more rational ceremonies observed I
the ancients, was the practice of conducting the bride to the house of h(
spouse on a chariot, which was afterwards burned; it originated with tl
Thebans, and was intended as a symbol of the bride's future dependence
her husband, from whom there was no chariot to convey her back to h.
parents; it is mentioned 880 B. c.
BRIDEWELL. Originally the name of a royal palace of king Jot l, ne:
Fleet-ditch, London; it was built anew by HI-enry VIII. in 1522, and w,'
given to the city by Edward VI. in 1553. There are several prisons of th
name throughout England. The first London Briclewell was in a localil
near to Bride's well; but this is no reason, as is justly observed, why sim
lar prisons, not in a similar locality, should have this name.
BRIDGES. So early and general, and the expeclients for their construction so
various, their origin cannot be traced; they were first of wood. The ancient
bridges in China are of great mlagnitude, and were built of stone. Abydos.
is famous for the bridge of boats which Xerxes built across the Hellesponlt.
Trajan's magonificent stone bridge over the Danube, 4770 feet in length, was
built in A. D. 103. The Devil's brsidge in the canton of Uri, so called from its
frightful situation, was built resting on two high rocks, so that it could
scarcely, be conceived how it was erected, and nmany fabulous stories were
invented to account for it. At Shaff hausen an extraordinary bridge was
built over the Rhine, which is there 400 feet wide: there was a pier in the
middle of the river, but it is doubtful whether the bridge rested upon it; a
man of the lightest weight felt the bridge totter under him, yet wagons
heavily laden passed over without danger. This bridge was destroyed by
the French in 1799. Suspension bridge at Niagara Falls completed July
29, 1848.
BRIDGES IN ENGLAND. The ancient bridges in England were of wood, and
were fortified with planks and mlerlined; the first bridge of Stone was bW
at Bow, near Stratford,- A. D. 1087. Westminster bridge, then the finest
erected in these realms, and not surpassed by any in the world, except in
China, was completed in twelve years, 1750. The other London bridges are
Blackfiiars, completed 1770; London, (rebuilt) 1831; Southwark, of iron,
1819. The first iron bridge, on a large scale, was erected over the Sevein,
in Shropshire, 1779. The finest chain suspension bridge is that of the
Menai Strait, completed in 1825. Hungerford suspension bridge, 1845.
BRIDGEWATER CANAL, the first great work of the kind in England, was
begun by the duke of Bridclgeater, styled the father of canal navigation i;l
that country, in 1758: 3Mir. Brindley was the architect. The canal comnmences at Wor'Sley, seven mliles frornm Manchester; and at Barton-bridge is
an aqueduct which, for upwarcds of 200 yards, conveys the canal across the
navigable river Irwell; its length is twienty-nine miles.
BRIEF. A written instrument in the Catholic church, of early but uncertain
date. Briefs are the letters of the pope dispatched to princes and others on
public affatirs, and are usually written short, and hence the name, and alwithout preface or preamble, and on paper; in which particulars they..
P~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~/
hi;tI j DICTIONARPY OF DATES. 219
distinguished from balls. The latter are ample, and always written on
parchment; a brief is sealed with red wax, the seal of the fisherman, or St.
Peter il a boat, and always in presence of the pope; they are used for graces
and dlisipensations, as well as business.
tRIENNE, BAT'rLI Ot, between the allied armies of Russia and Prussia, and
the French. fought on the 1st. and resumec on the 2cl February, 1814. The
allies weri e defeated with g'reatt loss; this was one-of the last battles in which
the French achieved victory, previously to the fall of Napoleon.
WRISTOL. This city, one of the prlincipal in England, was built by Brennus,
a p1)ince of thle Britons, 380 B. c. It was granted a charter and becarime a
distinct county in the reign of Edward III. Taken by the earl of Gloncester. in his defernce of his sister Maude, the empress, agailist king Stephen,
1138. Bristol was attacked with great fury by the forces of Cromwell, 1655.
Riot at Bristol, on the entrance of sir Charles Wetherell, the;ecorder, into
the city, attended by a large police and special force, to opena the sessions,
He being politically obnoxious to the lower order of the citizens, a riot ensued, which w as of several days' continuance, and which did net terminate
until the lnansion-house, the bishop's palace, several merchants' stores, some
of the prisons (the inmates liberated), and nearly 100 houses were burned,
and many lives lost; Oct. 29, 1831. Trial of the rioters, Jan. 2, 1832; four
were executed, and twenty-two transported. Suicide of col. Brereton during
his trial by courtu-martial, Jan. 9, same year.
BRITAIN. The earliest records of the history of this island are the manuscripts and poetry of the Cambrians. The Celts were the ancestors of the
Britons and modern Welsh, and were the first inhabitants of' Britain. Britain, including England, Scotland, and Wales, was anciently called Albion,
the nanme of Britain being applied to all' the islands collectively-Albion to
only one.-Pl/?ny. The Romans first invaded Britain under Julius Cmesar,
55 B. c., but they mnade no conquests. Tho emperor Claudius, and his generals, Plaltius, Vespasian andc Titus, subdued several provinces after thirty
pitched battles with the natives, A. D. 43 and 44. The conquest was completed by Agricola, in the reig'n of Domitian, A. D. 85.
First invasion ofBritainby the RIomans, Constantius, emperor of IRome, dies at
under Julius Cwsar 55 York - - - A.D.. 306
Cymbeline, king of Britain 4 The Roinan forces are finally withExpedition of Claiudius into Britain, A. D. 40 drawn from Britain - 420 to 426
London founded by the Romans 49 The Saxons and Angles are called in to
Caractacus carried in chains to Rome - 51 aid the natives against their northern
The Itomans cdefeated by B3oadicea; neioghbors the Picts and Scots - 449
70,000 slain, and London burnt - 61 Having expelled these, the Anglo-SaxA vast army of Britons is delsated by ons attack the natives themselves,
Suetonius, and 80,000 slain - - t6l driving them into Wales - 455
Reign of Lucius. the first Chrlistian king Many of the natives settle in Armorica,
of Britain, and in the world -179 since called Brittany - - - 457
Severus keeps his court at York, then The Saxon Ieptarchy; Britain divided
called Eoracum - - 207 into seven ilngdonoms 457
IIe dies at Yorkl - -211 Reigrn of the renowned Arthur - - 506
Catausius, a tyrant, usurps the throne Arrival of St. Augustin (or Austin), and
of Britain.286 establishlment of Christianity - - 596
lie is ikilled by Alectus, wsho continues Cadwallader, last king of the Britons,
the usurpation -293 began his reign - 678
Constantius recovers Britain by the de- The Saxon lIeptarchy endls - 828
feat ofAlecus - - 296 See ti?2qland, and also Tabular Views, p.
7i5 &c.
That Britain formerly joined the Continent has been inferred from the similar cli['s of the opposite coasts of thlle English Chanmel, and from the coI1t encroachnieme nts of the sea in still wiclening the channel. For instance,
arlge part of the cliffs of Dover fifl, estimated at six acres, Nov. 27, 1810.
Phillips's AnLnals.,ITISH MIIUSEUM. The origin of this great national institution was tho
220 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ BRb
grant by parliament of 20,0001. to the daughters of sir Hans Sloane, in payment for his fine library, and vast collection of the productions of nature
and art, which had cost him 50,0001. The library contained 50,000 volumles,
and valuable MSS., and 69,352 articles of vertul were enumerated in the cataloguc of curiosities. The act was passed April 5, 17,3; and in the same
year Montagu-house was obtained by government as a place for the reception of these treasures. The museum has since been gradually increased
to an immense extent by gifts, bequests, the purchase of every species of
curiosity, MSS., sculpture and work of art, and by the transference to its: rooms of the Cottonian, Harleian, and other libraries, the Elgin marbles,
&c. George IV. presented to the museum the library collected at Buckingham-house by George III.-See Cottonian Library', and oteer collectionls.
BROAD SEAL oF ENGLAND, first affixed to patents and other grants of the
crown, by Edward the Confessor, A. D. 1048.-Baker's C/,'onb.
BROCADE. A silken stuff variegated with gold or silver, and raised and enriched with flowers and various sorts of figures, originally made by the Chinese.-Johnson,. The trade in this article was carried on by the Venetians.
-Anderso7n. Its manufacture was established with great success at Lyons,
in 1757.
BROCOLI: an Italian Plant.-Pacrbdon. The white and purple, both of which
are varieties of the cauliflower, were brought to England fionom the Isle of
Cyprus, in the seventeenth century.-Ande'rson-. About 1603.-Bc?'rn s. The
cultivation of this vegetable was greatly improved in the gardens of Eng4
land and came into great abundance about 1680.-Anderson.,,
BROKERS. Those both of money and merchandise were known early in England. See Appraisers. Their dealings were regulated by law, and it war
enacted that they should be licensed before transacting business, 8 and 9
William III. 1695-6. The dealings of stock-brokers were regulated by.':t
6 George I. 1719, and 10 George II. 1736.-lStatules at lar-e. See Pawnb ookers.
BRONZE, known to the ancients, some of whose statues, vessels. and varior
other articles, made of bronze, are in the British Museum. The equestria,
statue of Louis XIV., 1699, in the Place Vendlme at Paris, (demlolished Au)-?
10, 1792,) was the most colossal ever mnade; it contained 60,000 lbs. weig:'
of bronze. Bronze is two parts brass and one copper, and the Greeks adde.-.
one fifteenth of lead and silver.
BROTHELS, were formerly allowed in Londlon, and considered a necessary e, 1,
under the regulation of a good police. They were all situated on the Bankside, Southwark, and subject to the jurisdiction of the bishop of Winche:ster; and they were visited weekly by the Sheriff's o-ficers. and the severest
penalties being enacted against keeping infected or married w omen, S Hemr
II. 1162. —Snrvey of Lonedon. Brothels tolerated in France, 1280. Poy
Sixtus IV. licensed one at Rome, and the prostitutes paid him a weekly tawhich amounted to 20,000 ducats a year, 1471. —Itl. Ch/ion.
BROWNISTS, a sect founded by a schoolmaster in Southwark. named Roheirt
Brown, about 1615. It condemned all ceremonies and ecclesiastical distinctions, and affirmed that there was an admixture of corruptions in all ethr-lr
communions. But the foundcle subsequently recanted his doctrines foir a
benefice in the church of Englancl.-Collis's s Ecclcs. irist.
BRUCE'S TEAVELS. undertaken to discover the sonurce of the Nile. T'
ill-ustrious Bruce. the " Abyssinian Traveller,"' set out- in June 1768, andl T)r,
ceeding first to Cairo, he navigated the Nile to Syene, thence crossed the
desert to the Red Sea, and, arriving at Jidda, passed some months in Arabia
Felix, and after various detentions, reached Gondar, the capital of Akt..
TJ'C ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 221
sinia, in Feb. 1770. On Nov. 14th, 1'770, he obtained the great object of his
wishes-a sight of the sources of the Nile. Bruce returned to England in
1773, and died in 1794.
BRUNSWICK, House op. This house owes its origin to Azo, of the family of
Este. Azo died in 1055, and left, by his wife- Cunegonde (the heiress of
Guelph III., duke of Bavaria). a son wsho was Guelphl IV., the great-grandfather of Henlrv the Lion. This last mnaried Maudcle, daughted of Henry Ii.
of England, and is always looked upon as being the founder of the Brunswick family. The dominions of Henry the Lion were the most extensive of
any prince of his time; but having rsefused to assist the emperor Frederick
Barbarossa in a war against pope Alexander III., he drew the emperor's resentment on him, and in the diet of Wurtzburg, in 1179, he was proscribed.
The duchy of Bavaria was given to Otho, from whom is descended the family
of Bavaria; the duchy of' Saxony, to Bernard Ascanius, founder of the
house of Anhalt; and his other territories to different persons. On this, he
retired to England; but on Henry's intercession, Brunswick and Lunenburg
were restored to himl. The house of Brunswick has divided into several
branches. The present duke of Brunswick-Wolfelibuttel is sprung fiiom the
eldest; the duke of Brunswick-Zell was fromi the seconid; and from this
last sprang the royal famiily of England. A revolution took place at Brunswick, when the clucal palace was burnt, and the reigning prince obliged to
retire and seek shelter in England, Sept. 8, 1830.
BRUSSELS, founded by St. Gery of Cambray, in the seventh century. The
meniorable bombardlment of this city by Marshal Villeroy, when 14 churches
and 4000 houses were cdestoyed, 1695. Talen by the French, 1746.
Again, by Dumouriez. 1792. The revolution of 1830 commencecd here, Aug.
25.-See Bel —iilm. Thllis towrn is celebrated for its fine lace, camlets, and
tapestry. There is ere a iioble building-, callecld the I:diel de /Vi le, whose turret is 364 feet in hleight; and on its top is a copper figure of St. lichael, 17
feet high, which turns uwithl the winid. Riot in Brussels, in which the costly
furniture of 16 principal houses was demlolished, in consequence of a display of attachlment to the house of Orange, 5th April, 1834.
BTTBBLE COMPANIES, in commerce, a namlie given to projects for raising
money upon false alnd iimaginary grounds, much practised, often with disastrous consequences, in France and England, in 1719 and 1721. Many such
projects were formed in England and Ireland in 1825. See Coacpaniecs, and
Laez's Bbfble.
BUCCANEERS. These piratical adventurers, chiefly French. English, and
Dutch, commlencecld their depredations on the Spaniards of America, soon
after the latter had taken possession of that continent and the West Indies.
The principal commanders of the first expedition were, Montbar, Lolonois,
Basco, and Morgan, who murdered thousanids and plundered millions. The
expedition of Van Horn, of Ostend, was undertaken in 1603; that of Gramlont.
in 1685; and that of Pointis, in 1697.
XUCHANITES. IHundrelds of leluded fanatics, followers of Margaret Buehan,
who promised to conduct thltm to the new Jerusalem, and prophesied the
end of the world. She apipeire.d. in Scotland in 1779, and died in 1791, when
her foliowers dispersed.
iBUCHAREST, TREAuTY OF. The preliminaries of peace ratified at this place
between Russia and Tuirkey, it dbeing stipulated that the Pruthi should be
-lthe fron:tie limit of those empires, signed May 28, 1812. Thle subsequeent t
war between those powers altered many of the uprovisions of this treaty.
BUCKINGHAM PALACE, LeNoN.DO Buckingiham-house, built 1703, was
rpeuleld down in 1825, and the new palace comnimenced on its site; and after
222 TI-HE WORLD S PRtOGRESS. [ L
expenditure which must have approached a million sterling, it was completed, and was taken possession of by queen Victoria, July 13, 1837.
BUCKLERS. Those used in single combat were invented by Prcetus and Acrisius, of' Argos, about 1370 B. c. When Lucius Papirius defeated the Samnites, he took from them their bucklers, which were of gold and silver, 309
B. c. Slee article Armor.
BUCKLES. The wearing of buckles commenced in the reign of Charles II.;
but people of inferior rank, and such as affected plainness in their garb,
wore strings in their shoes some years after that period: these last were,
however, ridiculed for their singularity in using them.
BUDA; once called the Key of Christendom. It was taken by Solyman II. at
the memolrable battle of Molihatz, when the Hungarian king, Louis, was lkilled,
and 200,000 of his subjects were carried away captives, 1526. Buda was
sacked a second time, when the inhabitants were put to the sword, anci Hungary, as annexed to the Ottoman empire, 1540. Retaken by the Imperialists, and the Mahometans delivered up to the fury of the soltdiers, 1686. See
Hmq-.ccsmI.
BUENA VISTA, BATTLE 01F, between the American force, of abou-t 5.000 men, under general Taylor and general Wool; and the 2M\exicans, about 20)000, unlr'
Santa Anna: the latter defeated with the loss of 2500 killed and wounded.
American loss, 264 killed, 450 wounded. This victory securing to the Americans the whole of' the northern provinces of Mexico, Feb. 22, 18t7.
BUENOS AYRES. The capital was founded by Pedro Mendoza, in 1535. It
was taken by the British under sir Home Po)hanm, June 21, 1806; and was
retaken, after an attack of three dclays, Aug 12, the same year. The Britislsuffered a great repulse here under geneiral Whiteloclk, whAo was disgraced,
July 6, 1807. Declaration of independence of this province, July 19, 1816:
the treaty was signed February 1822. To put a stop to a war between Buenos Ayres and Monte Video. Englaiul and France blockaded the port of B uenos Ayres, Oct. 24, 18415; the troops of Buenos Ayres under general Rosas,
defeated by thie combined forces, Nov. 20, 1815.
BUFFOONS. These were or iginally mountebanks in the Roman theatres. The
shows of the buffoons were discouraged by Domitian, and were finally abelishecl by Trajan, A. D. 98. Ouri ancient kings hadcjestlrs, who are lescribed
as being, at first, practitioners of indecent raillery and antic postures; tfhey
were employed unuder the Tuclors. Some writers state that James I. emnverted the jesters into poet-laureates; but poet-laureates existed long before;
Selden traces the latter to 1251. — rento[e.
BUILDING. The first structures wTere of wood and clay, then of rougeh stont
and in the end tihe art aclvanced to polished marble. Building with stonei
was early among the Tyrians; and as ornaments and taste arose, ever',
nation pursued a different system. The art of building with stone lnmay b-.
referred in England to Benedlict, or Benet, a monlk, about A. D. 670. Thle first
bridge of this imlaterial in England was at Bow, in 1087. Building with b:Iicik
was introduced by the Romans into their provinces. Alfred encouriae0,,e it
in England, in 886. Brick-builcling was generally introduced by the earl:o
Arulndel, about 1598, London being then almost built of wood. Tile incret se
of building in London was prohibitecl within three miles of the city ~ltes m\5
Elizabeth, who ordlered that one family only should clwell in one house, 1i 80.
BULGARIANS. They defeat Justinian, A. D. 687; and are subdued by thde:
emperor Basilins, in 1019. On one occasion, this emperor having takeL
15,000 Bulgarians prisoners, he caused their eyes to be put out, leaving olv1eye only to every hundredth man, to enable him to conduct his countrys....
BUo ] DICTIONARIY OP DATES. 223
home. Bulgaria was governed by Roman dukes till 1186; subdued by
Bajazet, 1896. —Ueiv. hi/st. vol. xvii.
BUELL, on EDICT oP TIIE POPE. This is an apostolical rescript, of ancient
use, and generally written on parchllent. Thle bull is, properly, the seal,
deriving its name from bultla, and has been made of gold, silver, lead, and
wax. On one side are the heads of Peter and Paul; and oll the other, the
name of the pope, and the year of his pontificate. The celebrated golden
bull of the emperor Charles IV. nwas so called because of its golden seal;
and was macle the fundamlental law of the German empire, at the diet. of
Nuremburg, A. D. 1356. Bulls denouncing' queen Elizabeth and her abettors, and consigning thenm to hell-fire, accompanicd the Spanish Armada,
1588.
BULL-BAITING, on BULL-FIGHTING. This atrociously criminal sport of
Spain and Portugal is somewhat equivalent in those countries to the fights
of the gladiators among the Romlans. It is recordled as being an anLusement at Stamforibd so early as the reigen of Jolln, 1209. Bull-running was a
sport at Tutbury in 1374. In the Splvl/ls of o-lCarL.d, wa e read of the'' Easter
fierce hunts, when foaming boars fought for their heads, and lusty bulls and
huge bears were baited withl dogs;" and near the C/icnL London, was the
Paris, or Bear Garden, so celebrated in the'time of Elizabeth for the exhibition of bear-baiting, then a fashionable amlusement. A bill to abolish
bull-baiting was thrown out in the Commons, chiefly tlhrouogh the influence
of the late Mr. Winclham, who made a singular speech in fivor of the custom, May 24, 1802. —Bzl/e. It has since been declared illegal. See Cruelty to Aimealcs. Bull-fights wree introduced into Spain about 1260: abolished there, " except for pioecs and patr/iotic purposes," in 1784. There was
a bull-fight at Lisbon, at Campo de Santa Anna, attended by 10,000 spectators, on SinCeday, Juno 14, 1810.
BULLETS. Those of stone were in use A.D. 1514; and iron ones are first
mentioned in the PF/dc'a, 1550. Leaden bullets were made before the close
of the sixteenth century, and continue to be those in use in all nations for
musketry. The cannon-ball in some Eastern countries is still of stone,
instead of iron.-Ashe.
BUNKER HILL, BATTLE OF, (near Boston,) between the British under Howe,
and the Americans under Prescott and Putnam, June 17, 1775. British loss,
1054 killecl and oundled; American, 453. The latter obliged to retreat for
want of powder. But this, the first important battle of the revolution, has
always justly been regarded as a great victory for the American cause, and
is so commemorated by the granite obelisk on the battle-ground, of which
the corner-stone was laid by general La Fayette, in 1825. It was finished
July 23, 1842, at the cost altogether of about $100.000, raised by voluntary
contributions. The height is 220 feet. Its completion celebrated by a procession, &c., and an oration by Daniel Webster; president Tyler and 50,000
people present, June 17, 1843.
BUONAPARTE:S EMPIRE op FRANCE. Napoleon Bonaparte, the most
extraordinary man of modern times, ruled over France, anclsubdued most
of the nations of the Continent, in the early part of the present century.
See his various military and other achievements under their respective heads
throughout the volunle:Napoleon born at Ajaccso, in Italy, Deposes the French directory, and beAug. 15, 1769 comes first consul - Nov. 9, 1799
lie first distinguishes Ihimself in the Senlds overtures of peace to the king of
command of the artillery at Touloi? - 1793 England - - - Jan. 1, 1800
IHe embarks for Egypt - May 10, 179S His life attempted by an " infernal mraIs repulsed before Ace - ay 27, 1799 chine" - - Dec. 24, 1800
Hie returns from Egypt - Aug. 23, 1799
224 T''E WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ BUf
BUONAPARTE'S EMPIRE of FRANCE, contitued.
Elected president of the Italian, late Is defeated at Waterloo June 1S, 1815
Cisalpine, republic - Jan. 25, 1802 Returns to Paris June 20, iSJ.
Elected consul for 10 years - Itay 8, 1802 And abdicates in favor of his infant
Made first consul ior life Aug. 2, 1802 son - - - June 22, 1815
Accepts the title of emperor from the Intending to eilbark for America, lihe
senate in name of the people May 18, 180S arrives at Roclheort - July 3, 1815
Crowned emperor by the pope Dec. 2, 180)4 Ile surrenders to Uapt. Maitland, of the
Crowned king of Italy - May 26, 1805 Bellerohoz - - July 15, 1815
Divorced fiom the eampress Josephine Transferred at Torbay to the t1e.fotlvtDec. 16, 1809 betland,and sails for St. IHelena Aur. 8, 1815
Marries Maria Louisa - April 7, 1810 Arrives at St. Helena (where it is deA son, the friuit of this marriage, born, creed by the allied sovereigns le shall
and styled kcing of tome - March 20, 1811 remain for life) - Oct. 15, 1581
I-is overtures of peace to England re- The family of Bonaparte excluded for
jected April 14, 1812 ever fiom France by the law of am[The reverses of Bonaparte now follow nesty - - Jan.'2, 1816
in quick succession.] Death of Bonaparte - May 5, 1621
e-I renounces the thrones of France His will registered in England - Aug. IS24
and Italy, and accepts of the Isle of His son, ex-kling of Rotle, dies July 22, 1812
Elba for his retreat - April 5, 181!4 The French chambers decree, with the
Embarks at Fr6jus - - April 28, 1814 consent of England, that the ashles of
Arrives at Elba - - MIay 3, 1314 Napoleon be renmoved fronom St. HoeleAgain appears in France; he quits Elba na, and brought to France - Mlay 12, 1840
and lands at Cannes - Miarch 1, 1815 They are exhumed - Oct. 16, 184(
Enters Lyons - - MCarch 10, 1815 Thle Belle Potle, French frig-ate, arrives
Arrives at Fontainebleau March 20, 1815 at Cherbourg with the'etlnains of
Joined by all thle army - March 22, 1815 Napoleon, in the care of Lhe p1,rice
The allies sign a treaty for his exter- de Joinvile - - Nov. 30, 1840
mination - - MIach 25, 1815 They are interred with great solemnnity
He abo4ishes the slave-trade March 29, 1815 in the HItel des Invalides - Dec. 15, 1840
Leaves Paris for the army - June 12, 1815
BURGESS, firom the French Bor.c-eois, a clistitnction coeval in Englandl with
its corporations. Burgesses were called to parlialnent in Engladci A. A. 1265;
in Scotland, in 1326; and in Ireland, about 1365. Burgesses to be resident
in tle places which they are elected to represent in parliament, 1 Henry V,
1413.- Viozers's Statutes. See Boerogleqh.
BURGLARY. Until the reign of George IV. tllis crime, in England, was punished with death.
BURGOS, SIEGFc oF. Wellington entered Burgos after the battle of Salamancet,
which was folght July 22, 1812, and the castle was besieged by the British
anti allied arny, and several attempts were maadale to carry it by assaullt, but
the siege was abandoned in October, sanme year. The castle and fortifications were blowian up by the French in June 1813.
BURGUNDY. This kingdonm begins in Alsace, A.D. 413. Conrad I[. of Gelmany being declared heir to the kingdolll, is opposed in his attempt to annex it to tlhe elapire, when it is dismnemberecrd, andc on its ruins are formaed
the four provinces of Burgundy, Provence, Viennes, and Savoy, 1034. Burgundy becomes a circle of the Germnan empire, 1521. It falls to Philip IT.
of Spain, whose tyranny and religious persecutions cause a revolt in the
Batavian provinces, 1566. After various changes, Burgundy annexed to
France, and forlmed into departments of that kingdom.
BURIAL. The earliest and most rational mode of restoring the body to earth.
The first idea of it was formed by Adalm, on his observing a live bird covering a dead one with leaves. Barrows were the nmost ancient graves. See
Ba'-o'ows. Places of burial were consecrated under pope Calixtus I. in 210. —
Eqrsebhirqs. The first Christian hurial-place was instituted in 596; burial in
cities, 742; in consecrated places, 750; in church-yards, 758. Vaults were
erected in chlancels first at Canterbury, 1075. Woollen shrouds used in England, 1666. Linen scarsf introduced at funerals in Ireland, 1729; and woollen
shrouds used, 1733. Burials were taxed, 1695-again, 1673.. See Cesaetes'ies.
BURIALS. Parochial registers of them, and of births and marriages, were it.
:,BiuI ] DICTIONAR~Y OF DATES. 225
stituted in England by Cromwell, Lord Essex, about 1536. —-Stowe. A tax
was exacted on burials in England: for the burial of a duke, ~50, alnd foi
that of a common person 4s., under William III., 1695, and Geo. III. 1783.Statites. See Bills of l r0.al-ity.
BURKING. A new and horrible species of murder committed in England. It
was thus namled from the first known criminal by whom the deed was perpetrated being called Bwrlke. His victims were strangled, or made lifeless by
pressure, or other modes of suffocation, and the bodies, which exhibited no
marks of violence, were afterwards sold to the surgeons for the purpose
of dissection. Burke was executed at Edinburgh in February, 1829. The
crime has been more recently perpetrated by a gang of murderers in London.
The monster named Bishop was apprehended in November 1831, and executed with Williams, one of his accomplices, for the murder of a poor Italian
boy, named Carlo Ferrari, a fiiendless wanderer, and therefore selected as
being less likely to be sought after (they confessing to this and other similar
nmurders), Decemnber 5, same year.
BURMESE EMPIRE. Founded in the middle of the last century, by Alomeprm, the first sovereign of the present dynasty.-See Inbdia.
BURNING ALIVE. This punishment was inflicted among th- Romans, Jews,
and other nations, on the betrayers of councils, incendiaries, and for incest
in the ascending and descending degrees. The Jews had two ways of burning alive: one with wood and faggots to burnl the body, the other by pouring scalding lead down the throat of the criminal, cosubestio aCisace, to burn
the soul.-See Slcttees.
BURNING ALIVE, IN ENGrLAND. Even ini England (see preceditng a rticle) burninug alive was a punishment upon the statute-book. The Britons punished
heinous crimes by burning alive in wicker baskets. See Stonesbeeg'oe. This
punishment was countenanced by bulls of the pope; and witches suffered
in this manner.-See Witches. Many persons have been burned alive on account of religious principles. The first sufferer was sir William Sawtree,
parish priest of St. Osith. London, 8 Henry IV., February 9, 1401. In the
reign of the cruel Mary numbedrs were burned, among others, RidLey, bishop
of London; Latimer, bishop of Rochester; and Cranmler, archbishop of
Canterbury, who were burned at Oxford in 1555 and 1556. Numerous others
suffered this dreadful death in Mary's reign.*
BURNING Tri DEAD. The antiquity of this custom rises as high as the Theban war; it wvas practised among the Greeks and Romans, acnd the poet Hois-er abounds with descriptions of such funeral obsequies. The practice was
very general about 1225 n. c., and was revived by Sylla, lest the relics of the
dead in graves should be violated; and to this day the burning of the dead
is practised in many parts of the East and West Indies.
BURNING-GLASS AND CONCAVE MIRRORS. Their power was not unknown
to Archimedes, but the powers of these instruments are rendered wonderful
by the modern improvements of Settalla: of Tehirnhausen, 1680; ofBuffon,
1737; and of Parker and others, more recently. The following are experi-:iaents of the fusion of substances made with Mfr. Parker's lens, or burning
mirror
I* t is computed, that during the three years of Mary's reign in which these shockcing violences
an'barbarities were carried on, there were 277 persons brought to the stake; besides those who
were punished by imprisonmnent, fines, and confiscations. Among those who suelTered by fire were
bishops, 21 clergymen, S lay gentlemnen, 84 tradesmen, 100 husbandmen, servants, and laborers,
a5' women, and 4 children. The unprincipled agents of this merciless queen were the bishops Gardirer and Bonner. The latter especially was a man of brutal character, who seemed to derive a
vlge pleasure in witnessing the torture of the sufferers.
10*
226 TIIE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [BYZBURNING-GLASS AND CONCAVE MIRRORS, continued.
Subslta;.cesfsed. s Weight. Tihne. Sibstancesfused. VWeight. Time.
Pure gold 20 frains 4 seconds. A topaz - - 3 grains 45 seconds,.
Silver - - 20 grains 3 seconds. An emerald - 2 grains 25 seconds.
Copper - 33 grains 20 seconds. A crystal pebble - 7 grins 6 seconds.
Platina - 10 grains 3 seconds. Flint - 10 grains 30 seconds.
Cast iron 10 grains 3 seconds. Cornelian - 10 grains 75 seconds.
Steel 10 grains 12 seconds. Pumice stone - 10 grains 24 seconds.
Green wood takes fire instantaneously; water boils immediately; bones are
calcined; and things, not capable of melting, at once become redl-hot like iron.
BURYING ALIVE. A mode of death adopted in Bceotia, where Creon ordered
Antigone, the sister of Polynices, to be buried alive, 1225 B. c. The Roman
vestals were subjected to this horrible kind of execution for any levity in dress
or conduct that could excite a suspicion of their virtue. The vestal Minutia
was buried alive on the charge of incontinence, 337 B. c. The vestal Sextilia
was buried alive 274 s. c. The vestal Cornelia A. D. 92. Lord Bacon gives
instances of the resurrection of persons who had been buried alive; the famous Duns Scotus is of the number. The assassins of Capo d'Istria, President of Greece, were (two of them) sentenced to be iumlureci in brick walls
built around them up to their chins, and to be supplied with food in this
species of torture until they died, October, 1831.-See Greece.
BUSTS. This mode of preserving the remembrance of the human features is
the same with the he'-temc of the Greeks. Lysistratus, the statuary, was the
inventor of moulds from which he cast wax figures, 328 B. c.-Pliny?. Busts
from the face in plaster of Paris were first taken by Andrea Verrochi, about
A. D. 1466. —Vasc s'i.
BUTCHERS. Among the Romans there were three classes: the StcLaii proviaed hogs, the Bocrii oxen, and the Lanii, whose office was to kill. The
butchers' trade is very ancient in England; so is their company in London,
although it was not incorporated until the second year of James I. 1604.Ailxcas of London.
BUTTER. It was late before the Greeks had any notion of butter, and by the
early Romans it was used only as a medicine-never as food. The Christians of Egypt burnt butter in their lamps, instead of oil, in the third century. In 1675, there fell in Ireland, during the winter time, a thick yellow
dew, which had all the medicinal properties of butter. In Africa, vegetable
butter is made from the fruit of the shea tree, and is of richer taste, at Kebba,
than any butter made frtonm cow's milk.-Mltego Pacrc.
BUTTONS, of early manufacture in England; those covered with cloth were
prohibited by a statute, thereby to encourage the manufacture of metal buttons, 8 George I. 1721. The manufacture owes nothing to encouragement
from any quarter of late years, although it has, notwithstanding, much improved.-Phtillips.
BYRON'S VOYAGE. Commodore Byron left England, on his voyage round
the globe, June 21, 1764, and returned May 9, 1766. In his voyage he discovered the populous island in the Pacific Ocean which bears his name, August-16, 1765. Though brave and intrepid, such was his general ill fortun
at sea, that he was called by the sailors of the fleet, " Foul-weather Jack."Bellchtaaeber's.
BYZANTIUM. Now Constantinople, founded by a colony of Athenians, 715
B. c. —Eusebilts. It was taken by the Romans, A. D. 73, and was laid in ruils
by Severus in 196. Byzantium was rebuilt by Constantine in 338; and after
him it received the name of Constantinople. See ConlstacntiCnople:
'CAD ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 227
C.
CABAL. A Hebrew word, used invarious senses. Therabbinswx eee cabalists,
and the Christians so called those who pretended to imagic. In Elnglish history, the Cabal was a council which consisted of five lords in administration,
supposed to be pensioners of France, and distinguished by the appellation
of the Cabal, from the initials of their names: Sir Thomas Clifford, the lord.
Ashley, the duke of Buckinghasm, lord Arlington, and the duke of Lauderdale, 22 Charles II. 1670.-Hi;lnme.
CABINET COUNCIL. There were councils in England so early as the reign
of Ina, king of the West Saxons, A. D. 690; Oft, king of the lMercians, 758,
and in other reigns of the Heptarchy. The cabinet council, in which secret
deliberations were held by the king and a few of his chosen fiiends, and the
great officers of state, to be afterwards laid before the second council, nlow
styled the privy council, was instituted by Alfred the Great, about A. D. 896.
Spelra'erl. The modern cabinet council, as at present constituted, was reconstructed in 1670, and usually consists of the following twelve members:*
Lord president. HI-ome, foreign, and colonial secretaries of state.
Lord chancellor. President of the board of control.
Lord privy seal. President of the boarn of trade.
First lord of the treasury. Master of the mint.
Chancellor of the exchequer. First lord of the admiralty.
In 1841 the number was 14, and included the Secretary at War, the Woods
and Forests, and Chief Secretary for Ireland, the Mint and the Board of
Trade being united in right hon. H. Labouchere. The cabinet ministers of
the various reigns will be found under the head AdlviiLisatrCions of Eniglaaod.
CABLES. Their use was known in the earliest times: a machine for making
the largest, by which human labor was reduced nine'-tenths, was invented
in 1792. This machine was set in motion by sixteen horses, when making
cables for ships of large size. Chain cables- were introduced into the British
navy in 1812.
CADDEE, OR LEAGUE OF GOD',-HOUSE. The celebrated league of independence
in Switzerland, formed by the Grisons, to resist domestic tyranny, A. D. 1400
to 1419. A second league of the Grisons was called the Grise or Gray
league, 1424.
CADE'S INSURRECTION. Jack Cadcle, an Irishman, a fugitive from his country on account of his crimes, assumed the name of' Mortiner, and headed
20;000 Kentish men, who armed " to punish evil ministers, and procure a
redress of grievances." Cade entered London in triumph, and for some time
bore down all opposition, and beheaded the lord treasurer, Lord Saye, and
several other persons of consequence. The insurgents at length losing
ground, a general pardon was proclaimed; and Cade, finding himself deserted by his followers, fled: but a reward being offered for his apprehension, he was discovered, and refusing to surrender, was slain by Alexander
Iden, sheriff of Kent, 1451.
CADIZ, formerly Gades, was built by the Carthaginians 530 i. c. —Priestley.
One hundred vessels of the armament preparing, as the Spanish Armada,
* The term canbiet council is of comparatively modern date, and originated thus: the affairs
of state, in the reign of Charles I. were principally managed by the archbishop of Canrterbury, the
earl of Strat-olrd, and the lord Cottington; to these were added the earl of Northhumberland, for ornamrent; the bishop of Iondont for his place, being lord treasurer; the two secretaries, Vas:e and
Windebanlk, for service and intelligence; only the marquis of' Hamilton, by his skill and interest,
meddled just so far, and no further, than he had a mind. These persons made up the committee of
state, reproacllfully called thejzento, and afterwards, enviously, the cabinet council.-LoRD CIARENDON.
228 THE AVORLD'S PROGRItES. L CAL
against England, were destroyed in the port by sir Francis Drake, 1587.
Cadiz was taken by the English, under the earl of Essex, and plundered,
September 15, 1596. It was attempted by sir George Rooke in 1702, but he.
failed. Bombarded by the British in 1797, and blockaddd by their fleet,
under lord St. Vincent, for two years, ending in 1799. Again bombarded by
the British, on board whose fleet were 18,000 land forces, October 1800.
Besieged by the French, but the siege raised after the battle of Salamanca
in 1812. Massacre of-the inhabitants by the soldiery, March 10, 1820.
Cadiz was declared a free port in 1829.
CESARS, ERA OF THE; OR SPANISH ERA, is reckoned from the first of January
38 B. c., being the year following the conquest of Spain by Augustus. It was
much used in Africa, Spain, and the south of France; but by a synod held
in 1180 its use was abolished in all the churches dependent on Barcelona.
Pedro IV., of Arragon, abolished the use of it in his dominions in 1350. John
of Castile did the same in 1383. It continued to be used in Portugal till
1455. The months and days of this era are identical with the Julian calenclar, and to turn the time into that of our era, subtract thirty-eight from the
year; if before the Christian era subtract thirty-nine.
CAI-FONG, in China. This city being besieged by 100,000 rebels, the cornmander of the forces who was sent to its relief, in order to drown the enemlly,
broke down its embankments: his stratagem succeeded, and every man of
the besiegers perished; but the city was at the same time overflowed by
the waters, and 300,000 of the citizens were drowned in the overwhelming
flood, A. D. 1642.
CAIRO, OR GRAND CAIRO. The modern capital of Egypt, remarkable foi
the minarets of its mosques, andcl the splenclicd sepulchres of its caliphs in
what is called the city of the dead: it was built by the Saracens, in A. D.
969. Burnt to prevent its occupation by the Christian invadlels, called Crusaders, in 1220. Taken by the Turks from the Egyptian sultans, auld their
empire subdued, 1517. Ruined by an earthquake and a great fire, June,
1754, when 40.000 persons perished. Set on -ire by a lady of tlle beglerbeg,
Dec., 1755. Taken by the French under Napoleon Bonaparte, July 23, 1798.
Taken by the British and Turks. when 6000 French capitulated, June 27,
1801.
CALAIS. Taken by Edward III. after a year's siege, Aug. 4, 13847, and held
by England 210 years. It was retaken in the reign of Mary, Jan. 7, 155.,
and the loss of Calais so deeply touched the queen's heart, historians say it
occasioned her death, which occurred soon afterwards. Calais was boln-,
barded by the English, 1694. Here Louis XVIII. landed after his long
exile from France, April 24, 1814. See LF'aicce.
CALCUTTA. The first settlemlent of the English here w as made in 1689. It
was purchased as a Zemindary, and Fort William built in 1698. Calcutta
was attacked by a large army of 70,000 horse and foot, and 400 elephants,
in June, 1756. On the capture of the fort. 146 of the British were crammed
into the Black-hole prison, a dunneon about 18 feet square, from whence
twenty-three only came forth the next morning alive. Calcutta was retaken the following year, andl the inhuman Soubah put to death. Supremn'
court of Judicature established 1773. College founded here 1801.-See
Ben,?gal and Ilbdia.
CALEDONIA. Now Scotlgcad. The name is supposed by some to be derived
fi'om Gael or Gaelbleue, or Gadel-doie, corruptecl by the Romans. Tacitus,
who died A. D. 99, distinguishes this portion of Britian by the appellation of
Calcedonica; but the etymology of the word seems unletermined. Venerable Bede says, that it retained this name until A. D. 258, when it was invaded
by a tribe fiom Ireland, and called Scotia. The ancient inhabitants appear
rAL ] DICTIONIARY OF DATES. 229
to have been the Caledonians and Picts, tribes of the Celts, who passed
over from the opposite,coasts of Gaul. About the beginning of the fourth
century of the Christian elt,, they were invaded (as stated by some authorities), by the Scuyths or Scythians (since called Scots), who, having driven
the Picts into the north, settled in the Lowlands, and gave their name to
the whole country. Hence the origin of that distinction of language, habits,
customs, and persons, which is still so remarkable between the Highlanders
and the inhabitants of the southern borders,
Caledonian monarchy, said to have been The country is invaded by the Scuyths,
founded by Fergus 1., about - B. c. 330 or 6cots. and the government is overThe Picts from the north of England thrown, about - - A. D. 306
settle in the southern borders - - 140 The (aledonia monarchy is revived by
Agricola carries the Roman arms into Fergus II. -404
Caledonia, with little success, in the After many sanguinary wars between
reign of Galdus, otherwise called Cor- the Caledonians, Picts, and Scots, Kenbred II. A. D. 79 netll 1I. obtains a victory over the Picts,
HIe is signally defeated by the forces of unites the whr;e country under one
Corbred - 80 monarchy, and gives it the namte of
Christianity is introduced into Caledonia Scotland - 838 to 843
in the reigi of Donald I.' - 201 See SCOTLAND.
The origin of the Scots, it shoulcl be stated, is very uncertain; and thle his.tory of tihe country until the eleventh century, when Maalcolm III., surnamed
Canmore, reigned (1057) is obscure, and intermiixed with many and improbable fictions.
CALEDONIAN CANAL, from the NTorth Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. By means
of this mag-nificent canal, the nautical intercourse between the western
ports of Great Britain, and those also of Ireland, to the North Sea and Baltic, is short;enecd in solme instances 800, and in others, 1000 miles. A sumi
exceeding a million sterling was grantecl by parliament fiom time to time;,
and this safe navigation for ships of nearly every tonnage was completed,
ancl opened in 1822.
CALENDAR. The Roman calendar, which has in great part been adopted by
almost all nations, iwsas introdlucedi by Romnulus, who divided the year into
ten months, comlprising 301 days, A. D.738 -.. c. The year of Romulus was
of fifty dclays less duration than the lunar year, and of sixty-one less than
the solar year, and its comnmencement (lid not, of course, correspond with
any fixed season. Nulua Ponmpilius, 713 B. c. corrected this calendar, by
adding two months; and Julius Cr sar, desirous to make it more correct,
fixed the solar year as being 365 days and six hours, 45 B. c. This almost
perfect arrangement was denominated the Julian style, and prevailed gener.
ally throughout the Christian World till the time of pope Gregory XIII.
The calendar of Julius Caesar was defective in this particular, that the solar
year consisted of 365 days, five hours, and forty-nine minutes: and not of
865 days six hours. This difference, at the time of Gregory XIII. had
amounted to ten entire days, the vernal equinox failling on the 11th, instead
of the 21st of March. To obviate this error, Gregory ordained, in 1582,
that that year should consist of 365 days only; and to prevent further irregularity, it was determined that a year beginning a century should not be bissextile, with the exception of that beginning each fourth century: thius,
1700 and 1800 have not been bissextile, nor wvill 1900 be so; but the year
2000 will be a leap year. In this manner three days are retrenched in 400
years, because the lapse of eleven minutes makes three days in about that
period. The year of the calendar is thus made as nearly as possible to
correspond with the true solar year; and future errors of chronology are
avoided. See Nez Style.
CALICO. The well-known cotton cloth, is named fi-om Calicut, a city of India,
which was discovered by the Portuguese, in 1498. Calico was first brought
to England by the East India Company, in 1631. Calico printing, and the
2t30 T-1iE VWORLD'S PROr iESS. [ CAL
Dutch loo1l engine, were first used in 1676.-Andrclson. Calicoes were prohibited to be printed or worn, in 1700; and again, in 1721. They were first
made a branch of' maniaufliacture in Lancashire, in 1771. See Cottoa.
CALIFORNIA, LowERn, discovered by Grigalon, sent by Cortes, the conqueror
of' 3/Iexico, 1534; explored by Cortes himself, 1536, and by his subordinate
Ulloa, 1538. First settlement by Viscaino and a small colony sent out by
Philip II. of Spain, 1596. Viscaino explored the coast and founded St. Diego
and Monterey, and was the first Spacnia'rd in Upper California, 1602.
CALIFORNIA, UPPER, discovered by sir Francis Drake, and named New Albion, 1596. The Spanish colonists havinig been expelled by the ill-used'
natives, the country was granted by Charles II. of Spain to the Jesuits. iLa
1.697. Jesuit missions and Pesidios established in New'alifornia 1769.
Eighteen missions established up to 1798. California a province of Mexico,
1824; the Mexican governor expelled fiom Monterey, 1836. California explored by the United States expecdition, under Wilkes, co-operating with
ti;hat of Fremont, overland, in 1841-3. wAnother expedition utlnder Fremont,
1845-6. Mexican wars began 1845. San Francisco taken possession of by
Corn. Montfgomeryl July 8, 1845. Conm. Stockton takes possession of Upper
California MN!ay-August, 1846, and institutes United States military government. Movements of' general Kearney, lieutenant Emory, &c.,. 1846. Cal-.
fornia secured to the United States by the treaty with Mexico, 1848. Gold
placers first discovered on the grounds of captain Suter, February, 1848.
Great emigration fioomn the United States commenced November, 1848. Convention at Monterey for forming a state constitution, Aug. 31, 1849. Constitution adopted by popular vote, andci P. H. Burnet chosen first governor,
Dec. 1849.
CALIPH. In Arabic, vicar, or apostle; the title assunled by the Sophi of
Persia, in the succession of Ali, and by the Granid Seigniors as the successors of Mahomet. The caliphlat was adopted by Abubeker, the father 6f
the Prophet's second wife, in whose arms he died, A. D. 631. In process of
time the soldans or sultans engroossed all the civil power, and little but the
title was left to the caliphs, andc that chiefly in matters of religion. —S'ir. T.
Herbert.
CALLI GRAPHY. Beautiful mriting, in a small compass, invented by Callicrates, who is said to have written an elegant distich on a sesanmum seed, 472
B. c. The modern specimlens of this art are, many of them, astonishing and
beautiful. In the sixteenth century, Peter Bales wrote the Lord's Prayer,.
creed, decalogue, two short Latin prayers, his own namnie, motto, day of the
month, year of our Lord, and of the reign of queen Elizabeth, to whom he
plresented it at Halmpton-cou t, all within the circle of a silver penny,
enchased in a ring and border of gold, and covered with crystal, so accurately done as to be plainly legible, to the great adlmiration of her majesty,
the whole of the privy council, and several ambassadors then at court, 1574.
-Holineshed.
CALLAO, IN PEnu. Here, after an earthquake, the sea retired from the shore,
and returned in miioitntainolus waves. which destroyed the city, A.D. 161. T
The same phenomenon took place in 1746, when all the inllhabitanlts peiishedh.
wvith the exception of one mian, who was standing on an emlinence, and to
whose succor a wave providentially threw a boat.
Ct ALOIMEL. The mercurial conlpound termed calomel is first mentioned by
Crollius; early in the seventeenth century, but must have been previously
known. Tihe first directions given for its preparation were those announced
by Beguin, in 1608. It is said that corrosive sublimate was known some
centus ies before.
CA1] ] DICTIONiARY OF DATES. 2 31
CALVARY, MOUNT. The place where the REDEEMER suffered death, A. D. 33.
Calvary was a small eminence or hill adjacent to Jerusalem, appropriated
to the execution of malefactors. See LuBle xxiii. 33. Adrian at the time
of his persecution of the Christians erected a temple of Jupiter on Mount
Calvary, antd a temple of Adonis on the manger at Bethlehem, A. D. 142.
Here is the church of the Holy Sepulchre, whither pilgrims flock fromn all
Christian countries.
CALVINISTS. Named after their founder, John Calvin, the celebrated reformer of the Christian church fiom the Romish superstition and doctrinal
errors. Calvin was a native of Noyon, in Picardy; but adopting the principles of the Reformers, he fled to AngoulOnie, where he composed his Iastithdio C6risticdame Religion7is, in 1533, published about two years afterwards. He
subsequently retired to Basle, and next settled in Geneva. Although he
differed fiom Luther in essential points, still his followers did not consider
themselves as different on this account from the adherents of Luther. A
formal separation first took place after the conference of Poissy, in 1561,
where they expressly rejected the tenth article of the confession of Augsburg, besides some others, and took the name of Calvinists.
CAMBRAY. The town whence the esteemled mlanufacture called cambric
takes its naime. This city was taken by the Spaniards by a memorable surprise, in 1595. Caimbray was taken and retaken several times. In the war
of the French revolution it was invested by the Austrians, August 8, 1793,
when thoe republican general, Declay, replied to the Imperial summions to
surrender, that " he knew not how to do tVat, but his soldiers knew how to
fight." In the late war it was seized by the British under general sir Chas.
Colville, June 24, 1815. The citadel surrendered the next day, and was
occupied by Louis XVIII. and his court.
CAMBRAY, LEAGUE or. This was the celebrated league against the republic
of Venice, comprising the pope, the emperor, and the kings of France and
Spain; and whereby Venice was forced to cede to Spain her possessions in
the kingdom of Naples, entered into Dec. 10, 1508.
CAMBRICS. A facbric of fine linen used for ruffles.-S/taksapeare. Camubrics
were first worn in England, and accounted a great luxury in dress, 22 Elizabeth, 1580. —Stole. The imlportation of them was restricted, in 1745; and
was totally prohibited by statute of 32 George II. 1758. Readmitted in
1786, but afterwards again prohibited: the importation of callbrics is now
allowed.
CAMBRIDGE, once called Granta,, and of most ancient standing, being fiequently mlentioned in the earliest accounts of the oldest British historians.
Roger de Montgomery destroyed it with fire and sword to be revenged of
king William Rufus. Tile university is said to have been commenced by
Sigebert, king of East Angles, about A. D. 631; but it lay neglected during
the Danish invasions, from which it suffered much. Cambridge now contains
thirteen colleges and four halls, of which first, Peter-house is the most
ancient, and King's College the noblest foundation in Europe. and the
chapel one of the finest pieces of Gothic architecture in the world.
CAMERA LUCIDA. Invented by Dr. Hooke, about 1674.- Wood's At/A. Ox.
Also an instrument invented by Dr. Wollaston, in 1807. The camera obscura, or dark chamber, was invented, it is believed, by the celebrated Roger
Bacon, in 1297; it was imnproved by Baptista Porta, the writer on natural
maTgic, about 1500. —M' rcrvi. Sir I. Ne+wton remodelled it. By the recent
invemntion of AL. Daguerre, the pictures of the camera are rendered permanent; the last was produced in 1839.
CAMERONIANS. A sect in Scotland which separated from the Presbyterians,
and continued to hold their religious meetings in the fields.-Burnet.
232 TIHE WORLD'S PRIOGRESS. | CA'I
CAMP. All the early warlike nations had camps, which are consequently
most ancient. The disposition of the Hebrew encamlplment was, we are
told, at first laid out by God himself. The Romans and Gaulls had ilttrenched camps in open plains; and vestiges of' such Roman encamplllments
are existing to this clay in numerous places in England and Scotland. The
last camp in England. was formed at Hydle Park in 1745.
CAMPEACHY-BAY. Discovered about A, D. 1520; it was taken by the Enrlish in 1659; and was taken by the Buccaneers, in 1678; and by the fieebooters of St. Domingo, in 1685. These last burnt the town and blew up
the citadel. The English logwood cutters made their settlement here, in
1662.
CAMPERDOWN, BATTLE OF. Memorable engagement off Camperdown, south
of the Texel, and signal victory obtained by the British fleet under admiral
Duncan, over the Dutch fleet, commanded by admiral de Winter; the latter
losing fifteen ships, which were either taken or destroyed, Oct. 11, 1797.
CAMPO FORMIO, TREATY OF, concluded between France and Austria, the
latter power yielding the Low Countries and the Ionian Islands to France,
and Milan, Mantua, and Modena to the Cisalpine republic. This memnorable and humiliating treaty resulted firom the ill success of Anstria on the
Rhihne. By a secret article, however, the emperor took possession of tles
Venetian dominions in comp)ensation for the Netherlands, Oct. 17, 1797.
CANADA. This country was discovered by John and Sebastian Cabot, A. D.
1499, and was settled by the French, in 1608. but it had been previously
visited by them. Canada was taken by the English, in 1628, but wnas restored in 1631. It was again conquered by the English, in 1759, and was
confirllled to them by the peace of 1763. This country was divided into two
provinces, Upper and Lower Canada, in 1791; and it was during the debates
oin this bill in the British parliament, that the quarrel betoween Mr. Burke
and Mr. Fox arose.
CANADIAN INSURRECTION. The Papineau rebellion commenced at Montreal, Dec. 6, 1837. The Canadian rebels came to an engagement at St.
Eustace. Dec. 14, following. The insurgents surrounded Toronto, and were
repulsed by the governor, sir Francis Head, Jan. 5, 1838. Lord Durham,
governor general, Jan. 16, 1838. Lount and TMathews haanged as traitors,
April 12, 1838. Lord Durham resigned, Oct. 9, 1838. Rebellion again manifested itself in Beauharnais, Nov. 3, 1838. The insurgents concentrated at
Napierville under command of Nelson and others, Nov. 6; some skirmishes
took place, and they were routed with the loss of many killed and sevei al
hundred prisoners. Sir John Colborne announiced the suppression of the rebellion in his dispatches dated Nov. 17, 1838. Lord Gosford, governor of
Lower Canada, proclaims martial law, and a reward of ~1,000 for Papineau, Dec. 5, 1837. M Leod (charged with the destruction of the Ccreoli'ec,
American steamer, at Schlosser, Dec. 30, 1837) acquitted at Utica, Oct. 12,
1841. President Van Buren's proclamation warning citizens of the United
States against meddling with the Canadian insurrection. Sir Charles Metcalfe, governor-general, 1814. Earl of Elgin appointed governor-general,
took the oath, Jan. 30, 1847. Riots at Montreal, and burning of the Parl. -
ment House by a mob (caused by the dissatisfaction about the act for paying
losses by the late rebellion to some of the rebels themselves), Aug. 15, 1849.
Movements in l'avor of annexation to the United States. Warning against
such movements as high treason, proclaimed in the dispatch of earl Grey,
the British colonial secretary, Feb. 1850.
CANALS. The most stupendous in the world is a canal in China, which passes
over 2000 miles, and to 41 cities, commenced in the tenth century. The
canal of Languedoc which joins the Mediterranean with the Atlantic Ocean
CAN ] DICTIONARY OP DATES. 233
was commenced in 1G666. That of Orleans, from the Loire to the Seine, commenced in 1675. That between the Caspian Sea and the Baltic, commenced
1709. That fronm Stoclkholm to Gottenburg, commenced 1751. That between
the Baltic and North Sea at Kiel, opened 1785. That of Bourbon, between
the Seine and Oise, commlenced 1790. The first canal made in Engllanld was
by Henry I., when the river Trent was joined to the Witham, A, D. 1134.
That from the Durance to Marseilles, France. 83,000 metres, of which 17,000
are subterranean passages through the Alps, finished Je ly 8, 1847. In England, there are 2800 miles of canals, and 2500 miles of rivers, taking the
length of those only that are navigable-total, 5300 miles. In Ireland, there
are but 300 miles of canals; 150 of navigable rivers, and 60 miles of the
Shannon, navigable below Limerick, making in all 510 miles.- Williamns.
CANALS IN TIHE UNITED STATES. Act for commencing the great Erie canal
in New York, passed chiefly through the influence of De Witt Clinton, 1817.
The canal (3863 miles long) completed; a grand celebration, 1825. Chesapeake and Delaware canal opened, &c., July 4, 1829.
CANARY ISLANDS. These islands were known to the ancients as the FortuRate Isles. The first meridian was referred to the Canary isles by Hipparchus,
about 140 B. c. They were re-discovered by a Norman, named Bethencourt,
A. D. 1402; and were seized by the Spaniards, who planted vines, which
flourish here, about 1420. The canary-bird, so much esteemed in all parts
of Europe, is a native of these isles; it was brought into England in 1500.
CANDIA, the ancient Crete, whose centre is.Mount Ida, so famous in history.
It was seized by the Saracens, A. D. 808, when they changed its name. Taken
by the Greeks, in 961; sold to the Venetians, 1194, and held by them till the
Turiks obtained it, after a 24 years' siege, during which more than 200,000
men perished, 1669.
CANDLE. The Roman candles were composed of strings surrounded by wax,
or dipped in pitch. Splinters of wood, fatted, were used for light among the
lower classes in England about A. D. 1300. At this time wax candles were
little used, and esteemed a luxury, and dipped candles usually burnt. The
wax-chandlers' company was incorporated, 1484. Mould candles are said
to be the invention of the sieur Le Brez of Paris. Spermaceti candles are of
modern manufacture. The Chinese candles (see Ceandlebe'rrly Myrtle) are
made from the berries of a tree, and they universally burn this wax, which
is fragrant, and yields a bright light.
CANDLEMAS-DAY. A feasi instituted by the early Christians, who consecrated on this day all the tapers and candles used in churches during the
year. It is kept in the reformed church in memory of the purification of
the Virgin Mary, who, submitting to the law under which she lived, presented the infant Jesus in the Temple. Owing to the abundance of light,
this festival was called Candlemas, as well as the Purification. The practice
of lighting the churches was discontinued by English Protestants by an order
of council 2 Edward VI. 1548; but it is still continued in the church of Rome.
J.ANNLE, BATTLE OF. One of the most celebrated in history, and most fatal to
the Romans. Hannibal commanded on one side 50 000 Africans. Gauls, and
Spaniards; and Paulus Amilius and Terentius Varro, 88.000 Romans, of
whom 40;000 were slain.-Livy. The victor, Hannibal, sent three bushels
of rings, taken from the Roman knights on the field, as a trophy to Carthage.
Neither party perceived an awful earthquake whiich occurred driing the
battle. The place is now denominated the field of blood; fought SrMay 21,
216 B. c.-Bosseet.
CANNIBALISM has prevailed fiom the remotest times. The Greeks inform
us that it was a primitive and universal custom, and many of the South
234 THEl WORLD S PROG'RESS. [CAN
American tribes and natives of the South Sea Islands eat human flesh at the
present day, and the propensity for it prevails more or less in all savage
nations. St. Jerome says, that some British tribes ate human flesh; and the
Scots from Galloway killed and eat the English in the re.ign of Henry I.
The Scythians were drinkers of human blood. Columbus found cannibals in
America. See Ant/oepopolAcgi.
CANNON. They are said to have been used as early as A. D. 1388. According
to some of our historians they were used at the battle of Cressy in 1346; but
this Voltaire disputes. They are said to have been used by the English at
the siege of Calais, 1347. Cannon were first used in the English service by
the governor of Calais, 6 Richard II. 1383. —Ryymer's Fdecra. Louis XI'V,[
upon setting out on his disastrous campaign against the Dutch, inscribed
upon his cannon, " The last argument of kings." See Ar'tillery.
CANNON, REMARKABILE. The largest known piece of ordnance is of brass, cast
in India in 1685. At Ehrenbreitstein castle, one of the strongest forts in
Germany, opposite Coblentz on the Rhine, is a prodigious cannon eighteen
feet and a half long, a foot and a half in diameter in the bore, and three feet
four inches in the breech. The ball made for it weighs 180lbs. and its charge
of powder 941bs. The inscription on it shows that itflas made by one Simon,
in 1529. In Dover castle is a brass gun called queen Elizabeth's pocketpistol, which was presented to her by the States of Holland; this piece is 24
feet long, and is beautifully ornamented, having on it the arms of the States,
and a motto in Dutch, importing thus,
" Charge me well, and sponge me clean,
I'll throw a ball to Calais Green."
Some fine specimens are to be seen in the Tower. A leathern cannon was
fired three times in the King's Park, Edinburgh, Oct. 23, 1788. —Plillips.
CANON. The first ecclesiastical canon was promulgated, A. D. 3880.- UshE;.
Canonical hours for prayers were instituted in 391. The dignity of canon
existed not previously to the rule of Charlemagne, about 768.-Pacsclier.
Canon law was first introduced into Europe by Gratian, the celebrated canon
law authoar, in 1151, and was introduced into England, 19 Stephen, 1154.Stowe.
CANONIZATION of pious men and martyrs as saints, was instituted' in the
Romish church by pope Leo III. in 800. —Tallet's'lables. Saints have so
accumulated, every day in the calendar is now a saint's dclay.-Heatczalt.
CANTERBURY. The Dr'overasna of the Romans, and capital of Ethelbert,
king of Kent, who reigned A.D. 560. Its early cathedral was erected during
the Heptarchy, and was several times burnt, and rebuilt. It was once famlous
for the shrine of Becket (see Becket) and within it are interred Henry IV. and
Edward the Black Prince.
CANTERBURY, AncHBISHOPRIC or. This see was settled by St. Austin, who
preached the gospel in England A. D. 596, and converted Ethelbert, Iing of
Kent. The king, animated with zeal for his new religion, bestowed great
favors upon Austin, who fixed his residence in the capital of Ethelbert's
dominions. The church was made a cathedral, and consecrated to Christ,
although it was formerly called St. Thomas, from Thomas C Becket, mlurdered at its altar, December 1171. The archbishop is primate and metropolitan of all England, and is the first peer in the realm, having precedency of
all officers of state, and of all dukes not of the blood royal. C anterbury had
formerly jurisdiction over Ireland, and the archbishop was styled a patriarch.
This see hath yielded to the church of Rome, 18 saints and 9 caldinals; and
to the civil state of England, 12 lord chancellors and 4 lord treasurers. St.
Austin was the first bishop, 596. The see was made superior to York, 107 3
c-AP ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 235
-See Yor*k. The revenue is valued in the king's books at ~2816. 1, s. 9d.Beatsoe,.
CANTHARIDES. A venomous kind of insects which, when dried and pulverized, are used principally to raise blisters. They were first introduced into
medical practice by Aret'cus, a physician of Cappadocia, about 50 B. c.FPreji0'd's fisltoy of PI/ysic.
C.ANTON. The only city in China with which Europeans have been allowed
up to the present time to trade. Merchants first. arrived here for this purpose in 1517. Nearly every nation has a factory at Canton, but that of England surpasses all others in elegance and extent. Various particulars relating
to this!tity will be found under the article China. In 1822, a fire destroyed
15,000 houses at Canton; and an inundation swept away 10,000 houses and
more than 1000 persons in October 1833.
CAOUTCHOUC, or INDIAXN IRUBBER, is an elastic resinous substance that exudes
by incision from two plants that grow in Cayenne, Quito, and the Brazils,
called I atsvica caoltchouc and Siphoenia eclastica, and vulgarly called syringe
trees. It was first brought to Europe from South America, about 1733.See JIdica Ralbbe-r.
C XP. The Romans went for many ages, without regular covering for the IBead,
and hence the heads of all the ancient statues appear bear. But a, one
period the cap was a symbol of liberty, and when the Romans gave it to their
slaves it entitled them to freedom. The cap was sometimes used as a mark
of infamy, and in Italy the Jews were distinguished by a yellow cap, and in
France those who had been bankrupts were for ever after obliged to wear
a green cap. The general use of caps and hats is referred to the year 1449;
the first seen in these parts of the world being at the entry of Charles VII.
into Rouen, from which time they took the place of chaperons or hoods. A
statute was passed that none should sell any hat above 20d. (40 cts.) nor cap
above 2s. Sd. (66 cts.) 5 Henry VII. 1489.
CAPE BRETON, discovered by the English in 1584. It was taken by the
French in 1632, but was afterwards restored; and again taken in 1745: and
re-taken in 1748. It was finally possessed by the English, when the garrison
and marines, consisting of 5600 men, were made prisoners of war, and eleven
ships of the French navy were captured or destroyed, 1758. Ceded to Eng
land at the peace of 1763.
CAPE COAST CASTLE, settled by the Portuguese, in 1610: but it soon fell to
the Dutch. It was demolished by admiral Holmes, in 1661. All the British
settlements, factories, and shipping along the coast were destroyed by the
Dutch aclldmiral, de Ruyter, in 1665. This Cape was confirmed to the English
by the treaty of Breda, in 1667.
CAPE OF GOOD HOPE; the geographical and commercial centre of the East
Indies: it was discoveredcl by Bartholomew Diaz, in 1486, and was originally
called the " Cape of Temlpests," and was also named the " Lion of the Sea,"
alid the "Head of Afiica." The name was changed by John II., king of
Portugal, who augnured favorably of future discoveries from Diaz having
reached the extremity of Aftiica. The Cape was doubled, and the paasage
to India discovered by Vasco da Gama, Nov. 20, 1497. Planted by the
Datch,, 1651. Taken by the English, under admiral Ell-lphinstone and cenrcial
Clarke, Sep)t. 16, 1795, and restored at the peace in 1802; agtin taken by
sir David Ba3ird and sir Home Popllan, Jan. 8, 1806; and finially celed to
Elngland in 1814. Emigrants begaon to arrive iere from Britain in March,
1820. The Catfies have made several irruptions on the British settlements
here; and they commlittdcl dclreadcful ravag es at Gr ahamstown, in Oct. 1834.
Battle between the English and the Boors, Aug. 2, 18148.
236 TIE WORLD S PROGRFESS. [ CAP
CAPE DE VERD ISLANDS. These islands were known to the ancients under
the ndale of Gorgadces; but were not visited by the modernls till discoverer.
by Antonio de Noli, a Genoese navigator in the service of Portugal, A. D. 1446.
CAPF ST. VINCENT, B3TTI ES OF. Admiral Rooke, with tw enty ships of war,
and the Turkey fleet under his convoy, Aas attackedl by admiral Tourville,
with a force vastly superior to his own, off Cape St. Vincent, when twelva
English and Dutch men-of-war, and eighty meclhantlm en, were captured or
destroyed by the French, June 16, 1698. Battle of Cape St. Vincent, one of
the most glorious achieverments of the British navy. Sir John Jervis, being
in command of the Mediterranean fleet of fifteen sail, gave battle to thq
Spanish fleet of 27 ships of the line off this Cape, and signally defeated the
enemy, nearly double in strength, taking four ships, and destroying several
others, Feb. 14, 1797. For this victory Sir John was raised to the English
peerage, by the titles of baron Jervis and earl St. Vincent, with a pension of
30001. a year.
CAPET, HoUSE or, the third race of the kings of France. Hugo Capet, count
of Paris and Orleans, the first of this race (which was called from him Capevigians), was raised to the throne for his military valor, and public virtues,,A. D. 987. —Hccull.
CAPITOL, the principal fortress of ancient Ronie, in which a temple was builto Jupiter, thence called Jalpiter CCqaitolinLcs. The foundation laidc by Tarquinius Priscus, 616 B. c. The Roiman Consuls made large donations to
this temple, and the emperor Augustus bestowed 2000 pounds weight cf
gold, of which precious metal the roof was composed, whilst its thresholds
were of brass, and its interior was decorated with shields of solid silver. Destroyed by lightning, 188 B. c.; by fire, A. D. 70. The Capitoline games instituted by Domlitian, A. D. 86.
CAPPADOCIA. This kingdom was foundted by Pharnaces, 744 n. c. The successors of Pharnaces are almost wholly unknowin, until about the time of
Alexancier the Great, after whose ldeath Eumenes, by defeating Ariarathes II.
became king of Cappadocia.
Pharnaces is declared king - B. c. 744 ng the throne, poisons five of her own
Hiis successors are unknown for nealy children, the sixth and only remaining
three centuries. child is saved, and the queen put to
* *" * * * death.153
Reign of Ariarathes I. - 362 This young prince reigns as Ariarathes
Perdiccas takes Cappadocia, and Aria- VII. - -
rathes is crucified - 322 Gordius asseaSiinates Ariarathes VII. 97
Defeat of the Parthians - 217 Ariarathes VIII. assassinated - 96
Irruption of the Trocmi - 164 Cappadocia declared a fiee country by
Mithridates, surnamed Philopator, as- tle senate of Rome - - 95
cends the throne - 162 The people elect a new lcing AriobarOrophernes dethrones Philopator - 161 zanes I. 911
Attalus assists Philopator, and Oro- Itis son, Ariobarzanes II. reigns - 65
phernes dethroned - - 1514 Ie is dethroned by Marc Antony - 38
Philopator joins the Romans against Archelaus, the last king of Cappadocia,
Aristonicus, anld perishes ii battle - 153 dies, and bequeathes his kingdom to
His queen, Laodice, desirous of usurp- the Roman empire A. D. 17
CAPRI. The Caprein of the Romans, and memorable as the residence of Tiberius, and for the debaucheries he committed in this once cleligihtful retreat,
during the seven last years of his life: it wTas emnbellisllhcl by him with a
sumptuous' palace, and most muagnificent woriks. Capri was taken by sir
Sidney Smith, April 22, 1806.
CAPIUCHIN FRIARS. A sort of' Franciscans to whom this nlame Iwsas given,
firom their wearing a great Capibuchose, or cowl, which is an odd kind of cap, or
hood, sewn to their habit, and hanging down upon their backs. The Capuchins were founded by Matthew Basehi, about A. 0. 1525. Although the
CAR 3 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 2337
rigors of this order have abated, still the brethren are remarkable for their
extreme poverty and privations.-Ashe.
CAR. Its invention is ascribed to Eriethonius of Athens, about 1486 B. c. The
covered cars (Cn'rrqs arcnatti) were in use among the Romans. Trinumphal
cars wvere introduced by Romulus, according to some; and by Tarlquin the
Elder, according to others.
CARACCAS. One of the early Spanish discoveries, A. D. 1498. The province
declared its independence of Spain, May 9, 1810. In 1812, it was visited by
a violent convulsion of nature; thousands of human beings were lost; rocks
and mountains split, and rolled into valleys; the rivers were blackened or
their courses changed; and many towns swallowed up, and totally destroyed.
CARBONARI. A dangerous and powerful society in Italy, a substitute for
freemasonry, which committed the most dreadful outrages, and spread terror
in several states; they were suppressed, however, by the Austrian government in Sept. 1820.
CARDINALS. They are properly the council of the pope, ar.d constitute the
conclave or sacred college. At first they were only the principal priests, or
incumbents of the parishes in Rome. On this footing they continued till the
eleventh century. They did not acquire the exclusive power of electing the
popes till A. D. 1160. They first wore the red hat to remind them that they
ought to shed their blood, if required, for religion, and were declared princes
of the church. by Innocent IV., 1243. Paul II. gave the scarlet habit. 1464;
and Urban VIII. the title of Eminence in 1630; some say in 1623.-Dit GCalutge.
CARDS. Their invention is referred to the Romans; but it is generally supposed
that they were invented in France about the year 1390, to amuse Charles VI.
during the intervals of a melancholy disorder, which in the end brought
him to his grave.-Mliezr'ai, Il-ist. de lPrance. The universal adoption of an
amusement which was invented for a fool, is no very favorable specimen of
wisdom.-Mal/iin. Cards are of Spanish, not of French origin.-Dacnes
Barrine'gton. Picquet and all the early games are French. Cards first taxed
in England, 1756. 428,000 packs were stamped in 1775, and 986,000 in 1800.
In 1825, the duty being then 2s. 6d. per pack, less than 150,000 packs were
stamped; but in 1827, the stamp duty was reduced to is., and 310,854 packs
paid duty in 1830. Duty was paid on 239,200 packs, in the year ending 5th
Jan. 1840.-Pcarl. Reports.
CARICATURES originated, it is said, with Bufalmaco, an Italian painter: he
first put labels to the mouths of his figures with sentences, since followed by
bad masters, but more particularly in caricature engravings, about 1330.De Piles. A new and much improved style of caricatures has latterly set in;
and the productions ifi this way of a clever but concealed artist, using the
initials H. B., are political satires of considerable humor and merit.-Irc-aydn.
CARLISLE. The frontier town and key of England, wherein for many ages a
strong garrison was kept. The castle, founded in 1092, by William II., was
made the prison of the unfortunate Mary queen of Scots, in 1568. Taken
by the parliament forces in 1645. and by the pretender in 1745.
CARLSBAD, CONGRESS or, on the affairs of Europe: The popular spirit of
emancipation that prevailed in many of the states of' Europe against despotic
government, led to this congress, in which various resolutions were come
to, denouncing the press, and liberal opinions, and in which the great continenlal powers decreed imeasures to repress the rage for limited monarchies
and frce institutions, Aug-ust 1, 1819.
CARM1ELITES. OR WHITe FRIARs, named from Mount Carmel, and one of the
four orders of mendicants, distinguished by austere rules, appeared in 1141.
Their rigor was moderated about 1540. They claim their descent in an un
238 THE WORILD'S PROGRESS. [ CAtki
interrupted succession fromn Elijah, Elisha, &c. Mount Carimel has a monastery, and the valley of Sharon lies to the south of the mount, which is 2000
feet high, shaped like a flatted cone, with steep and barren sides: it is often
referred to in Jewish histories.
" See spicy clouds froiom lowly Shiaron rise,
And Cannel's flowery top perfumes the sklies." —Pope.
CAROLINA, discovered by Sebastian Cabot, in 1550. A body of English,
amounting to about 8.50 persons, landed and settled here in 1667; andc Carolina was granted to lord Berkeley and others a few years afterwards. See
N. 4- S. Carolicna.
CARPETS. They were in use, at least in some kind, as early as the days $f
Almos, about 800 B. c. —Aos ii. 8. Carpets were spread on the ground, on
which persons sat who dwelt in tents; but when first used in houses,
even in the East, we have no record. In the 12th century carpets were articles of luxury; and in England, it is mentioned as an instance of Becket's
splendid style of living, that his sumptuous apartments were every dclayin
winter strewn with clean straw or hay; about A. D. 1160. The manufacture
of woollen carpets uwas introduced into France from Persia, in the reign of
Henry IV., between 1589 and 1610. Some artisans who hadl quitted France
in disgust went to England, and established the carpet lmanufacture, abe:t
1750. There, as wit llmost nations, Persian and Turkey carpets, especiaily
the former, are most prized. The famous Axminster, Wilton, and Kidderminster mauufacture is the growtll of the last hundred years. The manufacture of Kidderminster and Brussels carpets has much advanced within
fifteen years, at Lowell, Mass. and Thomsonville Conn.
CARRIAGES. The invention of them is ascribed to Ericthonius of Athens. who.rocduced the first chariot about 1486 B. c. Carriages were known in France
in the reign of Henry II. A. D. 1547; but they were of very rude construction
and rare. They seem to have been known in England in 1555; but not tie.
art of making them. Close carriages of good workimanship began to be used
by persons of the highest quality at the close of the sixteenth century. Henry IV. had one, but without straps or springs. Their construction was various: they w-ere first made in England in the reign of Elizabeth, and were
then called whirlicotes. The duke of Buckingham, in 1619, drove six horses;
and the duke of Northumberlancd, in rivalry. drove eight. They were first
let for hire in Paris, in 1650, at the Hotel Fiacre; and hence their name.
See Coaches.
CARTESIAN DOCTRINES. Their author was Rene des Cartes, the FrenCh
philosopher, who promulgated therm in 1647. He was an original thinker:
his metaphysical principle' I think, therefore I am," is refuted by iMr. Locke;
and his physical principle, that " nothing exists but substance," is disprov- [
ed by the Newtonian. philosophy. His celebrated systemn abounds in greatsingularities and originalities; but a spirit of independent thought prevails
throughout it. and has contributed to excite the same spirit in others. Des
Cartes was the most cdistinguished philosopher of his time andl country.D1?, f eseoy.
CARTHAGE, founded.by Dilo, or Elissa, sister of Pygmalion, king of Tyre,
809. c. Shle fled fiorn that tyrant, who had killed her husband, andcl took
refugge in Africa. Carthage became so powerful as to dispute the emlpire of
the worldl with Rome, whllich occasioned the Punic wars. and the total demolition of that city. Taken by Scipio, and burned to the ground, 116 B. C.
when the flames raged during seventeen days, and many of the inhllabitants
perished in them, rather than survive the subjection of their country. The
Roman senate ordered the walls to be razed, that no trace miglht remain of
this once powerful republic.-EursebiuLs.
S j] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 239
CARTHAGE, conhti/etsd.
Dido arrives in Aftica, and builds Byrsa. lHannibal, at the age of nine years,
— Blir - - - B. c. 869 having first made him swear an eterFirst alliance of the Carthaginians with nal enmity to the Romans - a. c. 237
tihe Romans - - - - 509 tIamilcar is killed in battle by the VetTlle Cartllasinians is Sicily are defeated tones - 227
by Gelo; thel elder Ilamilcar perishes. Asdrubal is assassinated - - - 220
2lerlodolzts, 1. vii. - - 480 Iannibal subjects all Spain, as far as
They send 300,000 mlen into Sicily 407 the Iberus - - - - 219
Tile siege of Syracuse 396 The second Punic war begins - - 218
The Carthaginlians land in Italy - 379 First great victory of Han-nibal - - 217
Their defeat by Timoleon - - 340 HIannibal crosses the Alps, and enters
They are defeated by Agathocles, and Italy with 100,000 men - - 217
immolate their children on the altar of Great battle of CannTe (which see) - 216
Saturn, thereby to propitiate the gods - 310 New Carthage taken' by Pub. Scipio - 210
Tihe Iirst Punic war begins - 264 Asdrubal, brother of Hannibal, defeated
The Carcthaginians defeated by the Ro- and slain in Italy - - - 207
mans in a naval engagement 260 The Carthaginians expelled Spain - - 206
Xantippus defeats Regulus 255 Scipio arrives in Afiica, and lays siege
Regulus is crucified - 256 to Utica - 204
Asarubal defeated byMetellus - 251 Hannibal recalled from italy - - 203
Romans defeated before Lilybeum - 250 Great battle of Zama (w'hich see) - 202
End of the first Punic war 241 An ignominious peace ends the second'War between the Carthaginians and Punic war - 201
African mercenaries - - 241 The third Punic war begins - - 149
Hamilcar Barecas is sent into Spain; he Destruction of Carthage, which is burned
takles with him his son, the fam~Lous to the ground - - - - 146
CARTHAGENA, or New CARTHAGE, in Spain; built by Asdrubal, the Cat thaginian general, 227 a. c. From here Hainnibal set out in his memorable
march to invade Italy, crossing the Alps, 217 a. c. Carthagena, in Colombia,
was taken by sir Francis Drakle in 1584. It was pillaged by the French of
~1,200,000 in 1697; and was bombarded by admiral Vernon in 1740-1, but
h was obliged, though he took the forts, to raise the siege.
CARTHUSIANS. A religious order founcded by Bruno of Cologne, who retired
from the converse of the world, in 1084, to Chartreuse, in the mountains of
Dauphine. Their rules were formed by Basil VII., general of the order, and
were peculiarly distinguished for their austerity. The monks could not
leave their cells, nor speak, without express leave; and their clothing was
two hair cloths, two cowls, two pair of hose, and a cloak, all coarse. The
general takes the title of prior of the Chartreuse, the principal monastery,
from which the order is nanmed..-ALbeteti; Mirsvci Origisces Ccartulus.
CARTOONS oP RAPHAEL. They were designed in the chambers of the Vatican, under Julius II. and Leo X., about 1510 to 1515. The seven of them
that are preserved were purchased in Flanders by Rubens for Charles I. of
England, for Hampton-court palace, in 1629. These matchless works represent-1, The miraculous draught of Fishes; 2, the Charge to Peter; 3, Peter
and John healing the Lame at the gate of the Temple; 4, the Death of Ana-.nias; 5, Elytnas, the Sorcerer, struck with Blindness; 6, the Sacrifice to
Paul and Barnabas, by the people of Lystra; 7, Paul preaching at Athens.
CARVING. We have scriptural authority for its early introduction. See Exocits xxxi. The art of carving is first mentioned in profane history 772 B. c.
and is referred to the Egyptians. It was first in wood, next in stone, and
afterwards in marble anad brass. Dipcenus and Scyllis w ere eminent carvers
and sculptors, and opened a school of statuary, 568 B. c. —Plity. See article Scrltptltc1es. Carvers of imeat, called by the Greeks dezriSbita es, are mentioned by Homer.
C3SHMERE SH-IAWLS. The disltrict from whence come'these costly shawls
is describecd as being " the happy valley, and a pcaradise in perpetual pring'."
The true Cashmaere shawls can be manufactured of no other wool tllan that
Thibet. They were first brought to England in 1666; but they were well
imaitatecld by the spinning at Bradford, and the looms of Huddersfield.
240 THE WVORLD'S PROGRESS. [CA'l
Shawls for the omrahs, of the Thibetian wool, cost 150 rupees each, about
the year 1650.-Bernier.
CASTEL NUOVO, BATTrLE OF. The Russians defeated by the French army,
Sept. 29, 1806. Castel Nuovo has several times suffered under the dreadiful
visitation of earthquakes: in the great earthquake which convulsed all Naples and Sicily, in 1783, this town was almost obliterated. It is recorded
that an inhabitant of Castel Nuovo, being on a hill at no great distance,
looking back, saw no remains of the town, but only a black smoke; 4000
persons perished; and in Sicily and Naples, more than 40,000.
CAST'IGLIONE, BATTLE OF. One of the most brilliant victories of the Frence
arms, under general Bonaparte, against the main army of the Austria;.,,
commanded by general Wurmser: the battle lasted five days successively,
from the 2d to the 6th July, 1796. Bonaparte stated the enemy's loss in
this obstinate conflict at 70 field-pieces, all his caissons, between 12 and 15,000 prisoners, and 6000 killed and wounded.
CASTILE. The most powerful government of the Goths was established here
about A. D. 800. Ferdinand, count of Castile, assumed the title of king in
1020. Ferdinand of Arragon married Isabella of Castile, and nearly the
whole of the Christian dominions in Spain were united in one monarchy, 147$.
See Ar'rag'oa and Spain.
CASTLES. Anciently British castles were tall houses, strongly fortified, and
built on the tops of hills, with gates and walls. The castle of the AngloSaxon was a tower-keep, either round or square, and ascended by a flight of
steps in front. There were eleven hundred castles built in England by the
nobles, by permission of king Stephen, A. n. 1135, and 1154: most of these
were demolished by Henry II., who deprived the barons of such possess'in,
on his accession, in 1154.
CATACOMBS; the early depositories of the dead. The name first dene'
the tombs of Saints Peter and Paul at Rome, and afterwards the burial-placen
of all martyrs. They were numerous in Egypt; and Belzoni, in 1815 and 1818,
explored many catacombs both in that country and Thebes, built 3000 years
ago: among others, a chef-d'e2'xre of ancient sculpture, the temple of Psammaticus the Powerful, whose sarcophagus, formed of the finest oriental
alabaster, exquisitely sculptured, he brought to England. Many other nations had their catacombs; there were some of great extent at Rome. The
Parisian cataconmbs were projected A. D. 1777. The bodies found in catacombs, especially those of Egypt, are called mummies. See EnLbaqniagLg
CATANIA, on CATANEA. At the foot of mount Etna. Founded by a colony
from Chalcis, 753 a. c. Ceres had a temple here, in which none but women
were permitted to appear. This ancient city is remarkable for the dreadful
overthrowvs to which it has been subjected at various times from its vicinity
to Etna, which has discharged, in some of its eruptions, a stream of lava
four miles broad and fifty feet deep, advancing at the rate of seven miles in
a day. Catania was almost totally overthrown by an eruption of Etna, in
1669. By an earthquake which happened in 1693, Catania was nearly sw —'[
lowed up, and in a moment more than 18.000 of its inhabitants were bumie..
in the ruins of the city. An earthqualke did great damage, and a number
of persons perished here, Feb. 22, 1817.
CATAPHRYGTANS. A sect of heretics, so called because they were Phrygians, who followed the. errors. of Mlontanus. They made up the bread of
the eucharist with the blood of inf-nts, whom they pricked to death with
needles. and then looked upon them as ilartyrs.-Paerdon.
CATAPULTYE. Ancient military engines for throwing stones of immense,
weight, darts, and arrows; invented by Dionysius, 399 n. c.-Josepmtns. TVle
'AU.] DIOCTIONABlY OF DATES. 241
were capable of throwhing cdarts and javelins of four and five yards length. —
Pcb'adon.
CATLHOLIC MAJESTY. The title of Catholic was first given by pope Gregory III. to Alphonsus I. of Spain, -who was thereupon surnanmed the CttheoIic; A. D. 7893. The title of Cattaolic was also given to Ferdlinancd V., 1474.
See SpainC?.
CATILINE'S CONSPIRACY. Sergius L. Catiline, a Roman of noble family,
having squandered away his fortune by his debaucheries and extravagance,
and having been refused the consulship, he secretly meditated the ruin (f
his country, and conspired with many of the most illustrious of the Romans,
as dissolute as himself, to extirpate the senate, plunder the treasury, and set
Rome on fire. This conspiracy was timely discovered by the consul Cicero,
whom he had resolved to murder; and on seeing five of his accomplices
arrested, he retired to Gaul, where his partisans were assembling an army.
Cicero punished the condemned conspirators at home, while Petreius
attacked Catiline's ill-disciplined forces, and routed them, and the conspirator was killed in the engagement, about the middle of December, 63 B. c.
His character has been branded with the foulest infamy, and to the violence
he offered to a vestal, he added the murder of his own brother; and it is
said that he and his associates drank human blood to render their oaths
more firm and inviolalble.-Sallust.
CATO, SUICIDE oF. Termed as the " era destructive of the liberties of Rome."
Cato, the Roman patriot and philosopher, considered freedom as that which
alone " sustains the name and dignity of man:" unable to survive the independence of his country, he stabbed himself at Utica..By this rash act of
suicide, independently of all moral considerations, Cato carried his patriotism to the highest degree of political fiensy; for Cato, dead, could be of
no use to his country; but had he preserved his life, his counsels might
have moderated Csesar's ambition, and have given a different turn to public
affairs. Feb. 5, 45 B. c. -AIontesqniein.
CATO-STREET CONSPIRACY. The mysterious plot of a gang of low and
desperate politicians, whose object was the assassination of the ministers of.the crown, with a view to other sanguinary and indiscriminate outrages,
and the overthrow of the government: the conspirators were arrested Feb.
23, 1820; adcl Thistlewood and his four principal associates, Brunt, Davison,
lgles, and Ticld, after a trial commenced on April 17th, which ended in their
co.viction; were executed according to the then horrid manner of traitors,
on May 1, following.l-Haydn.
CAUCASUS. A mlountain' of immense height, a continuation of the ridge of
Mount Taurus, between the Euxine and Caspian seas, inhabited anciently
by various savage nations who lived upon the wild fruits of the earth. It'was covered with snow in some parts, and in others wias variegated with
fruitful orchards and plantations: its people were at one time supposed to
gather gold on the shores of their rivulets, but they afterwards lived without making use of money. Prometheus was tied on the top of Caucasus by
lupiter, and continually devoured by vultures, according to ancient authors,
1548 B. c. The passes near the mountain were called Canucasiie Po?'ice, and
it is supposed that through them the Sarmatians, called Huns, made their
way, when they invaded the provinces of Rome, A. D. 447. —Sh'abo. HT?'edotbs.
CAUSTIC.N PAINTING. The branch of the art so called is a method of
burning the colors into wood or ivory. Gausias, a painter of Sicyon, was
the inventor of this process. He made a beautiful painting of his mistress
Glycere, whom he represented as sitting on the ground, and making gar-,ahndcs. of flowers; and from this circumstance the picture, which was
-I ]
242 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. r CEk
boufght afterwards by Lucullus for two talents, received the name of;Stepreqoplocs09, 335 B. c.-PliAlii iist. Nat.
CAVALIERS. This appellation was given as a party name in England to those
who espoused the cause of the king during the unhappy war which brought
Charles I. to the scaffold. They were so called in opposition to the Roundheads, or friends of the parliament, between 1642 and 1649. —Hueme.
CAVALRY. Of the ancient nations the Romans were the most celebrated for
their cavalry, and f'or its discipline and efficiency. Attached to each of the
Roman legions was a body of horse 300 strong, in ten turmne; the coinmmander was always a veteran, and chosen for his experience and valor. In tlb:
early ages, the Persians brought the greatest force of cavalry into the fielu:
they had 10,000 horse at the battle of Marathon, 490 B. c.: and 10,000
Persian horse were slain at the battle of Issus, 333 B. c.-Plttarch.
CAYENNE. First settled by the French in 1625, but they left it in 1654. It
was afterwards successively in the hands of the English, French, and Dutch.
These last were expelled by the French in 1677. Cayenne was taken by
the British, Jan. 12, 1809, but was restored to the French at the peace in
1814. In this settlement is produced the cacpsicnb bcaccaltmez, or cayenne
pepper, so esteemed in Europe.
&ELESTIAL G-LOBE. A celestial sphere was brought to Greece firom Egypt,
368 B. c. A planetarium was constructed by Archimedes.before 212 a. c.
The celestial globe was divided into constellations after the age of Perseus.
The great celestial globe of Gottorp, planned after a design of Tycho Brache,
and erected at the expense of the duke of Holstein, was eleven feet in
diameter: and that at Pelmbroke-hall, Cambridge, erected by Dr. Long, is
eighteen feet. See Globes.
CELESTINS. A religious order of monks, reformed fiom the Bernardins by
pope Celestine V. in 1294. The order of' nuns was instituted about tie
same period.
CELIBACY, and the monastic life, preached by St. Anthony in Egypt, about
A. D. 305. The early converts to this doctrine lived in caves and desolate
places till regular monasteries were founded. The doctrine was rejected at
the council of Nice, A. D. 325. Celibacy was enjoined on bishops only in
692. The Romish clergy generally were compelled to a vow of' celibacy in
1073. Its observance was finally established by the council of Placentia,
held in 1095. Among the illustrious philosophers of antiquity, the following were unfriendly to matrimony:-Plato, Pythagoras, Epicurus, Bion,
Anaxagoras, Heraclitus, Democritus, and Diogenes; and the following
among the moderns:-Newvton, Locke, Boyle, Gibbon, Hume, Adam Smith,
Harvey, Leibnitz, Bayle, Hobbes, Hampden, sir F. Drake, earl of Esse-,
Pitt, Michael Angelo, the three Caraccis, sir Joshua Reynolds, Haydn,.
Handel, Wolsey, Pascal, Fenelon, Pope, Akenside, Goldsmith, Gray, Collins,
Thompson, and Jeremy Bentham.
CEMETERIES. The ancients had not the unwise custom of crowding all
*their dead in the midst of their towns and cities, within the narrow
cincts of a place reputed sacred,, much less of amassing them in the bosoll.
of their fanes and temples. The burying places of the Greeks and Romans
were at a distance from their towns; and the Jews had their sepulchres in
gardens-Johnv xix. 41; and in fields, and among rocks and mountainslIatthew xxvii, 60. The present practice was introduced by the Roibish
clergy, who pretended that the dead enjoyed peculiar privileges by being,
interred in consecrated ground. The burying-places of the Turkls are handsome and agreeable, and it is owing chiefly to the many fine plants that
grow in them, and which they carefully place over their dead. It is onlx:
'eY j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 243
within a very few years that public cemeteries have been formed in these
countries, although the crowded state of our many churchyards, and the
danger to health of burial-places in thle midst of dense populations, called
for some similar institutions to that of the celebrated Plre la Chlaise at
Paris. Six public cemeteries have been recently opened in London
suburbs. The inclosed area of' each of these cemeteries is planted and laid
out in walks after the nlanner of Pbre la Chaise.* Th'llere are similar cemeteries in Matnchester, Liverpool, and other towns; and in lreland, at Cork,
Dublin. &c. Some of the rural cemeteries of the United States, especially
that at Mount Auburn, near Boston (opened 1831), Laurel Hill, Philadelphia
(183-), and Greenwood, near New-York (1839), are far more beautiful in
their natural features than any of those near London or Paris.
CE NSORS. Roman magistrates, whose duty it was to survey and' rate, and
correct the manners of the people; their power was also extended over
private families, and they restrained extravagance. The two first censors
were appointed 443 B. c. The office was abolished by the emperors.
CENSUS. In the Roman polity, a general estimate of every man's estate and
personal effects, delivered to the government upon oath every five years:
established by Servius Tullius, 566 B. c.-Legal Polity of the Romoa State.
In England the census, formerly not periodical, is now taken at decennial
periods, of which the last were the years 1811, 1821, and 1831; and the new
census, 1841.
CENSUS OF THE UNITED STATES, has been taken at six different periods,
viz. 1790, 1800, 1810, 1820, 1030, and 1840. The seventh census is taken
this year, 1850.-See Population.
CENTURION. The captain, head, or commander of a subdivision of a Roman legion, which consisted of 100 men, and was called a cesetllia. He was
distinguished by a branch of vine which he carried in his hand. By the
Roman census, each hundred of the people was called a ceatrta'ia, 566 B. c.
CENTURY. The method of computing by ceinturies was first generally
observed in ecclesiastical history, and commenced from the time of our
Redeemer's incarnation, A. n. 1. It is a period that is particularly regarded
by churcl historians.-Pcardob.
CERES. This planet, which is only 160 miles in diameter, was discovered by
3M. Piazzi, astronomer royal at Palermo. on the 1st. of Jan. 1801. To the
naked eye it is not visible, nor will glasses of a very high magnifying
power show it with a distinctly defined diameter. Pallas, discoveredl by
Dr. Olbers, is still smaller.
CEYLON. The natives claim for this island the seat of paradise; it was discovered by the Portuguese A. D. 1505; but it was known to the Romans in
the time of CGaudius, A. D. 41. The capital, Colombo, was taken by the
Hollanders in 1603; and was recovered by the Portuguese in 1621. The
Dutch again took it in 1656. A large portion of the country was taken by
the British in 1782, but was restored the next year. The Dutch settlements
* PNre la Chaise takes its name from a French Jesuit, who was a favorite of Louis XIV., and
hlis confessor. IIe died in 1709; and the site of his house and grounds at Paris is now occupied by
this beautiful cemetery. It was a practice of high antiquity to plant herbs and flowers about the
graves of the dead. The women in Egypt go weelly to pray and weep at the sepulchres, and it is
then usual to throw a sort of herb (our sweet-basil) upon the tombs; which in Asia Minor, and
Turkley in Europe, are also adorned either with the leaves of the palmn-tree, boughs of myrtle, or
cypresses plaented at the Iead and feet. Between some of the toimbs is placed a chest of orLnamented
stone, filled with earth, in which are planted herbs and aromatic flowers. These are regularly cultivated by females, who assemble in groups lor that duty. At Aleppo, there grow many myrtles,
which they diligently propagate, because they are beautiful, and remain long green, to put abthq
their graves. —.lailet; Gndler; C eand ctl; otlee.
244 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ CHA
were seized by the British; Trincomalee Aug. 26, 1795, and Jaffnapatam, in
Sept. same year. Ceylon was ceded to Great Britain by the peace of Amier —
in 1802. The British troops were treacherously massacred, or imprisonect
by the Adigar of Candy, at Colombo, June 26, 1803. The complete sovereignty of the island was assumed by England in 1815.
CHlE-2RONEA, BATTLES OF. The Athenians are defeated by the Boeotians,
and Tolmidcas, their general, is slain, 447 B. c. Battle of Chmronea, in which
Greece lost its liberty to Philip, 32,000 MaCedonians defeating the confederate army of Thebans and Athenians of' 30,000, Aug. 2, 338 B. c. Battle
of Cheuronce in which Archllelaus, lieutenant of Mithridates, is defeated br
Sylla, and 110,000 Cappadocians are slain, 86 B. c.
CHAIN-BRIDGES. The largest and oldest chain-bridge in the world is said to
be that at Kingtung, in China, where it forms a perfect road from the top of
one mountain to the top of another. The honor of constructing the first
chain-bridge on a grand scale belongs to Mr. Telford, who commenced the
chain-suspension bridge over the strait between Anglesey and the coast of
Wales, July 1818.-See Mencai Bridge.
CHAIN-CABLES, PUMPS, AND SHOT. Iron chain-cables were in use by the
Veneti, a people intimately connected with the Belgae of Britain in the time,
of Coesar, 55 B. c. These cables came into modern use, and generally in the
royal navy of England, in 1812. Chain-shot, to destroy the rigging of an
enemy's ships, was invented by the Dutch admiral De Witt, in 1666. Chainpumps were first used on board the'lorca, British fiigate, in 1787.
CHAISE oR CALASH. The invention of the chaise, which is described as a
light and open vehicle, is ascribed to Augustus CLesar, about A. D. 7. Aurelius Victor mentions that the use of post-chaises was introduced by Trajan.
about A. D. 100. The chariot was in use fifteen centuries before. See CGlcbiot.
CHALDEAN REGISTERS. Registers of celestial observations were commenced
2234 B. c., and were brought down to the taking of Babylon by Alexander,
331 B. c., being a period of 1903 years. These registers were sent by Callisthenes to Aristotle. CHALDEAN CHARACTERS: the Bible w'as transcribed
from the original Hebrew into these characters, now called Hebrew, by Ezra.
CHAMP DE MARS: an open square space in front of the Military School at
Paris, with artificial embankments raised on each side, extending nearly to
the r;ver Seine, with an area sufficient to contain a million of people. Here
was held, on the 14th July, 1790, the famous "f6deration." or solemnity of
swearing fidelity to the " patriot king" and new constitution. In the evening great rejoicings followed the proceedings; public balls were given by
the municipality in the Clamlps Elysces and elsewhere, and Paris wras illuminated throughout. 1791, July 17, a great meeting of citizens and others held
here, directed by the Jacobin clubs, to sign petitions on the altar of the
country"-left standing for some time afterwards-praying for the enforced
abdication of Louis XVI. Another new constitution sworn to here, under
the eye of Bonaparte, May 1, 1815, a ceremony called the C/atmpti de f-'"
CHAMPION or ENGLAND. The championship was instituted at the coronation of Richard II. 1377. At the coronations of English kings the champion
still rides completely armed into Westminster-hall, and challenges any one
that would deny their title to the crown. The championship is hereditary
in the Dymocke family.
CHANCELLORS, LORD HIGH, oF ENGLAND. The Lord Chancellor ranks
after the princes of the Blood Royal as the first lay subject. Formerly, the
office was conferred upon some dignified clergyman. Maurice, afterwards
bishop of T,ondon, was created chancellor in 1067. The first personage v:-ho
JiA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 245
was qualified by great legal education, and who decided causes upon his own
judgment, was Sir Thomas More, in 1530, before which time the office was
umore that of a high state functionary than the president of a court of justice.
Sir Christopher Hatton, who was appointed chancellor in 1587, was very
ignorant, on which account the first reference was 1made to a master in 1588.
In England, the great seal has been firequently put in commission; but it
was not until 1813 that the separate and co-existent office of Vice-Chtacncellor
was permanently held.
LORD CHANCELLORS OF ENGLAND, 1692 Sir John Somers, cpterwards lord
(t1;'ro?, thIle time o' Cardinal /Violsey.) Somers.
1515 Cardinal Wolsey. 1702 Sir Nathan Wright, L. K.,
1530 Sir Thomas Miore (beheaded). 1705 Lord Cowper, L. IC.
1533 Sir Thomas Audley. 1710 In commission.
1534 Thomas, bishop of Ely. 171.3 Lord Harcourt.
1545 Lord WVriothesley. 1714 Lord Cowper again.
1547 Lord St. John. 1718 In commission.
1547 Lord Rich. 1713 Viscount Parker, cftertards earl of
1551 Bishop of Ely again. Macclesfield.
1551 Sir Nich. HIare, Lord IKeepler. 1725 Sir Peter King, L. K. afterwvards lord
1653 Bishop of Winchester. King.
1555 Archbishop of York. 1733 I,ord Talbot.
1559 Sir Nicholas Bacon. 1737 Philip, lord Hardwicke.
1579 Sir Thomas Bromley. 1761 Sir Robert Ienley, afJerewards lord
1587 Sir Christopher Ilatton. t Henley, and earl of Northington.
1592 Sir John Paclkerlig. 1766 Charles Pratt, lord Camden.
1596 Sir Thomas Eerlton. 1770 Ion. Chas. Yorke, Jan. 18; died next
1616 Sir Francis Bacon, cfterrards lord day.
Verulal. 1770 In commission.
1625 Sir Thomas Coventry. 1771 Henry Batllurst, lord Apsley, succeed1639 Sir John Finch. ed as earl Bathurst.
16L40 Sir Eldward Littleton, afterzoards lord 177'8 Lord Thurlow.
Littleton. 1783 Lord Loughborough and others
1645 Sir Richard Lane. (in commneission) - - April 9
1648 In commission. 1"83 Lord Thurlow agai - - Dec. 23
1653 Sir E]dward Herbert. 1792 In commission.
1658 Sir Edward Hyde, cfteertareds earl of 1793 I,ord Loughborough again.
Clarendon. 1801 Lord Eldon. - April 14
1667 Sir Orlando Bridgeman, L. IC. 1806 Lord Erskine. -. Feb. 7
1672 Earl of Shaftesbury. 1807 1Lord Eldon again. - March 25
1673 Sir Heneage Finch, afteerwards earl of 1827 Lord Lynclllurst. - April 20
Nottingham. 1830 Iord Brougham. Nov. 22
1682 Lord Guillbrd, L. I. 1834 TIord I,yndhurst again - Nov. 14
1685 Sil George Jeifreys, lord Jeffreys. 1835 In commission.
1690 In commission, 1836 Lord Cottenham. - - Jan. 16
1690 Sir John Trevor, Sir WVilliam Rawlin- 1841 Lord Lyndhurst again. - Au-. 31
sol, and Sir Geo. Hutchlins, L. K. 1816 Lord Cottenham again July 6
C'LIANCELLOR or IRELAND, LORD HIGH. The earliest nomination was by
Richard I. AD. 1186, when Steplhen Ricel was elevated to this rank. The
office of vice-chancellor was known in Ireland, but not as a distinct appointment, in the reign of Henry III., Geffi ey Turville, archdeacon of Dublin,
being so named, 1232.
JIIANCELLOR OF SCOTLAND.' In the laws of Malcolm II. who reigned
A. D. 1004, this officer is thus mentioned: "The Chancellar sal at al tymles
assist the king in giving him counsall mair secretly nor of the rest of the
nobility. The Chancellar,all be ludgit near unto the kingis Grace, for
keiping of his bodie, and the seill, and that he may be readie, baith day and
nicht, at the kringis command. "-Sir JYcetes Bczlfole.. James, earl of Seafield,
afterwsards Findcllater, was the last lord high Chlancellor of Scotlacnd, the
office having been abolish-ed in 170(j.-Scolt.
CHANCERY, COURT or'. Itlstiutletd as early ats A. D. 605. Settled upon a
better footing by William I., in 1067.-eSlo.. This court hlad its origin in
the desire to render juistice complete, and to moderate the rigor of other
courts that are bound to the strict letter of the law. It gives relief to or
against i ifants, notwithstanding their minority; and to or against married
246 THE WORLD'S PROGIRESS. L eCHi
women, notwithstanding their coverture; and all frauds, deceits, breaches
of trust and confidence, for which there is no redress at common - law, are
relievable here.-Blaclcstone.
EFPFECTS OF SUITORS LODGED IN COURT AT THE FOLLOWVING DECENNIAL PERIODS.
1770 - Amount locged - ~.,300,000 1810 - Aiount lodged - ~26,212,000
1780 - ditto - 7,741,000 1820 - ditto - - 34.208,785
1790 - ditto - 13.338 000 1830 - - ditto 38,886,135
1800 - ditto - - 19,834,000 1840 - ditto - 39,772,746
There are about 10;000 accounts. By the last official returns the number
of committals for contempt was ninety-six persons in three years. —Pca,'L{
Retlo'as.
CHANTRY. A chapel endowed with revenue for priests to sing mass for +'
souls of the donors. —-Sl/alcspecare. First mentioned in the commencement oi
the seventh century, when Gregory the great established schools of chanters.-See C/t2atii g.
CHAOS. A rude and shapeless mass of matter, and confused assemlblage of
inactive elements which, as the poets suppose, pre-existec the formation of
the world, and from which the universe was formed by the hand and power
of a superior being. This doctrine was first advanced by Hesiod, from whom
the succeeding poets have copied it; and it is probable that it wAas obscuret' —
drawn firom the account of Moses, by being copied from the annals of S. lichoniathon, whose age is fixed antecedent to the siege of Troy in 1193 a. c.
See Geolog'?y.
CHARIOTS. The invention of chariots, and the manner of harnessing horses
to draw them, is ascribed to Erichthonius of Athens, 1486 a. c. Chariot
racing was one of' the exercises of Greece. The chariot of the Ethiopian
officer, mentioned in Acts viii. 27, 28, 81, was, it is supposed, something in
the form of our miodern chaise with four wheels. CSsar relates that Casslbelanus, after dismissing all his other forces. retained no fewer thlan 4000
war chariots about hIis person. The chariots of the ancients were like our
phlltons, and drawn by one horse. See CcLa'iaeics, Cocaches, 4-c.
CHARITIES in the United States.-See Bcbevolc'zce. In England there are tens
of thousands of charitable foundations; and thle charlity commission rel)portedc
to parliament that the endowed charities alone of Great Britain amouliteJ1 to
~ 1500,000 annually, in 18L40. —Parl. Iep. Charity schools were institutted
in London to pirevent the seduction of thle infant poor into Roman Catholic
seminaries, 3 James II. 1687.-Rcapi.
CHARLESTON, S. C., was first settled in 1680. In 1690 a colony of Frie -:ci.
refugees, exiled in consequence of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes
settled in Carolina, and some of theml in Charleston: from them are de
scended many of the most respectatble of the inhabitants. At the close c
1779, the city was taken by the British. and held by them until TMay folloing. Population in 1790, 16:359; in 1810, 24,711; in 1820, 24[780; in iS)
80;289; in 1840, 29261 —(a decrease of 1,028 in ten years) including 14 67.slaves.
CHARTERS oF RIGHTS. The first charters of rights granted by the kings'i
England to their subjects, were by Edward the Confessor, and by He110e
A. n. 1100. Tile famoIus bulwark of English liberty, knowun as 3aice..lcl C/tfbr't/;
or the great cllarter. was granted to the barons by king John, June 15. 12!'
The rights and privileiges granted by thlis charter were renewed and rat ifie{
by Henry III. in 1224. ct seq. Sir Edward Colke says that even in his cIays ihad been confirmled above thirty times. Charters to corporations swere o
frequent grant from the reign of William I. See Mra,.ica C/ta'tC.
CHARTERS. to the American colonies. That to Virginia granted by James I.
1606; to Massachusetts, by the same, 1620, but withdrawn by Charles II
CHE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 247
1684; that granted to Connecticut by Charles II., 1665, was concealed in an
oak to preserve it from the tyrannical Andros. General suppression of
charter governments in America, 1688.
CHARTER PARTY. The same species of deed or agreement as the ancient
chirograph. A covenant between merchants and masters of ships relating
to the ship and cargo. It was first used in England in the reign of Henry
III., about 1243.
CHARTISTS. The agitators for radical political reforms in England were so
called firom the C/csrter which they drew up and urged for adoption as the
law of the land, 1838. The petition for it, signed by about 5,000.000 names.
Proclamation against tumultuous assemblies of the Chartists, Dec. 12, 1838.
Chartist attack on Newport, Wales, headed by John Frost, an ex-magistrate,
defeated, Nov. 4, 189. Frost and others taken prisoneri triecl, and transported. Another Chartist deronstration on Kennington Common, near
London, exciting great alarm (chiefly because of the recent revolution in
Paris), April 10, 1848. The six chief demands of the Chartists are: 1. Universal suffrage. 2. Vote by ballot.. 3. No property qualification. 4. Annual
parliaments. 5. Payment of members. 6i. Equal electoral clistricts.
CHARTS. Anaximander of Miletns swas the inventor of geograplical and celestial charts, about 570 a. c. Mrodern sea-chlarts were brought to England by
Bartholonmew Columbus, with a view to illustrate his brother's theory respecting a western continent, 1489. Mercator's chllart, in which the world is taken
as a plane, was drawn, 1556.
CHARYBDIS, a dangerous whirlpool on the coast of Sicily, opposite another
whirlpool called Scylla, on the coast of Italy. It was very clanger ous to sailors, and it proved fatal to part of the fleet of Ulysses. The exact situation
of the Charybdis is not discovered by the moderns, as no whirlpool sufficiently tremendous is now found to correspond to the description of the
ancients. The words Incid'it in Sccyllcoa qui?/t ritacie C/har?bdit, became a
proverb, to show that in our eagerness to avoid an evil, we fall into a greater.
CHANTING, Chanting the psalms'waas adopted by Ambrose from. the pagan ceremonies of the Romans, about A. D. 350.-Leav4o'let. Chanting in
churches'was introduced into the Roman Catholic service in 602, by Gregory
the Great, who established schools of chanters, and corrected the church
song.-Dmifr esnoy.
CHEATS. The convicted cheat punishable by pillory (since abolished), imprisonment, and fine, 1 Hcw/z. L. C. 188. A rigorous statute was enacted
against cheats, 33 Henry VIII. 1542. Persons cheating at play, or winning
at any time more than 10/., or any valuable thing, were deemed infamous,
and were to suffer punishment as in cases of perjury, 9 Anne, 1711.-Blackstoze's Coznm.
CHEESE. It is supposed by Camden and others that the English learned the
process of making cheese from the IRomans (who brought many useful arts
with them) about the Christian era. Cheese is made by almost all nations.
Wilts, Gloucester, and Cheshire, mnake vast quantities; the last alone. annually, about 31,000 tons. The Cheddar of Somerset, and Stilton of H-untingdon, are as much esteemed as the cheese of Parma, and Gruy6re of Switzerland. In 1840 England imported, chiefly from the U. States, for home use,
a quantity excebeding 10)000 tons.
CHE\IISTRY AND DISTILLING. Introduced into Europe by the Spanish
Moors, about A. D. 1150; they had learned them from the African Moors,
and these from the Egyptians. In Egypt, they had, in very early ages, extracted salts friom their bases, separated oils, and prepared vinegar and wine;
248 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ CHI
and embalming was a kind of chemical process. The Chinese also claim an
early acquaintance with chemistry; but the fathers of true chemical philosophy were of our own country; Bacon, Boyle, Hooke, Mayow, Newton, &c.
The modern character of chemistry was formed under Beecher and Stahl,
who perceived the connection of the atmosphere and the gases, with the
production of phenomena. Bergman and Scheele were cotemporary with
Priestley in England, and Lavosier in France; then followed Thomson, Davr,
alnd other distinguished men.
CHERRIES. They were brought from Pontus, to Lucullus, to Rome, about 70
B. C. Apricots from Epirus: peaches from Persia; the finest plums from
Damascus and Armenia; pears and figs from Greece and Egypt; citrol:s
fiom Media; and pomegranates from Carthage; 114 B. c. The cherry tree
was first planted in Britain, it is said, about A. D. 100. Fine kinds were
brought fiom Flanders, and planted in Kent, and with such success that an
orchard of thirty-two acres produced in one year ~1000, A. D. 1540. See
Gardening. I
CHESAPEAKE, BATTLE OF. At the mouth of the bay of that name, between
the British admiral Greaves, and the French admiral De Grasse, with the
naval force sent to assist the United States; the former was oblized to retire.
1781. The Chesapeake and Delaware were blockaded by a British fleet
in 1812. The C/Iesapecake American fiigate struck to the SlcanL,7 British
frigate, commanded by captain Broke, after a severe action, June 2, 118:3.
CHESS, GAME OF. Invented, according to some authorities, 680 B. c.; and according to others, in the fifth century of our era. The learned Hyde and
Sir William Jones concur in stating (as do most writers on the subject) that
the origin of chess is to be traced to India. The automaton chess-player
was exhibited in England in 1769.
CHEVALIER D'EON. This extraordinary personage, who had been actipg-nli
a diplomatic capacity in several countries, and who was for some time a
minister plenipotentiary from France in London, was proved upon a trial
had in the King's Bench, in an action to recover wagers as to his sex, to be
a woman, July 1, 1777. He subsequently wore female attire for many year-s;
yet at his death, in London, in 1810, it was manifest, by the dissection of
his body, and other undoubted evidence, that he was of the male sex.Bio. Dic.
CHILDREN. Most of the ancient nations had the unnatural custom of exposing their infants-the Egyptians on the banks of rivers, and the Greeks on
highways-when they could not support or educate them; in such cases
they were taken care of, and hlnumanely protected by the state. The custonm
which long previously existed of English parents selling their children tc
the Irish for slaves, was prohibited in the reign of Canute, about 1017. —
Mat. Parlis. At Darien, it was the practice when a widow died, to bury
with her, in the same grave, such of her children as were unable, from their
tender years, to take care of themselves. And in some parts of China, superstition has lent her hand to sanction the horrid deed of offering infants
to the spirit of an adjoining river, first attaching a gourd to their necks to
prevent them from immediately drowning.
CHILI. Discovered by Diego de Almagro, one of the conquerors of Peru, A. D.
1535. Aimagro crossed the Cordilleras, and the natives, regarding the Spaniards on their first visit as allied to the Divinity, collected for them gold and
silver, amounting to 290,000 ducats, a present which led to the subsequent
cruelties and rapacity of the invaders. Chili was subdued, but not wholly,
in 1546. The Chilians fought for liberty at various times, and with various
success, until 1817, when, by the decisive victory gained by San Martin ovc'
cHI ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 249
the royal forces, Feb. 12, in that year, the province was released fronm its oppressors, and declared independent.
CHILTERN HUNDREDS. An estate of thle crown in England, on the chain
of chalk hills that pass fromu east to west through the middle of' Buckinghallshire, the stewardship whereof is a nominal office, conferred on members
of parliament when they wish to vacate their seats, as, by accepting an
office under the crown, a member becomes disqualified, unless he be again
returned by his constituents: this custom has existed time ime imemorial.
CHIMNEYS. Chafing-dishes were in use previous to the invention of chimneys, which were first introduced into these countries in A. D. 1200, when
they were confined to the kitchen and large hall. The family sat round the
stove, the funnel of which passed through the ceiling, in 1800. Chimneys
were general in domestic architecture in 1310. The ancients made use of'
stoves, although Octavio Ferrari affirms that chimneys were in use among
them; but this is disputed.
CHINA. This empire is very ancient, and the Chinese assert that it existed
many thousands of years before Noah's flood; but it is allowed by some author.ities to have commenced about 2500 years before the birth of Christ. By
others it is said to have been founded by Fohi, supposed to be the Noah of
the Bible, 2240 B. C. We are told that the Chinese knew the periods of the
sun, moon, and planets, and were acute astronomers, in the reign of Yao,
which is set down 2357 B. c. But dates cannot be relied upon until towards
the close of' the seventh century, B. C. whten the history of China becomes
more distinct. In the battle between Phraates and the Scythians 129 B. c.,
the Chinese aided the latter, and afterwards ravaged the countries on the
coasts of the Caspian, which is their first appearance in history.-Leegledt.
The Chinese state their first cycle to Jesuit missionaries endeavor to estahave commenced - B. c 2700 blish Christianity - - - - 1692
The first of thle 22 Chinese dynasties The Jesuits are expelled through their
commllenced - - -2207 own misconduct - 1724
ENGLISHI INTERCOURSE WITH CHINA.
In the history of Chlina, the first dates Earl Miacartney's embassy; lie leaves
which are fixed to his narrative, by Englandl Sept. 26, 1792
Se-ma-tsien, begin - - 651 IIe is ordered to depart from Pekin,
Confucius, the father of the Chinese Oct. 7, 1793
philosophers, born - - 551 Edict against Christianity - - 1812
Stupendous wall of China completed - 211 Lord Amherst;s embassy; he leaves
The dynasty of Han 206 England - Feb. 8, 1816
Literature and the art of printillg encou- [HI-is lordship faited in the objects of
raed - - - - - 202 his tmission, havin' reltused to make
Religion of Ta tse colmmenced - - 15 the prostration of the kozu-tou, lest lie
Religion of the'ollowers of Fo, com- should thereby comprolnise the mia-nenced about - - A. D. 60 jesty of England.]
Embassy friom Rome - - - 166 The exclusive rights of the East India
Nankin becomes the capital - - 420 Company cease - April 22, 1834
The atheistical philosopher, Fan-Shin, Lord Napier arrives at AIacao, to sutperflourishes - - - - 449 intend British commerce - July 15, 1834
The Nestortian Christians permitted to Opium trade interdicted by the Chinese,
preach their doctrines - - 63.5 Nov. 7, 18.34
They are proscribed. and extirpated - 8:5 Commnissioner Lin issues an edict for
The seat of the imperial government is the seizure of opium - Marlch 18, 1839
transferred to Peliin, - - ~ 1260 British and other r1esidents forbidden to
Wonderful canal, called the Yu -Io, leave Canton - - larch 19, 1839
completed about - - 1400 The factories surrounded, and outrages
Eucr; —aan s first arrive at Canton - 1517 committed - - March 24, 1839
MIa.cao is granted as a settlement to the The opium destroyed during several
Poytuulese -1536 days by the Chinese - June 3, 1839
Jesuit missionaries are sent by the pope The British trade with China ceases, by
from lome - - - - 1575 an edlict of the empleror, and the last
The country is conqcuered by the East- servant of the company leaves the
ern Tartars, who establish the pre- country this day - - Dec. 6, 1839
sent reigning house - - 1644 Edict of the emperor interdicting all
An eartlhquake throughout China buries trade and intercourse with England
300,000 persons at Pekin alone.1662 for ever -. Jan. 5, 1840
11'
250 THE WORLD1S PROGRESS. [ CmI
CHINA, contofim-ed.
Blockade of Canton by a British fleet of Treaty of peace signed before Nankin,
1.] sail and several war steamers, hav- on board the Cornszotcllis by sir Henry
ing 4,000 troops on board, by orders Pottinger for England, and Keying
fiom Sir Gordon Bremer - June 28, 1840 Elepoo and Neu-Kien on the part of
Seizure of Capt. Anstruther - Sept. 16t;, 1840 the Chinese emperor - Aug. 29, 1842
Lin deprived of his authority, and CONDITIONS OF TvE T'rEATY.
finally degraded; Keshin appointed Lasting peace and friendship between
imperial commissioner - Sept. 16, 18-10 the two empires.
Capt. Elliott declares a truce with the China to pay 21,000,000 of dollars, part
Chinese - - - Nov. 6,1840 forthwith and the remainder within
Hong-Kong ceded by Keshin to Great three years.
Britain, and 6,000,00l0 dollars agreed to The ports of Canton, Amoy, Foo-choobe paid within lten days to the British foo, Ning-po, and Shang-hae to be
authorities - - Jan. 20, 1841 thrown open to the British.
Imperial edict from Peliin rejecting the Consuls to reside at these cities.
conditions of the treaty made by Ke- Tarif's of import and export to be estashi- - - - Feb. 11, 18-11 blished, &c. &c.
Hostilities are in consequence resumed Tile emperor signifies his assent to the
against the Chinese - - Feb. 23, 1841 conditions - Sept. 8, 1842
Chusan evacuated - - Feb. 24, 1841 Mr. Davis succeeds Sir Henry Pottinger
Rtewards proclaimed at Canton for the as British commissioner. Feb. 16, 184-4
bodies of Englishmen, dead or alive; Bogue Forts captured by Gen. Aguilar
50,000 dollars to be given ibor ring- and Sir John Davis, 836 pieces of arleaders and chiefs - Feb. 25, 1841 tillery seized and spilked - April 5, 1847
Bogue Forts taken by Sir Gordon Bremer; admiral n ~ wan Irilled, and 45C3 Treaty between China1 and the Urnrmer; admiral Kwan killed, and 459 ted States negotiated by Caleb
guns captured - Feb. 26, 1841 i merican ComisThle city ransomed for 6,000,000 dollars, commissioner to China fom the
of wrvhich 5,000,000 ane paid dowun, United States - 1845
anthe armhotilitis cease - My 31arch 2, 1841John W. Davis appointed co isBritish trade re-opened July 16, 1841 siohn W. Davis appoUnited States -
Arrival at Macao of Sir Henry Pottin-ted
ger, who, as plenipotentiary, pro- CHINESE EMPERORS.
claims the objects of imis ission; The following is a list of those who have
Capt. Elliott superseded - Aug. 10, 1841 reirned for the lest two centulries:Amoy taken, and 296 guns found and Chwang-lei 1627
destroyed - Aug. 27, 18411 Shun-cle -1644
The Booue forts destroyed Sept. 14, 1841 Kang-he 1669
The city of Ting-hae taken, 136 uns ung-ching - 1693
capturecd, and the island of Chusan Keenl-luns- - 1736
re-occulpied by the British - Oct. 1, 141 tea-ding - 1796
Chin-hae talken, with 157 guns, many Taou-kwanl - - 1521
of them brass - Oct. 10, 1841 Sze-Hing, present empero - 1850
Tihe embassy of lord Macartney from England procurecl the first authent.c
information respecting this empire: it appears that it is divided into 15 provinces. containing 4402 walled cities; the population of the whole coulntry is
given at 333000,000 its annual revenues at ~66,000,000; and the army, includcling the Tartars, 1,000,000 of infantry, and 800,000 cavalry; the religion
is pagan, and the government is absolute. Learning, with the arts and sciences in general, are encouraged, and ethics are studied profoundly, and
influence the manners of the people. See details in Williamws's " Mliddle
Kifingdom."
CHINA PORCELAIN. This manufacture is first mentioned in history in 1531:
it was introduced into England so early as the sixteenth century. Porcelain
was made at Dresden in 1706; fine ware in England, at Chelsea, 1752; at
Bow in 1758; in various other parts of England, about 1760; and by the
ingenious Josiah WVedgwood, who much improved the British manufacture,
in Staffordshire, 1762 et seq.
CHINESE ERAS. They are very numerous, fabulous, and mythological.
Like the Chaldeans. they represent the world as having existed some hundreds of thousands of years; and their annals and histories record events
biO ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 251
said to have occurred, and name philosophers and heroes said to have lived,
more than 27,000 years ago. By their calculation of time, which must, of
course, differ essentially frolm ours, they date the commencement of their
empire 41,000 years a. c.-Abbe Lengle-t.
CHIPPEWA, BATTLES OF, The British forces under general Riall were defeated by the Americans under general Brown, July 5, 1814. Another action with the British, commanded by generals Drummond and Riall; the
latter taken 1risoner at Bridgwater, near Chippewa, July 25, 1814.
CHIVALRY. Began in Europe about A. D. 912. From the twelfth to the fifteenth century it had a considerable influence in refining the manners of
most of the nations of Europe. The knight swore to accomplish the duties
of his profession, as the champion of God and the ladies. I-He devoted himself to speak the truth, to nlaintain the right, to protect the distressed, to
practise courtesy, to fulfil obligations, and to vindicate, in every perilous
adventure, his honor and charagter, Chiyalry, which owed its origin to the
fltlal YtlB, 0pillf0ld withl itR-W0An-5s,;: a8t11.
CHIVALRY, Con3rT oF. It was commnonly after the lie-direct had been given,
that combats took place in the court of chivalry. By letters patent of
James I. the earl-marshlal of England had " the like jurisdiction in the court
of chivalry, when the office of lord high constable was vacant, as this latter
and the marshal did jointly exercise," 1623. The following entries are
found in the pipe-roll of 31 Henry I., the date of which has been fixed by
the labors of the record commission:-" Robert Fitz Seward renders account
of fifteen marks of silver, for the ofice and wife of Hugh Chivill. Paid into
the exchequer four pounds. And he owes six pounds;" p. 53. "William
de Hocton renders account of ten marks of gold tact Ae may have t2he wife of
Geoffrey de c aucre in mar'riaage, with her land, and may have her son in
custody until he is of age to become a knight; he paid into the exchequer
ten llmarks of gold, and is discharged."-Par'. Reports.
CHOCOLATE. First introduced into Europe from Mexico about A. D. 1520. It
is the flour of the cocoa-nut, and makes a wholesome beverage, much used
in Spain. It was sold in the London cof'ee-houses soon after their establishment, 1650.- Tatler.
CHOIR. The choir was separated from the nave of the church in the time
of Constantine. The choral service was first used in England at Canterbury, A. D. 677. The service had been previously in use at Rome about 602.
-See Chamlting. The C'oragnus was the superintendent of the ancient
chorus.- Warb/qerton.
CHOLERA MORBUS. This fatal disease, known in its more malignant form
as the Asiatic cholera, after having made great ravages in many countries
of the north, east, and south of Europe, and in the countries of Asia, where
alone it had carried off more than 900,000 persons in its progress within two
years, made its first appearance in England, at Sunderland, October 26, 1831.
Proclamation, ordering all vessels from Sunderland to London, to perform
quarantine at the Nore, December 4, 1831. Cholera first appeared at Edinburgh, Feb. 6, 1832. First observed at Rotherhithe and Limehouse, London.
February 13; and in Dublin, March 3, same year. The mortality was very
great, but more so on the Continent; the deaths by Cholera in Paris were
18,000 between March and August, 1832. Cholera first appeared on this
continent at Quebec, June 8, 1832; and at New-York, June 27, 1832. Cholera again'raged in Rome, the Two Sicilies, Genoa, Berlin, &c. in 1836-7. It
again appeared in Asia and the east of Europe in 1848, and raged in London, Edinburgh, Liverpool, and Paris at intervals, in 1848-9. First appeared again on this continent in 1849, on the Mississippi, in New York in
252 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. L CHU'
May, and continued more or less in various parts of the United States
until NTovember of that year.
CHRIST. See JESUS CHRIST. This name, so universally given to the Redeemer
of the world, signifies, in Greek, T/he Anointed, being the same with ilcssialt in the Hebrew, which the Jews called that Saviour and IDeliverer whom
they expected, and who was promised to them by all the prophets. This
appellation is commonly put to our Jesus (signifying Saeviourle), the name of
the great object of our faith, and divine author of our religion. St. Clement,
the earliest father, according to St. Epiphanius, fixes the birth of CHRIT 011n
the 18th of November, in the 28th year of Augustus, i. e. two years before
the Christian era as adopted in the sixth century. Cerinthus was the first
Christian writer against the divinity of Christ, about A. D. 67. The divinity
of Christ was adopted at the council of Nice, in A. D. 325, by two hundred
and ninety-nine bishops against eighteen.
CHRISTIAN. This name was first given to the believers and followers of
CHRIST's doctrines at Antioch, in Syria, Acts xi. 26, in the year 38, according to Buetler; in the year 40, according to Tacitus; and according to other
authorities in the year 60. The Christians were divided into episcopoi,
presbyteroi, diaconoi, pistoi, catachulmens, or learners, and energuzuens who
were to be exorcised.
CHRISTIAN ERA. The era which is used by almost all Christian nations; it
dates from January 1st, in the middle of the fourth year of the 194th
Olympiad, in the 753d of the building of Rome, and 4714th of the Julian
period. It was first introduced in the sixth century, but was not very
generally employed for some centuries after. We style the Christian era
A. D. 1. It was first used in modern chronology in 516.
CHRISTIAN KING; MOST CHRISTIAN KIN; Cl/ristianissismLs. This title was
given by pope Paul II. to Louis X[. of FPrance in 1469; and never was a
distinction more unworthily conferred. His tyranny and oppressionls
obliged his subjects to enter into a league against him; and 4.000 persons
were executed publicly or privately in his merciless reign.-H/?aecdt; Plcury.
CHRISTIANITY. Founded by the Saviour of the world. The persecutions of
the Christians commenced A. D. 64.-See Persecqtlions. Christianity was first
taught in Britain about this time; and it was propagated with some success
in 156.-Bede. Lucius. is said to have been the first Christian king of Britain, and in the world: he reigned in 179. B ut the era of Christianity in
England commenced with the mission of St. Austin in 596, from which tilme
it spread rapidly throughout the whole of Britain.* It was introduced inltk
Ireland in the second centurly. but with more success after the arrival of St.
Patrick in 432. It was received in Scotland in the reign of Donald I. about
201, when it was embraced by that king', his queen, and some of his nobility.
Constantine the Great made his solemn In Sweden, between 10th and itlh centuries.
declaration ofthe Cbristian religinA. D. 312 In Prussia, by the Teutonic6 knights,
Christianity was established in France when they were returning from the
under Clovis the Great - - 496 holy wars - - - A. 1227
In Helvetia, by Irish missionaries 6- t3 In Lithuania, where Paganism was aboIn Flanders in the seventh century. lished, about.. 1386
In Denmark, under harold - 87 In China, where it made some progress
In Bohemia, untler Borzivoi - - 894 (but was afterwards extirpated, and
In tRussia, by Swiatoslaf - - 940 thousands of Chinese Christians were
In Poland, under Meicislaus I. - 992 put to death) - -1575
In HIungary, under Geisa - 994 In Greece, where it was once more reIn Norway and Iceland, under Olaf I. -1000 established - - - 1628
* It is said that Gregory the Great, shortly before his elevation to the papal chair, chanced one
day to pass through the slave-marlet at Rome, and perceiving some chiltldren of great beauty wiho
were set up for sale, he inquileri about their country, and finding they were English Pagans, he is
said to have cried out, in the Latin langulage, " Non Ang'li, sed AsgeliJ'obret, si essent Clhristiani,"
IHU ] DICT'IONARY OF DATES., 253
Christianity was propagated in various parts of Africa, as Guinea, Angola,
and Congo, in the fifteenth century; and in America and India it made some
progress in the sixteenth, and now rapidly gains ground in all parts of the
world.
CHRISTMAS-DAY. A festival of the church, unnversally observed in comnmelnoration of the nativity of our Saviour. It has been denominated Christmass, from the appellative Christ having been added to the name of Jesus to
express that he was the _Messiah, or T/he Anointed. It was first observed as a
festival A. D. 98. Ordered to be held as a solemn feast, and Divine service to be
performed on the 25th of December, by pope Telesphorus, about A. D. 187.*
In the eastern primitive church, Christmas and Epiphany (hvAich see) were
deemed but one and the same feast; and to this clay the church universally
keeps a continued feast within those limits. The hl(ly and mnisletoe used
at Christmas are remains of the religious observances of the Druids, and so
with many other like customs.
CHRONICLES. The earliest chronicles are those of the Chinese, Hindoos,
Jews, and perhaps those of the Irish. After the invention of writing, all
well-informed nations appear to have kept chroniclers, who were generally
priests or ologe, strologers, and who mingled popular legends with their records
-Ph/ilips.
CHRONOLOGY. The Chinese pretend to the most ancient, but upon no certain authority. The most authentic, to which all Europe gives credit, is the
Jewish; but owing to the negligence of the Jews, they have created abundance of difficulties in this science, and very little certainty can be arrived
at as to the exact time of imany memorable events. The earliest epoch is
the creation of the world, 4004 B. c. Theophilus, bishop of Antioch, was the
first Christian chronologist, about A. D. 169. See the di&ere-nt elcras lthroegh' the
s;olqrn7e.
(1BURCH. It is said that a church was built for Cllistian worship in the first
century; and some will have it that one was built in England, A. D. 60. See
Glastonbltgy. In the small island of Whitehol-n, Scotland, are the remains of
an ancient church, which was the first place of Christian worship, it is believed, in that country, and supposed to have been built before the cathedral
at Whitehorn. in Wigtonshire, where Nenian was bishop in the fourth century. The Christians originally preached in woods, and in caves, by candlelight, whence the practice of candle-light in churches. Most of the early
churches were of wood. The first church of stone was built in London, in
1087. The first Irish church of stone was built at Bangor, in the county of
Down,- by Malachy, archbishop of Armagh, who was prelate in 1134.-GO?don's Ireland. Church towers were originally parochial fortresses. Churchyards were permitted in cities in 742.
CHURCH or ENGLAND, (the present). Commenced with the Reformation,
and was formall3 established in the reign of Henry VIII. 1534. This church
consists of two archbishops and twenty-four bishops, exclusively of that of
Sodor and Man; and the other dignitaries are chancellors, deasns (of cathedrals and collegiate churches), archdleacons, prebendaries, canons, minor.canons, and priest vicars; these, and the incumbents of rectories, vicarages,
tfat is, " they would not be English, but angels, if they were Christians." From that time he was
struck with an ardent desire to convert that unenlightenedi nation, and ordered a molk, named
Alstin, or Augustin, and others of the same fraternity, to undertake the mission to Britain, in the
year 596 - Goldsmnith.
* Diocletian, the Roman emperor, keeping his court at Nicomedia, being informed that the
Christians were assembled on this (ldy in gr:eat multitudes. to celebrate Christ's nativity, ordered the
doors to be shut, and the church to be set on fire, and six hundred perished in the burning pile.
This was the coummencement of the tenth persecution, which lasted tert years, A. D 303.
254 - - TFiE VOR!LD' I PROG'RESS. [ cI
and clhapelries, make the numnber of preferments of the established church,
according to the last official returns, 12 327. The number of churches for
Protestant worship in England was 11,742 in 1818.
CHURCH oF IRELAND. Called, in connection with that of England, the
United Church of England and Ireland. Previously to the Chulch Temporalitics Act of William I-V. in 1833, there were four archbishoprics and
eighteen bishoprics in Ireland, of which several have since ceased; that acproviding for the union of sees, and for the abolition of certain sees. accordingly as the present possessors of them die. There are 1,659 places of Protestant worship, 2;109 Catholic chapels, 452 Presbyterian, and 414 other
houses of prayer. See Bishlops.
CHURCH oF SCOTLAND. Presbyterianism is the religion of Scotland. Its
distinguishing tenets seesm to have been first emlbodied in the formulary of
faith attributed to John Knox, and coml-piled by that reformer in 1560. It.
was approved by the parliament and ratified in 1567; was finally settled by
an act of the Scottish senate in 1696, and was afterwards secured by the
treaty of union with England in 1707. Previously to the abolition of episcopacy in Scotland in 1688, there existed two archbishoprics and twelve bishoprics, which were then dissolved; but there are now six bishops. The
Church of Scotland is regulated by four courts-the General Assembly, tl,
Synod, the Presbytery, and Kirk Session. See Presbyterianes.
CHURCH MUSIC, was introduced into the Christian church by Gregory the
Great, in A. D. 602. Choir service was first introduced in England, at Canterbury, in 677. Church organs were in general use in the tenth century.
Church music was first performed in English in 1559. See Choir; ChCbanti,~.
CHURCH-WARDENS. Officers of the parish chlrcll, appointed by the first
canon of the synod of London in 1127. Overseers in every parish were also
appointed by the same body, and they continue now nearly as then const>L
tuted.-Jo/hnson's Canons.
CHURCHING oF WOMEN. It originated in the Jewish rite of purification,
A. D. 214. Churching is the act of returning thanks in the church for any
signal deliverance, and particularly after the delivery of women.- -Wfecatiey.
It was a Jewish law that a woman should keep within her house forty clays
after her lying in, if she had a son, and eighty if she had a daughter, at the
expiration whereof she was to go to the temple, and offer a lamb with a
young pigeon or turtle, and in case of poverty, two pigeons or turtles.
See PifJ4icaCltion.
CIDER. Anciently this beverage, when first mcade in England, was called wine,
about A. D. 1284. When the earl of Manchester was ambassador in France,
he is said to have frequently passed off cider upon the nobility of that country for a delicious wine. It was subjected to the excise regulations in
England, 1763, et seq. A powerful spirit is drawn from cider by distillation.Bsetler.
CITMBRI. The war of the Cimbri, 113 a. c. They clefeat the consul Marcus
Silanus, 109 B. c. They defeat the Romans under 3Manlius, on the banks of
the Rhine, where 80,000 Romans are slain, 105 B. c. The Teutones are de.
feated by Marius in two battles at Aqume Sextim (Aix) in Gaul, 200,000 are
killed, and 70,000 made prisoners, 102 B. c. The Cimbri are defeated by
MTarius and Catullus as they were again endeavoring to enter Italy; 120.000
are killed, and 60,000 taken prisoners, 1.01 a. c. Their name afterwards sunk
in that of' the Tentones or Saxons.
NCINCiNNATI. OrIoI the- most populous city west of the Alleghanies in the
United States, was -founded in 1789, by emigrants from New England and
C R 1 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 255
New Jersey. Population in 1795, 500; in 1800, 750; in 1810, 2,540; in 1820,
9,642; in 1830, 24,831; in 1840, 46,338.
CidfLfiJNNATI, SOCIETY OF. Established by the officers of the American army,
in 1783. after the Revolution, and still continued by them and their descendants. There was at one time a popular jealousy of this society as suggesting a sort of hereditary nobility or aristocracy; but this has long since passed
away, and the society is now but seldom mentioned.
CIRCASSIA. The Circassians are descended from the Alanialns. They continued unsubdued, even by the arms of the celebrated limur; but in the sixteenth century the greater part of them acknowledged the authority of the
Czar, Ivan II. of Russia. About A D. 1745, the princes of Great and Little
Kabarda took oaths of fealty to that power. One branch of their traffic is
the sale of their daughters, famed throughout tile world for their beauty,
and whom they sell for the use of the seraglios of Turkey and Persia: the
merchants who come friom Constantinople to purchase these girls are generally Jews.-Kflaprotl/' s Tr'cavels is the Ccaltcascis an7d Geor-gia.
CIRCULATING LIBRARY. Te first in Englandcl, on a public plan, was opened
by Samuel Fancourt, a dissenting minister of Salisbury, about 1740. He had
little encouragem.ent in the undertaking, which in the end failed.-F/e'g'qbso's Bioo.
CIRCULATION oF THna BLOOD, and the mlotion of the heart in animals, confirmed experimentally by William Harvey, the celebrated English physician
and anatomist, between 1619 and 1628. See article Blood. By this discovery the medical and surgiceal art became greatly improved, to the benefit
of mankind.-Iriceind's ltist. of P/hysic.
CIRCUMCISION. A rite instituted 1897 B. c. It was the seal of the covenant
made by God with Abraham.-Josep/?ns. Even to the present day many of
the Turks and Persians circumcise, although not regarding it as essential to
salvation; but in some eastern and Afirican nations it is rendered necessary
by a peculiar conformation, and is used without any reference to a religious
rite.-Bell. The festival of the Circumcision was originally called the Octave
of Christmas. The first mention found of it is in A. D. 487. It was instituted
by the church to commnemorate the ceremony under the Jewish law to
which Christ submitted on the eighth day of his nativity; it was introduced
into the Liturgy in 1550.
CiRCUMNAVIGATORS. Among the greatest and most daring of human enterprises was the circumnavigation of the earth at the period when it was
first attempted, A. D. 1519.* The following are the most renowned of this
illustrious class of men; their voyages were undertaken at the dates affixed
to their names. See Na'vig ators.
Magellan, a Portugucse, the first who Clipperton, British - A. D. 1719
entered the Pacific ocean - A. D. 1519 Roggewei, Dutch - 1721
Groalva, a Spanish navigator 1537 Anson (afterwards Lord) - -1740
Avalradi, a Spaniard - 1537 Byron (grandfather of Lord Byron) -1764
Menlana, a Spaniard - - 1567 Wallis, British - - -1766
Sir Francis Drake, first English - 1577 Carteret, an Englishman - - 1766
Cavendish, his first voyage. 1586 Cook, the illustrious captain - - a. S
Le Maire, a Dutchman - - 1615 On the death of Captain Cook, his last
Quiros, a Spaniard - 1625 voyage was continued by Kiig - 1775
Tasman, Dutch. -1642 Bougainvi!le, French -.. 177{
Cowley, British - - 1683 Portlocle, British - - 1781
Dampier, an Englishoman -1689 Wilkes, American - - 1837
Coolke, an Englishman - - 1708 D'Urville, French -1837
*'he fiirst ship tlhaot sailed round the earth, and hence determlined its being globular, was
Matellan's, or Matgelhoen's; he was a na!ire of Portugal, in the service of Spailn, and by kleeping a
westerly course he returned to the same place he had set out flom in ]519. The voyage was comrn.
pleted in three years and twenty-nine days; but Magellan was killed on his homeward passage, al
tIt Philippines, in 1521.-Bttler.
256 rTHE.WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ cr
Several voyages have been since undertaken, and, among other nations, by
the Russians. The early navigators, equally illustrious, are named elsewhere.
CIRCUS. There were eight (some say ten) buildings of this kind at Rome;
the largest of them was called the Circlus a]iezniu>s, which was built by the
elder Tarquin, 605 B. c.; it was of an oval figure; its length was three stadia
and a half, or more than three English furlongs, and its breadth 960 Roman
feet. This circus was enlarged by Cwsar so as to seat 150,000 persons, and
was rebuilt by Augustus. All the emperors vied in beautifying it, and
Julius Caesar introduced in it large canals of water, which on a sudden could
be covered with an infinite number of vessels, and represent a sea-fight. -
Pliny.
(ISALPINE REPUBLIC. Founded by the French in June 1797. It was acknowledged by the emperor of Germany to be independent, by the treaty of
Camllpo Formio (which see), Oct. 17, following. Received a new constitution
in Sept. 1798. It merged into the kingdom of Italy in March, 1805; Napoleon was crowned king in May following, and was represented by his viceroy, Eugene Beauharnois. See Itcacl.
CISTERCIANS. An order founded by Robert, a Benedictine, in the eleventh5
century. They became so powerful that they governed allost all Europe
in spiritual.and temporal concerns. They observed a continual silence, abstained friom flesh, lay on straw, vore neither shoes nor shirts, and were most
austere.-De Vite'i.
CITIES. The word city has been in use in England only since the Conquest, at
which time even London was called LonvdoLnbus'gh, as the capital of Scotland
is still called Edinbur'g/. The English cities were very inconsiderable in
the twelfth century. Cities were first incorporated A. D. 1079. The institution of cities has aided much in introducing regular governments, polt,-,
manners, and arts.-Rober'tson.
CITIZEN. It was not lawful to scourge a citizen of Rome.-Livy. In England
a citizen is a person who is free of a city, or who doth carry on a trade
therein.- Camlden. Various privileges have been conferred on citizens as
freemen in several reigns, and powers granted to them. The wives of citizens of London (not being aldermen's wives, nor gentlewomen by descent)
were obliged to wear minever caps, being white woollen knit three-cornered,
with the peaks projecting three or four inches beyond their foreheads; alde.l -
men's wives made them of velvet, 1 Elizabeth, 1558.-Stowe. The title of
citizen, only, was allowed in France at the period of the revolution, 1792, et seq.
CIUDAD RODRIGO. This strong fortress of Spain was invested by the French
June 11, 1810; and it surrendered to them July 10, following. It remained
in their possession until it was gallantly stormed by the British commanded
by Wellington, Jan. 19, 1812. Wellington had made a previous attack upon
Ciudad Rodrigo (Sept. 25, 1811), which ended in his orderly retreat from
the position.
CIVIL LAW. Several codes come under this denomination of laws. A b-hly
of Roman laws, founded upon the laws of nature and of nations, was first
collected by Alfi'enus Varus, the Civilian, who flourished about 66 B. c.; and
a digest of them was made by Servius Sulpicius, the Civilian, 53 B. c. The
Gregorian laws were compiled A. n. 290; the Theodosian in 435; and thi
Justinian, 529-534. Many of the former laws having grown out of use, the
emperor Jtistinian ordered a revision of them, which was called the Justinian
code, and this code constitutes a large part of the present civil law. Civil
law was restored in Italy, Germany, &c. 1127.-Bl~a —. Civil law was introduced into England by Theobald, a Norman abbot, who was afterwais
VLE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 257
archbishop of Canterbury, in 1138. It is now used in the spiritual courts
only, and in maritime affairs. See Laws.
CIVIL LIST IN ENGLAND. This comprehends the revenue awarded to tlhe
kings of England, partly in lien of their ancient hereditary income. The
entire revenue of ]Elizabeth was not more than 600.0001. and that of Charles Io.
was but 800,0001. After the Revolution a civil list revenue was settled on
the new king and queen of 700,0001., the parliament taking into its own
hands the support of the forces, both maritime and military. The civil list
of George II. was increased to 800,0001.; and that of George III. in the 55th
year of his reign, was 1,030,0001. By the act 1 Williaml IV. 1831, the civil
list of that sovereign was fixed at 510.0001. By the act of 1 Victoria, Dec.
1837, the civil list of the queen was fixed at 385;0001.; and Prince Albert
obtained an exclusive sum from parliament of 30,0001. per aun. 4 Victoria,
1840.
CLANSHIPS. These were tribes of the same race, and commonly of the sanme
name, and originated in feudal times.-See "'euLdal Laws. They may be
said to have arisen in Scotland,. in the reign of Malcolm II., about 1008.
Clanships and other remains of heritable jurisdiction were abolished in Scotland (where clans were taken to be the tenants of one lord), and the liberty
of the English was granted to clansmen. 20 George II., 1746.-RtJlffihead.
The chief of each respective clan was, and is, entitled to wear two eagle's
feathers in his bonnet, in addition to the distinguishing badge of his clan.Clcambe's.
CLARENDON, STATUTES OF. These were statutes enacted in a parliament
held at Clarendon, the object of which was to retrench the then enormous
power of the clergy. They are rendered memorable as being the ground of
Becket's quarrel with Henry II. A number of regulations were drawn up
under the title of the statutes or constitutions of Clarendon, and were voted
without opposition, A. D. 1164. These stringent statutes were enacted to
prevent the chief abuses which at that time prevailed in ecclesiastical
affairs, and put a stop to church usurpations which, gradually stealing on,
threatened the destruction of the civil and royal power.-Hlume.
CLARION. This instrument originated with the Moors, in Spain, about A. D.
800; it was at first a trumpet, serving as a treble to trumpets sounding their
tenor and bass.-Ashte. Its tube is narrower, and its tone shriller than the
common trumpet.-Pardou.
CLASSIS. The name was first given by Tullius Servins in making divisions of
the Roman people. The first of six classes were called classici, by way of
eminence, and hence authors of the first rank came to be called classics,
573 B. c.
CLEMENTINES. Apocryphal pieces, fable and error, attributed to a primitive father, Clemens Romanus, a cotemporary of St. Paul; some say he
succeeded Peter as bishop of Rome. He died A. D. 102. —Niceson. Also the
decretals of pope Clement V., who died 1314, published by his successor.BowJye'r. Also Augustine monlks, each of whom having been a superior nine
years, then mlerged into a common monk.,CLEMIENTINES AND URBANISTS. Parties by whom Europe was distracted
for several years. The Urbanists were the adherents of pope Urban VI.. the
others those of Robert, son of the count of Geneva, who took the title of
Clement VII. All the kingdoms of Christendom according to their various
interests and inclinations were divided between these two pontiffs; the courts
of France, Castile, Scotland, &c. adhering to Clement, and Rome, Italy; and
258 THE WORLD'S PROGaRESS. [ CLC'
England declaring for Urban. This contention was consequent upon the
death of Gregory XI. 1378. —Hume.
CLERGY. In the first century the clergy were distinguished by the title of
presbyters or bishops. The bishops in the second century ass-uLmed higher
functions, and the presbyters represented the inferior priests of the Levites:
this distinction was still further promoted in the third century; and, under
Constantine, the clergy attained the recognition and protection of the secul
lar power.
CLERGY IN ENGLAND. They increased rapidly in number early in the seventh
century, and at length controlled the king and kingdom. Drunkenness was
forbidden among the clergy by a law, so early as 747 A. D. The first fiuiit;.
of the then clergy were assigned by parliament to the king, 1534. The clergy were excluded from parliament in 1536. The conference between the
Protestant and Dissenting clergy was held in 1604. See Conferenlce. Two
thousand resigned their benefices in the church of England, ratheI than
subscribe their assent to the book of common prayer, including the thirtynine articles of religion, as enjoined by the Act of Uniformity, 1661-2. The
Irish Protestant clergy were restored to their benefices, from which they had
been expelled, owing to the state of the kingdom under akmes II., 1689.
The Clergy Incapacitation act passed, 1801. See CGl/scrt of England.
CLERK. The Clergy were first styled clerks, owing to the judges being chosen
after the Norman custom from the sacred order; and the officers being clergy; this gave them that denomination, which they keep to this day.-Blacckstoe's Coqmmt.
CLOCK. That called the clepsydra, or water-clock, was introduced at Rome
158 B. c. by Scipio Nasica. Toothed wheels were applied to them by Ctesibius, about 140 B. c. Said to have been found by Cmsar on invading Britain,
55 D. c. The only clock supposed to be then in the world was sent by pope
Paul I. to Pepin, king of' France, A. D. 760. Pacificus, archdeacon of Verona,
invented one in the ninth century. Originally the wheels were three feet in
diameter. The earliest complete clock of which there is any certain record,
was made by a Saracen mechanic, in the 13th century.
The scapement, ascribed to Gerbert, A.D. 1000 den) and the younger Galileo conA clock constructed by Richard, abbot structed the pendulum - A.. 1641
of St. Alban's, about - - - 1326 Christian Huygens contested this discoA strilking clock in Westminster - 1368 very, and made his pendulumn clock
A perfect one made at Paris by Vick - 1370 some time previously to - - 1658
The first portable one made - 1530 Fromantil, a Dutchman, improved the
In England no clock went accurately pendulum, about - - l(i
before that set up at Hampton-court Repeating clocks and watches invented
(maker's initials, N. 0.) - - 1540 by Barlowv, about - - -1676
Richard Harris (who erected a clock in The dead beat, and horizontal escapethe church of St. Paul s, Covent-Gar- ments, by Graham, about - - - 1700
The subsequent improvements were the spiral balance spring suggested., and
the duplex scapement invented by Dr. Hooke; pivot holes jewelled by Facio;
the detached scapement invented by Mudge, and improved by Berthoud,
Arnold, Earnshaw and others.
CLOCK, MAGNETIC. Invented by Dr. Locke of Cincinnati, 184-17-8.
('LOTH. Both woollen and linen cloth were lknown in very early times. Coarse
woollens were introduced into England A. D. 1191; and seventy fitmilies of
cloth-workers from the Netherlands settled in Englancl by Edward III.'s invitation, and the art of weaving was thereby introduced, 1331. — Ryszecr's Padercr. Woollens were first made at Kendal, in 1390. Medleys were 11anufactured, 1614. Our fine broad cloths were yet sent to Holland to be dyed,
1654. Dyed and dressed in England, by one Brewer. from the Low Countries, 1667. The manufacture was discouraged in Ireland and that of line2
COA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 259
countenanced, at the request of both houses of parliament, 1698. See
Woollel Cloth.
CLOVIS, FAMILY OF. Kings of France. The real founder of the French monarchy was Clovis I., who commenced his reign A. D. 481, and was a warlike
prince. I-e expelled the Romans, embraced the Christian religion, and published the Salique law. On his being first told of the sufferings of Christ,
he exclaiecl, " 0, had I been there with my valiant Gauls, how I would
have avenged him!" Clovis united his conquests from the Romans, Germans,
and Goths, as provinces to the then scanty dominions of France: removed
the seat of Government from Soissons to. Paris, and made this the capital of
his new kingdom; he died in 511. —Hena/lt.
COACH. The coach is of French invention. Under Francis I., who was a cotemporary with our Henry VIII., there were but two in Paris, one of which
belonged to the queen, and the other to Diana, the natural daughter of
Henry II. There were but three in Paris in 1550; and Henry IV. had one, but
without straps or springs. The first courtier who set up this equipage was
John de Laval de Bois-Dauphin, who could not travel otherwise on account
of his enormous bulk. Previously to the use of coaches the kings of France
travelled on horseback, the princesses were carried in litters, and ladies rode
behind their squires. The first coach seen in England was in the reign of
Mary, about 1553.-Priestley's Lect. They were introduced much earlier.A'nd'evs' Hist. Grceat Brit. They were introduced by Fitz-Allen, earl of
Arundel, in 1580.-Siowe. And in some years afterwards the art of making
them.-Axder'sol7s Hist. qf Comnmver'ce. A bill was brought into parliament
to prevent the effeminacy of men riding in coaches, 43 Eliz. 1601.* —Carle.
See Celrinages, Hcacl:kney Coaches, llcail Coaches, &c.
COALITIONS. The great coalitions against France since the period of the
French revolution, have been six in number; and they generally arose out
of the subsidizing by England of the great powers of the Continent. They
were entered into as follows:
1st. The king of Prussia issues his ma- 4th. By Great Britain, Russia, Prussia,
nifesto - - - June 26, 1792 and Saxony - - Oct. 6, 1806
2ndl. By Great Britain, Germany, Rus- 5th. 13y England and Austria - April i, 1809
sia, Naples, Portugal, and Turlcey, 6ttl. By Russia aind Prussia; the treaty
sigined - - - June 22, 1799 ratified at Kalisch - March 17, 1813
31rd. B1y Great Britain, Russia, Austria, See Tr'eaties.
and Naples - - Aug. 5,1805
COALITION MINISTRY. This designation was given to the celebrated minlistry of Mr. Fox and lord North, and which was rendered memnorable as an
extraordinary union in political life, on account of the strong personal clislike which had always been displayed by these personages, each towards
the other. The ministry was fornied April 5, 1783, and dissolved Dec. 19,
samle year. See ABdlziisterattio ios.
COALS. It is contended, with much seeming truth, that coals, although they
are not mentioned by the Romans in their notices of Britain, were yet in use
by the ancient Britons.-BraLdt. They were first discovered at Newcastleupon-Tyne in 1234, some say earlier; and others in 1239. Sea-coal was prohibited from being used in and near London, as being " prejudicial to humnan
health;" and even smiths were obliged to burn wood, 1273.-Stiowce. Coals
were first made atn article of trade fiom TNewcastle to London, 4 Richiard II.
1381 -iZylter's,PwdcrclL Notwithsta'ndingl the lany previous collplainis
* In the beginning of the year 16 9, the earl of Northuemberlanld, who had been imprisoned ever
slnce the Guneeowder Plot, obtained his liberation I-Iearing that Buckingham was drawn about
with six horses in his coach (being the first that was so), he put on eight to his, and in that mannel
pt,-sed from the tower through the city. —apoin.
260 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [COD
against coal as a public nuisance, it was at length generally burned in London in 1400; but coals were not in common use in England until the reign
of Charles I., 1625.
NUMIBERP OF CHALDItONS OF COALS CONSTJINED IN LONDON IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS:
1650 - 160,000 chald. 3800 - 814,000 chaId. 1830 - 1,588,360 chald.
1700 - 317,000 ditto. 1810 - 980,372 ditto. 1835 2,299,816 tons.
1750 - - 510,000 ditto. 1820 - - 1,171,178 ditto. 1840 - 2,638,256 dittc.
The coal-fields of Durham and Northuimberland are 72.3 square miles in
extent; those of Newcastle, Sunderland, Whitehaven, and other places, are
also of vast magnitude; and there are exhaustless beds of coal in Yorkshire.
The coal in South Wales alone, would, at the present rate of consumption,
supply all England for 2000 years.-B-lakevell. It is supposed that there are
now about 25,000,000 of tons consunled annually in Great Britain.-Phtillips.
Scotland teems with the richest mines of coal, and besides her vast collieries
there must be vast fields unexplored. —Pex,?tanxt. Fine coal is found in Kilkenny, Ireland. The first ship laden with Irish coal arrived in Dublin front
Newry, in 1742.-EBxr's.
COALS IN THE UNITED STATES. Lehigh coal from Mauch Chunk, Pennsylvania, first mined and used, 1806. According to Mr. Lyell, the coal strata in
Pennsylvania, Ohio, &c., extend 700 miles.
COCCEIANS. A sect founded by John Cocceius of Bremen; they held,
amongst other singular opinions, that of a visible reign of Christ in this world,
after a general conversion of the Jews and all other people to the Christian
faith, 1665.
COCHINEAL. The properties of this insect became known to the Spaniards
soon after their conquest of Mexico, in 1518. Cochineal was not known in
Italy in 1648, although the art of dyeing then flourished there.-See Dyeivng.
The annual import of this article into England was 260,000 lbs. in 1830; and
1,081,776, in 1845.
COCK-FIGHTING. Practised by the early barbarous nations, and by Greece.
It was instituted at Rome after a victory over' the Persians, 476 B. c.; and
was introduced by the Romans into England. William Fitz-Stephen, in the
reign of Henry II., describes coclk-fighting as the sport of school-boys 0on
Shrove Tuesday. Cock-fighting was prohibited, 39 Edward III., 1365; and
again by Henry VIII. and Cromwell. Till within these few years there was
a Cock-pit Royal, in St. James's-park: but this practice is happily now discouraged by the law.
COCK-LANE GHOST. A famous imposition (!) practised upon the credulous
multitude by William Parsons, his wife, and daughter. The contrivance
was that of a female ventriloquist, and all who heard her believed she
was a ghost: the deception, which arose in a malignant conspiracy, was
carried on for some time at the house, No. 33 Cock-lane, London; brut
it was at length detected, and the parents were condemned to the pillory
and imprisonment, July 10, 1762.
COCOA. Unknown in Europe until the discovery of America, about 1500.
The cocoa-tree supplies the Indians with almost whatever they stand in neecle
of, as bread, water, wine, vinegar, brandy, milk, oil, honey, sugar, needles,
clothes, thread, cups, spoons, basins, baskets, paper, masts for ships, sails,
cordage, nails, covering for their houses, &c.-Ray.
CODES or LAWS. The laws of Phoroneus were instituted 1807 B. c.: those
of Lycurgus, 884 B. c.; of Draco, 623 E. C.; of Solon, 587 B. c. Alfi'entus
Varus, the civilian, first collected the Roman laws about 66 B. c.; and Servius Sulpicius, the civilian, embodied them about 53 a. c. The Gregorian
and Hernmoginian codes were published A. D. 290; the Theodosian code in
435' the celebrated code of the emperor Justinian, in 529-a digest frorL
(;OI j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 261
this last was made in 533.-Blair. Alfred's code of laws is the foundation
of the common law of England, 887.-See Laws.
CODICILS TO WILLS. C. Trebatius Testa, the civilian of Rome, was the
first who introduced the use of this supplementary instrument to wills,
about 31 B. C.
C(EUR DE LION, oR TrHE LION-HEmARTED. The surname given to Richard Plantagenet I. of England, on account of his dauntless courage, about A. D. 1192.
This surname was also conferred on Louis VIII. of France, who signalized
himself in the crusades and in his wars against England, about 1223. This
latter prince had also the appellation of the Lions given im.
COFFEE. It grows in Arabia, Persia, the Indies, and America. Its use as a
beverage is traced to the Persians.* It came into great repute in Arabia
Felix about A. D. 1454; and passed thence into Egypt and Syria, and thence,
in 1511, to Constantinople, where coffee-houses were opened in 1554. M.
Thevenot, the traveller, was the first who brought it into France, to which
country he returned after an absence of seven years, in 1662.-/Chamber's. Coffee was brought into England by Mr. Nathariel Canopus, a Cretan, who
made it his common beverage at Baliol College, Oxford, in 1641.-Anderson.
C.OFFEE AND TEA. The consumption in the United States at different periods
is reported by the secretary of' the treasury (see Avicriccan Almanac, 1848)
thus:1821 - o Tea, 4,586,223 lbs.'.. Coffee, 11,886,063 lbs.
1830 - - - 6,873,091 lbs. - " 38,363.687 lbs
1885 - - - " 12,331,638 lbs. - - " 91,753,002 lbs.
1842 -- - " 13,482,645 lbs. - - - " 107,387,567 lbs.
1846 - - - " 16,891,020 lbs. - - " 124,336,054 lbs.
COFFEE-HOUSES. The first in England was kept by a Jew, named Jacobs,
in Oxford, 1650. In that year, Mr. Edwards, an English Turkey merchant,
brought home with him a Greek servant named Pasquet, who kept the first
house for making coffee in London, which he opened in George-yard, Loinmbard-street, in 1652. Pasquet afterwards went to Holland, and opened the
first house in that country.-Adersose. The Rainbow coffee-house, near
Temple-bar, was represented as a nuisance to the neighborhood, 1657.
Coffee-houses were suppressed by proclamation, 26 Charles II., 1675. The
proclamation was afterwards suspended on the petition of the traders in tea
and coffee.
COFFEE-TREES. These trees were conveyed from Mocha to Holland in 1616;
and wealre carried to the West Indies in the year 1726. First cultivated at
Surinam by the Dutch about 1718. The culture was encouraged in the
plantations about 1732.
COFFINS. The Athenian heroes were buried in coffins of the cedar tree; owing to its aromatic and incorruptible qualities.- Tl/cyJdides. Coffins of
marble and stone were used by the Romans. Alexander is said to have been
buried in one of gold: and glass coffins have been found in England.- Gonugh.
The earliest record of wooden coffins amongst us, is that of the burial of
king Arthur, who was buried in an entire trunk of oak, hollowed, A. D. 542
-Asser. The patent coffins were invented in 1796.
COIN. Homer speaks of brass money as existing 1184 B. c. The invention of
coin is ascribed to the Lydians, who cherished commerce, and whose money
~ Some ascribe the discovery of coffee as a beverage to the prior of a monastery, who, being informed by a goat-herd that his cattle sometimes browsed upon the tree, and that they would then
wake at night and sport and bound upon the hills, became curious to prove its virtues. He accordingly tried it on his muonls, to prevent their sleeping at matins, and he found that it checked
their sluenbers.
262 rILE NWOMILD'S PtIOGRESS. COl
was of gold and silver. Both were coined by Pihidon tyrant of Argos, 862
n. c. Money was coined at Rome under Servius Tullius, about 573 B. c,.
The most ancient known coins are 3Mlacedonian, of the fifth century B. c.; but
others are believed to be more ancient. Brass money only was in use at
Roime previously to 269 B. c. (when Fabius Pictor coined silver), a sign that
little correspondence was then held with the East, where gold and silver
were in use long before. Gold was coined.206 B. c. Iron money was used
in Sparta, and Iron and tin in Britain.-Dzqiesnzo y. Julius Caesar was the
first who obtained the express permission of the senate to place his portrait
on the coins, and the example was soon followed. In the earlier and more
simple days of Rome, the likeness of no living personage appeared upcpt
their monev: the heads were those of their deities, or of those who had received divine honors.
COIN IN ENGLAND. The filst coinage in England was under the Romans at
Camulodunum, or Colchester. English coin was of diflerent shapes, as
square, oblong, and round, until the middle ages, when round coin only was
used. Groats were the largest silver coin until after A. D. 1351. Coin waas
made sterling In 1216, before which time rents were mostly paid in kind, and
maney was found only in the coffers of the barons.-S-,lowe
The first gold coins on certain record, end to the circulation of private leadstruck, 42 Henry III. A. D. 1257 en pieces, &c. - - - - 1620
Gold florin first struck, Ed. III. (Ce t- HIalfpence and falrthings coined - 1665
de) - - - 1337 Guineas first coined, 25 Char. II. - 1673
First large copper coinage, putting an Sovereigns, new coinage - - 1816
Half-farthings - - 1843
Gold coin was introduced in six shilling pieces by Edward III. and nobles
followed, at six shillings and eightpence, and hence the lawyer's fee: afterwards there were half and quarter nobles. Guineas were of the sasne size;
but being made of a superior gold fiom sovereigns, guineas passed for
more. See Guineas. English and Irish money were assimilated Jan. 1. 18g.
See Gold.
MONEYS COINED IN TI-IH FOLLOWING REIGNS, AND THEIR AMOUNT.
Elizabeth - ~E5,832,000 James II. - - ~3,740,000 George III. and regency,
James I. - 2,500,000 William III. - - 10,511,900 gold - - 74,501,56;
Charles I. - - 10,500,000 Anne - - 2,691,626 George IV. - 41,782,815
Cromwell - 1,000,000 George I. - 8,725,920 William iV. - -10,827,603
Charles I. - 7,524,100 George II. - 11,966,576 Victoria, to 1846, 82.870.814The coin of the realm was about twelve millions in 1711.-Da:veica,,t. It was
estimated at sixteen millions 1762.-Andedrsoes. It was supposed to be twenty millions in 1786.-Chalairer's. It amounted to thirty-sevcen millions in 1800.
-Ph/iltips. - The gold is twenty-eight millions, and the rest of the metallic
currency is thirteen millions, while the paper largely supplies the place of
coin.1830.-DLke of Wlelli-g0lon. In 1841, it may be calculated as reaching
forty-five millions. See Gold.
COIN of THE U. S. The U. S. Mint was established in 1792. The coinage foiom
that time to 1836 was thus:Pieces. Valse.
Gold 4,716,325 - $22,102,035
Silver - - - 115,421,762 - 46,739,182
Copper. 77,752,965 - - 740,331
Total- 197,891,502 - $69,581,549
1837 to 1848 inclusive 145,389,748 - $81,436,165
Total in 56 years - 343,281,250 pieces. 8151,017,714
The gold coinage consists of double eagles $20, eagles, half eaales, quarter
eagles and dollars. Gold dollars were first coined in 1819. The first deposit of' California gold for coining, was made by Mr. David Carter, 1804
ounces, Dec. 8, 1848.
coI, ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 263
COINING.'hlis operation was originally performed by the metal being placed
between' two steel dies, and struck by a hamnlllmer. In 1553. a mill was
invented by Antonie Brucher, and introduced into England in 1562. An engine for coining was invented by Balancier in 1617. The great improvements
of the art were effected by Boulton and Watt, at Soho, 1788, and subsequently.
The art was rendered perfect by the creation of the present costly machinery
at the lmint, London, commenced in 1811.
I'OLD. The extremes of heat and cold are found to produce the samne perceptions on the skin, and whein mercury is fiozen at forty degrees below zero,
the sensation is the same as touching red-hot iron. During the hard frost
1740, a palace of ice was built at St. Petersburg, after an elegant model, and
in the just proportions of Augustan architecture. — Gseig. Perhaps the coldest day ever known in London was Dec. 25, 1796, when the thermometer was
160 below zero. Quicksilver was frozen hard at.Moscow Jan. 13, 1810. See,rosts, Ice.
COLISZEUM. The edifice of this name at Rome was built by Vespasian, in
the place where the basin of Nero's gilded house had previously been A. D.
72. The splendid Coliscmum of London, and one of its most worthy objects
of admiration, is built near the Regent's Park, and was completed in 1827-8.
COLLEGES. University education preceded the erection of colleges, which
were munificent foundations to relieve the students from the expense of living at lodging-houses and at inns. Collegiate or academic degrees are said
to have been first conferred at the University of Paris, A. D. 1140; but some
authorities say, not before 1215. In England, it is contended that the date
is much higher, and some hold that Bede obtained a degree formally at
Cambridge, and John de Beverley at Oxford, and that they were the first
doctors of those universities. Cacmbr'idge, O:xfor'd, &c.
Cheshunt College founded - A. D. 1792 Mareschal College, Aberdeen - A-D. 1593
Doctor's Commons, civil law - -1670 Maynooth College 1- 795
Durham University * Physicians, London - - - 1518
Edinburgh University - -1580 Sion College - - - 1329
Eton College- - - 1441 Sion College, re-founded - 1630
Glasgow University -1451 Surgeons, London - -1745
Harrow - - 1585 Trinity College, Dublin - 1591
Highbury College - - 1826 University, London - - -1826
King's College, Aberdeen 1494 Winchester College -. -1387
Ring's College, London - -1829
COLLEGES IN THIE UNITED STATES. The first established was Hartvar'd, at
Cambridge, Mass., by John Harvard, 1638; and this is now the most important and best endowed in the United States. The second was illinam
acld Mary, in Virginia, 1693. Third, Yale, at New Haven,-1700. Fourth,
College of New Jersey, Princeton, 1746. Fifth, Colnslbia, New-York, 1754.
Sixth, University of Pennsylvac7bia, Philadelphia, 1755. Seventh. Browse
University, Providence, 1764. Eighth, DcCar'sMtosth/, at Hanover, N. H., 1769.
Ninth, Rltgers, New Brunswick, N. J., 1770. These were all prior to the
Revolutioni. The first medical school was that at Philadelphia, founded
1764. The first law school was founded at Litchfield, Conn., 1782. In
1849 there were 118 colleges in the United States; 42 theological schools;
12 law schools; 36 medical schools. See list in American~ Almcnacc. Girard
College opened Jan. 1, 1848.
COLOGNE. A member of tlhe Hanseatic league, 1260. The Jews were expelled
from here in 1485, and the Protestants in 1618, and it has since fallen into
ruin. Cologneo was taken by the French, uncder Jourdan, Oct. 6, 1794. In
the cathedral are shown the heads of the three Magi; and inl the church of
St. Ursula is the tomb of that saint, and bones belonging to the 11,000 virgins said to have been put to death along with her.
COLOMBIA. A republic in South America, formel of states which have
264 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [L co
declared their independence of the crown of Spain; but its several chiefs
have been contending one against another, and each state has been a prey
to civil war, and the stability of the union is far from assured.
New Grenada, discovered by Colum- Battle of Carabobo, the Royalists wholly
bus..D. 1497 overthrown - - June 24,1821
Venezuela discovered - - 1498 Bolivar is named Dictator by the Con1 he Caraccas formed into a kingdom, gress of Peru - - Feb. 10, 1824
under a captain-general - - 157 Alliance between Colombia and Mexico
The history of those provinces under formed - - June 30, 1324
the tyranny and oppression of the Spa- Alliance with Guatimala - March l125
niards, presents but one continuous Congress at Lima namnes Bolivar l'rescene of rapine and blood. sident of the republic - Aug. 1826
* * * i. e * * * DeBolivar's return to Bogota - Nov. 18'26
Confederation of Venezuela - 1810 He assumes the dictatorship - Nov. 23, 1o66
Independence formally declared - 1811 Padilla's insurrection - April 9, 18S
Defeat of General Miranda - 1812 Conspiracy of Santander against the
Bolivar defeated by Boves - - - 1816 life of Bolivar - Sept. 25, 1828
Bolivar defeats Morillo in the battle of Bolivar resigns his office of president of
Sombrero - - - Feb. 1818 the republic - - April 11, 1829
Union of the States of Grenada and Ve- He dies - - Dec. 17, 1830
nezuela - - Dec. 17, 1819 Santander dies - - May 26, 1840
COLON. This point was known to the ancients, but was not expressed as it
is in modern times. The colon and period were adopted and explained by
Thrasylsachus about 373 B. c.-Suidras. It was known to Aristotle. O-ir
punctuation appears to have been introduced with the art of printing.
The colon and semicolon were both first used in British literature, in the
sixteenth century.
COLONIES or GREAT BRITAIN. They are described under the name of each.
The white and the free colored population, as far as it has been ascertained,
amounts to about 2,500,000, and the slaves at the period of their emancipation, were 770,280. The number of convicts in New South Wales and Van
Diemen's Land, is 36,267; the aborigines of the latter place have not been
ascertained. The act for the abolition of slavery throughout the Britis11
colonies, and for compensation to the owners of slaves (X20,000,000 sterling)
was passed 3 & 4 William IV. 1833. By the provisions of this statute all
the slaves throughout the British colonies were emancipated on Angust 1,
1834.
COLONIZATION. The American Colonization Society, for colonizing fiee
people of color on the coast of Afi'ica, founded December, 1816, at Washington, chiefly through the exertions of Rev. Robert Finley. [Plan advocated by Jefferson as early as 1777, urged by Dr. Thornton, 1787, and by the
legislature of Virginia, 1801.] First president of the society, Bushrocl
Washington; succeeded by Charles Carroll, James Madison, and Henry
Clay Liberia purchased 1821.
COLOSSUS oF RHODES. A brass statue of Apollo, seventy cubits high,,
erected at the port of Rhodes in honor of the sun, and esteemed one of the
wonders of the world. Built by Chares of Lindus, 290 a. c. It was thrown
down by an earthquake 224 ai. c.; and was finally destroyed by the Saracens
on their taking Rhodes in A. D. 672. The figure stood upon two moles, a leg
being extended on each side of the harbor, so that a vessel in full sail collld
enter between. A winding staircase ran to the top, from which could' be
discerned the shores of Syria, and the ships that sailed on the coast of Egypt.
The statue had lain in ruins for nearly nine centul-ies, and had never been
repaired; bust snow the Saracens pulled it to pieces, and sold the metal,
weighinlg 720,900 lbs., to a Jew, who is said to have loaded 900 camnels in
transporting it to Alexandr-ia-b-Dc 7'I-esncsy.
COLUMBIA, DISTRICT or. A tract of country 10 miles square, ceded by Virginia and Maryland to the United States, for the purpose of forming the
seat of government. It included the cities of Washington, Georgetovsi.
COM J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 265
and Alexandria; but in 1843 the latter was re-ceded to Virginia. Population in 1800, 14,093; in 1840, 43,712, including 8,361 free colored persons,
and 4,694 slaves.
COMEDY. Thalia is the muse of comedy and lyric poetry. Susarion and
Dolon were the inventors of' theatrical exhibitions, 562 B. c. They performed
the first comedy at Athens, on a wagon or movable stage, on four wheels,
for which they were rewarded with a basket of figs and a cask of wine.Ars'ndelian Marbles. Aristophanes was called the prince of ancient comedy,
434 B. c., and Menander that of new, 320 B. c. Of Plautus, 20 comedies are
extant; he flourished 220 B. C. Statius Ccecilius wrote upwards of 30 comedies; he flourished at Rome, 180 B. c. The comedies of Lcelius and Terence
were first acted 154 B. c. The first regular comedy was performed in England about A. D. 1551. It was said of Sheridan, that he wrote the best comedy
(the Sc/hool for Scandal), the best opera (the DxLenna), and the best afterpiece (the Cr'itic), in the English language.-See Drama.
COMETS. The first that was discovered and described accurately, was by
Nicephorus. At the birth of the great Mithridates two large comets
appeared, which were seen for seventy-two days together, and whose splendor eclipsed that of the mid-day sun, and occupied forty-five degrees, or
the fourth part of the heavens, 135 a. c.-Justin. A remarkable one was
seen in England, 10 Edward III., 1337.-Stowue. These phenomena were first
rationally explained by Tycho Brache, about 1577. A comet, which terrified the people from its near approach to the earth, was visible from Nov.
3, 1679, to March 9, 1680. The orbits of comets were proved to be ellipses,
by Newton, 1704. A most brilliant comet appeared in 1769, which passed
within two millions of' miles of the earth. One still more brilliant appeared
in Sept., Oct., and Nov., 1811, visible all the autumn to the naked eye.
Another brilliant comet appeared in 1823.-See the three next ar'ticles.
COMET, BIELA'S. This comet has been an object of fear to many on account
of the nearness with which it has approached, not the earth, but a point of
the earth's path: it was first discovered by M. Biela, an Austrian officer,
Feb. 28, 1826. It is one of the three comets whose reappearance was predicted, its revolution being performed in six years and thirty-eight weeks.
Its second appearance was in 1832, when the time of its perihelion passage
was Nov. 27. Its third appearance was in 1839, and its fourth in 1845.
COMET, ENCKE'S. First discovered by M. Pons, Nov. 26, 1818, but justly
named by astronomers after professor Encke, from his success in detecting
its orbit, motions, and perturbations; it is, like the preceding, one of the
three cormets which have appeared according to prediction, and its revolutions are made in 3 years and 15 weeks.
(00MET, HALLEY'S. This is the great and celebrated comet of the greatest
astronomer of England.-Lalande. Doctor Halley first proved that many of
the appearances of comets were but the periodical returns of the same bodies,
and he demonstrated that the comet of 1682 was the same with the comet
of 1456, of 1531, and 1607, deducing this fact from a minute observation of
the first mentioned comet, and being struck by its wonderful resemblance to
the comets described as having appeared in those years: Halley, therefore,
first fixed the identity of comets, and first predicted their periodical returns.
— Vince's Asl ronosny. The revolution of Halley's comet is performed in
about seventy-six years: it appeared in 1759, and came to its perihelion on
March 13; and its last appearance was in 1835.
COMMERCE. Flourished in Arabia, Egypt, and anmong the Phoenicians in
the earliest ages. In later times it was spread, over Europe by a confederacy of maritime cities A. D. 1241.-See Hlanse Toewes. The discoveries of
Columbuns and the enterprises of the Dutch and Portuguese, enlarged the
12
'266 TI-HE WORLD'S PROGRIESS. L COM
sphere of commerce, and led other nations, particularly ngland, to engage
extensively in its pursuit.-See the vcarious articles connected wit/c this subject.
CO'MMERCE. See NcYvigationb.
COMMERCE, NEW-YORK CIAMBER OF, instituted 1783.
COMMERCIAL TREATIES. The first treaty of commerce made by England with any fbreign nation, was entered into with the Flemings, 1 Edwa-.d
I., 1272. The second was with Portugal and Spain, 2 Edward II. 1308. —
An.,derson. See'reraties.
COMMON COUNCIL OF LONDON. Its formation commenced about 1208.
The charter of Henry I. mentions the fJllk-mote, this being a Saxon appel:ta-,
tion, and which may fairly be rendered the court or assembly of the people,
COMMON LAWN or ENGLAND. Custom, to which length of time has
given the force of law, or rules generally received and held as law, called
lce no7, scripta, in contradistinction to the written law. Common law
derives its origin from Alfred's body of laws (which was lost), A. D. 890.
The common law of the United States is founded on that of Englandl. —See
Coustomn. Laws.
COMMON PRAYER. Published in the English language by the authority of
pariliament, in 1548. The Commlon Prayer was voted out of doors, by purliament, and the Directory (web;ic/h see), set up in its room in 1644. A proclamation was issued against it, 1647. See Directory.
COMMONS, HousE OF. The great representative assembly of the people of
Great Brlitain, and third branch of the Imperial legislature, originated with
Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, who ordered returns to be made of
two knights from every shire, and deputies from. certain boroughs, to meet
the barons and clergy who were his friends, with a view thereby to strengthen
his own power in opposition to that of his sovereign Henry III. This was
the first confirmed outline of a house of commons; and the first commolis
were sunmmoned to meet the king in parliament 42 & 43 Henry III. 1258.
-- Goldsmeitl. Stowe. According to other authorities, the first parliament
formally convened was the one summoned 49 Henry III., Jan. 23, 1265; and
writs of the latter date are the earliest extant. Some historians date -he
first regularly constituted parliament from the 22d of Edward I. 1294. The
first recorded speaker, duly chosen, was Petre de Montfort in 1260; he was
killed at the battle of Evesham, in 1265. The city of London first sent
members to'parliament in the reign of Henry III., while Westminstt was
not represented in that assembly until the latter end of Henry VIII's life,
or rather in the first House of Commons of Edward VI. The following
is the constitution of the HI-ouse of Commons since the passing of the
Reform Bills (wvhicc, see,) in 1832:ENGLISH.-County members - 144 English and VWelsh - 500
Universities - 4 ScoTcH.-County members - 30
Cities and boroughs - - 323-471 Cities and Boroughs - 3 —-53
WELSH. —County members - - 15 InISH.-County members - G4
Cities and Boroughs - 14 —-29 University - - 2
Cities and borouLghs - 39-105
English and Welsh - 500, -
Total (see Parliament) - 58
COMMONWEALTH or ENGLAND. This was the interregnum between the
decollation of Charles I. and the restoration of Charles 11. The form of the
government was changed to a republic on the execution of Charles I. Jan. 30,
1649. Oliver Cromwell was made Protector, Dec. 12, 1653. Richard Ci:(m.well was made Protector, Sept. 1658. Monarchy was restored in the person
of Charles II., who returned to London 3MIay 29, 1670. See EnglZand.
COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. See RoME. The greatest and most renown
ed republic of the ancient world. It dates fiom 509 B. c., wheen the gove;-I:
CON ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 267
ment of king;s ceased with the expulsion of Tarquinins Superbus, the seventh
and last king of Romne, and the election of consuls. After this revolution Rome.
advanced by rapid strides towards universal dominion. Tie whole of Italy
received her laws. Sicily, Sardinia, Spain, Carthage, Aftica, Greece, Asia, Syria, Egypt, Gaul, Britain, and even a part of Germany, waelre successively subdued by her arms: so that in the age of Julius Cmesar this republic had the
Euphrates, ounnt Taunrus, and Armenia, for the boundaries in the east;
Ethiopia, in the south; the Danube, in the north; and the Atlantic Ocean,
in the west. The replublic existecl under consuls and other magistrates until the battle of Actiuln, fiom which we commonly date the commencement
of the Roman empire, 31 B. c.
COMMUNION. It originated in the Lord's snpper, and was practised early in
the primitive church. Communicating under the form of bread alone is
said to have its rise in the west, under pope Urban II. 1096. The fourth
Lateran council decreed that every believer shall receive the communion at
least at Easter, 1215. The communion service, as now observed in. the
church of England, was instituted by the authority of council, 1548.
COMPANIES. Among; the earliest commercial companies in England may be
named the Steel-yard society, established A. D. 1.232. The second company
was the merchants of St. Thomas a Becket, in 1248.-Stoewe. The third wvas
the Merchant Adventulrers incorporated by Elizabeth, 1564. Th, re are
ninety-one city companies in London; the first twelve are
1 AMercers A. D. 1393 7 Merchant Tailors - A. D. 1466
2 Grocers -1345 8 Haberdashers -1447
3 Drapers - 1439 9 Salters - - 1558
4 Fishmoners - - 1384 10 Ironmongers- - 144
5 Goldsmiths - 1327 11 Vintners -1437
6 Skinners 1327 12 Clothworkers- - - -1482
COMAIPANIES, BUBBLE. Ruinous speculations coming under this name have
been formed, commonly by designing persons. Law's Bubble, in 1720-1,
was perhaps the imost extraordinary of its kind, and the Solth Sea Bubble,
in the same year, was scarcely less memorable for its ruin of thousands of
families. Many companies were established in Great Britain in 1824 and
1825, and most of them turned out to be bubbles; and owing to the rage for
taking shares in each scheme as it was projected, immense losses were incurred by individuals, and the families of thousands of' speculators were
totally ruined. See Law's Bubble, and Bankl'rurpts.
COMPASS, THE MARINER'S. It is said to have been known to the Chinese,
1115 a. c.; but this seems to be a mistake. They had a machine which selfmoved, pointed towvards the soeth. and safely guided travellers by land or
water; and some authors have mistaken it for the mariner's compass, the
invention of which is by some ascribed to Marcus Paulus, a Venetian, A. D.
1260; while others, with more seeming justice, assign it to Flavio Gioja, of
Pasitano, a navigator of Naples. Until his time the needle was laid upon a
couple of pieces of straw, or small split sticks, in a vessel of water; Giqja introduced the suspension of the nleedle as we have it now, 1302. Its variation
was discovered by Columbus, in 1492. The compass-box and hanging conmpass used by navigators were invented by William Barlowe, an English divine and natural philosopher, in 1608.Bcioe. Die. The measuring compass
was invented by Jost Byng, of Hesse, in 1602.
CONCEPTION OF THIE VIRGIN. This is a feast in tile Romish church in
honor of the Virgin Mary having been conceived and born immaculate, or
without original sin. The festival was appointed to be held on the 8th of
Dec. by the church, in 1389. CONCEPTIONISTS, an order of nunsu established
1488.
A268 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [CON
CONCERT. The first public subscription concert was performed at Oxford, in
1665, when it was attended by a great number of personages of rank and
talent from every part of England. The first concert of like kind performed in London was in 1678. Concerts afterwards became fashionable and
frequent.
CONCHOLOGY. This branch of natural history is mentioned by Aristotle and
Pliny, and was a favorite with the most intellectual and illustrious men. It
was first reduced to a system by John Daniel Major of Kiel, who published
his classification of the Testacca in 1675. Lister's systemn was published in
1685; and that of Largius in 1722.
CONCLAVE FOR TIlE ELECTION oF POPES. The conceave is a range of small
cells in the hall of the Vatican, or palace of the pope at Rome, where the
cardinals usually hold their meetings to elect a pope. The word is also used
for the assembly, or meeting of the cardinals shut up for the election of a
pope. The conclave had its rise in A. D. 1271. Clement IV. being dead at
Viterbo in 1268, the cardinals were nearly three years unable to agree in the
choice of a successor, and were upon the point of breaking up, when the
magistrates, by the advice of St. Bonaventure, then at Viterbo, shut the
gates of their city, and locked up the cardinals in the pontifical plJace till
they agreed. Hence the present custom of shutting up the cardinals while
they elect a pope.
CONCORDANCE TO THE BIBLE. An index or alphabetical catalogue of all
the words in the Bible, and also a chronological account of all the transactions of that sacred volume. The first concordance to the Bible was made
tunder the direction of Hugo de St. Charo, who employed as many as 500
monks upon it, A. D. 1247.-AbQb Lenglet.
CONCORDAT. The name given to an instrument of agreement between a
prince and the pope, usually con.cerning benefices. The celebrated concordat
between Napoleon Bonaparte and Pius VII., whereby the then French consul
was made, in effect, the head of the Gallican Church, as all ecclesiastics
were to have their appointments from him, was signed at Paris, July 15,
1801. Another concordat between Bonaparte and the same pontiff was signed at Fontainbleau, Jan. 25, 1813.
CONCUBINES. They are mentioned as having been allowed to the priests, A. D.
1132. Cujas observes, that although concubinage was beneath marriage,
both as to dignity and civil effects, yet concubine was a reputable title, v- ry
different from that of mistress among us. This kind of union, which is
formed by giving the left hand instead of the'igAht, and called haCf-qnarriag'e,
is still in use in some parts of Germany.
CONFEDERATION AT PARIS. Upwards of 600,000 citizens formed this
memorable confederation, held on the anniversary of the taking of the bastile, at which ceremony the king, the national assembly, the army, and the
people, solemnly swore to maintain the new constitution, July 4, 1790. Sec
Champ de M5ars, Bastile.
CONFEDERATION OFP THE RHINE, or League of the Germanic States formed under the auspices of Napoleon Bonaparte. By this celebrated league,
the minor German princes collectively engaged to raise 258,000 troops to
serve in case of war, and they established a diet at Frankfort, July 12, 1806.
See Germanlic Confederation.
CONFERENCE. The celebrated religious conference held at Hampton Court
palace, between the prelates of the church of England and the dissenlting
ministers, in order to effect a general union, at the instance of the king, 2
James I. 1604. This conference led to a new translation of the Bible, wlhici
CON] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 269
was executed in 1607-11, and is that now in general use in England and the
United States; and during the meeting some alterations in the church liturgy
were agreed upon, but this not satisfying the dissenters, nothing more was
done. A conference of the bishops and presbyterian ministers with the same
view was held in 1661.
CONFESSION. Auricular confession in the Romish church was first instituted
about A. D. 1204, and was regularly enjoined in 1215. It is made to a priest,
in order to obtain absolution for the sils or faults acknowledged by the penitent, who performs a penance enjoined by the priest; and if this be done
with a contrite heart, the sins thus absolved are supposed to be absolved in
heaven. At the reformation, the practice was at filrst left wholly indifferent,
by the council; but this was the prelude to its entire abolition in the clmurch
of England.-Boosewct.
CONFIRMATION. One of the oldest rites of the Christian hmurch; it was
used by Peter and Paul;,ancl was general, according to some church authorities, in A. D. 190. It is the public profession of the Christian religion
by an adult person, who was baptized in infancy. It is still retained in the
church of England; but to make it more solemn, it has been advanced into
a sacramlent by the church of Rome.
CONGE D'ELIRE. The license of the king, as head of the church, to chapters, and other bodies, to elect dignitaries, particularly bishops. After the
interdict of the pope upon England had been removed in 1214, king John had
an arrangement with the clergy for the election of bishops. Bishops were
elected by the king's Cong'e d'Elire, 26 Henry VIII., 1535.
CONGRESS. An assembly of princes or ministers, or meeting for the settlement of the affirs of nations, or of a people. Several congresses were held
during the continental wars; but the following were the most remarkable
congresses of Europe:Congress of Soissois - June 14, 1728 Congress of Carlsbad Aug. 1, 1819
Congress of Antwerp April 8, 1793 Congress of Troppau Oct. 20, 1820
Congress of Radstadclt - Dec. 9, 1797 Congress of I.aybach May 6, 1821
Congress of Chatillon - Feb. 5, 1814 Congress of Verona - Aug. 25, 1822
Congress of Vienna N- ov. 3, 1814 See Alliances, Convenztioszs, Sc.
CONGRESS, U. S. A. The first Colosial Colgsvress, composed of the delegates
fromi nine of the colonies (MBass., R. I., Conn., N. Y.. N. J., Pa., Del., Md., S.
Ca.), met at N. Y. Dec. 7, 1765.-Tim. Ruggles. Prest. The Conticentctdal Coegrcss
met at Phila. Sep. 5, 1774: again Mlay 10, 1775: adopted Dec. Indep. July 4,
1776; met at Balt. Dec. 20, 1716; at Phila. IMarch 4, 1777; at Lancaster, Pa.
Sep. 27, 1777; at York, Pa. Sep. 30. 1777; at Phila. July 2, 1778; at Princeton, June 30, 1783; at Annapolis, Nov. 26, 1783; at Trenton, Nov. 30, 1784;
at N. York, Jan. 1785; and that continued to be the place of meeting until
the adoption of the constitution, 1789: removed to Phila. 1790: to Washington, 1800.
lONVENTION, TIIE, for tforming the Constitution of the U. S. met at Phila.
May 10, 1787; in session till Sep. 17, same year.
ieONGREVE ROCKETS. Invwlo ted by general sir William Congreve, in 1803.
They were used with great effect in the attack upon Boulogne, in Oct. 1806,
when they set a ipart of the town on fire, which burned for two days; they
were employed in various operatiols in the late war with much success, disclhalrged by a corps called roclkel-ien.
CONIC SECTIO1NS. Their most remarkable properties wvere probably known
to the Greeks four or five centuries before the Christian era. The study of
them was cultivated in the time of Plato 390 B. c. The earliest treatise
was written by Aristaus, about 380 u. c. Appolonius's eight books were
270 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ cowwritten about 240 B. c The parabola was appliecl to projectiles by Galileo;
the ellipse to the orbit of planets, by Kelper.
CONJURATION AND WITCHCRAFT. They were declared to be felony by
various statutes, and the most absurd and wicked laws were in force against
them in England in former times. See article Witclhc'rcft. Conjulration was
felony by statute 1 James I., 1603. This law was repealed 9 George II.,
1735; but pretensions to such skill was then made punishable as a misdameanor.-Englis/b Stctutes.
CONNECTICUT. One of the U. States: first settled in 1633, at Windsor, by
a colony from Massachusetts. Hartford, settled by the English in 1635, the
Dutch having previously built a fort there, which they did not permanently
hold. English colony founded at New Haven, 1638. The two colonies of New
Haven and Hartford united by a charter of Charles II., in 1655. This charter, when in danger from the tyranny of Andros, wxas preserved in an oak,
near Hartford, since called the Charter Oak. Conn. took an active part in
the revolution; a number of its towlns, Danbury, N. London, &c., burnt by
the British during that struggle. It became one of the original 13 states,
adopting the constitution of the Union in 1788, by a vote of 128 to 40. Population 1713, 17,000: 1790, 237,946; 1810, 261,942; 1830, 297,655; 1840,
309,978.
CONQUEST, THE. The memorable era in British history, vhen William rduke
of Normandy overcame Harold II., at the battle of Hastings, and obtained the
crown which had been Ilost unfilrly bequeathed to him by EdwVard the
Conlessor (for Edgar was the rightful heir) Oct. 15. 1066. William has been
erroneously styled the Conqueror, for lie succeedled to the crown of Englandc
by compact. He killed Harold, who was himself a usurper, andc de(feated
his army, but a large portion of the kingdom afterwardcls held -out against.
him, and he, unlike a conqueror, took an oath to observe the laws and customs of the realim, in order to induce the submission of the people. Farmerly the judgles were accustomed to reprehend any gentlemlan at the bar
who casually gave him the title of William the Conqueror, instead of William I.-Scldes.
CONSCRIPT FATHIERS. Patres conscr,'ipti was the designation given to the
Roman senators, andcl used in speaking of them, in the eras of the rele ublic
and the Cxsars: because their nanmes were writtetn in the registers of the
senate.
CONSECRATION. That of churches xwas instituted in the second centuiry.
the temple of worship being dedicated with pious soleimnity to God amiui
patron saint. The consecration of churches, places of burial, &c., is adnitted in the reformed religion. The consecration of bishops was ordained in
the latter church in 1549.-Stowe.
CONSISTORY COURT IN ENGLAND. Anciently the Consistory was joined x. itl-i
the Hundred court, and its original, as divided therefrorn, is found in a lawN
of William I. quoted by lord Coke, 1079. The chief and mnost ancient Consistory court of the kingdom belongs to the see of Canterbury, andi is called
the Court of Arches.
CONSPIRACIES AND INSURRECTIONS IN GREAT BRITAIN. Alionso t-i;e
recorded conspiracies, real or supposed, the following are the most renlarllable. They are extracted fiom CLmdezl, Temple, thtele, and other authorlities of note:Of Anthony Babincgton and others, the Dule of Ormond, wouinded him,
against Elizabeth - A. D. 1586 and would have hanged hin; and
The Gunpowder Plot (twhich see) - 1605 who aiterwards stole the crown - 1671
Insurrection of the iifth monarchy men The pretendecl conspiracy of the French,
agaitnst Charles II. - - - 1660 Spanish, and English Jesuits to assasOf Blood and his associates, who seized sinate Ch. II. revealed by the infa
CON ] ICTIONARY OF DATES. 271
mous Titus Oates, Dr. Tongue, and Of Colonel Despard and others, to overothers - - - 1678 turn the government - - 1802
The Meal-tub plot.-1679 Of Robert Emmett in Dublin, when
The Rye-house plot to assassinate the lord Kilwarden was killed - July 23, 1803'king on his way to Newmarket. (See Of Moreau, Pichegru, and Georges,
Rye-lhouse plot) - - - - 183 against Bonaparte - Feb. 15, 1804
Of Simon Fraser, lord Lovat, against Of Thistlewood, to assassinate the
Queen Anne. -. -1703 king's ministers. (See Cato-street) - 1820
CONSPIRACIES, int or relating to the United States.
Burr's trial for conspiracy to divide the Joln Henry's secret mission from the
United States - - - -1807 British governmnent, to undermine
the American union, exposed, Feb. 25, 1812
CONSTANCE, COUNCIL OF. The celebrated council of divities (!) which condemned the pious martyrs John Huss and Jerome of Prague, to be burnt
alive, a sentence executed upon the first on July 6, 1415, and on the other,
on May 30, following. Russ had complied with a summons fiom the council of Constance to defend his opinions before the clergy of all nations in
that city, and though the emperor Sigisnmnd had given hiim a safe-conduct,
he was cast into prison. Jerome of' Prague hastened to Constance to defend
hiim, but was himself loaded with chains, and in the end shared the fate of
his friend. This scandalous violation of public faith, and the cruelty and
treachery which attended the punishment of these unhappy disciples of
Wickliffe, our great refor-mer, prove the melancholy truth, that toleration
is not the virtue of priests in any form of ecclesiastical government. —HImcste.
CONSTANTINA. The formler capital of NumLidia. It has become known to
Europeans but very recently, they being strangers to it until the French
occupation of Algiers. Here was fought a great battle between the French
and the Arabs, Oct. 13, 1837, when the former carried the town by assault,
but the French general, Daremonit, was killed. Achmet Bey retired with
12,000 men as the victors entered Constantina.
CONSTANTINOPLE. So called from Constantine the Great, who removed the
seat of the Eastern Emlpire here, A. D. 328. Taken by the western crusaders
who put the emperor Mourzoufle to death, first tearing out his eyes, 1204.
Retaken by Michael Paleologus, thus restoring the old Greekl line, 1261.
Conquered by Mahomet II., who slew Constantine Palcologus, the last
Christian emperor, and 60,000 of his people, 1453. The city, taken by assault, had held out for fifty-eight days. The unfortunate emperor, on seeing
the Turks enter by the breaches, threw himself into the midst of the enemy,
and was cut to pieces; the children of the imperial house were massacred
by the soldiers, and the women reserved to gratify the lust of the conqueror. This put an end to the Eastern Empire, which had subsisted for 1125
years, and was the foundation of the present empire of Turkey in Europe
See Eacste?-' Emspi?'e and Til''resy.
CONSTANTINOPLE, ERA OF. This era has the creation placed 5508 years B. c.
It was used by the Russians until the time of Peter the Great, and is still used
in the Greek church. The civil year begins September 1, and the ecclesiastical year towards the end of March; the day is not exactly determined.
To reduce it to our era, subtract 5508 years from January to August, and
5509 from September to the end.
CONSTELLATIONS. Those of Arctns'ss, Orione, the Pleicades, and MCazzarcoth,
are mentioned by Job, about 1520 B. c. Homer and Hesiod notice constellations; but though some mode of grouping the visible stars had obtained
in very early ages, our first direct knowlecdge was derived frolm Claud,
Ptolemmus, about A. D. 140.
CONSTITUTION oF ENGLAND. See Mcegbac Ccrtcc. It comprehends the
whole body of laws by which the British people are governed, and to which
272 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ cow
it is presumptively held that every ihdividual has assented.-Loerd Somers.
This assemblage of laws is distinguished from the term government, in
this respect-that the constitution is the rule by which the sovereign oug'1h'
to govern at all times: and government is that by which he does govern at
any particular time.-Lord Boli~ngbroke. The king of England is not. seated
on a solitary eminence of power; on the contrary, he sees his eqals in the
co-existing branches of the legislature, and he recognizes his superior in
the rLAW.-Sher'idanb.
CONSTITUTION oF THE U. S. Adopted by the general convention of delegates from all the (then) states, May, 1787. Ratified by the several states
at different times. See the respective states.
The 50th anniversary of Washington's inauguration, was celebrated in New
York as a jlubilee of the constitution. and John Quincy Adams pronounced
an oration before the Hist. Soc'y, April 30, 1840.
CONSTITUTION AND GUERRIERE. The American frigate Constitution,
capt. Hull, after an action of 80 minutes, captured the British frigate Guer
riere, capt. Dacres, Aug. 20, 1812. American loss 7 killed, and 7 wounded,
British loss 100 killed and wounded. The English attribute the victory to
the superior force of the American frigate. As this was the first important
naval victory of the U. S., it caused a strong sensation. For others seo
Naval Battles.
CONSULS. These officers were appointed at Rome, 509 a. c. They possessed
regal authority for the space of a year: Lucius Junins Brutus, and Lucius
Tarquinius Collatinus, the latter the injured husband of Lucretia, were the
first consuls. A consular government was established in France, November
9, 1799, when Bonaparte, Cambace6r, and Lebrun, were made consuls; and
subsequently Bonaparte was made first consul for life, May 6, 1802. Com1mercial agents were first distinguished by the name of consuls in Italy, in
1485.
CONTRIBUTIONS, VOLUNTARY. In the two last wars voluntary contributions
to a vast amlount were several times made by the British people in aid of
the government. The most remarkable of these acts of patriotism was that
in 1798, when, to support the war against France, the contributions anmounted to two millions aind a half sterling. Several men of wealth, amiong othlers,
sir Robert Peel, of Bury, Lancashire, subscribed each 10,0001.; and 200,0001.
were transmitted firom India in 1 799.
CONVENTICLES. These were private assemblies for religious worship, and
were particularly applied to those who differed in form and doctrine firom
the established church. But the term was first applied in England to the
schools of Wickliffe. Conventicles, which were very numerous at the time,
were prohibited 12 Charles II., 1661.
CONVENTIONS. See Alliasces, Treaties, &c. in their respective places throulghout the volume.
CONVENTS. They were first founded, according to some authorities, in A. D.
270. The first in England was erected at Folkstone, by Eadbald, in 630.Caisdeie. The first in Scotland was at Coldingham, when Ethelreda took
the veil, in 670. They were founded earlier than this last date in Ireland.
Convents were suppressed in England in various reigns, particularly in that
of Henry VIII., and comparatively few now exist in Great Britain. More
than 3000 have been suppressed in Europe within the last few years. The.
emperor of Russia abolished 187 convents of monks, by a ukase dated July
31, 1832. The king of Prussia followed his example, and secularized all
the convents in the duchy of Posen. Don Pedro put down 300 convents in
Portugal, in 1834, and Spain has lately abolished 1800 convents.
COP ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 273
CONI1CTS. The first arrival of transported convicts from England, at Botany
Bay, was in 1788. Convicts are now sent to Van Diemen's Land, Norfolk
Island, Sydney, in New South Wales, &c. See New Sont?, Wales and Tswznsportation.
COOK'S VOYAGES. The illustrious captain Cook sailed from England in the
Enadeavor, on his first voyage, July 30, 1768;* and returned home after having circumnavigated the globe, arriving at Spithead, July 13, 1771. Sir
Joseph Banks, afterwards the illustrious president of the Royal Society,
accompanied captain Cook on this voyage. Captain Cook again sailed to
(explore the southern hemisphere, July 1772, and returned in July 1775. In
his third expedition this great navigator was killed by the savages of O-whyhee, at 8 o'clock on the morning of February' 14, 1779. His ships, the Resolzlios? andt Discovery, arrived home at Sheerness, Sept. 22, 1780.
COOPERAGE. This art must be coeval with the dawn of history, and seems
to have been early known in every country. The coopers of London were
incorporated in 1501.
COPENHAGEN. Distinguished as a royal residence, A. D. 1443. In 1728 more
than seventy of its streets and 3785 houses were burnt. Its famous palace,
valued at four millions sterling, was wholly burnt, Feb. 1794, when 100 persons lost their lives. In a fire which lasted forty-eight hours, the arseAal,
admiralty, and fifty streets were destroyed, 1795. Copenhagen was bombarded by the English under lord Nelson and admiral Parker: and in their
engagement with a Danish fleet, of twenty-three ships of' the line, eighteen
were taken or destroyed by the British, April 2, 1801. Again, after a bombardment of three days, the city and the Danish fleet surrendered to admiral Gambier and lord Cathcart, Sept. 7, 1807. The capture consisted of
eighteen sail of the line, fifteen friigates, six brigs, and twenty-five gunboats, and immense naval stores.-See Detmarc'k.
COPERNICAN SYSTEM-f. The system of the world wherein the sun is supposed to be in the centre, and immovable, and the earth and the restrof the
planets to move round it in elliptical orbits. The heavens and stars are
here imnaginedc to be at rest, and the diurnal motion, which they seem to
have from east to west, is imputed to the earth's motion fiom west to east.
This system was published at Thorn, A. D). 1530; and may in many points be
regarded as that of Pythagoras revived. —Gcssedlits.
COPPER. It is one of the six primitive metals; its discovery is said to have
preceded that of iron. We read in the Scriptures of two vessels of fine
copper, precious as gold.-Ezcra viii. 27. The great divisibility of this
metal almost exceeds belief; a grain of it dissolved in alkali, as pearl ashes,
soda, &c., rwill give a sensible color to more than 500,000 times its weight in
water; and when copper is in a state of fusion, if the least drop of water
touch the melted ore, it will fly about like shot from a gun.-Boyle. The
mine of Fahlun, in Sweden, is the most surprising artificial excavation in the
world. In England, copper-mines were discovered in 1561, and copper now
forms an immense branch in the British trade: there are upwards of fifty
A A memorial was presented to the king by the Royal Society in 1765, setting forth the advan.
lages which would be derived to science if an accurate observation of the then approaching transit
of Venus over the sun were taken in the South Sea. The ship Etndeavor was, in consequence,
prpared for that purpose. and the command of her given to Lieutenant James Cook. I-Ie sailed
in.uly 1768, touched at Madeira and Rio de Janeiro, doubled Cape IHorn, and after a prosperous
voyage reached Otaheite, the place of destination, in April 1769. By a comparison of the observations made on this transit (June 3,1769) from the various parts of the globe, on which it was viewed
fy tmen of science, the system of the universe has in some particulars, been better understood; the
distance of the sun firon the earth, as calculated by this and the transit in 1761, is now settled at
loS,000,000 miles, instead of the commonly received computation, of 95,0000,000.-Butler.
12*
274 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ coP
mines in Cornwall, where mining has been increasing since the reign of William IlI.
COPPER-MONEY. The Romans, prior to the reign of Servius Tullius, used
rude pieces of copper for money.-See Coin. In England, copper-money is
of extensive coinage. That proposed by sir Robert Cotton was brought into
use in 1609. Copper was extensively coined in 1665. It was again coined
by the crown, 23 Charles II., 1.672. Private traders had made them previ.
ously to this act. In Ireland copper was coined as early as 1339; in Scotland in 1406; in France in 1580. Wood's coinage in Ireland (whIich see) conmmenced in 1723. Penny and two-penny pieces were extensively used, 1797.
COPPER-PLATE PRINTING. This species of printing was first attempted ih-i
Germany, about A. nD. 1450. Rolling-presses for working the plates were invented about 1545. Messrs. Perkins of Philadelphia, invented, in 1819, a
mode of engraving on soft steel which, when hardened, will multiply copper-plates and fine impressions indefinitely.-See Engvavi.
COPPERAS. First produced in England by C ornelius de Vos, a merchant, in 1587.
COPYRIGHT ON BOOKS, &c. IN ENGLAND. The decree of the Star-chamber
regarding it, A. D. 1556. Every book and publication ordered to be licensed,
1585. An ordinance forbidding the printing of any work without the
consent of the owner, 1649. Copyright further secured by a statute enacted in 1709. Protection of copyright in prints and engraving, 17 George
III., 1777. Copyright protection act, 54 George III., 1814. Dramatic authors' protection act, 3 William IV., 1833. The act for preventing the publication of lectures without consent, 6 William IV., 1835. The act of the
17th George III., extended to Ireland, 7 William IV., 1836. International
copyright bill, 1 Victoria, 1838. Copyright of designs for articles of manufacture protected, 2 Victoria, 1839. For important act of 1842, see Litclcaey
P'ropelrty.-Ilieydn.
COPYRIGHT IN UNITED STATES. The first act for the protection of literary
property in the United States passed chiefly through the influence of Noah
Webster, the lexicographer, May 31, 1790. Another act in relation to it,
April 29, 1802-granting copyright for 14 years, subject to renewal for 14
years if the author is living. Memorial of 56 British authors asking for
International Copyright, presented in the Senate by Mr. Clay, Feb. 1, 1837.
Act to establish the Smithsonian Institute, requiring that copies of books
to secure the copyright must be deposited in there as well as in the library
of Congress and office of Sec. State, Aug. 10, 1846.
COPYRIGHT, PRODUCE OF. The following sums are stated to have been paid
to the authors for the copyright of the works mentioned.
HISTORY. POETRY.
Byron's WVorks (in all). -.20,000
Fragments of English IHistory, by MIooe's Lalla Rookhll 20,000.istor. oFEgnox -Si 5,00' Rejected Addresses 1,000
History of England by Sir J. Mackiinblitobsh'nln by S J ali Campbell's Pleasures of I-lope (after.tosh~5,000 l~~ten years' publication) -. 1 000
Ditto, by Lingard- - 4,633 Campbell's Gertrude, after ditto 1 500
Life of Napoleon, by Sir W. Scott 18,000 FICTION.
History of Enand0 by Macaulay, vol. It was estimated that Scott's novels
I ande reainder, ~600 per annum produced for copyright at least - 250,000
for ten years, say -3.000
-000 Bulwer received for his novels, each
Prescott's Historical Workcs are said toor his novels, each
have produced to the author (who yet Marrya1t, do. do. 1,000 to 1,200
owns the copyright) before 1850 - $100,000 Goldsmith's "Vicar" was sold by Dr.200
BIOGRAPHY. Johnson for - - -'63
~Life of T;rib11erforce - - - ~1,000 Goldsmith received for " Animated
Life of Byroll, by Moore - - Nature" o800
Life of By-on, by Moore.4,000 Noah Webster is said to have derived
Locklhart's Scott (two years' use) - 12,500 $1000 per annum from his Spellinv
Irving's Columbus (paid by Murray) - 4,000. Book.
co a] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 275
CORDAGE. The naval cordage in early ages was, probably, merely thongs of
leather; and these primitive ropes were retained by the Caledonians in the
third century, and by some northern nations in the ninth. Cordage of'weed
and of horse-hair was also used anciently before that made of hemp. See
Hemp.
CORFU. So celebrated in mythology and poetry, and capital of the island of
the same name, was placed under British administration, by the treaty of
Paris in Nov. 1815. It is the chief of the Ionian Isles, wticlt see.
CORINTH. This city was built in 1520 and the kingdom founded by Sisyphus
in 1376 B. c. In 146 B. c. the capital was destroyed by the Romans, but was
rebuilt by Julius Csesar; and was among the first cities of Greece that embraced the Christian religion. It was defended by a fortress called Acrocorinth, on a summit of a high mountain, surrounded with strong walls.
The situation of this citadel was so advantageous, that Cicero named it the
E?ye of Greece, and declared, that of all the cities known to the Romans,
Corinth alone was worthy of being the seat of a great empire.
Corinth built on the ruins of Ephyra, A colony goes to Sicily, and,they build
(Abbh Lenglet). - B. C. 1520 Syracuse - - - B. c. 732
Rebuilt by the king of Sicyon, and first Sea fight between the Corinthians and
called by its name - - - 1410 Corcyreans.. -664
Sisyphus, a public robber, seizes upon Periander rules and encourages genius
the city (ideso) - - -1375 and learning.. 629
The Pythian games instituted, it is said Death of Periander.- -585
by Sisyphus - - 1375 The Corinthians form a republic - 582
The reign of Bacchus, whose successors War with the Corcyreans - 439
are called Bacchidaw, in remembrance The Corinthian war (ewhich see) - - 395
of the equity of his reign - - 935 Acrocorinth (citadel) taken by Aratus ~ 242
The Corinthians invent ships called I The Ronian ambassadors first appear
lrir'enses; vessels consisting of three at Corinth..-228
benches of oars - - 786 Corinth destroyed by Lucius Munmmius
Thelestes deposed, and the government who sends to Italy the first fine paintof the Prytanes instituted: Auto- ings there seen, they being part of the
menes is the first on whom this dig- spoil (Livy) -. 146
nity is conferred - 757
CORINTHIAN ORDER. The finest of all the orders of ancient architecture,
aptly called by Scamozzi, the virginal order, as being expressive of the delicacy, tenderness, and beauty of the whole composition. The invention of it
is attributed to Callimachus, 540 3. c.
CORINTHIAN WAR. The war which received this name, because the battles
were mostly fought in the neighborhood of Corinth, was begun B. c. 395, by a
confederacy of the Athenians, Thebans, Corinthians, and Argives, against
the Lacedmcmlonians. The most famous battles were at Coronea and Leuctra, qwv.ici see.
CORN oR GRAIN. The origin of its cultivation is attributed to Ceres, who
having taught the art to the Egyptians, was ddified by them, 2409 B. c.Arw-ntdeliain Marbles. The art of husbandry, and the method of making
bread from wheat, and wine from rice, is attributed by the Chinese to Ching
Noung, the successor of Fohi, and second monarch of China, 1998 B. C.Ustiv. Hist. But corn provided a common article of' food from the earliest
ages of the world, and baking bread was known in the patriarchal ages.See Exodus xii. 15. Wheat was introduced into Britain in the sixth century.
by Coil ap Coll Frewi.-Robelts' Hist. Anec. Br/itoins. The first importation
of corn of which we have note, was in 1347. Bounties were granted on its
importation into England, in 1686.
CORN LAWS IN ENGLAND. Various enactments relative to the duty on " corn"
or grain passed 1814. Riots, caused by the passing of the act permitting its
importation when cornt should be 80s. "per quarter," 1815. The " slidingscale" of duties passed July 15, 1828. Another, April 29, 1842; act fixing
276 THE WORLD'S PROGRDES. L Cork
the duty on wheat at 4s. until Feb. 1849, and after that at Is. per quarter,
passed June 26, 1846. This was the virtual abolition of the Corn Lawsand the Anti-Corn Law League-which had been formed in 1841 was there
fore formally dissolved, July 2, 1846.
CORONATION. The first coronation by a bishop, was that of Majocianus, at
Constantinople, in A. D. 457. The ceremony of anointing at coronations was
introduced into England in 872, and into Scotland in 1097. The coronation
of Henry III. took place, in the first instance. without a crown, at Gloucester,
October 28, 1216. A plain circle was used on this occasion in lieu of the
crown, which had been lost with the other jewels and baggage of king John,
in passing the marshes of Lynn, or the Wash, near Wisbeach.-Malclt/iZew
Parcis. Rysmer.
CORONATION FEASTS, AND OATH. The oath was first administered to the
kings of England by Dunstan (the archbishop of Canterbury, afterwards
canonized), to Ethelred II. in 979. An oath, nearly corresponding with that
now in use, was administered in 1377; it was altered in 1689. The fetes
given at coronations commenced with Edward I. in 1273. That at the coronation of George IV. rivalled the extravagances and sumptuousness of
former times.
CORONERS. They were officers of the realm in A. D. 925. Coroners for everycoun.ty in England were first appointed by statute of Westminster, 4 Edward
I. 1276.-Stoive. Coroners were instituted in Scotland in the reign of Malcolm II., about 100-. By an act passed in the 6th and 7th of queen Victoria,
coroners are enabled to appoint deputies to act for them, but only in case of
illness. Aug. 22, 1843.
CORONETS. The caps or inferior crowns. of various forms, that distinguish
the rank of the nobility. The coronets for earls were first allowed by Henry
III.; for viscounts by Henry VIII.; and for barons by Charles II.-Baker.
But authorities conflict. Sir Robert Cecil, earl of Salisbury, was the first,f
the degree of earl who wore a coronet, 1604.-Becatsoe. It is uncertain when
the coronets of dukes and marquesses were settled.-I-dem.
CORPORATIONS. They are stated by Livy to have been of very high antiquity among the Romans. They were introduced into other countries fromt
Italy. These political bodies were first planned by Numa, in order to break
the force of the two rival factions of Sabines and Romans, by instituting separate societies of every manual trade and profession.-Pltelrc/,.
CORPORATIONS, MUNICIPAL, IN ENGLAND. Bodies politic, auithorized
by the king's charter to have a common seal, one head officer, or more, and
members, who are able, by their common consent, to grant or receive, in
law, any matter within the compass of their charter.-Cowel. Corporations
were formed by charters of rights granted by the kings of England to various towns, first by Edward the Confessor. Itenry I. granted charters, A. D.
1100; and succeeding monarchs gave corporate powers, and extended them
to numerous large commnunities throughout the realm, subject to tests, oaths,
and conditions.-Blacckstoze.
CORSICA. Called by the Greeks Cyrnos. The ancient inhabitants of tbhi
island were savage, and bore the chalacter of robbers, liars, and atheists,
according to Seneca, when he existed amono them. It was held by the Carthaginians; and was conquered by the Romans, 231 B. c. In modern times,
Corsica was dependent upon the republic of Genoa, until 1730; and was sold
to France in 1733. It was erected into a kingdom under Theodore, its first
and only king, in 1736. He came to England, where he was imprisoned in
the King's Bench prison for debt, and for many years subsisted on the benevolence of private friends. Having been released by an act of insolvency
;::os 3 DICTIONARY OF DATE.'. 27
in 1756, he gave in his schcdule the lkingdom of Corsica as an estate to his
creditors, andl died the same year, at his lodgings in Chapel-street, Soho.
The earl of Oxford wrote the following epitaph, on a tablet erected near hi,3
grave, in St. Anne's church, Dean-street:" The grave, great teacher! to a level brings
HIeroes and beggars, galley-slaves and kingrs.
But Theodore this moral learn'd ere dead;
Fate pour'd its lesson on his living head,
Bestow'd a kingdom and denied him bread."
The celebrated Pascal Paoli was chosen for their general by the CorSiCeans,
in 1753. He was defeated by the count de Vaux, and fled to England, 1769.
The people acknowledged George III. of England for their king, June 17,
1794, when sir Gilbert Elliott was made viceroy, and tie opened a parliamlent
in 1795. A revolt was suppressed in June 1796; and the island was -elinquished by the British, Oct. 22, same year, when the people declared for the
French.
CORTES oF SPAIN. A deliberative assembly under the old constitution ol
Spain; several times set aside. The cortes were newly assembled after a
long interval of' years, Sept. 24, 1810; and they settled the new constitution,
March 16, 1812. This constitution was set aside by Ferdinand VII., who
banished many mnenm bers of the assembly in May, 1814. The cortes or statesgeneral were opened by Ferdinand VII. 1820, and they have since been regularly convened.
CORUNNA., BATTLE OF, between the British army under sir John Moore (who
was killed) and the French, Jan. 16, 1809.
COSMETICS. Preparations for improving beauty were known to the ancients,
and some authorities refer them even to mythology, and others to the Grecian stage. The Roman ladies painted; and those of Italy excelled in heightening their charmus artificially, by juices and colors, and by perfumes.
Rouge has always been in disrepute among the virtlnons and well-ordered
women of England, though some simple cosmetics are regarded as innocent,
and are in general use.-Ashe. The females of France and Germany paint
more highly than most other nations. —Ric/lcrdson. A stamp was laid on
cosmetics, perfumery, and such medicines as really or suppositiously beautify the skin, or perfume the person, and the venders were obligect to take
out licenses, 26th Geo. III. 1786.
COSMOGRAPHY. The science which teaches the structure, form, disposition,
and relation of the parts of the world, or the manner of representing it on a
plane.-Sclden. It consists of two parts, astrononly and geography: the
earliest accounts of the former occur 2234 t. c.-Blair. The first record
of the latter is from Homer, wvho describes the shield of Achilles as representing the earth. —liacd. See the articles on Astronomosy and Geoegrap/ty
respectively.
COSSACKS. The warlike people inhabiting the confines of Poland, Russia,
Tartary, ziand Turkey. They at first lived by plundering the Turkish galleys
and the people of Natolia: they were formed into a regular army by Stephen Batori, in 1576, to defend the frontiers of Russia firom the incursions
of the Tartars. In the late great war of Europe against France, a vast body
of Cossacks formed a portion of the Russian armies, and fought almost invincibly.
COSTUME. See Dress. - Accounts of magnificent attire refer to very remote
antiquity. The costume of the Grecian and Roman ladies was comely and
graceful. The women of Cos, whose country was famous for the silkworm,
wore a manLufacture of cotton and silk of so beautiful and delicate a texture,
and their garments, which were always white, were so clear and thin, thai
T TE-i:'WO'.L,.T' S P-OG-REss. [ CO'
their bodies could be seen through them. — Ovid. As relates to costume
worn on the stage, l schlylus the Athenian was, it is said, the first who
erected a regular stage for his actors, and ordered their dresses to be suite(t
to their characters, about 436 B. c. —P'ricza Mmarbles.
COTTON. The method of spinning cotton formerly Nwas by the hand; but
about 1767, Mr. Hargreaves, of' Lancashire, invented the spinning-jenny
with eight spindles; he also erected the first carding-machine with cylinclers. Sir Richard Arkwright obtained a patent for a new invention of
_machinery in 1769; and another patent for an engine in 1775. Crompton
invented the mule, a further and wonderful improvement in the manufacture of cotton, in 1779, and various other improvements have been sinle
inade. The names of Peel and Arlkwright are eminently conspicuous in connection with this vast source of British industry; and it is calculated that
more than one thousand millions sterling have bern yielded by it to Great
Britain. Cotton mllanufactuLrers' utenisils were prohibited from being exported in 1774.-H —cynFd.
HISTOIY Oa COTTON, FOR OVEIR ONE HUNDlnED YEARS.
T'he followitng brief itemns of the history of cottons, frio7 1730 to 1836, are taken from a Souttl
Careolina paper?:1730. Mr. WVyatt spins the first cotton yarn 1803. First cotton factory built in Newi
in England by machinery. Hampshire.
1735. The Dutch first export cotton from 1805. Power-looms successfully and widely
Surinam. introduced into England.
1742. First mill for spinning cotton erected 1807. The revolution in Spanish America
ft Birmninghalm, moved by mules or horses; begins to flrnish new marikets for cotton
but not successful in its operations. manufactures.
1749. The fly sliuttle generally used in 1810. Digest of cotton manufactures in the
England. United States by Mr. Gallatin, and another
1756. Cotton velvets and qculltings made by Mr. Tench Coxe, of Philadelphia.
in Englanld or the first tilme. 1811. Machinery to make bobbin lace pa1761. Arlkwright obtained the first patent tented by John Burn.
lr tlhe spinning frame, which lie further 1813. The India trade more free, and mlomt
improved. British manufactures sent thither.
1768. The stocking frame applied by 1814. The power-lool introduced into the
I-Hammond to makilng of lace. United States; first at Waltham.
1773. A bill passed to prevent the export 1818. Average price of cotton 34 centsof machinery used in cotton factories. higher than since 1810. New method of
1779. Mule spinning invented by Ilargrave. preparing sewing cotton by Mr. Holt.
1782. First import of raw cotton from 1819. Extraordinary prices for Alabama
Brazil into England. cotton lands.
1782. Watt took out his patent for the 1820. Steam power first applied with sucsteam-engine. cess extensively to lace manufactures.
1783. A bounty granted In England on the 1822 First cotton factory in Lowell erectec7
export of certain cotton goods. 1823. First export of raw cotton friom Egypt
1785. Power-looms invented by Dr. (Cart- into Great Britain.
wright-steam engines used in cotton fac- 1825. In New Orleans cotton at from 23 to
tories. 25 cents per pound.
1785. Cotton imported into England from 1826. Self-acting mule spinner patented
the United States. in England by Roberts.
1786. Bleaching first performed by the 1827. American cotton manufactures first
agency of the oxymuriatic acid. exported to any considerable extent.
1787. First machinery to spin cotton put 1829. Highest duty in the United States on
in operation in France. foreign cotton manufactures.
1789. Sea Island cotton first planted in the 1830. About this time Mr. Dyer introduced
United States; anl upland cotton first cul- a machine from the United States into E1H
tirated for use and export about this time. land lor ilthe purpose of nialking cards.
1790 Slator, an Englishman, builds the 1832. Duty on cotton goods imported rinto
first American cotton factory, at Pawtucket, the United States reduced; and in England
Rhode Island. it is forbid to emlploy minors in cotton mills,
1792. Eli NWlhitney, an American, invents to work them more than ten hours per day,
the cotton gin, which he patents. or more than nine hours on a Saturday; in
1798. First mill and machinery for cotton consequence they work at something else.
erected in Switzerland. 1834. Cotton at 17 cents.
17799. Spinning by machlinery iitroduced 1835. Extensive purchases made of cottoD
into Saxony this year. lands by speculators and others.
1836. Cotton at from 18 to 20 cents.
OU ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 279
ZOTTONIAN LIBRARY. Formed by great labor and with great judgment
by sir Robert Cotton, A. D. 1600 et seq. This vast treasury of knowledge,
after having been with difficulty rescued from the fury of the republicans
during the protectorate, was secured to the public by a statute, 13 William
III. 1701. It was removed to Essex-house in 1712; and in 1730 to Dean'syard, Westminster, where, on Oct. 23, 1731, a part of the books sustained
damage by fire. The library was removed to the British Museum in 1753.
COUNCILS. An English council is of very early origin. The wise Alfied, to
whom we are indebted for many excellent institutions, so arranged the business of the nation, that all resolutions passed through three councils. The first
was a select council, to which those only high in the king's confidence were
admitted; here were debated all affairs that were to be laid before the
second councii, which consisted of bishops and nobles, and resembled the
present privy council, and none belonged to it but those whom the king was
pleased to appoint. The third was a general council or assembly of the nation, called in Saxon, Wittenagemot. to which quality and offices gave a right
to sit independent of the king. In these three councils we behold the origin
of the cabinet and privy councils, and the antiquity of parliaments; but the
term cabinet council is of a mluch more modern date, according to lord Clarendcn.-See Cabinet Council, Coslnon Countcil, Privy Ceoncil, &d.
COUNCILS o' THE CHURCH, The following are among the most memorable
Christian councils, or councils of the Church of Rome. Most other councils
(the list of which would make a volume) either respected national cllurches
or ecclesiastical government. Si-' Harris Nicolas enumerates 1604 councils.
Of the Apostles at Jerusalem - A. D 50 The second Lateran, tenth General, InOf the western bishops at Aries, in nlocent II. presided; the preseivation
France, to suppress the Donatists; of the temporal ties of ecclesiastics,
three fathers of the English ciurci the principal subject, which occawent over to attend it - - 314 sioned the attendance of 1000 leThe first (Ecumenical or General Ni- there of the church -. - A.. 1139
cenlle, held at Nice, Constantine the The third Lateran, eleventh General;
Great presided; Arius and Eusebius held against schismatics - 1179
condemned for heresy. This council Fourth Lateran, twelfth General; 400
composed the Nicene Creed - - 325 bishops and 1000 abbots attended;
At Tyre, when the doctrine of Athana- Innocent 11I. presided - - - 1215
sius was canvassed - - 335 Of Lyons, the thirteenth General, under
The first held at Constantinople, when pope Inniocent IV. - - - 1215
the Arian heresy gained ground - 337 O Lyons, the iourteenth General, under
At Rome, concerning Athlanasius, which Gregory X. - - - - 1274
lasted eighteen months - 342 Of Vienne in Dauphind, thle fifteenth
At Sardcis; 370 bishops attended - 347 General; Clesnent V. presided, and
Of Rimini; 400 bishops attended, and the kIings of France and Arragon atConstantine obliged them to sign a tended. The order of the IKnight
nevw confession of faith - - 359 Tetmplars suppressed - -- 1311
The second General at Constantinople; Of Pisa, the sixteenth General; Gre350 bishops attended, and pope Da- gory XII. and Benedict XIII. deposed,
masius presided - - - 3S1 anl Alexander elected - - 1409
The third at Ephesus, when pope Ce- Of Constance, the seventeenth General;
lestine presided - - 431 Martin V. is elected pope; and John
Fourth at Chalcedon; the emperor Mar- Huss and Jerome of Prague concian and his empress attended - 451 demned to be burnt - 1414
The fifth at Constantinople, when pope Of Basil, the eighteenth Genleral - 11
Vigilius presided - - - 553 The fifth Lateran, the nineteenth GeneThe sixth at Constantinople, when pope ral, begun by.Julius 11. - - 1512
Agatho presided - - - 680 Continued under Leo X. for the supAuthority of the six general councils re- pressiosn of the Praglrmatic sanction of
established by Theodosius 715 France, against the council of Pisa,
Thei second Nicene council, seventh Ge- &c. till - - 1517
neral; 350 bishops attended - - 787 Of Trent, the twentieth and last GeneOf Constan-tinople, eighth General; the ral council, styled (rcumenical, as reemperor 13asil attended - - 869 garding the affails of all the ChrisThe first Lateran, the ninth General; tian world; it was held to condemn
the right of investitures settled by thl doc trines of the reformers, Luther,
treaty between pope Calixtus II. and Zuinglius, and Calvin.-Albb Lesnglet 1545
the emperor Henry V.. 1122 1
280 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ CO'V
COUNCILS, FRENCHI-I REPUBLICAN. The council of ANCIENTS was an assembly
of revolutionary France, consisting of 250 members, instituted at Paris, Nov.
1, 1795, together with the council of FIVE HUNDRED; the executive was a
Directory of FIVE. Bonaparte dispersed the council of Five Hundred at St.
Cloud, Nov 9, 1799, declaring himself, Roger Ducos, and Sieyes, consuls provisoires.-See PTrance.
COUNSEL. See Barristers. Counsel who were guilty of deceit or collusioA
were punishable by the statute of Westminster, 13 Edward I., 1284. Counsel were allowed to persons charged with treason, by act 8 William III. 1696.
Act to enable persons indicted of felony to make their defence by counsel,
6 & 7 William IV., Aug. 1836.
COUNTIES. The division of England into counties began, it is said, with king
Alfred; but some counties bore their present names a century before. The
division of Ireland into counties took place in 1562. County courts were
instituted in the reign of Alfred, S96. Counties first sent members to parliament, before which period knights met in their own counties, 1259.-See
Comnuons, and Parliamzent.
COURIERS OR POSTS. Xenophon attributes the first couriers to Cyrus; and
Herodotus says that they were common among the Persians. But it does
not appear that the Greeks or Romans hlad regular couriers till the time of
Augustus, when they travelled in cars, about 24 a. c. Couriers or posts are
said to have been instituted in France by Charlemagne, about A. D. 800.
The couriers or posts for letters were established in the early part of the
reign of Louis XI. of France, owing to this monarch's extraordinary eagerness for news. They were the first institution of the kind in Europe, A. D.
1463.-Henaulit.
COURTS. Courts of justice were instituted at Athens, 1507 B. c.-See Areopagitrc. There were courts for the distribution of justice in Athens, in 127?
B. c. —Blair. They existed under various denominations in Rome, and other
countries.
COURT or HONOR. In England, the court of chivalry, of which the lord high
constable was a judge, was called Curia Militaris in the time of Henry IV.,
and subsequently the Court of Honor. In the States of Bavaria, in order to
prevent duelling, a court of honor was instituted in April, 1819. In these
countries, Mr. Joseph Hamilton has ardently labored to establish similar institutions.
COVENANTERS. The name which was particularly applied to those persols
who in the reign of Charles I. took the solemn league and covenant, thereby
mutually engaging to stand by each other in opposition to the projects of
the king; it was entered into in 1638. The covenant or league between
England and Scotland, was formed in 1643; it was declared to be illegal by
parliament, 14 Charles II., 1662.
COVENTRY, PEEPING TOM or. The great show fair of Coventry owes its
origin to the following tradition:-Leofric, earl of Mercia, had imposed such
heavy taxes on the citizens, his lady, Godiva, moved by their entreaties
importuned her lord to remit them, and he consented on the condition of her
riding naked through the city at mid-day. Her humanity induced her to
consent, and she so disposed her flowing tresses as to hide her person; and
ordering all the inhabitants, on pain of death, to close their doors and windows, she rode quite naked through the town. One person, yielding'o
curiosity, stole a glance at the countess, and was struck dead; and has beern
famed ever since under the name of Pecpinig Tom, and his effigy is showr
to this day. To commemorate this event, A. D. 1057, at the great show fai;
the mayor and corporation walk in procession through the town, accor
CRE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 281
panied by a female on horseback, clad in a linen dress closely fitted to her
limbs.
COW-POCK INOCULATION. This species of inoculation, as a security
against the small-pox, was introduced by Dr. Jenner, and it became general
in 1799. The genuine cow-pox appears in the form of vesicles on the
teats of the cow, and was first noticed by Dr. Jenner, in 1796. He was rewarded by parliament with the munificent grant of ~10,000, June 2, 1802. —
See Ixnoclatiox, Small-Pox, Vacciuation.
CRACOW. The Poles elect Cracus for their duke, and he builds Cracow with
the spoils taken from the Franks, A. D. 700, et seq. Taken by Charles XII.
in 1702; taken and retaken by the Russians and confederates on the one
side and the patriotic people on the other several times. Kosciusko expelled the Russian garrison from the city, March 24, 1794. It surrendered to
the Prussians, June 15, same year. Formed into a republic in 1815. Occupied by 10,000 Russians who followed there the defeated Poles, Sept. 1831.
Its independence extinguished; seized by the emperor of Austria, and incorporated with the Austrian empire, November, 1846.-See Polaicd.
CRANES. They are of very early date, for the engines of Archinmedes may
be so called. The theory of the inclined plain, the pulley, &c. are also his,
220 a. c.-Livy.
CRANIOLOGY. The science of animal propensities. Dr. Gall, a German,
started this new doctrine respecting the brain, in 1803. Dr. Spurzheim followed, and by his expositions gave a consistency to the science, and it seems
to be rapidly gaining ground; it has now many professors, and in almdst all
countries craniology is countenanced by learned and enlightened men. The
science assigns the particular locations of certain organs, or as many different seats of the most prominent operations of the mind.
CRANMER, LATIMER, AND RIDLEY. Illustrious names in the list of English martyrs of the reformed religion. Ridley, bishop of London, and Latimer, bishop of Worcester, were burnt at Oxford, Oct. 16, 15558, and Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbury, March 21, 1556. His love of life had induced Cranmer, sonme time previously, in an unguarded moment, to sign a
paper wherein he condemned the Reformation; and when he was led to the
stake, and the fire was kindled round him, he stretched forth his right hand,
with which he had signed his recantation, that it might be consumed before
the rest of his body, exclaiming from time to time, " This unworthy hand!"
Raising his eyes to heaven, he expired with the dying prayer of the first
martyr of the Christian church, " Lord Jesus, receive my spirit!"
CRAPE. A liglht kind of stuff like gauze, made of raw silk gummed and
twisted on the mill. Its manufacture is of very early date, and it is said
some crape was made by St. Badour, when queen of France, about A. D. 680.
It was first made at Bologna, and in modern times has been principally used
for mourning.
CRAYONS. They were known in France before A. D. 1422-improved by
L'Oriot, 1748.',IDEATION oF THE: WORLD. It was placed by Usher, Blair, and Dufresnoy,
4004 a. c. Josephus makes it 4658 years.- Wltistoe. The first date agrees
with the common Hebrew text, and the vulgate Latin translation of the Old
Testament. There are about 140 different dates assigned to the creation:
some place it 3616 years before the birth of our Saviour. Plato, in his dialogue entitled C'ilias, asserts his celebrated Atalant-is to have been buried
in the ocean about 9000 years before the age in which he wrote. The Chinese represent the world as having existed some hundreds of thousands of
years; and we are'told that the astronomical records of the ancient Chal
282 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ Ci
deans carried back the origin of society to a period of no less than 473,000
years.
CREATION, ERA OF TIE. In use by many nations. This era would be founct
convenient, by doing away with the difficulty and ambiguity of counting
before and after any particular date, as is necessary when the era begins at
a later period; but; unfortunately, writers are not agreed as to the right
time of commencing. This epoch is fixed by the Samaritan Pentateuch at
4700 B. c. The Septuagint makes it 5872. The authors of the Tahlnudc
make it 5344; and different chronologers, to the number of 120, make it
vary from the Septuagint date to 3268. Dr. I-ales fixed it at 5411; but the
Catholic church adopted the even number of 4000, and subsequently, a correction as to the birth of Christ adds four years: therefore, it is now generally considered as 4004 years, which agrees with the modern Hebrew text.
CREED. The Apostles' Creed is supposed to have been written a great while
after their time.-Pardon. It was introduced formally into public worship
in the Greek church at Antioch, and subsequently into the Roman church.
This creed was translated into the Saxon tongue, about A. D. 746. The
Nicene Creed takes its name from the council by wholm it was composed, in
A, D. 325. The Athanasian Creed is supposed to have been written about
340.-See Apostles', Nicesne, and other creeds.
CRESSY, oR CRECY, BATTLE OF. Edward III. and his son, the renowned Edward the Black Prince, obtained a great and memorable victory over Philip,
king of France, Aug. 26, 1346. This was one of the most glorious triumphs
ever achieved by English arms. John, duke of Bohemia; James, king of
Majorca; Ralph, duke of Lorraine (sovereign princes); a number of French
nobles, together with 30,000 private men, were slain, while the loss of the
English was very small. The crest of the king of Bohemia was three ostrich
feathers, with the motto; Ich/ Dien," in English, " I serve;" and in memory
of this victory it has since been adopted by the heirs to the crown of Eng
land.-iroissaet, Carte, Hlee me.
CRESTS. The ancient warriors wore crests to strike terror into their enemies
by the sight of the spoils of the animals they had killed. The origin of
crests is ascribed to the Carians. In English heraldry, are several representations of Richard I., 1189, with a crest on the helmet resembling a plume
of feathers; and after his reign most of the English kings have crowns
above their helmets; that of Richard II., 1377, was surmounted by a lion
on a cap of dignity. In later reigns, the crest was regularly'borne as well
on the helmet of the kings, as on the head-trappings of their horses.
CRETE. Now Candia, whlicA see. This island was once famous for its hundred
cities, and for the laws which the wisdom of Mlinos established about 1015
B. c. - Some authors reckon the Labyrinth of Crete as one of the seven wonders of the world. Crete became subject to the Roman empire, 68 B. c. It
was conquered by the Saracens, A. D. 808; taken by the Greeks, 961; passed
into the hands of the Venetians, 1194: and was taken from them by the
Turks, in 1669. —Priestley.
CRIME. "At the present moment," observes a popular English writer, "'
one-fifteenth part of the whole population'of the United Kingdom is subsisting by the, lowest and most degrading prostitution; another fifteenth
have no means of support but by robbery, swindling, pickpocketing, and
every species of crime; and five-fifteenths of the people are what are denomi-.
hated pool, living from hand to mouth, and daily sinking into beggary. lidc,
as an almost necessary consequence, into crime." A comparative viewr of
foreign countries with Great Britain demonstrates the effects of poverty and
ignorance on the great mass of the population. In North America pauperismn is almost unknown, and one fourth of the people are educated; p<:i~
cRO 3 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 283
meditated murder is alone capital; imprisonment for debt has, in several
states, been abolished, and crimes, particularly of enormity, are exceedingly
rare. The Dutch, who possess a competency, and are generally educated,
are comnparatively free from grave offences; and France affords a remarkable illustration in the same way. But in the United Kingdom, the difference is painfully exemplified:-,Scotlasnd. England. Ireland.
Instruction to the people - 1 in 11 - 1 in 20 - 1 in 35
Criminals among the people 1 in 5093 - 1 in 920 -1 in 468
There was recently a revision of the English criminal code, and several
acts have been passed calculated to reduce the amount of crime, and mitigate the severity of its punishment. An act for improving the criminal law
of England, passed 8 George IV., 1827. An act for consolidating and
revising the laws relating to crime, conformably with Mr. Peel's digest,
passed 9 George IV., 1828. Hanging criminals in chains was abolished by
statute 4 William IV., 1834. See Execustiones, Hac'gig', Trial, &c.-Hacidse.
CRIMEA. The ancient Tacrica C/eersonesss. Settled by the Genoese, in 1193.
The Genoese were expelled by the Crim Tartars, in 1474. The khans were
tributary to the Turks until 1774. The Russians, with a large army, took
possession of this country, in 1788; and it was ceded to them the following
year; and secured to them in 1791.
CRISPIN. The name sometimes given to shoemakers. Crispin and Crispianus
were two legendary saints, born at Rome, from whence, it is said, they travelled to Soissons, in France, about A. D. 303, to propagate the Christian
religion; and because they would not be chargeable to others for their maintenance, they exercised the trade of shoemakers; but the governor of the
town discovering them to be Christians ordered them to be decollated. Onl
this account, the shoemakers, since that period, have made choice of them
as their tutelar saints.
CRITICS. The fir st society of them was formed 276 B. c.-Blcair. Of this class
were Varro, Cicero, Appolonius, and many distinguished men. In modern
times, the jo? notal de Sca'Cvans was the earliest work of the system of periodical criticism, as it is now known, It was originated by Dennis de Sallo,
ecclesiastical counsellor in the parliament of France, and was first published
at Paris, May 30. 1665, and continued for nearly a century. The first work
of this kind in England, was called the Reviewu of Daniel Defoe (the term
being isnventecl by himself) published in Feb. 1703. The fJTcaies of Litera-!.here was commenced in 1714, and was discontinued in 1722. The MoetIld
Review, which may be said to have been the third work of this nature in
England, was published 1749. The Criticcal Review appeared in 1756; the
Edisiebe-s/ Review, in 1802; and Lonidon, Quacierl.y in 1809. The Ameericcal,
Revievw, established in N. Y. 1799, was the first Review in the U. S. The
Nor-t/l Aser'icCs Review was established by Wm. Tudor in 1818; the Amee-icast Qsearlterl?, by Robert Walsh, at Phila., 1827; the New7 O Yo' Review, by
Prof. C. S. Henry, 1835; the Soethle?'?s Qlaa'terl?/, at Charleston, 1842. See
Periodiccals. The legality of fair criticism was established in the English
courts, in Feb 1794, when an action that excited great attention. brought
by an author against a reviewer for a severe ciitique upon his work, was determined in favor of the defendclant, on the principle that criticism, however
sharp, if just and not malicious, is allowable. See Resviews, &c.
CROCKERY. In use, and made mention of, as produced by the Egyptiaians and
Greeks, so early as 1390 D. c. The Romans excelled in this kinid of ware,
many of their domestic articles being of earthen manufhcture. Crockery,
of a fine kind, in various household utensils, was made at Faenza, in Italy,
about A. D. 1310; and it is still calledfayjemce in French. See Eariteeewscare.
284 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ CUL
CROWN. "The ancientest mention of a royal crown is in the holy story
of the Amalekites bringing Saul's crown to Davicl."-,Selden. The first Reman who wore a crown was Tarquin, 616 B. c. The crown was first a fillet
tied round the head; afterwards it was formed of leaves and flowers, and
also of stuffs adorned with jewels. The royal crown was first -vorn in England by Alfied, in A. D. 872. The first crown or papal cap Awas used by
pope Damasius II., in 1053; John XIX. first encompassed it with a crown,
1276; Boniface VIII. added a second crown in 1295; and Benedict XII, formed the tiara, or triple crown, about 1334. The pope previously wore a crown
with two circles.-Rainaldi.
CRUCIFIXION. A mode of execution common among the Syrians, Engyptian3,
Persians, Greeks, Romans, and Jews, and esteemed the most dreadful on
account of the shame attached to it: it was usually accompanied by other
tortures. Among early accounts may be mentioned, that Ariarathes of Cappadocia, when vanquished by PerdicCas, was discovered among the prisoners; and by the conqueror's orders the unhappy monarch was flayed alive,
and then nailed to a cross, with his principal officers, in the eighty-first year
of his age, 322 B. c. Crucifixion was ordered to be discontinued by Constantine, A. D. 330.-LegClet. See Deat/h, Pixislhtent of.
CRUSADES, on HOLY WARS. (In French, Croisacdes.) Undertaken by the Christian powers to drive the infidels from Jerusalem, and the adjacent countries,
called the Holy Land. They were projected by Peter Gautier, called Peter
the Hermit, an enthusiast, and French officer of Amiens, who had quitted
the military profession and turned pilgrim. Having travelled to the Holy
Land, he deplored, on his return, to pope Urban II. that infidels should be in
possession of the famous city where the author of Christianity first promulgated his sacred doctrines. Urban convened a Council of 310 bishops at
Clermont in France, at which the ambassadors of the chief Christian potentates assisted, and gave Peter the fatal commission to excite all Europe to ageneral war, A. nD. 1094. The first crusade was published; an army of 300,000 men was raised, and Peter had the direction of it, 1095.- Voltaire. The
holy warriors wore a red cross upon the right shoulders, with the name of
Croises, Crossed, or Crusaders; their motto was Volont6 de Diem, "God's
will." The epidemical rage for crusading now agitated Europe, and in the
end, these unchristian and iniquitous wars against the rights of mankind,
cost the lives of 2:000,000 of men. —Voltair'e.
CUBA. Discovered by Columbus on his first voyage, in 1492. It was conquered
by Valasquez, in 1511, and settled by the Spaniards. The Buccaneer Morgan took Havana in 1669. See Buccacneers. The fort here was erected by
admiral Vernon, in 1741. Havana was taken by admiral Pococke and lord
Albermarle in 1762, but was restored at the peace, in 1763. Attempt of
Lopez and his 400 followers, landing at Cardenas, to stir up a revolution.
defeated May, 1850.
CUBIT. This was a measure of the ancients, and is the first measure we read
of; the ark of Noah was made and measured by cubits.-Holdeib. The Febrew sacred cubit was two English feet, and the great cubit eleven Eng"'slh
feet. Originally it was the distance from the elbow, bending inwards to the
extremity of the middle finger.-Calnmet.
('UCUMBERS. They grew formerly in great abundance in Palestine and
Egypt, where, it is said, they constituted the greater part of the food of the
poor and slaves. This plant is noticed by Virgil, and other ancient poets.
It was brought to England from the Netherlands, about 1538.
CUILODEN, BATTLE OF. In which the English, under William duke of Cumberland, defeated the Scottish rebels headed by the young Pretender, the
last of the Stuarts, near Inverness, April 16, 1746. The Scots lost 2500 me-;
CYC] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 285
in killed upon the field, or in the slaughter which occurred in the pursuit,
while the loss of the English did not far exceed 200. The duke's army practised great cruelties upon the vanquished, as well as upon the defenceless
inhabitants of the adjacent districts after the battle.-Smollett. Immediately
after the engagement, Prince Charles sought safety by flight, and continued
wandering among the frightful wilds of Scotland for six months, while 30,0001. were offered for taking him, and the troops of the conqueror were
constantly in search. He at length escaped fromll the Isle of Uist to Morlaix,
and died at Rome, in 1788.
CURACOA. In the Caribbean Sea, seized by Holland, in 1634. In 1800, the
French having settled on part of this island, and becoming at variance with
the Dutch, the latter surrendered the island to A single British frigate. It
was restored to the Dutch by the peace of 1802, and taken from them by a
British squadron, in 1807, and again restored by the peace of 1814.
CTURFEW BELL. From the French covrefet. This w&s a Norman institution, introduced into England in the reign of William I., A. D. 1068. On the
ringing of the curfew at eight o'clock in the evening, all iires and candles
were to be extinguished, under a severe penalty.-Rapin. The curfew was
abolished 1 Hen. I., A. D. 1100.
CU RRANTS. They were brought from Zante, and the tree planted in England
1533. The hawthorn currant-tree (Ribes oxyacanlthoides) came from Canada
in 1705.
CUSTOM. This is a law, not written, but established by long usage and consent. By lawyers and civilians it is defined le: qbon7 scripta, and it stands
opposed to lex scriptc, or the written law. It is the rule of law when it is
derived from A. D. 1189, downwards. Sixty years is binding in civil law,
and forty years in ecclesiastical cases.
(ITTSTOMS. They were collected upon merchandise in England, under Ethelred II., in 979. The king's claim to them by grant of parliament was established 3 Edward I., 1274. The customs were farmed to Mr. Thomas Smith,
for 20,0001. for several years, in the reign of Elizabeth.-Stowe. They were
farmed by Charles II. for 390,0001. in the year 1666. —Davencnt.
In 1530 they amounted to -. ~14,000 In 1748 they amounted to - ~2,000,000
In 1592 ditto - 50,000 In 1808 ditto - 9,973,240
In 1614 ditto - 148,000 In 1823 ditto - - 11,498,762
In 1622 ditto - - 168,000 In 1830 United Kingdom - -17,540,323
In 1642 ditto - - 500,000 In 1835 ditto - - - 18,612,906
In 1720 ditto - - -1,555,600 In 1840 ditto - - 19,915,296
The customs in Ireland were, in the year 1224, viz., on every sack of wool,
3d.; on every last of hides, 6d.; and 2d. on every barrel of wine.-Annals
of Dublin,. Custoi-A-house officers, and officers of excise, were disqualified
firom voting for the election of members of parliament, by statute 22 George
III., 1782. See Reveqne.
CUSTOMS (DUTIES) IN THE UNITED STATES. The amounts collected
were, in
1789-91 - $4,399,473 1820. - $15,005,612 1845 - - 127,528,113
1800 - - 9,080,938 1825- - 20,098,714 1846 - 26,712,668
1805 12,936,487 1830 - - 21,922,391 1847 - - 23,747,864
1810 8,583,309 1835 19,391,311 1848 31,757,070
1815 7,282,942 1840 -. 13,499,9401 See Tarifff.
CYCLE. That of the sun is the twenty-eight years before the days of the
week return to the same days of the month. That of the moon is nineteen
lunar years and seven intercalary months, or nineteen solar years. The
cycle of Jupiter is sixty years, or sexagenary. The Paschal cycle, or the
time of keeping Easter, was first calculated for the period of 532 years, by
Victorius, A. D. 463.-Blair.
286 TIHE WORLD'S PROCRESS. [ DAG
CY CLOItEDIA.-See Enrc?/clopcedia.
CYMBAL. The oldest musical instrumient of which we'have certain record.
It was made of brass, like a kettle drum,. and some think in the same form,
but smaller. Xenophlon makes mention'of the cymbal as a musical instrument, whose invention is attributed to Cybele, by whom, we are told, it was
used in her feasts, called the mysteries of Cybele, about 1580 B. c. The
festivals of Cybele were introduced by Scamancler, with the dances of Co.ybantes, at Mount Ida, 1546 B. c.
CYNICS. The sect of philosophers founded by Antisthenes, 396 I. c.-Diog.
Laert. He lived in the ninety-fourth Olympiad.-Pardon. These philosophers valued themselves for contemning all worldly things, and even iall
sciences, except morality; they were very filee in reprehending vice, and did
all their actions publicly, and practised the greatest obscenities without
blushing.-Ideat. Diogenes was one of this sect. They generally slept on
the ground.-Diog. Lcaert.
CYPRUS. An island, whose inhabitants anciently were much given to love
and pleasure.-PlinLy. It was divided among' several petty kings till the
time of Cyrus, whlvo subdued therm; it ranked among the proconsular pro-,vinces in the reign of Augustus. Conquered by the Saracens, A. D. 648; but
recovered by the Romans, in 957. Cyprus was reduced by Richard I. Of
England, in 1191. Taken by the Turks from the Venetians, in 1570. —
Priestley.
CYRENAIC SECT. Aristippus the Elder, of Cyrene, was the founder of
the Cyrenaici, 392 B. c. They maintained the doctrine that the supreame
good of man in this life is pleasure, and particularly pleasure of a sensual
kind; and said that virtue ought to be commended because it gave pleasure.
and only so far as it conduced thereto. The sect flourished for several ages.
-Laee. Ar. Cicero.
CYRENE. Founded by Battus, 630 B. c. Aristwmus, who was the chief of the
colonists here, gave the city his mother's name. It was also called Pentapolis, on account of its five towns, namely, Cyrene, Ptolemais, Berenice, Apollonia, and Arsinoe. Cyrene was left by Ptolemy Apion to the Romans, 97
n. c. It is now a desert.-P'riestley.
CZAR, From Ccesar, a title of honor assumed by the sovereigns of Russia.
Ivan Basilowitz, after having achieved great triumphs over the Tartars, and
made many conquests, pursued them to the centre of their own country, and
returning in triumph, took the title of Tzar, or Czar (signifying Great King).
-Aspin's C/ihron. The courts of Europe consented to address the Russian
Czar by the title of Emperor in 1722.-Idesn.
D.
DAGUERREOTYPE. The name given to a process invented by M. Daguerre of
Paris, in 1839, by which perfect fac-similes of objects are transferred upon
thin copper plates, plated with silver. The images are produced by the action of light upon the iodine, through the focus of the camera obscura. An
apparatus somelvhat kindred in design, was in contemplation about the same
time by M. Niepce, and about 5 years previously by Henry Fox Talbot of London: the original idea, however, is traceable as far back as the days of Roger
Bacon. By means of the Talbotype, a recent improvement upon the ablve
process, pictures in colors are produced both on paper and plates. So important a discovery in the fine arts, was the Daguerreotype deemed by the
French government, that it awarded to its inventor a life pension of 6000
francs.
bAR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 287
DAMASCUS. This city was in being in the time of Abrah.am. —Gems. xiv. It
is, consequently, one of the most ancient in the world. From the Assyrians,
Damascus passed to the Persians, and from them to the Greeks under Alexander; and afterwards to the Romans, about 70 a. c. It was taken by the
Saracens, A. D. 633; by the Turks in 1006; and was destroyed by Tamerlane
in 1400. It was in a journey to this place that the apostle Paul was miraculously converted to the Christian faith, and here he began to preach the
gospel, about A. D. 50. Damascus is now the capital of a Turkish pachalic.
DAMASK LINENS AND SILKS. They were first manufactured at Damascus,
and hence the name, their large fine figures representing flowers, and being
raised above the groundwork. They were beautifully imitated by the
Dutch and Flemish weavers; and the manufacture was brought to England
by artisans who fled from the persecution of the cruel duke of Alva, between
the years 1571 and 1573.-Anderson.
DAMON AND PYTHIAS. Pythagorean philosophers. When Damon was condemned to death by the tyrant Dionysius of Syracuse, he obtained leave to
go and settle some domestic affairs, on a promise of' returning at the appointed time of execution, and Pythias being surety for the performance of his
engagement. When the fatal hour approached, Damon had not appeared,
and Pythias surrendered himself, and was led away to execution; but at
this critical moment Damon returned to redeem his pledge. Dionysius was
so struck with the fidelity of these friends, that he remitted the sentence,
and entreated them to permit him to share their friendship, 387 B. c.
DANCING. The dance to the measure of time was invented by the Curetes,
1534 a. c.-EutsebiqLs. The Greeks were the first who united the dance to
their tragedies and coniedies. Pantomimic dances were first introduced on
the Roman stage, 22 a. c.- Us/hee. Dancing by cinque paces was introduced
into England fronm Italy A. n. 1541. In modern times, the French were the
first who introduced ballets cncelog'-es in their musical dramas. The country
dance (coltre-dacse) is of French origin, but its date is not precisely lknown.
-Spelmean.
DANES, INVASIONS OF THE. The invasions of this people were a scourge to
England for upwards of two hundred years. During their attacks upon
Britain and Ireland, they made a descent on France, where, in 895, under
Rollo, they received presents under the walls of Paris. They returned and
ravaged the French territories as far as Ostend in 896* They attacked Italy
in 903. Neustria was granted by the king of France to Rollo and his Normans (Northmen), hence Normandy, in 912.
DANTZIC. A commercial city in A. D. 997. —Bssc/Aig. It was built, according to other authorities, by Waldemar I. in 1169. Seized by the king
of Prussia, and annexed to his dominions in 1793. It surrendered to the
French after a siege of four months, May 5, 1807; and by the treaty of Tilsit, it was restored to its former independence, under the protection of
Prussia and Saxony. Dantzic was besieged by the allies in 1812; and after
a gallant resistance, surrendered to them Jan. 1, 1814. By the treaty of Paris
it again reverted to the king of Prussia. Awful inundation here, owing to
the Vistula breaking through its dykes, by which 10,000 head of cattle
and 4,000 houses were destroyed, and a vast nnmber of lives lost, April 9,
1829.
DARDANELLES, PASSACE OF THE. The Dardanelles are two castles, one called
Sestos, seated in Romania, the other called Abydos, in Natolia, conimanding
the entrance of the strait of Gallipoli. They were built by the emperor
Mahomet IV., in 1659, and were named Dardanelles from the contiguous
town of Dardanus. The gallant exploit of forcing the passage of the Dar
288 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. t DEA
danelles was achieved by the British squadron under admiral sir John
Duckworth, Feb. 19, 1807; but the admiral was obliged to repass them,
which he did with great loss and immense damage to the fleet, March 2;
following, the castles of Sestos and Abydos hurling down rocks of stone,
each of many tons weight, upon the decks of the British ships.
DAUPHIN. The title given to the eldest sons of the kings of France, from
the province of Dauphind, which was ceded by its last prince, Humbert 11.
to Philip of Valois, on the condition that the heirs of the French throne
should bear the arms and name of the province, A. D. 1343.-Priestley.
DAVIS'S STRAIT. Discovered by the English navigator, John Davis, whose
name it bears, on his voyage to find a North-west passage, in 1585.
DAY. Day began at sunrise among most of the northern nations, and at sunset among the Athenians and Jews. Among the Romans day commenced
at midnight, as it now does among us. The Italians in most places, at the
present time, reckon the day from sunset to sunset, making their clocks
strike twenty-four hours round, instead of dividing the day, as is done in all
other countries, into equal portions of twelve hours. This mode is but partially used in the larger towns of Italy, most public clocks in Florence, Rome,
and Milan, being set to the hour designated on French or English clocks.
The Chinese divide the day into twelve parts of two hours each. Our civil
day is distinguished from the astronomical day, which begins at noon, and is
the mode of reckoning used in the Nautical Almanac. At Rome, day and
night were first divided in time by means of water-clocks, the invention of
Scipio Nasica, 158 B. c.-Vossius de Scien. Mcath.
DEACON. An order of the Christian priesthood, which took its rise from the
institution of seven deacons by the Apostles, which number was retained a
long period in many churches, about A. D. 51. See Acts, chap. vi. The
original deacons were Philip, Stephen, Prochorus, Nicanor, Timon, Par:s.nos, and Nicolas. The qualifications of a deacon are mentioned by St.
Paul, 1st T'imzothby iii. 8-13.
DEAF AND DUMB. The first systematic attempt to instruct the deaf and dumb
was made by Pedro de Ponce, a Benedictine monk of Spain, about A. D. 1570.
Bonet, who was also a monk, published a system at Madrid, in 1620. Dr.
Wallis published a work in England on the subject, in 1650. The first
regular academy for the deaf and dumb in Great Britain was opened in
Edinburgh in 177.
DEAF AND DUMB, BLIND, AND INSANE PERSONS, IN THE'UNITED S'ATEs.
In 1840 there were 6.916 blind persons, or 1 in 2,467 of the population;
7,659 deaf and dumb, or 1 in 2,228; 17,434 insane and idiotic, or 1 in 979.
There were in the United States 23 asylums for the insane, with about
2,840 patients.
Among the most prominent and successful of the philanthropists who have
promoted the education and good treatment of the above persons in the
United States, are Dr. Amariah Brigham, of Hartford; Dr. S. G. Howe, of
Boston; Rev. T. H. Gallaudet, Hartford.
DEATH, PUNISHMENT OF. Death by drowning in a quagmire was a punishment among the Britons before 450 a. c.-Stowqe. The most eulogized
heroes of antiquity inflicted death by crucifixion, and even women sufihred
on the cross, the victims sometimes living in the most excruciating torture
many days. A most horrifying instance of death by torture occurs in the
fate of Mithridates, an assassin of Xerxes. See a bote to the article Persia;
see also Ravillac; Boilinlg to Death/; Burning, to Deatl, &c. Maurice, the
son of a nobleman, was hanged, drawn, and quartered for piracy, the first
execution in that manner in England, 25 Henry III., 1241. The punlishmi..
ItE'L ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 289
of death was abolished in a great number of cases by Mr. Peel's acts, 1824-9,
in other cases 1832, for forgery 1837. Capital punishment, except in cases
of martial law, abolished by Prussia, and by GermLan parliament, at Frankfort, same day, August 4, 1848.
DECEMBER. In the year of Romulus this was the tenth month of the
year, called so from decen,, ten, the Romans commencing their year in
March. Numa introduced January and February before the latter month,
in 713 B. C., and from thenceforward December became the twelfth of the
year.
DECEMVIRI. Ten magistrates, who were chosen annually at Rome to govern the commonwealth instead of consuls; first instituted 450 B. c.-Livy.
The decemviral power became odious on account of their tyranny, and the
attempt of Appius Claudius to defile Virginia, and the office was abolished,
the people demanding from the senate to burn the decemviri alive. Consuls were again appointed, and tranquillity restored.-See Vis-ginia.
DEEDS. They were formerly written in the Latin and French languages: the
earliest known instance of the English tongue having been used in deeds, is
that of the indenture between the abbot and convent of Whitby, and Robert,
the son of John Bustard, dated at York, in the year 1343. The English
tongue was ordered to be used in all law pleadings in 1364. Ordered to be
used in all law-suits in May, 1731.
DEFENDER OF THIE FAITH. Fidei Defensor. A title conferred by Leo X.
on Henry VIII. of England. The king wrote a tract in behalf of the Church
of Rome, then accounted Domicilium fidei Cat/tolice, and against Luther,
who had just begun the Reformation in Germany, upon which the pope gave
him the title of Defender of the Faith, a title still retained by the monarchs
of Great Britain: the bull conferring it bears date Oct. 9, 1521.
PEGREES. The first attempt to determine the length of a degree is recorded
as having been made, by SEratosthenes, about 250 B. c.-Szeellius. The first
degree of longitude was fixed by Hipparchus of Nice (by whom the latitude
was cldetermined also), at Ferro, one of the Canary islands, whose most western point was made the first general meridian, 162 B. c. Several nations
have fixed their meridian from places connected with their own territories;
and thus the English compute their longitude from the meridian of Greenwich. See LLatitude, Loengitude, and the various Collegiate degrees.
DEISM. This denomination was first assumed about the middle of the sixteenth century by some gentlemen of France and Italy, in order thus to
disguise their opposition to Christianity by a more honorable appellation
than that of Atheism.- Virot's Ia-str6ction CAetiea?;ne, 1563. Deism is a
rejection of all manner of revelation: its followers go merely by the light
of nature, believing that there is a God, a providence, vice and virtue, and
an after state of punishments and rewards: it is sometimes called free-thinking. The first deistical writer of any note in England, was Herbert, baron
of Cherbury, in 1624. The most distinguished deists were Hobbes, Tindal,
Morgan, lord Bolingbroke, Humrn, Holeroft, and Gocdwin.
DELAWARE. The smallest of the U. States except R. Island. First settled
in 16(30, by the Swedes and Fins under the patronage of Gustavus Adolphus
and received the name of'New Sweden. They were subdued in 1655 by the
Dutch, who in turn surrendered it, with New Netherlands, to the English in
1664, and then named Delaware. The duke of York granted it to Wm.
Penn, in 1682, and it remained nominally united to Pennsylvania until 1775.
This state bore an honorable part in the revolution, and suffered much in
the struggle, She adopted the Constitution of the U. S. by a unanimous
13
290 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ DEiN
vote ill convention, Dec. 3, 1787. Population, — 1790, 59,094; 1840, 78;085;
including 2,605 slaves.
DELHI. Tile once great capital of the Mogul empire: it is now in decay, but
contained a million of inhabitants, in 1700. In 1738, when Nadir Shah
invaded Hincloostan, he entered Delhi, and clreactil massacres and fallline
followed: 100,000 of the inhabitants perished by the sword; and plunder to
the amount of 62,000,0001. sterling was said to be collected.
DELPHI. Celebrated for its oracles delivered by Pythia, in the temple of
Apollo, which was built, some say, by the council of the Amphictyons,
1263 a. c. The priestess delivered the answer of the god to such as came
to consult the oracle, and was supposed to be suddenly inspired. The tcrapie was burnt by the PisistratidTc, 548 B. c. A new temple was raised by the
Alcmmeonidse, and was so rich in donations that at one time it was plundered
by the people of Phocis of 20,000 talents of gold and silver; and Nero carried from it 500 costly statues. The first Delphic, or sacred war, concerning
the temple was 449 B. c. The second sacred war was commenced ( a Delphi
being attackbd by the Phocians, 856 a. c.-Dab Fresnoy.
DELUGE, THE GENERAL. The deluge was threatened in the year of the
world 1536; and it began Dec. 7, 1656, and continued 377 days. The arkl
rested on Mount Ararat, May 6, 1657; and Noah left the ark, Dec. 18, follo ving. The year corresponds with that of 2348 B. c. —Blair. The following
are the epochs of the deluge, according to the table of Dr. Hales.
Septuagint B. c. 3246 Persian - B. C. 3103 Playfair -. c. 2352 Petavius - B. U. 2329
Jackson 3170 Eindoo - -3102 Usher -2348 Strauchuis - 2293
Hales - - 3155 Samaritan - - 2998 English Bible -2348 IHebrew - - 2288
Josephus - 3146 Howard - - 2698 Marsham - - 2344 Vulgar Jewish 21U4
Some of the states of Europe were alarmed, we are told, by the prediction
(!) that another general deluge would occur. and arks were every where built
to guard against the calamity; but the season happened to be a very -fie
dry one, A. D. 1524.
DELUGE oF DEUCALION. The fabulous one, is placed 1503 B. c. according
to Eescbius. This flood has been often confounded by the ancients with the
general flood: but it was 845 years posterior to that event, and was merely
a local inundation, occasioned by the overflowing of the river Pineus, whose
course was stopped by an earthquake between the Mounts Olympus and
Ossa. Deucalion, who then reigned in Thessaly, with his wife Pyrrha, and
some of their subjects, saved themselves by climbing up Mount Parnass,s.
DELUGE or OGYGES. In the reign of Ogyges was a deluge which so inundated the territories of Attica that they lay waste for near 200 years; it
occurred before the deluge of Deucalion, about 1764 a. c. —Blati'. Buffothinks that the Hebrew and Grecian deluges were the same, and arose fion.
the Atlantic and Bosphorus bursting into the valley of the Mediterranean.
DEMERARA AND ESSEQUIBO. These colonies, founded by the Dutch, were
taken by the British, 1796. but were restored at the peace of 1802. Demarara
and Essequibo again surrendered to tlhe British under general Grinfield,,,id
commodore Hood, Sept. 20, 1803. They are now fixed English colonies.
DENMARK. The most ancient inhabitants of this kingdom were the Cimbr!
and the Teutones, who were driven out by the Justes or Goths. The Teutonet
settled in Germany and Gaul; tile Cimbrians invaded Italy, where they -er(
defeated by Marius. The peninsula of Jutland obtains its name from the
Jutes; and the general name of' Denmarkl is supposed to be derived fioom
Dam, the founder of the Danish monarchy, and m-ark-, a German word signi.
fying country, i. e. Dan-mark, the country of Dan.
DEnN 1 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 291
DENMARK, co;tisied.
Reign of Sciold, first king - B.cC.60 The counts Struensee and Brandt are
The 1Danish chronicles mention 18 kings seized at the same timne, on the charge
to the time of Ragnor Lodbrog - A. D. 750 of a criminal intercourse with the
[Ragnor is killed in an attemnpt to in- queen; and the formler confessing to
vade England, anld for more than 200 avoid the torture, both are beheaded
years from this time tile Danes were for high treason - April 28, 17'7
a terror to the northern nations of Eu- The queen Caroline Matilda dies at
rope, and at lenlsth conquering all Zell - - - May 10, 1775
Ensgland. See Dlases.] Christian VII. becomes deranged, and
Reign of Canute the Great - 1014 prince Frederick is appointed regent 1784
Reign of Watldemar the Great - 1157 One-fourth of Copenhagenis destroyed
WValdemar II., with a fleet of 1000 sail, by fire - - - June 9, 1795
makes immense conquests - -1223 Admirals Nelson and Parker bombard
Gothland conquered - - -1347 Copenhagen, and engage the Danish
Denmark, Norway, and Sweden are fleet, taking or destroying 18 ships of
united into one kingdom - -1397.the line, of whose crews 1800 are kcillRevolt of the Swedes - 1414 ed. The Confederacy of the North
The nations reunited - - -1439 (see Armed Neutrality) is thus disCopenhagen made the capital - -1440 solved - - - April 2, 1801
Accession of Christian I., from whom Admiral Gambler and Lord Cathcart
the present royal family springs - 1448 bombard Copenhageln, and seize the
Christian IL. is deposed, and the inde- Danish fleet of i ships of the line, 15
pendence of Sweden aclknlowledged - 1523 ft gates, and 37 brigs, &c. - Sept. 7, 1807
Lutheranism established by Christian Polnerania and Rugen are annexed to
III. - - - - -1536 Denmark, in exchange for Norway - 1814
Danish East India Company established Commercial treaty with England - 1824
by Christian IV. - 1612 Frederick bestows a new constitution
Christian IV. chlosen head of the Pro- on his klingdom - - -1831
testant league - - 1629 A new constitution offered by Christian
Charles Gustavus of Sweden invades VIII. - - - Jan. 20, 1848
Denmark, besieges Copenhagen, and Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein demakles larIe conquests -1658 miand separation firom Denmark
The crown made hereditary and abso- March, 1848
lute - - 1660 The kcing grants freedom of the press
Frederick IV. talkes 1olstein, Sleswick, and of ptlblic meetings - March, 1848
Tonningen, and Stralsund; reduces Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein reWeismar, and drives the Swedes out volt and join the great German naof Norway - - - 1716 et se. tion - - - March 26, 1848
Copenhagenc destroyed by a fire which Prussia aids tile duchies, and re-organconsunmes 1650 houses, 5 churches, the izes the Grand Duchy of Posen
university, and 4 colleges - 1728 March 26, 1848
The peaceful reign of Christian VI., Danes victorious over the Germans,
who promotes the'happiness of his April 10; but driven out of Schleswig
subjects - - - 1730 April 23, 1848
Christian VIT. in a fit of jealousy sud- Truce agreed upon (provisional governdenly confines his queen, Caroline ment of 5 to rule the duchies meanMIatilda, sister of George III. who is swhile) - - - July 10, 1848
afterwards banished. See Zell Jan. 18, 1772 Armistice till March I, 1849, signed Aug. 1848
(See Copenhacgen.)
IINGS OF DENMUARK.
A. D. 714 Gormo I. 1014 Canute II. the Great.
750 Ragnor Lodbrogr. 1036 Hardicanute II.
770 Sigefiid. 1041 Magnus I.
801 Godefrid. 1048 Suenon II.
809 Olaus I. 1079 Harold IV.
811 Hemnming. 1080 Canute III. assassinated.
812 Siward and Ringon, kcilled in a sea-fight. 1086 Olaus II.
814 IHarold and Regner; the latter.made 1097 Eric III.
prisoner in Ireland, and died in a 1106 Nicholas, kiilled in Sleswick.
dungreon there. 1135 Eric IV., killed at Ripen.
849 Siward Il.deposed. 1138 Eric V.
856 Eric; killed in battle. 1147 Suenon III., beheaded by Waldemar
858 Eric Il. for assassinating prince Canute.
873 Canute I. 1157 Waldemnar the Great.
915 Frothon. 1182 Canute V.
920 Gormo II. 1202 Waldemar II
925 Harold. 1240 Eric VI.
928 IHardicanute. 1250 Abel I., killed in an expedition against
930 Gormo III. the Frisons.
935 Harold -III. 1252 Christopher I., I loisoned by the bishop
980 Suenon. of Arhus.
292 THE WORILD 7S PROGRESS. W A
DENMARK, continued.
1259 Eric VII. assassinated. 1523 Frederick.
1286 Eric VIII. 1534 Christian IIL.
1319 Christopher II. (An interregnum of 1559 Frederick II.
seven years.) 1588 Christian IV.
1340 Waldemar III. 1648 Frederick III.
1375 Olaus III. 1670 Christian V.
1375 Margaret I., queen of Denmark and 1699 Frederick IV.
Norway. 1730 Christian VI.
1411 Eric IX., abdicated. 1746 Frederick V.
1439 Christopher III. 1766 Christian VII.
1448 Christian I. of the house of Oldenburgh. 1808 FredericVYI.
1481 John. 1839 Christianf VIII. died Jan. 20, 148.
1513 Christian II., confined 27 years in a
dungeon, where he died.
I)ENIS, ST. All ancient town of France, six miles from Paris to the northward, the last stage on the road from England to that capital,-famous for
its abbey and church, the former abolished at the Revoluiion; the latter
desecrated at the same epoch, after having been the appointed place of
sepulture to the French kings, from its foundation by Dagobert, in 613.
" DEVIL AND DR. FAUSTUS." Faustus, one of the earliest printers, had the
policy to conceal his art, and to this policy we are indebted for the tradition
of " The Devil and Dr. Faustus." Faustus associated with John of G(ulttemberg; their types were cut in wood, and fixed, not movable, as at
present. Having printed off numbers of copies of the Bible, to imitate
those which were commonly sold in MS., he undertook the sale of them at
Paris, where printing was then unknown. As he sold his copies for sixty
crowns, while the scribes demanded five hundred, he created universal astonishment; but when he produced copies as fast as they were wanted, and
lowered the price to thirty crowns, all Paris was agitated. The uniformity
of the copies increased the wonder; informations were given to the police
against him as a magician, and his lodgings being searched, and a gr'et
number of copies being found, they were seized. The red ink with which
they were embellished was supposed to be his blood, and it was seriously
adjudged that he was in league with the devil; and if he had not fled, he
would have shared the fate of those whom superstitious judges condemned
in those days for witchcraft, A. D. 1460. Nourv. Diet. See Printing.
DIADEM. The band or fillet worn by the ancients instead of the crown, and
which was consecrated to the gods. At first, this fillet was made of silk or
wool, and set with precious stones, and was tied round the temples and
forehead, the two ends being knotted behind, and let fall on the nc,.
Aurelian was the first Roman emperor who wore a diadem, A. D. 272.Tillermont.
DIALS. Invented by Anaximander, 550 B. c.-Pliny. The first dial of the
sun seen at Rome, was placed on the temple of Quirinus by L. Papirius
Cursor, when time was divided into hours, 293 B. c.-Blair. In the times
of the emperors almost every palace and public building had a sun-dial.
They were first set up in churches in A. D. 613.-Lenglet.
DIAMONDS. They were first brought to Europe from the East, where tile
mine of Sum-Abulpour was the first known; and where the mines of Golconiida
were discoverd in 1584. This district may be termed the realm of diamonds.
The mines of Brazil were discovered in 1728, From these last a dialond.
weighing 1680 carats, or fourteen ounces. was sent to the court of Portug'al.,
and was valued by M. Romeo de l'Isle at the extravagant sum of 22L4 nail-!
lions; by others it was valued at fifty-six millions: its value was next statedc
to be three millions and a half; but its true value is 400.0001. The diamon(e
called the " mountain of light," which belonged to the king of Cabul, was
t]ie?n9,st superb gem ever seen; it was of the finest water, and the size o0'"
i'lE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 293
an egg, and was also valued at three millions and a half. The great diamond of the emperor of Russia weighs 193 carats, or 1 oz. 12 dwt. 4 gr.,
troy. The empress Catharine II. offired for it 104,1661. besides an annuity
for life, to the owner, of 10411. which was refused; but it was afterwards
sold to Catharine's favorite, count Orloff, for the first mentioned sum, without the annuity, and was by him presented to the empress on her birthday, 1772; it is now in the sceptre of Russia. The Pitt diamond weighed
136 carats, and after cutting 106 carats; it was sold to the king of France
for 125,0001. in 1720.
DI)ANA, TEMPLE OF, AT EPHESUS. One of the seven wonders of the world,
built at the common charge of all the Asiatic States. The chief architect
was Ctesiphon; and Pliny says that 220 years were employed in completing
this temple, whose riches were immense. It was 425 feet long, 225 broad,
and was supported by 127 columns, (60 feet high, each weighing 150 tons
of Parian marble,) furnished by so many kings. It was set on fire on the
night of Alexander's nativity, by an obscure individual named Eratostratus,
who confessed on the rack, that the sole motive which had prompted him
to destroy so magnificent an edifice, was the desire of transmitting his name
to future ages, 356 a. c. The temple was rebuilt, and again burned by the
Goths, in their naval invasion, A. D. 256, Uaiv. Hist.
DICTATORS. These were supreme and absolute magistrates of Rome, instituted 498 B. c.. when Titus Larcius Flavus, the first dictator, was appointed. This office, respectable and illustrious in the first ages of the
Republic, became odious by the perpetual usurpations of Sylla and J.
Cmesar; and after the death of the latter, the Romlan senate, on the motion
of the consul Antony, passed a decree, which for ever forbade a dictator to
exist in Rome, 44 B. c.
DICTIONARY. A standard dictionary of the Chinese language, containing
about 40,000 characters, most of them hieroglyphic, or rude representations
somewhat like our signs of the zodiac, was perfected by Pa-out-she, who
lived about 1100 B. c. —Mo'rrison. Cyclope dias were compiled in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The first dictionary of celebrity, perhaps
the first, is by Ambrose Calepini. a Venetian friar, in Latin; he wrote one
in eight languages, about A. D. 1500.-ANiceron. The Lexicon Heptaglotton
was published by Edmund Castell, in 1659. Bayle's dictionary was published in 1696, " the first work of the kind in which a man may learn to
think.- Voltaire. Chambers' Cyclopmdia, the first dictionary of the circle.of the arts, sciences, &c., was published in 1728. The great dictionary of
the English language, by Samuel Johnson, appeared in 1755. Francis
Grose's Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue, was compiled in 1768; and from
this period numerous dictionaries have been added to our store of literature.
Noah Webster's great American Dictionary of the English language, in two
quarto volumes, was first published at New Haven in 1828. It was reprinted in London, under the supervision of E. H. Barker, 1832. Numerous
abridgments and a new edition of the whole work have since been published.
See Encyclopedia.
UIiET oF THE GERMAN EMI-TRE. Thle supreme authority of this empire
may be said to have existed in the assemblage of princes under this name.
The diet, as composed of three colleges, viz.:-the college of electors, the
college of' princes, and the college of imperial towns, commenced with
the famous edict of Charles IV. 1356.-See Golden BTldl. Diets otherwise
constituted had long P)reviously been held on important occasions. The
diet of Wurtzburg, which proscribed Henry the Lion, was held in 1179.
The celebrated diet of Worms, at which Luther assisted in person, was
held in 1521. That of Spires, to condemn the Reformers, was held in 1529;
294 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ DIi
and the famous diet of Augsburg, in 1530. In the league of the German
princes, called the confederation of the Rhine, they fixed the diet at Frankl.
fort, July 12, 1806. A new diet at Frankfort, for the purpose of coni
solidating the government of the German States, 1848. See Gcroqctoy.
DIEU ET MON DROIT, "God and my right." This was the parole of
the day, given by Richard I. of England, to his army at the battle of Gisors,
in France. In this battle (which see) the French army was signally defeated;
and in remembrance of this victory, Richard made " Diea et momn droit"
the motto of the royal arms of England, and it has ever since been retained,
A. D. 1198. —Rymer's Faderla.
)ICGEST. The first collection of Roman laws under this title was preparea
by Alfrenus Varus, the civilian of Cremona, 66 B. c.- Quintil. Ibst. Orat.
Other digests of Roman laws followed. The Digest, so called by way of
eminence, was-the collection of laws made by order of the emperor Justinian: it made the first part of the Roman law, and the first volume of the
civil law. Quotations fiom it are marked with a ff.-Parldon.
DIOCESE. The first division of the Roman empire into dioceses, which were
at that period civil governments, is ascribed to Constantine. A. D. 323; but
Strabo remarks that the Romans had the departments called dioceses 1
before.-S1'cbo, lib. xiii. In England these circuits of the bishops' jurisdiction are coeval with Christianity; there are twenty-four dioceses, of
which twenty-one are suffiragan to Canterbury, and three to York.
DIOCLETIAN ERA. Called also the era of Martyrs, was used by Christian
writers until the introduction of the Christian era in the sixth century, and
is still employed by the Abyssinians and Copts. It dates friom the day on
which Diocletian was proclaimed emperor at Chalcedon, 29th August, 281.
It is called the era of martyrs, on account of the persecution of the Chlristians in the reign of Diocletian.
DIORAMA. This species of exhibition, which had long previously been an
object of wonder and delight at Paris, was first opened in London, Sept. 29,
1823. The diorama differs from the panorama in this respect, that. instead
of a circular view of the objects represented, it exhibits the whole pictin'e
at once in perspective, and it is decidedly superior both too the panorama
and the cosmoraima in the -fidelity with which the objects are depicted, an.d
in the completeness of the illusion.
DIPLOMACY oF THrE UNITED STATES. List of ministers plenipotentiail to
Great Britain and France.
GREAT BRITAIlN. FRANCE.
1783 John Adamns. 1776 B. Franklin, S. Deane, & A. Lee, com'rs
1789 Gouv. Morris, commissioner. 1790 Wm. Short, of Va., cha-rge d'affaires.
1792 Thomas Pinckney, of S. C., min. plen. 1792 Gouv. Morris, N. J., minister plen.
1794 John Jay, of N. Y. do. 1799 James Munroe, Va. do.
1796 Rufus King, do. do. 1796 C. C. Pinckney, S. C.
1803 James:Moknroe, Vas. 8Jointly, 1797 IE. Gerry & John arsharola l,do.
18806 Wm. Pinckney, Mass. in 1806. 1799 01. Ellsworth, Patrick Ienery,
1808 Wmn. Pinckney, do. alone do. and W. Vans Murray, do.
1815 John Quincy Adams, Mass. do. 1801 James A. Bayard, Del. do.
1817 Richard Rush, Pa. do. 1801 R. R. Livingston, N. Y. do.
1826 Albert Gallatin, N. Y. do. 1804 John Armstrong, do. do.
1828 James Barbour, Va. do. 1811 Joel Barlow, Conn. do.
1830 Louis iMcLane, Del. do. 1813 Win. H1-. Crawford, Geo. do.
1831 M. Van Buren, N. Y. do. 1815 Albert Gallatin, Pa. do.
1832 Aarot. Vail, charge d'affaires. 1823 James Brown, La. lo.
1836 And. Stevenson, Va., minister plen. 1830 Wnri C. Rives, Va. do.
1841 Edward Everett, Mass. - do, 1833 Edward Livingston, La. do.
1845 Louis McLane, Md. do. 1836 Iewis Cass, Mich. do.
1846 George Bancroft, Mass. do. 1.844 Win. R. King, Ala. do.
1849 Abbott Lawrence, do. do. 1849 W. C. Rives, Va. da.
DIV ] DICTIONARY OF DATES.' 295
DIRECTORY, THE CHURCH. The book so called was published in England
at the period of the civil war. It was drawn up at the instance of the parliament, by an assembly of divines at Westminster, with the object that the
ministers might not e) wholly at a loss in their devotions after the suppression of the Book of Common Praye'. There were some general hints given,
which were to be managed at discretion, for the Directory prescribed no
forml of prayer, nor manner of external worship, nor enjoined the people to
make any responses, except Amen.e~. The Directory was established by an
ordinance of the parliament in 1644.-Bis/hop Tacylor.
DIRECTORY, FRENCH. The French Directory was installed at the little Luxembourg, at Paris, under a new constitution of' the government, November
1, 1795, and held the executive power four years. It was composed of five
members, and ruled in connection with two chambers, the Council of An-,cients and Council of Five Hundred,;h/ich see. Deposed by Bonaparte, whc,
with Camlbac6rBs and Sieyes, became the ruling power of France, the three
governing as consuls, the first as chief, Nov. 9, 1799.
DISSENTERS. The "Dissenters " from the Church of England arose early in
the Reformation, contending for a more complete depar ture firom the Romish
nmodels of church government and discipline. They were reproached with
the name of Puritans, on account of the purity they proposecl in religious
worship and conduct; and the rigorous treatment they endured under Elizabeth and James I. led multitudes of them to emiglrate to this country in
those reigns. The first place of worship for Dissenters in England was
established at Wandsworth, near London, Nov. 20, 1572; and nov, in London alone, the number of chapels, imeeting-houses, &c., for all classes of Dissenters, amounts to near 200. The great act for the relief of Dissenters
from civil and religious disabilities, was the statute passed 9 George IV.
c. 17. By this act, called the Corporation and Test Repeal Act, so much of
the several acts of parliament of the preceding reigns as imposed the necessity of receiving the sacrament of the Lord's Supper as a qualification for
certain offices, &c. was repealed, May 9, 1828. Several other acts of ameliorating effect have been since passed.
DIVINATION. - In the Scriptures woe find mention made of different kinds of
divination; and it is mentioned by most of the ancient authors. It was retained in the hands of the priests and priestesses, the magi, soothsayers,
augurs, and other like professors, till the coming of Christ, when the doctrines of Christianity and the spirit of philosophy banished such visionary
opinions. The oracles of Delphi began 1263 B. c. Augurs were instituted
by Numa at Rome, 710 B. C. See Auegs'ry, WitcLcra'ft, cpc.
DIVING-BELL. First mentioned, though obscurely, by Aristotle, 325, B. c.
The diving-bell was first used in Europe, A. D. 1509. It is said to have been
used on the coast of Mull, in searching for the wreck of part of the Spanish
Armada, before A. D. 1669. Halley greatly improved this machine, and was,
it is said, the first who, by means of a diving-bell, set his foot on dry ground
at the bottom of the sea. Smeaton applied the condensing-pump to force
down air. Mr. Spalding and his assistants going down in a diving-bell in
Ireland, were drowned, June 1, 1783. The BRoyal George man-of'-war, which
was sunk off Portsmouth in 1782, was first surveyed by means of a diviiigbell, in May 1817. Lately, and particularly in 1840, it has been employed
in sub-marine surveys. The first diving-belle was the wife of Captailn MA-orris, at Plymouth, who descended in one a few years ago.
DIVORCES Fou ADULTERY. Of the earliest institution, both in ecclesiastical and civil law, among the ancients. First put in practice by Spurius Carvilius at Rome, 231 B. c.-Blair. At this time morals were so debased,
that 3000 prosecutions for adultery were enrolled. Divorces were attempted
296 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. L DOG
to be made of more easy obtainment in England, in A. D. 1539. The bill to
prevent women marrying their seducers was brought into parliament in
1801.
DOCKS oF LONDON. They are said to be the most extensive and finest constructions of the kind, for the purposes of commerce, in the world. In London there are a number of these docks, of which the following are the
principal:-The West India docks, the act for whose formation passed in
July 1799; they were commenced February 3, 1800, and were opened Aug.
27, 1802, when the Henry Addincgton West Indiaman first entered them,
decorated with the colors of the different nations of Europe. The London
docks were commenced June 26, 1802, and were opened January 31, 180-.
The East India docks were commenced under an act passed July 27, 1803,
and were opened August 4, 1806. The first stone of the St. Katherine docks
was laid May 3, 1827; and 2,500 men were daily employed upon them until
they were opened, Oct. 25, 1828.
DOCTOR. This rank was known in the earliest times. Doctor of the church
was a title given to SS. Athanasius, Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, and Chrysostom, in the Greek church; and to SS. Jerome, Augustin, and Gregory the
Great, in the Romish church, A. D. 373, et seq. Doctor of the law was a title
of honor among the Jews. The degree of doctor was conferred in England,.
8 John, 1207.-Spelvzan. Some give it an earlier date, referring it to the"
time of the Venerable Bede and John de Beverley, the former of whom, it
is said, was the first that obtained the degree at Cambridge, about A. D. 725.
See Collegiate Degrees.
DOCTORS' COMMONS. The college for the professors of civil and canon law
residing in the city of London; the name of Commons is given to this college from the civilians commoning together as in other colleges. Doctors'
Commons was founded by Dr. Henry Harvey, whose original college was destroyed in the great fire of 1666, but after some years it was rebuilt on the
old site. The causes taken cognizance of here are, blasphemy, divorces,
bastardy, adultery, penance, tithes, mortuaries, probate of wills, &c. See
article Civil Law.
DOG. The chiet de berger, or the shepherd's dog, is the origin of the whole
race. —BLeffo. Buffon describes this dog as being " the root of the tree,"
assigning as his reason that it possesses from nature the greatest share of
instinct. The Irish wolf-dog is supposed to be the earliest dog known in
Europe, if Irish writers be correct. Dr. Gall mentions that a dog was taken
from Vienna to England; that it escaped to Dover, got on board a vessei,
landed at Calais, and after accompanying a gentleman to Mentz, returned
to Vienna.
DOG-DAYS. The canicular or dog-days, commence on the 3d of July, and end
on the 11th of August. Common opinion has been accustomed to regard
the rising and setting of Sirius, or the dog-star,* with the sun, as the cause
of excessive heat; and of consequent calamities, instead of its being viewed
as the sign when such effects might be expected. The star not only varies
in its rising, in every one year as the latitude varies, but is always later and
later every year in all latitudes, so that in time the star may, by the same
rule, come to be charged with bringing frost and snow.-Dr. Hutteos.
DOGE. The title of the duke of Venice, which state was first governed by a
* Mathematicians assert that Sirius, or the Dog Star, is the nearest to us of all the fixed stars;
and they compute its distance from our earth at 2,200,000 millions of miles. They inaintain that
a sound would not reach our earth from Sirius in 50,000 years, and that a cannon-ball, flying with
its usual velocity of 480 miles an hour, would consume 523,211 years in its passage thence to our
globe.
9Ot 3] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 297
prince so named. Anafesto Paululio, A. D. 697. The Genoese revolted against
their count, and chose a dege from among their nobility, and became an
aristocratic republic, 1030-4. The ceremony of the doge of Venice marrying
the sea, " the Adriatic wedded to our duke," was instituted in 1173, and was
observed annually on Ascension-day, until 1797, when the customl was dispensed with. See Adr'ialic.
DOMINGO, ST. Discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, in 1493. The
city was founded in 1494. The town of Port-au-Prince was burnt down, and
nearly destroyed by the revolted negroes, in Oct., Nov., and Dec., 1791.
Toussaint L'Ouverture governed the island, on the expulsion of the French
colonists, after this till 1802, when he was entrapped by Bonaparte, and died
in prison. His successor, Dessalines, recommended the blacks, by proclamation, to make a general massacre of the whites, which was accordingly executed with horrid cruelty, and 2500 were butchered in one day, March 29,
1804. Dessalines proclaimed himself emperor, Oct. 8, 1804. See Hayti, in
which article particulars will be found up to the independence of St. Domingo, acknowledged by France, in April, 1825.
DOMINICA. Discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, in 1493. This
island was taken by the British in 1761, and was confirmed to them by the
peace of 1763. The French took Dominica in 1778, but restored it at the
subsequent peace in 1783. It suffered great damage by a tremendous hurricane in 1806; and several devastating hurricanes have more recently
occurred.
DOMINICAL LETTER. Noting the Lord's day, or Sunday. The seven days
of the week, reckoned as beginning on the 1st of January, are designated as
by the first seven letters of the alphabet, A, B, C, D, E, F, G; and the one
of these which denotes Sunday is the Dominical letter. If the year begin
on Sunday, A is the dominical letter; if it begin on Monday, that letter is
G; if on Tuesday, it is F, and so on. Generally to find the dominical letter
call New Year's day A, the next day B, and go on thus till you come to the
first Sunday, and the letter that answers to it is the dominical letter; in leap
years count two letters..DOMINICANS. A religious order whose power and influence were almost universal. They were called in France Jacobins, and in England Blackfriars,
and were founded by St. Dominick, approved by Innocent III. in 1215; and
the order was confirmed by a bull of Honorius II1. in 1216, under St. Austin's
rules, and the founder's particular constitutions. In 1276 the corporation
of London gave them two whole streets by the river Thames, where they
erected a large and elegant convent, and whence that part is still called
Blackfriars.
DOOM'S-DAY oa DOME'S-DAY BOOK. Liber Jmediciarils vel Ce'nsualis
Arielie. A book of the general survey of England, commenced in the reign
of William I. A. D. 1080. The intent of this book was, to be a register
whereby to determine the right in the tenure of estates; and from this book
the question whether lands be ancient demesne or not, is sometimes still
decided. The book is still preserved in the Exchequer, fair and legible,
consisting of two volumes, a greater and lesser, wherein all the counties of
England, except Northumberland and Durham, are surveyed. It was finished in A. D. 1086, having been completed by five justices. " This dome'sday book was the tax-book of kinge William."- Cazlden. The taxes were
levied according to this survey till 13 Henry VIII. 1522, when a more accurate survey was taken, and was called by the people the new Doom's-day
book.
DORIC OmDE:R os' ARCHITECTURE. The most ancient of the five, the invention
of the Dorians, a people of Greece. The Dorians also gave the name to
13*
298 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. t DRA
the Doric muse. The migration of this people to the Peloponnesu:t took
place 1104 B. c. They sent, in their vast spirit of enterprise, many colonies
into different places, which afterwards bore the same name as their native
country.
DORI. Here happened an awful inundation of the sea, A. D. 1446. It arose in
the breaking down of the dykes; and. in the territory of Dordrecht 10,000
persons were overwhelmed and perished; and more than 100,000 round Dullart, in Friesland and in Zealand. In the last two provinces upwards of 300
villages were overflowed, and the tops of their towers and steeples were for
ages after to be seen rising out of the water. Dort is famous for the Protestant synod held in 1618; a general assembly, to which deputies were sent
from England, and from all the Reformed churches in Europe, to settle the
differences between the doctrines of Luther, Calvin, and Arminius, principally upon points of justification and grace. The synod condemned the
tenets of Arnminius.-Aitzemca.
DOUAY, IN FRANCE. Erected into a university by Philip II. of Spain, who
founded her the celebrated college of Roman Catholics, A. D. 1569. Douay
was taken from the Spaniards by Louis XIV. in person, in 1667. It was
taken by the duke of M1arlborough, in 1710; and retaken by the Vrench
next year. This town gives its name to the Catholic edition of tht Biblc,
which continues in almost universal use by the consent of the succ,essive
popes among the members of that communion, as the onlyEnglish version
authorized by Catholics; its text being copiously explained by the notes
of Catholic divines.
DRACO, LAWS orF. Draco, when he exercised the office of archon, made a
code of lawts, which, on account of their severity, were said to be written
in letters of blood: by them idleness was punished with as much severity as
murder; the smallest transgression, he said, deserved death, and he could
not find any punishment more rigorous for more atrocious crimes, 623 a. c.Sigo'ai'es de Repub. Athen.
DRAKE'S CIRCUMNAVIGATION. Sir Francis Drake sailed from Plymouth,
No. 13, 1577, and sailing round the globe, returned to England, after many
perilous adventures. Nov. 3, 1580. This illustrious seaman was vioe-admiral
under lord Howard, high-admiral of England, in the memorable conflict
with the Spanish Armada, July 19, 1588. His expeditions and victories over
the Spaniards have been equalled by modern admirals, but not his generosity; for he divided the booty he took in proportional shares with the
common sailors, even to wedges of gold given him in return for his presents
to Indian chiefs.-Stowe. Rapiht.
DRAMA. We owe both forms of composition, tragedy and comedy, to the
Greeks. The first comedy was performed at Athens, by Susarion and Dolon,
on a movable scaffold, 562 B. B,. See Comedy. The chorus was introduced
556 B. c. See Chorus. Tragedywas first represented at Athens, by Thespis,
on a wagon, 536 B. c. Arund. Marb. Thespis of Icaria, the inventor of tragedy, performed at Athens Alcestil, this year, and was rewarded with a
goat, 536 B. c.-Pliny. Anaxandrides was the first dramatic poet who ir,
troduced intrigues and rapes upon the stage. He composed about a hundred plays, of which ten obtained the prize; he died 340 B. c.
DRAMA IN ROME. The drama was first introduced into Rome on occasion
of a plague which raged during the consulate of C. Sulpicius Peticus and
C. Lucinius Stolo. The magistrates to appease the incensed deities instituted the games called Scenici, which were amusenlents entirely new.
Actors from Etruria danced, after the Tuscan manner, to the flute 364 B. c.
Subsequently came satires accompanied with music set to the flute; and
PRO J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 299
afterwards plays were represented by Livius Andronicus, who, abandoning
satires, wrote plays with a regular and connected plot, 240 a. c.-Livy.
Andronicus was the first person who gave singing and dancing to two different performers; he danced himself, and gave the singing to a younger
exhibitor.-Livy.
DRAMA, MODERN. The modern drama arose early in the rude attempts of
minstrels and buffoons at fairs in France, Italy, and England. —Warton.
Stories from. the Bible were represented by the priests, and were the origin
of sacred comedy.-Ides. Gregory Nazianzen, an early father of the
church, is said to have constructed a drama about A. D. 364, on the Passion
of Christ, to counteract the profanities of the heathen stage, and thus to
have laid the foundation of the modern romantic drama; but this is not
clearly proved. Fitzstephen, in his Life of Thomas a Bechket, asserts that
" London had for its theatrical exhibitions holy plays, and the representation of miracles wrought by holy confessors." The Chester Mysteries
were performed about 1270. Plays were performed at Cierkenwell by the
parish clerks in 1397, and miracles were represented in the fields. Allegorical characters were introduced in the reign of Henry VI. Individual
characters were introduced in Henry VII.'s reign. The first regular drama
acted in Europe was the "Sophonisba" of Trissino, at Rome, in the presence of pope Leo X., 1515.-Vollaire. The English drama became perfect
in the reign of Elizabeth. The first royal license for the drama in England
was to master Burbage, and four others, servants to the earl of Leicester,
to act plays at the Globe, Bankside, 1574. A license was granted to Shakspeare, and his associates, in 1603. Plays were opposed by the Puritans in
1633, and were afterwards suspended until the Restoration in 1660. Two
companies of regular performers were licensed by Charles II., Killegrew's
and Davenant's, in 1662. Till this tinme boys performed women's parts.
DRESDEN, BATTLE OF, between the allied army under the prince of Schwarzenberg, and the French army commanded by Napoleon, Aug. 26 and 27,
1813. The allies, who were 200,000 strong, attacked Napoleon in his position at Dresden, and the event had nearly proved fatal to them, but for an
error in the conduct of general Vandamme. They were defeated with
dreadful loss, and were obliged to retreat into Bohemia; but Vandamme
pursuing themw too far, his division was cut to pieces, and himself and all
his staff made prisoners. In this battle general Moreau received his mortal
wound while in conversation with the emperor of Russia.
DRESS. Excess in dress was restrained by a law in England, in the reign of
Edward IV., 1465. And again in the reign of Elizabeth, 1574.-Stowe.
Sir Walter Raleigh, we are told, wore a white satin-pinked vest, close
sleeved to the wrist, and over the body a brown doublet finely flowered,
and embroidered with pearls. In the feather of his hat, a large ruby and
pearl drop at the bottom of the sprig, in place of a button. His breeches,
with his stockings and ribbon garters, fringed at the end, all white; and
buff shoes, which on great court days, were so gorgeously covered uwith
precious stones, as to have exceeded the value of 66001,; and he had a suit
of armor of solid silver, with sword and belt blazing with diamonds,
rubies, and pearls. King James's favorite, the duke of Buckinghamn, could
afford to have his diamonds tacked so loosely on, that when he chose to
shake a few off on the ground, he obtained all the fame he desired from the
pickers-up, who were generally les Dames de la Com'.
DROWNING PERSONS. Societies for the recovery of drowning persons
were first instituted in Holland, A. D. 1767. The second society is said to
have been formed at Milan, in 1768; the third in Hamburg, in 1771; the
fourth at Paris, in 1772; and the fifth in London, in 1774. Similar societies
300 THE WORLD'S PROGRE:S. [ DUI>:
have been instituted in other countries. The motto of the Royal Humane
Society in England is very appropriate:-Lateat sciutillmla forsan-a small
spark may lurk unseen.
DRUIDS. A celebrated order among the ancient Germans, Gauls, and Britons,
who from their veneration for the oak (Drys) were so called. They acted
as priests and magistrates; one of them was invested, occasionally with
supreme authority. In England they were chosen out of the best familier,
that the dignity of their station, added to that of their birth, might procure them the greater respect. They were versed in sciences; had the
administration of all sacred things; were the interpreters of the gods; and
supreme judges in all causes. The Druids headed the Britons who opposed
Cresar's first landing, 55 B. c. They were cruelly put to death, defending
the freedom of their country against the Roman governor, Suetonius Paulinuo, who totally destroyed every mark of Druidism, A. D. 59.-Rowland's
Mozna A7,tiqna.
DRUNKARDS. The phrase " Drunk as a lord," arose out of an older proverb,
" Drunk as a beggar;" and we are told that it was altered owing to the vice
of drunkenness prevailing more among the great of late years. Drunkenness was punished in many, of the early nations with exemplary severity.
In England, a canon law restrained it in the clergy so early as A. D. 747.
Constantine, king of Scots, punished this offence against society with death.
lie used to say, that a drunkard was but the mimic of a man, and differed
from the beast only in shape, A. D. 870. Drunkenness was restrained in the
commonalty in England in 975; and by several later laws.
DUBLIN. This city, anciently called Ascheled, built A. D,. 140.
DUCkT. First coined by Longinus, governor of Italy.-Procopius. First
struck in the duchy of Apulia.-Dan Cange. Coined by Robert, king of
Sicily, in A. D. 1210. The ducat is so called because struck by dukes.-Johnson. It is of silver and gold, the value of the first being 4s. 6d., and that of'
the gold 9s. 6d.-Parcdo~n.
DUELLING AND KNIGHT-ERRANTRY, took their rise from the judicial combats of the Celtic nations. The first duel in England, not of this character,
took place A. D. 1096. Duelling in civil matters was forbidden in France
1305. The present practice of duelling arose in the challenge of Francis I.
to the emperor Charles V.. 1527. The fight with small swords was introduced into England, 29 Elizabeth 1587. Proclamation that no person should
be pardoned who killed another in a duel, 30 Charles II., 1679. Duellin?
was checked in the army, 1792.-See Battle, Warger of; Combat, qc. As
many as 227 official and memorable duels were fought during my grand climacteric.-Sirk J. Barrinkgton. A single writer enumerates 172 duels, in
which 63 individuals were killed and 96 wounded: in three of these cases
both the combatants were killed, and 18 of the survivors suffered the sentence of the law. —Hamilton.
DUKE, originally a Roman dignity, first given to the generals of armies. In
England, during Saxon times, the comnllanders of armies were called dukes,
dunces. —CUmden?. The title lay dormant from tile Conquest till the reign oe
Edward III., who conferred the title on his eldest son, Edward the Black
Prince, by the style of duke of Cornwall, A. D. 1336. Robert de Vere was
created marquis of Dublin and duke of Ireland, 9 Richard II., 1385. The
first duke created in Scotland was by king Robert III., who created, David,
prince of Scotland, duke of Rothsay, a title which afterwards belonged to
the king's eldest son, A. D. 1398.
DUKE, GRAND. The Medici family was one of extraordinary greatness and
immense wealth. Of this family, Alexander de Medicis was acknowledged
EARI J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 301
the chief of the republic of Tuscany in 1531; he was stabbed in the night;
and his son, Cosmo, was created grand duke, the first of that rank, by pope
Pius V. in 1569.
DUNBAR, BATTLE OP, between the Scottish and English armies, in which John
Baliol was defeated by the earl of Warrenne, and Scotland subdued, by Edward I., fought April 27, 1296. Battle between the Scots and English under
Cromwell, who obtained a signal victory, September 3, 1650.
DUNKIRK. This town was taken from the Spaniards by the English and
French, and put into the hands of the English, June 24, 1658, the last year
of Cromwell's administration. It was sold by Charles II. for 500,0001. to
Louis XIV., in 1662. The French king made Dunkirk one of the best fortified ports in. the kingdom; but all the works were demolished, and the
basins filled up, in consequence of the treaty of Utrecht in 1713.
DUNSINANE, BATTLE OF. Celebrated in dramatic story by the immortal
Shakspeare. On the hill of Dunsinane was fought the renowned battle
between Macbeth, the thane of Glaemmis, and Seward, earl of Northumberland. Edward the Confessor-had sent Seward on behalf of Malcolm IIv.,
whose father, Duncan, the thane and usurper had murdered. Macbeth, who
was signally defeated, fled, and was pursued, it is said. to Lumphanan, in
Aberdeenshire, and there slain, 1057. The history of' Macbeth is the subject of Shakspeare's incomparable drama.
DURHAM, BATTLE OF, between the English and Scottish armies, fought at
Nevill's-cross, near Durham. The former army was commanded by queen
Philippa and lord Piercey, and the latter by David Bruce, king of Scotland,
who was vanquished. Fifteen thousand of Bruce's soldiers were cut to
pieces, and himself, with many of his nobles and knights, and many thousand men, were taken prisoners, Oct. 17, 1346.
DYEING, ART OF. The discovery of it attributed to the Tyrians. In dyeing
and dipping their own cloths, the English were so little skilled, that their
manufactures were usually sent white to Holland, and returned to England
for sale. The art of dyeing woollens was brought from the Low Countries
in 1608. "Two dyers of Exeter were flogged for teaching their art in the
nor'th'; (of England) 1628.
E.:EAGLE. The standard of the eagle was first borne by the Persians; and the
Romans carried figures of the eagle, as ensigns, in silver and gold, and
sometimes represented with a thunderbolt in its talons, on the point of a
spear; they adopted the eagle in the consulate of Marius, 102 B. c. When
Charlemagne became master of the whole of the German empire, he added
the second head to the eagle for his arms, to denote that the empires of
Rome and Germany were united in him, A. D. 802. The eagle was the imperial standard of Napoleon; and is that of Austria, Russia, and Prussia.
It is also the national emblem of the United States of America.
EARL. An honor which came from the Saxons, and continued for many ages
the highest rank in England, until Edward III. created dukes, and Richard
II. created marquesses, both having precedency assigned above earls. They
had. anciently, for the support of their state, the third penny out of the
sheriff's court, issuing out of the pleas of the shire whereof they had their
title, as in ancient times there were no counts or earls but had a county or
shire for his earldorn. Upon the increase of earls their revenue ceased, and
their powers were abridged. Alfred used the title of earl as a substitute for
king.
o02 TI'E WVORLD 7S PROGRESS. EAR
EARTH. The globullar form of the earth was first suggested by Thales of
MIiletus about 640 B. c. Its magnitude was calculated from measuring an
arc of the meridian by Eratosthenes, 240 B. c. The Greeks taught the
sphericity of the earth, and the popes believed it to be a plane, and gave all
towards the west to the kings of Spain. The first ship that sailed round
the earth, and thence demonstrated that its form was globular, was Magellan's, in 1519. The notion of its magnetism was started by Gilbert in 1576.
The experiments of M. Richer, in 1672, led Newton to prove the earth to
be in the shape of an oblate spheroid. The variation of its axis was discovered by Dr. Bradley in 1737. See Globe.
E ARTHENWARE. Vessels of this ware were in use among the most ancient
nations. Various domestic articles were made by the Romans, 715 n. c.
The art was revived and improved in Italy, A. D. 1310. Wedgewood's patent
ware was first made in 1762. His pottery in Staffordshire was extended to
a variety of curious compositions, subservient not only to the ordinary purposes of life, but to the arts, antiquity, history, &c., and thereby rendered a
very important branch of commerce, both foreign and domestic. See
C/tiia.- Porcelaie.
EARTHQUAKES. The theory of earthquakes has not yet been formed with
any degree of certainty. Anaxagoras supposed that earthquakes were pro-.
cluceci by subterraneous clouds bursting out into lightning, which shook the
vaults that confined them, a. c. 435.-Dieo'. Laer't. Kircher, Des Cartes,
and others, supposed that there were many vast cavities under ground which
have a conlmllnication with each other, some of which abound with waters,
others with exhalations, arising froiom inflammable substances, as nitre, bitumen, sulphur, &c. These opinions continued to be supported till 1.749-50,
when an earthquake was felt at London, and several parts of Britain. Dr.
Stukeley, who had been engaged in electrical experiments, then began to
suspect that a phenomenon of this kind omght to be attributed not to vapor,
or fermentations generated in the bowels of the earth, blit to electricity.
These principles at the same time were advanced by Signor Beccaria, without knowing any thing of Dr. Stukeley's discoveries, and the hypothesis has
been confirmed by the experiments of Dr. Priestley. In mLany cases, howvever, it appears probable that the immense power of water converted into
steam' by subterraneous fires must contribute to augment the force which
occasions earthquakes. Among those which are recorded as having been the
most destructive and memorable, are the following, which are quoted from
the best sources: it would be impossible to enumerate in this volume all
that have occurred:One which made the peninsula of Antioch destroyed - - A.D. 114
Euba-a an island - - B.C. 425 Nicomedia, Ctesarea. and Nicea in
Ellice and Bula in the Peloponnesus, Bithynia, overturned - - 126
swallowed up - - - 372 In Asia, Pontus, and Macedonia, 150
One at Rome, when, in obedience to cities and towns damaged. -. 357
an oracle, AM. Curtius, armed and Nicomedia again demolished, and its
mounted on a stately horse, leaped inhabitants buried in its ruins 358
into the dreadful chasm it occasion- One felt by nearly the whole world - 543
Aurased (Liny).. 5 -. I buidwihal t rAt Constantinople; its edifices destroyDuras, in Greece, buried with all its ed, and thousands perished - - 5
inhabitants; and twelve cities in ed, and thf sands periehed - 560
Campania also buried - - 35 I Afica; any cities overturned - 560
Lysimachia totally buried, with all its Awful one in Syria, Palestine, and
inhabitants - 283 Asia; more than 500 cities were deAwful one in Asia, which overturned strayed, and the loss of life srupasstwelve cities - - - D. 17 ed all calculation - - - 742
One accompanied by the eruption of In France, Germany, and Italy - 801
Vesuvius; the cities of' Pompeii and Constantinople overtlurned, and all
HerculaneuLn buried - 79 Greece shaken - - 936
Four cities in Asia, two in Greece, atd One felt throughout England - - 1089
two in Galatia, overturned - - 107 One at Anltioch; many towns destroy.
AS ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 303
EARTHQUAKES, coentimeud.
ed: among them, Mariseum and Ma- A destructive one at Snmyrna - A. D. 1778
mistria - - - A. D. 1114 At Tauris: 15,000 houses thrown down,
Catania in Sicily overturned, and and multitudes buried - -1780
15,000 persons buried in the ruins - 1137 One which overthrew Messina and a
One severely felt at Lincoln - 1142 number of towns in Italy and Sicily:
At Calabria, when one of its cities and 40,000 persons perished - - 1783
all its inhabitants were overwhelml- Archindschan wholly destroyed, and
ed in tile Adriatic Sea - - 1186 12,000 persons buried in its ruins - 1784
One again felt throughout England - 1274 At Borgo di San Sepolcro, an opening
At Naples, when 40,000 of its inhabit- of the earth swallowed up many
ants perished - - - 1456 houses and 1000 persons - Sept. 1789
One felt in London: part of St. Paul's Another fatal one in Sicily - 1791
and the Temple churches'ell - 1580 One in Naples, when Vesuvius issuing
In Japan, several cities made ruins, forth its flames overwhelmed the city
and thousands perished 1596 of Torre del Greco - - - 1794
Awiful one at Calabria - - 1638 In Turkey, where, in three towns,
One in China, when 300,000 persons 10,000 persons lost their lives -1794
were buried in Pekin alone - - 1662 The whole country between Santa Fe
One severely felt in Ireland - - 1690 and Panama destroyed, including the
One at.lamaica, which totally destroy- cities of Cusco and Quito, 40,000 of
ed Port Royal, whose houses were whose people were, in one second,
ingulfed lorty fathoms deep, and 300 hurled into eternity - - 1795
persons perished - - - 1692 One at Constantinople, which destroyOne in Sicily, which overturned 54 ed the royal palace and an immencities and towns, and 300 villages. sity of buildings, and extended into
Of Catania and its 18.000 inhtabit- Romania and Wallachia. - - 1800
ants, not a trace remained; more A violent one felt in Holland - Jan. 1804
than 100,000 lives were lost - - 1693 In the kingdom of Naples, where 20,000
Palermo nearly destroyed, and 6000 persons lost their lives - -1805
persons perished - - 1726 At the Azores: a village of St. 5M'iAgain in China; and 100,000 people chael's sunlr, and a lake of boiling
swallowed up at Pekint - - 1731 water appeared in its place - Aug. 1810
One illn Hungary, which turned a Awlful one at Caraccas (which7 see) - 1812
nlountain round - - 1736 Several felt throughout India. The
Lima and Callao detuolished; 18,000 district of' Kutch sunlk; 2000 persons
persons buried in the ruins Oct. 28, 1746 were buried with it - - June 1819
One at Palermo, which swallowed up In Genoa, Palermo, Rome, and many
a convent l but the monks escaped 1740 other towns; great damage sustainIn London, the inhabitants terrified by ed, and thousands perished - - 1819
a slight shock - Feb. 8, 1750 One fatal, at Messina - - Oct. 1826
Another, but severer shock, March 8, 1750 One in Spain, which devastated MurAdrianople nearly overwhelmed - 1752 cia, and numerous villages; 6000
At Grand Cairo, half of the houses, and persons perished - March 21, 1829
40,000 persons swvallowed up - 1754 In the duchy of Parma; no less than
Quito destroyed - - April, 1755 40 shocks were experienced at BorGreat earthquake at Lisbon. In about gotareo; and at Pontremoli many
eight minutes most of the houses, Iouses were thrown down, and not a
and upwards of' 50,000 inhabitants, chimney was left standing Feb. 14, 1834
were swallowed up,and whole streets In many cities of Southern Syria, by
buried. The cities of Coimbra, which hundreds of houses were
Oporto, and Braga, suffered dread- thrown down, and thousands of the
fully, and St. ITbes was wholly over- inhabitants perished Jan. 22, 1837
tulrned. In Spain, a large part of At Martiniqlue, by which nearly half
lIalaga became ruins. One half of of Port Itoyal is destroyed, nearly
Fez, in Morocco, was destroyed, and 700 persons killed, and the whole
more than 12,000 Arabs perished island damaged - Jan. 11, 1839
there. Above half of the island of At Ternate: the island made a waste,
Madeira became waste; and 2,000 almost every house destroyed, and
houses in the island of Meteline, in thousands of the inhabitants lose
the Archipelago, were overthrown: their lives - - Feb. 14, 1840
this awfull earthquake extended 5000 Awful and destructive earthquake at
miles, even to Scotland Nov. 1, 1755 Mount Ararat; in one of the districts
One in Syria extended over 10,000 of Armenia 3137 hou:ses were oversquare miles: Balbec destroyed - 1759 thrown, and several hundred persons
One at Martinico, when 1600 persons perished - - July 2, 1840
lost their lives - - Aug. 1767 Great earthquake at Zante, where
At Gutatemala, which, with 80,000 in- many persons perished Oct. 10, 1840
habitants, was swallowed up Dec. 1773
EASTER- So called in Engladcl fron the Saxon goddess Eosse. Tile festival
of Easter was instituted about A. D. 68; the clay for the observance of it
was fixed in England by St. Austin, in 597. It was ordained by the council
304 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. I ECL
of Nice to be observed on the same day throughout the whole Christian
world. Easter is the first Sunday after the first full moon that occurs after
the 21st of March.
EASTERN EMPIRE. Commenced under Valens, A. D. 364, and ended in the
defeat and death of Constantine XIII., the last Christian emperor, in 1453.
Mahomet II. resolved to dethrone him, and possess himself of Constantinople; he laid seige to that city both by sea and land, and took it by
assault after it had held out fifty-eight days. The unfortunate emperor,
seeing the Turks enter by the breaches, threw himself into the midst of the
enemy, and was cut to pieces; the children of the Imperial house were
massacred by the soldiers, and the women reserved to gratify the lust of th$
conqueror; and thus terminated the dynasty of the Constantines, and commenced the present empire of Turkey, May 29, 1453. See Tcabuldar Views,
in this vol. from page 61. See also Tmof'ey.
ECCLESIASTICAL COURTS. There existed no distinction between lay and
ecclesiastical courts in England until after the Norman conquest, A. D. 1066.
The following are the causes cognizable in ecclesiastical courts: blasphemy,
apostasy fiom Christianity, heresy, schism, ordinations, institutions to benefices. matrimony, divorces, bastardy, tithes, incests, fornication, adultery,
probate of wills, administrations, &c.-Blaclcstone.
ECCLESIASTICAL STATE on STATES OF TII CHURCH. See Rome. In
A. D. 1798, this state was taken possession of by the French, who erected it
into the " Roman Republic." They obliged the pope, Pins VI., to remove
into Tuscany, and afterwards into France, where he died in 1799. In tihe
same year a conclave was permitted to be held at Venice; and, in 1800,
cardinal Chiaramonti, who was elected to the papal chair, took the title of
Pius VII., and resumed the dominion of the Ecclesiastical State. This
power was held until 1809, when he was deprived by Bonaparte of Il's
temporal sovereignty, and reduced to the condition of bishop of Rome;
but in 1814 the pope was restored. For succession of popes, see p. 50 et seq.
ECLECTICS. Ancient philosophers, also called Analogetici, and Phtilalethes,
or the lovers of truth. Without attaching themselves to any sect, thcy
chose what they judged good from each: founded by Polemon of Alexandria, about A. D. 1.-Drydem. Also a sect, so called in the Christian
church, who considered the doctrine of Plato conformable to the spirit of
the doctrine of the Christian.
ECLIPSES. The theory of eclipses was known to the Chinese at least 120
D. c. —Gatbil. An eclipse was supposed by most of the eastern nations to
be the effect of magic; hence the custom among them of drumming during
its continuance. The first eclipse recorded, happened March 19, 721 a. c.
at 8' 40"'. M. according to Ptolemy; it was lunar, and was observed with
accuracy at Babylon.-See Astronomy. The following were extraordinary
eclipses of the sun and moon:OF THE SUN. In England, where it occasioned a total
That predicted by Thales; observed at darkness (Wnz. Malsnsb.) -.l
Sardis (Pliny, lib. ii.) - B. C. 585 Again; the stars visible at ten in the
One at Athens (Thuzcydides, lib. iv.) - 424 morning (Camnden) - June 23, 191
Total one; three days' supplication de- The true sun, and -the appearance of
creed at Rome (Livy) - - 188 another, so that astronomers alone
One general at the death of Jesus Christ could distinguish the difference by
(Josephus). D. 33 their glasses (Co02p. Hist. Elsn.) -1.191
One at Rome, causing a total darkness Again; total (darkness ensued (idem) - 1331
at noon-day (Livy) - - - 291 A total one; the darkness so great that
One observed at Constantinople - 968 the stars shone, and the birds went to
In France, when it was dark at noon- roost at noon ( Oldszixon's Annals of
day (Du Fresnoy) - June 29, 1033 Geo. I.). - April 2', 17.5
~DU j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 305
ECLIPSES, conginqued.
Remarkable one, central and annular Again, in Asia Minor (Polybius) - 219
in the interior of Europe - Sept. 7, 1820 One at Rome, predicted by Q. Sulpitius
OF THE MOON. Gallus (Livy, lib. xliv.) - - 168
The first, observed by the Chaldeans at One terrified the Roman.troops and
Babylon (Plolemy, lib. iv.) - B. c. 721 quelled their revolt (Tacitzs) A. D. 14
A total one, observed at Sardis (Th7ucydides, lib. vii.) - 413
The revolution of eclipses was first calculated by Calippus, the Athenian,
336 B. c. The Egyptians say they had accurately observed 373 eclipses of
the sun, and 832 of the moon, up to the period from Vulcan to Alexander,
who died 323 B. c.
EDEN, GARDEN OF. The question about the site of Eden has greatly agitated theologians; some place it near Damascus, others in Armenia, some
in Caucasus, others at Hillah, near Babylon, others in Arabia, and somne in
Abyssinia. The Hindoos refer it to Ceylon: and a learned Swede asserts,
that it was in Sudermania! Several authorities concur in placing it in a
peninsula formed by the main river of Eden, on the east side of it, below
the confluence of the lesser rivers, which emptied themselves into it, about
270 N. lat., now swallowed up by the Persian Gulf, an event which may
have happened at the Universal Deluge, 2348. c. The country of Eden
extended into Armenia. —Ccalmet. The Almighty constructed Eden with a
view to beauty, as well as usefulness; not only every plant there was good
for food, but such also as were pleasant to the eye, were planted there,Genesis ii. 8, 9.
EDGEHILL, BATTLE OF, also called Edgehill Fight, between the Royalists and
the Parliament army, the first engagement of importance in the civil war;
Charles I. was personally present in this battle. Prince Rupert commanded
the royalists, and the earl of Essex the parliamentarians. Oct. 23, 1642.
LDICT or NANTES. This was the celebrated edict by which Henry IV. of
France granted toleration to his Protestant subjects, in 1598. It was revoked by Louis XIV., Oct. 24, 1685. This bad and unjust policy lost to
Frange 800,000 Protestants, and gave to England (part of these) 50 000
industrious artisans. Some thousands, who brought with them the art of
manufacturing silks, settled in Spitalfields, where their descendants yet
remain: others planted themselves in Soho and St. Giles's, and pursued
the art of making crystal glasses,. and various fine works in which they
excelled; among these, jewelry, then little understood in England.-Anderson's Orig. of Englishl Comnmerce.
EDILES. These were Roman magistrates, like our mayors, and there were
two ediles at a time. They had the superintendence and care of public
and private works and buildings, baths, aqueducts, bridges, roads, &c.;
they also took cognizance of- weights and measures, and regulated the markets for provisions; they examined comedies before they were acted, and
treated the people with games and shows at their own expense. The duties
of ediles have suggested similar offices in our own polity, and served in
many instances as models for our magistracy.-Par'don.
EDINBURGH. The metropolis of Scotland, and one of the first and finest
cities of the empire. It derives its name-in ancient records, Dun Edin,
signifying the " hill of Edin"-from its castle, founded or rebuilt by Edwin,
king of Northumbria, who, having greatly extended his dominions, erected
it for the protection of his newly-acquired territories from the incursions of
the Scots and Picts, A. n. 626. But it is said the castle was first built by
Camelon, king of the Picts, 330 B. c. It makes a conspicuous appearance,
standing at the west end of the town, on a rock 300 feet high, and before
the use of great guns, was a fortification of considerable strength.
306 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ EGY
EDUCATION IN U. S. See Colleges and Schools. American Institute of Instruction organized at Boston, Aug. 19, 1830. Literary Convention at New
York, Oct. 20, 1830.
EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. A grant of 30,0001. for national education, proposed in parliament by Lord John Russell and passed, 275 to 273, July 9,
and the House of Lords went in a body to ask the Queen to rescind the
grant, July 11, 1839.
EGALITE. Equality. The surname assumed by Philip Bourbon Capet, the
infamous duke of Orleans, to ingratiate himself with the republicans, on the
abolition of monarchy in France, Sept. 11, 1792. He voted for the death of
Louis XVI. his relative; but this did not save him from a like doom. He
was guillotined Nov. 6, 1793.
EGYPT. The dynasty of its Pharaohs or kings commenced with Mizraim, the
son of Ham, second son of Noah, 2188 B. c. The kingdom lasted 1663 years;
it was conquered by Cambyses, 525 B. c. In A. D. 639, this country was wrest
ed from the eastern emperor Heraclius, by Omar, calif of the Saracens. The
famous Saladin established the dominion of the Manmelukes, in 1171. Selim
I., emperor of the Turks, took Egypt in 1517, and it was governed by Beys
till 1799, when a great part of the country was conquered by the French,
under Bonaparte. In 1801, the invaders were dispossessed by the British,
and the government was restored to the Turks.-See Trlkey, for modern
events. See Tabular Views, in this vol. page 5 ec seq.
Mizraim builds Memphis (Blair) B. c. 2188 country, hitherto called Mizraim, is
Egypt made four kinUdoms, viz. Up- now called Egypt (Blair) -. c. 1485
per Egypt, Lower Egypt, This, and Reign of Thuoris (the Proteus of the
Memphis (Ablb Lesnglet, Blair) - 2126 Greeks) who had the faculty of asAthotes invents hieroglyphics - - 2122 suming whatever formn he pleased,
Busiris builds Thebes (Uslher) - 2111 as of a lion, a dragon, a tree, water,
Osymandyas, the first warlike king, fire - 1189
passes into Asia, conquers Bactria, [These fictions were probably intendand causes his exploits to be repre- ed to mark the profound policy of
sented in sculpture and painting this king, who was eminent for his
(Ushzer, Lenglet) - - 2100 wisdom, by which his dominion
The Phnnicians invade Lower Egypt flourished.-Blair.]
and hold it 260 years (Usher) - 2080 Pseusennes enters Palestine, ravages
The lake of Mceris constructed 1938 Judea, and carries off the sacred vesThe patriarch Abraham visits Egypt esels of the Temple - - - 971
to avoid the famine in Canaan - 1921 The dynasty of kings ca)led Tanites
Syphoas introduces the use of the com- begins with Petubastes (Blair) - 825
mon letters (Usher) - - 1891 The dynasty of Saites (Blair) - 781
Memnon invents the Egyptian letters Sebacon invades E gypt, subdues the
(Blair, Lenglet) - - - 1822 king, Bocchoris, whom he orders to
Amenophis I. is acknowledged the be roasted alive (Usher) - 73.
king of all Egypt (Lenglet) - 1821 Psammetichus the Powerful reigns - 660 -
Joseph the Israelite is sold into Egypt He invests Azoth, which holds out for
as a slave (Leneglet) - - 1728 19 years, the longest siege in the anHe interprets the king's dreams - 1715 nals of antiquity (Usher) - - 647
His father and brethren settle here - 1706 Necho begins the famous canal beSesostris reigns; he extends his do- tween the Arabic gulf and the Mediminion by conquest over Arabia, terranean sea (Blair) - - 610
Persia, India, and Asia Minor (Leng- This canal abandoned, after costing
let) 1618 the lives of 120,000 men (IIerodotus) 609
Settlement of the Ethiopians (Blair) 1615 Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon deposes
Rampses, who imposed on his sub- Apries (Usher) - - -
jects the building of walls and pyra- Aprles taken prisoner and strangled in
mids, and other labors, dies (Lenglet) 1492 his palace (Diod. Siculuss) -. 571
Amenophis I. is overwhelmed in the The philosopher Pythagoras comes
Red Sea, with all his army (Lenglet, from Samos into Egypt, and is inBlair) - 1492 structed in the mysteries of EgypReign of, Egyptus, from whom the tian theology (Usher) 5d5
The epoch of the reign of Sesostris is very uncertain; Blair makes it to fall 133 years later.
As to the achievements of this monarch, they are supposed to have been the labors of several kings,
attributed by thi Egyptian priests to Sesostris alone, whose very existence, indeed, is doubted.
ELE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 307
EGYPT, contigmed.
The line of the Pharaohs ends in the His subjects, wearied with his cruelmurder of Psammenitus by Camby- ties and crimes, demolish his statses (Blair) - - B. c. 526 ues, set fire to his palace, and he
Dreadlfu excesses of Cambyses; he flies from their fury (Blair) Bn.. 19
puts the chilidren of the grandees, He murders his son by his new queen;
mlale and female, to death, and makes also his son by her mother, sending
the country a waste (Herodotuts) - 524 the head and limbs of the latter as a
Hle sends an army of 50,000 men across present to the parent on a feast day 129
the desert to destroy the temple of Yet, defeating the Egyptian army, he
Jupiter Ammon, but they all perish recovers his throne; and dies - 128
in the burning sands (Justin) - 524 Pestilence from the putrelaction of
Egypt revolts from the Persians; again vast swarms of locusts; 800,000 persubdued by Xerxes (Blair) - 487 sons perish in Egypt - - 128
A revolt under Inarus (Blair) - - 43 Revolt in Upper Egypt; the famous
Successful revolt under Ainyrtwus, city of Thebes destroyed after a siege
who is proclaimed Icing (Lenglet) 414 of three years (Diod. Siculus) 82
Egypt again reduced by Persia, and its Auletes dying, leaves his lkingdom to
temples pillaged (Usher) 350 his eldest soil, Ptolemy, and the faAlexander the Great enters Egypt, mous Cleopatra (Blair) -
wrests it from the Persians, and During a civil war between Ptolemy
builds Alexandria is bePhiladelphus completes the Pharos of sieged by Caesar, and the famous
Alexandria (Blair) - - 283 library nearly destroyed by fire
The Septuagint version of the Old Tes- (Blair) 47
tamsient made about this time - 283 Caesar defeats the Iking, who, in crossThe lamous library of Alexandria also ing the Nile, is drowned; and the
dates about this period (Blair) - 283 younger Ptolemy and Cleopatra
Ambassadors first sent to Rome - 269 rei-gn 46
Ptolemy Euergetes overruns Syria, Cleopatra poisons her brother (only 14
and returns laden with rich spoils, years of age) and reigns alone -43
and 2500 statues and vessels of gold She appears before Mark Antony, to
and silver, which Cambyses had answer for this crime. Fascinated
talken from the Egyptian temples by her beauty, he follows her into
(Blaii') - - - 246 Egypt 40
Reign of Philometer and Physcon - 151 Antony defeated by Octavius Coesar
At the deathl ofl Philometer, his brother at thle battle of Actium (Blair) - 31
Physcon mnarries his queen, and on Octavius enters Egypt; Antony and
the day of his nuptials murders the Cleopatra kill themselves; and the
infiant son of Philometer in its moth- kringdolm becomes a Romaan prover's arms - - - 145 ince 30
Hle repsudiates his wife, and mlarries
her daughter by hlis brother (Blair) 130
ELECTORS. Those for members of parliament for counties were obliged to
have forty shillings a year in landcl, 39 Henry VI., 1460.-Rfflecad's Sclsattes.
Among the recent acts relating to elections are the following: act depriving
excise and custom-house officers. and contractors with government, of their
votes. 1782. In the U. S., the qualifications vary in the different states.
ELECTORS oF GERMANY. Originally, all the members of the Germanic
body maide chloice of their head; but amidst the violence and anarchy which
prevailed for several centuries in the empire, seven princes who possessed
the greatest power assumed the exclusive privilege of nominating the emperor. —Dr. Robertsooe. An eighth elector was made, in 1648; and a ninth
in favor of the duke of Hanover, in 1692. The number was reduced to
eight, in 1777; and was increased to ten at the peace of Luneville, in 1801.
The electorship ceased on the dissolution of the German empire, and when
the crown of Austria was made hereditary, 1804, 1806.-See GermazJy.
iLECTRICITY. That of almber was known to Thales, 600 B. c. Electricity
was iniperfectly discovered A. nD. 1467. It was fotcnd in various substances
by Dr. Gilbert, of Colchester, in 1600; he fitrst obtained the knowledge of its
power, of conductors and non-conductors, in 1606. Ottoguerick found that
two globes of brimstone contained electric matter, 1647. Tile electric shock
was discovered at Leyden, 1745, and hence the operation is terumed the
"Leyden phial." Electric matter was first found to contain caloric, or fire,
and that it would fire spirits, 1756. The identity of electricity and lightning
308 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ EMB
was proved by Dr. Franklin, about this period. The electricity of the Au.
rora Borealis was discovered by means of the electric kite, in 1769.
ELECTRO-GALVANISM. It owes its origin to the discoveries of Dr. L. Galvani, an eminent Italian philosopher, in 1789. Volta pursued the inquiries
of this good man (for he was alike distinguished by his virtues and genius),
and discovered the mode of combining the metals; constructed what is
very properly called the Voltaic pile; and extended the whole science into a
system which should rather be called Voltaism than Galvanism.
ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. Analogies between electricity and magnetism were,
discovered by Oersted of Copenhagen, in 1807. This analogy was establisher;.
in 1819, and was confirmed by subsequent experiments in England, France,
Germany, the United States and other countries.
ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. Experiments in electricity, having more or less
bearing upon its practical use in telegraphic communication, were made by
Winckler, at Leipsic, 1746; La Monnier, in Paris; Watson, in London, 1747;
Lomond, in 1784; Betancour, at Madrid, 1798. Galvani's discovery of
" Galvanism," at Bolonga, 1791. Prof. Volta's " Voltaic Battery," at Pavia,
1801; Soemmerring, at Munich, 1807. The practical use of Galvanism ill
telegraphs, as prophesied by John Redman Coxe, of Phila., in 1816. Greaadvance made by Prof. Oersted at Copenhagen, in 1819. The electro-magnetic agency first fully developed and applied by Prof. Morse, 1832, patented
1840. The first telegraph by this agency in the United States, was between
Washington and Baltimore, in 1844. Cooke & Wheatsone's patent in Epgland, 1840. Bain's patent in England, first, 1842; applied in United States
in 1849. House's in 1848. The telegraphic lines in the United States, in
Jan. 1850 extended 6,679 miles.-See Sulpplement.
ELEPHANT. This animal, in the earliest times, was trained to war. Tb,story of the Maccabees informs us, that "to every elephant they appointedf
1000 men, armed with coats of mail, and 500 horse; and upon the elephants
were strong towers of wood," &c. The elephants in the army of Antiochus
were provoked to fight by showing them the " blood of grapes and mulberries." The first elephant said to have been seen in England, was one of
enormous size, presented by the king of France to our Henry IllI., in 1238.Baker's Co?'or.
ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES. A great festival under this name was observed
by the Athenians and other nations: these mysteries were the most celebra
ted of all the religious ceremonies of Greece, and were instituted by Eumolpus, 1356 a. c. They were so superstitiously observed, that if any one
revealed them, it was supposed that he had called divine vengeance upon
him, and he was put to death. The mysteries were introduced from Eleusis
into Rome, and lasted about 1800 years, and were at last abolished by Theodosius the Great, A. D. 389.
ELGIN MARBLES.* These admirable works of ancient art were derived
chiefly from the Parthenon, a temple of Minerva in the Acropolis at Athens,
of which temple they formed part of the frieze and pediment, built by Phi
dias about 500 B. c. Lord Elgin began the collection of these marbles during
his mission to the Ottoman Porte, in 1802; they were purchased of him by
the British government for 36,0001., and placed in the British Museum, in
1816.
EMBALMING. The ancient Egyptians believed that their souls, after many
thousand years, would come to reinhabit their bodies, in case these latter
were preserved entire. Hence arose their practice of embalming the dead.
The Egyptian manner of preserving the dead has been the admiration and
wonder of modern times. They rendered the body not only incorruptible,
EMP 3 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 309
but it retained its fill proportion of size, symmetry of features, and personal
likeness. They called the embalmed bodies manamnics, some of which, buried
3000 years ago, are perfect to this clay. The art of such embalhing is now
lost. When Nicodemus came with Joseph of Arimathea, to pay the last
duties to our Saviour after his crucifixion, he brought a mixture of myrrh
and aloes to embalm his body.-Johln xix. 38.
EMBARGO IN ENGLAND. This power is invested in the crown, but it is
rarely exercised except in extreme cases, and sometimes as a prelude to
war. The most memorable instances of embargo were those for the prevention of corn going out of the kingdom in 1766; and for the detention of all
Russian, Danish, and Swedish ships in the several ports of the kingdom,
owing to the armed neutrality, Jan. 14, 1801. See Arm'ed Nezutrality.
EMBARGO IN THE UNITED STATES. Embargo on all vessels in the ports
of the United States, passed by Congress with reference to the quarrel with
Great Britain after the attack on the IT. S. frigate Chesapeake, 1807. Repealed and non-intercourse act passed, 1809. Embargo again laid for 90
days, April, 1812. War declared June 19, 1812.
EMBER WEEKS. Observed in the Christian church in the third century, to
implore the blessing of God on the produce of the earth by prayer and
fasting. EMBER DAYS, three of which fall in these weeks, and in which
penitents sprinkle the ashes (embers) of humiliation on their heads. Four
times in each year were appointed for these acts of devotion, so as to answer.
to the four seasons, spring, summer, autumn, and winter.
EMBROIDERY. Its invention is usually ascribed to the Phrygians; but we
learn from Homer, and other ancient authors, that the Sidonians particularly excelled in this decorative species of needle-work. Of this art very
Oarly mention is made in the Scriptures.-Ex.zodus xxxv. 35, and xxxviii. 23.
An ancient existing specimen of beautiful embroidery is the Bayeux tapestry, worked by Matilda, the queen of William I. of England. See Bayeltx
Tapestry.
EMERALD. The precious stone of a green color is found in the East and in
Peru; inferior ones in other places. It has been alleged that there were no
true emeralds in Europe before the conquest of Peru; but there is a genuine emerald in the Paris Museum, taken from the mitre of pope Julius II.,
who died in 1513, and Peru was not conquered till 1545; hence it is inferred
that this emerald was brought from Africa, or the East.
EMIGRATION. Of late years emigrations from Britain have been considerable. In the ten years ending 1830, the emigrations to the North American
colonies, West Indies, Cape of Good Hope, New South Wales, Swan River,
Van Diemen's Land, &c. were, according to official returns, 154,291. In the
decennial period to 1840, the emigrations advanced to 277,696, exclusively
of the vast numbers settling in the United States of America. The number of emigrants to the United States in one year ending Sept. 30, 1848, were
registered as born in
Great Britain and Ireland - 148,212 Denmark - 210
Germany - - - 58,018 Switzerland - 319
France.7,748 Other countries or unknown - 3,043
Sweden and Norway 903
EMIR. A title of dignity among the Turks and Persians, first given to caliphs.
This rank wras first awarded to the descendants of Mahomet by his daughter
Fatima, about A. D. 650.-RicasLt. To the emirs only was originally given
the privilege of wearing the green turban. It is also given to high officers
(another title being joined).
EMPALEMENT. This barbarous and dreadful mlode of putting criminals to
310 THE WVORLDJS PROGRESS. [ EN
death is mentioned by Juvenal, and was often inflicted in Rome, particularly
by the monster Nero. The victim doomed to empalement is spitted through
the body on a stake fixed upright; and thlis punishment is still used in
Turkey and Arabia. The dead bodies of murderers were sometimes staked
in this manner, previously to being buried, in England.-Sout.M/ern. Williams (who committed suicide) the murderer, of the Marr family, in Ratcliffe Highway, London, Dec. 8, 181.1, was staked in his ignominious grave.
This practice has since been abolished there. See BurJying Alive.
EMPEROR. Originally, a title of honor at Rome, conferred on victorious generals, who were first saluted by the soldiers by that name. Augustus
Ciesar was the first Roman emperor, 27 3. c. Valens was the first emperor
of the Eastern empire, A. D. 364. Charlemagne was the first emperor of
Germany, crowned by Leo III. A. D. 800. Ottoman I., founder of the Turkish empire, was the first emperor of Turkey, 1296. The Czar of Russia
was the first emperor of that country, 1722. Don Pedro IV. of Portugal
was the first emperor of Brazil, in 1825.
EMPIRICS. They were a set of early physicians who contended that all hypothetical reasoning respecting the operations of the animal economy was
useless, and that experience and observation alone were the foundation of
the art of medicine. The sect of Empirics was instituted by Acron of
Agrigentum, about 473 B. c.
ENAMELLING. The origin of the art of enamelling is doubtful. It'was
practised by the Egyptians and other early nations; and was known in
England in the times of the Saxons. At Oxford is an enamelled jewel
which belonged to Alfred, and which, as appears by the inscription, was
made by his order, in his reign, about A. D. 887.
ENCAUSTIC PAINTING, known to the ancients. This very beautiful art,
after having been lost, was restored by Count Caylus and M. Bachelier,
A. D. 1749.
ENCYCLOPEDIA. The first work to which this designation was expressly
given, was that of Abulfarius, an Arabian writer, in the thirteenth century.
MIany were published as early as the fifteenth century, but none alphabetically. Chambers' Dictionary was the first of the circle of arts and sciences,
in England, first published in 1728. The great French work, Encyclopedie
Metilodiqrte, to which Voltaire, Diderot, D'Alembert, and other savans contributecl, was published in 1782 et seq., in 200 quarto volunmes. The British En-.
cyclopedia, printed in Philadelphia in 1798, by Thonmas Dobson, was the
fizst in the United States. The Edizb;ocr Encyclopedia, edited by Sir Davy'.
Brewster, was published, 1810 el seq., and republished in the United States.
Rees' Cyclopedia republished in the United States in 1822. The cost of
the 7th edition of Encyclopedia Brilancicca, edited by Professor Napier, and
published by A. & C. Black, Edinburgh, in 1840 etc.. was stated to have been
I;126,000, of which ~23.000 were paid to the contributors. This was probably the most costly undertaking of the kind ever achieved by private enterprise. The Encyclopedia Metropolitanacb was commenced in 1815 and finished
in 1845. Both of these works comprised articles by the most distinguished
writers in Great Britain. The German Conversations Le.zicons, published
1796-1830, and upon the basis of this the Encyclopedia Aer'zcacna was commenced in Philadelphia in 1829-30, Pennby Cycl. (Knight's) finishedl 1844.'INGINEERS. This name is of modern date. as engineers were formerly called
Trench-masters. Sir William Pelham officiated as trench-master in 1622.
The chief engineer was called camp-master-general in 1634. Captain
Thomas Rudd had the rank of chief engineer to the king, about 1650. The
corps of engineers was formerly a civil corps, but was made a military
force, and directed to rank with the artillery, April 25, 1787. It has a
9NG ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 311
colonel-in-chief, and a second, and five colonel-commandants, and twenty
colonels. The Association of civil engineers was established in 1828. The
Bureau of Topographical Engineers of the U. S. Army, established at
Washington.
ENGLAND. See Br'itain. So named by order of Egbert, first king of England, in a general council held at Winchester, A. a. 829. This appellative
had been used as far back as A. D. 688, but had never been, until then, ratified by any assembly of the nation. It came froim Aqngles, a tribe of Saxons,
and oloend, the Saxon for country. For English history and succession of
Sovereigns, see TabuZlar Views, beginning on i-. 75 in this volume. England
and Wales were united A. D. 1283, and Scotland was united to both in 1707,
and the three were then styled Great Britain. Ireland was incorporated
with these countries by the Act of Legislative Union, January 1, 1801, and
the whole called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
ENGLAND, NEW. See New Englcand.
]ENGLISH LANGUAGE. See article Lesncereges. From the High Dutch or
Ttutonic sprung (among others) the English language, now one of the
most copious and beautiful of Europe. Law pleadings were made in English by order of Edward III. instead of the French language, which had
been continued'fromn the time of the Conqueror, A. 1. 1362. The English
tongue and English apparel were ordered to be used in Ireland, 28 Henry
VIII. 1536. The English was ordered to be used inll all lawsuits, and the
Latin disused, May 1731.
ENGRAVING. The engraving of gems is a branch of art of the highest antiquity. The earliest writers make mention of engraved seals and seal
rings, and there still exist many antique engravings equal to later pr:oductions of similar artists. Engraving from plates and wood is chiefly of modern invention, having its origin about the middle of the fifteenth century.
Engraving on glass was perfected to an art by Boudier of Paris, 1799. The
art of engraving, in various styles, has made great progress in the United
States during the last ten years.
ENGRAVING ON COPPER. Prints from engraved copper-plates made their
appearance about A. D. 1450, and were first produced in Germany. MIasso,
surnamed Finiguerra, was the first Italian artist in this way, 1450. The
earliest date known of a copper-plate engraving is 1461. Rolling presses
for working the plates were invented in 1545, and manv improvements of it
followed. Of the art of etching on copper by means of Ceqncefortis, Francis
Mazzouli, or Parmagiano, is the reputed inventor, about A. D. 1532.De Piles.
ENGRAVING, LITHOGRAPHIC. This is a new branch of the art, and Alois
Sennefelder may be regarded as the inventor of it. It was first announced
on the Continent in 1798, and became more known as polyautography in
1808. It was introduced into general use in England by Mr. Ackermnann of
London in 1817.
ENGRAVING, MEZZOTINTO. The art was discovered by Siegen., and was improved by prince Rupert in 1648; Sir Christopher Wren further improved
it in 1662. Aquatinta, by which a soft and beautiful effect is produced,
was invented by the celebrated French artist, St. Non, about 1662; he communicated his invention to Le Prince. Barrabe of Paris was distinguished
for his improvements in this kind of engraving, 1763. Chiaro-oscuro engraving originated with the Germans, and was first practised by Mair, one
of whose prints bears date 1491. See Zincographyj, tc.
ENGRAVING ON STEEL. The mode of engraving on soft steel, whiclh, after
it has been hardened, will multiply copper plates and fine impressions, in
312 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ EP.mi
definitely, was introduced into England by Messrs. Perkins and Heath, of
Philadelphia, in 1819.
ENGRAVING ON WOOD, took its rise fiom the brief rnallers, or manufacturers
of playing-cards, about A. D. 1400; and from this sprung the invention of
printing, first attempted by means of wooden types not movable. See
Printi'/ig. The art is referred by some to a Florentine, and by others to
Reuss, a German; it was greatly improved by Durer and Lucas Van Leyde?
in 1497; and was brought to perfection in England by Bewick, his brother,
and pupils, Nesbett, Anderson, &c., 1789. et. seq. The earliest wood engraving which has reach4q[ our times is one representing St. Christopher
carrying the infant Jesus offer the sea; it bears date A. D. 1423.
ENTOMOLOGY. This branch of natural history cannot be regarded as ranking as a science until the arrangement of Linnaeus, A. D. 1739. The London
Entomological Society was instituted in 1806; it is directed chiefly to the
study of insects found in Great Britain; and inquires into the best methods
of destroying noxious insects, and making known such as are useful.
ENVOYS. They enjoy the protection, but not the ceremonies of ambassadors.
Envoys Extraordinary are of modern date.- Wicqulefort. The court of
France denied to them the ceremony of being conducted to court in the
royal carriages, A. D. 1639.
EPHESUS. Famous for the temple of Diana, which magnificent structure was
one of the seven wonders of the world; it was 425 feet long and 200 broad,
and cost 220 years of labor. Ctesiphon was the chief architect, and 127 kings
contributed to its grandeur. The temple was burnt by Erostratus, solely t*o
perpetuate his memory, 356 B. c.-Pliny/. It rose from its ruins, and was
richer and more splendid than before; but it was again burnt A. D. 260.Univ. Hist.
EPHORI. Powerful magistrates of Sparta, first created by Theopompus to control the royal power, 760 B. C. They xwere five in number, and acting as
censors in the state, they could check and restrain the authority of the
kings, and even imprison them, if they were guilty of irregularities.
EPIC POETRY. Homer's l1iad and Odyssey the first epic poems. See
HOMER.
EPICUREAN PHILOSOPHY. Epicurus of Gargettus, near Athens, was the
founder of it, about 300 a. c. and taught that the greatest good consists in a
happiness, springing not friom sensual gratifications or vicious pleasures. but
from virtue. and consisting in the peace and harmony of the soul wit'
itself. His disciples had all things in common; and the pleasantness of his
system, and its ease and luxury, made him many followers.
EPIGRAMS. They derive their origin from the inscriptions placed by the
ancients on their tombs. Marcus Valerius Martialis, the celebrated Latin
epigrammatist, who flourished about A. D. 83, is allowed to have excelled all
others, ancient or modern. in the tasteful and pointed epigram. The following Latin epigram on the miracle of our Saviour in turning water into wine
at Cana (John iii.) is a beautiful example:" Videt et erubuit lympha pudica Deum."
And Dr. Johnson has declared that the subjoined English epigram, by Dr.
Doddridge, on the words Denm vzviamns vivamus, is the finest specimen in
our language: —
Iive while we live!" the epicure will say,
"And taste the pleasures of the present day."
" Live while xwe live!" the hoary preacher cries,
"And give to GoD each moment as it flies."
Lord! in siy view let both united be,
We live in oleasure when we live to thee.-DDocdrile.
ELA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 313
EPIRUS. Known by the great warlike achievements of Pyrrhus. Its early
history is very obscure, and it is only during the reign of this sovereign,
who was the last, that it becomes interesting. The first Pyrrhus (Neoptolenius) settled in Epirus after the Trojan war, 1170 B. c. He was killed in
the temple of Delphi, about 1165 a. c.
Reign of the great Pyrrhus -. c. 306 Expedition against Sparta - B. c,. 272
He enters into a league against Deme- H-e enters Argos, and is killed by a tile,
trius; the battle of Beraa - - 294 thrown at him from a house-top by a
Expedition into Italy; he gains his first woman - - - 272
battle against the Romans - 280 Philip unites Epirus to Macedon 220
He gains another great battle - - 279 Its conquest by the Romans - - 167
His conquest of Sicily - - 278 * * * * * s *
His last battle with the Romans - 274 Annexed to the Ottoman empire A. D. 1466
He takes Macedon from Antigonus - 274
EPISCOPACY. The government, by its bishops, of the Christian church. It
may be said to have been instituted A. D. 33, when Peter sat in the bishop's
chair at Rome.-Battler. Episcopacy commenced in England in the second
century; in Ireland about the same time; and in Scotland in the fourth century; but historians dispute with theologians upon this point. See Bishops.
In Scotland, episcopacy was finally abolished at the period of the revolution,
1688-9. The sect called Episcopalians first appeared about the year 500.BarsnLlet.
EPISCOPAL CHURCH, IN THE UNITED STATES. Episcopacy established in NewYork by law, 1693; introduced into Connecticut, 1706. The first bishops of
the Protestant Episcopal Church in America were bishop White of Pennsylvania and Provost of New-York, consecrated in London, 1787. First
Episcopal convention, 1789. Bishops of Vermont, New Jersey, Kentucky, and
Ohio consecrat;ed at New-York, Nov. 2, 1832.
EPITAPHS. They were used by the ancient Jews, by the Athenians, the Romans, and most of the nations of antiquity; their date is referred in England to the earliest times. In the epitaphs of the ancients arose the
epigram.-Boileacm.
EPITHALAMIUM. Tisias, the lyric poet, was the first writer of a nuptial
complimentary song, or epithalamium. He received the name of Stesichorus from the alterations made by him in music and dancing; 536 B. c.Bossuet.
EPOCHAS. These are periods in history which are agreed upon and acknowvledged by the respective historians and chronologers, and which serve to
regulate the date of events. The following are the epochas thus particularly adopted.-See Eras.
Creation - - B.. 4004 Building of Rome - - B. c. 753
Deluie - — 2348 Nabonassar - - 747
Calling of Abraham - 1921 The Seleucid -- - - 312
Argonautic expedition - 1225 The battle of Actium - - 38
Destruction of Troy - 1184 The Christian era A- A. 1
1st Olympiad - - 776 Diocletian - - - - 284
EQUINOX. The precession of the equinoxes was confirmed, and the places
and distances of the planets were discovered by Ptolemy, A. D. 130. When
the sun in his progress through the ecliptic comes to the equinoctial circle,
the day and night are equal all over the globe: this occurs twice in the year;
once in the first point of Aries, which is called the vernal equinox; next in
the first point of Libra, which is the autumnal equinox.-Blair.
EQUITY. COURTS or. To determine causes according to the rule of equity
"and conscience, rather than according to strict law, A. D. 1067.-See C/anERAS. Notices of the principal eras will be found in their alphabetical order;
a few only need be mentioned here. The era of Nabonasser, after which
14
314 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. EMB
the astronomical observations made at Babylon were reckoned, began Feb.
26, 747. The era of the Seleucid (used by the Maccabees) commenced
312 B. c. The Olympiads belong to the Grecians, and date from the year
776 B. c.; but they subsequently reckoned by Indictions, the first beginning
A. D. 313: these, among chronologers, are still used.-See Idctictions. The Romans reckoned from the building of their city, 753 B. c.; and afterwards
from the 16th year of the emperor Augustus, which reckoning was adopted
among the Spaniards until the reign of Ferdinand the Catholic. The disciples of Mahomet began their Heira' from the flight of their prophet from
Mecca, which oc'curred A. D. 622.
F.RAS OF THE CREATION AND REDEMPTION. The Jews and Christisns
have had divers epochas; but in historical computation of time are chiefly
used the most extraordinary epochs, which are two, the Creation of the
World, and the appearance of our REDEEMER, which last the Christians have
made their era. They did not adopt it, however, until the sixth century,
when it was introduced by Denys the Little, a Scythian, who became abbot
of a monastery near Rome: he was the first who computed time from the
birth of Christ, and fixed that great event according to the vulgar era.Cassiododrns Croln. This computation began in Italy, A. D. 525, and in England in 816. It is the only one now in general use, and is that observed in
this work. —See Cr'eation, and Ch"ristian Era.
ESCURIAL. The palace of the kings of Spain, one of the largest and most
magnificent in the world. It was commenced by Philip II. in the year 1562;
and the first expenditure of its erection was 6,000,000 of ducats. It forms
a vast square of polished stone, and paved with marble. It may give some
notion of the surprising grandeur of this palace to observe, that, accordinto the computation of Francisco de los Santos, it would take up more than
four days to go through all its rooms and apartments, the length of the way
being reckoned thirty-three Spanish leagues, which is above 120 Engl-hal
miles. Alvarez de Colmenar also asserts, that there are 14,000 doors, and
11,000 windows belonging to this edifice.
ESQUIRES. Among the Greeks and Romans, esquires were armor-bearers to,
or attendants on, a knight.-Blotnct. In England the king created esqu;res
by putting about their necks the collar of S S, and bestowing upon them a
pair of' silver spurs. A British queen is recorded as having married the
armszeilcnz, or esquire, of her deceased husband. The distinction of esquire
was first given to persons of fortune not attendant upon knights, A. D. 13A'
-Slowe. MIeylrick's Ancient Armor.
ETHER. It was known to the earliest chemists. Nitric ether was first discovered by Kunkel, in 1681; and muriatic ether was first made from the
chloride of tin, by Courtanvaux, in 1759. Acetic ether was discovered bcount Lauraguais, same year; and hydriodic ether was first prepared by
Gay-Lussac. The phosphoric was obtained by M. Boullay. Ether is said
to have been first applied to the purpose of causing insensibility to pain by
Dr. Horace Wells, of Connecticut, in 1846. This, however, is disputed, for
about the same time Dr. C. T. Jackson, of Boston, well known as a geologist
and chemist, suggested the use of ether in surgery; but to Dr. Morton, of
Boston, probably belongs the credit of first demonstrating, by actual experiment, the use of ether in dentistry and surgery, as an annihilator of' pain.
It was used in surgical cases, in that year, by Drs. J. C. Warren, Channing,
and Morton, of Boston, who afterwards published the results of their exl-eriments. The practice was'first copied in Europe by Di. Robertson, of Edinburgh, and Dr. Booth, of London, the same year. The sulphuric ether is
inhaled fiom an apparatus with flexible tube, &c. Etherization was first
used in operative midwifery, in the United States, May, 1847. The substan
EVE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 315
called chloroformn, originally discovered by Soubeiran, in 1831, was also first
employed for similar purposes in 1847, by professor Simpson, ofEdinburgh.
ETHICS. The doctrine and system of morality; a science which is scarcely
more inculcated by religion and virtue, than it is influenced by manners and
government: the Chinese, who are said to have been acquainted with
astronomy at least 3000 years before the birth of Christ, were so refined in
the earliest ages, that they studied ethics, we are told, a thousand years
before that event; and hence they must have lived at that time under not
only civilized and enlightened, but refined and moral governments.
ETNA, MOUNT. Here were the fabled forges of the Cyclops; and it is called
by Pindar the pillar of heaven. Eruptions are mentioned by Diodorus
Siculus as happening 1693 B. c., and Thucydides speaks of three eruptions
as occurring, 734, 477, and 425 B. c. There were rr-uptions, 125, 121, and 43:. c.-Livy. Eruptions A. D. 40, 253, and 420.-Carve-a. One in 1012.Geofiey de Viterbo. Awful one which overwhelmed Catania, when 15,000
inhabitants perished in the burning ruins, 1169. Eruptions ecually awful
and destructive, 1329, 1408, 1444, 1536, 1537, 1564, and in 1669, when tens
of thousands of persons perished in the streams of lava which rolled over
the whole country for forty days. Eruptions in 1766, 1787, 1809, 1811, and
in May 1830, when several villages were destroyed, and showers of lava
reached even to Romle. Another violent eruption, and the town of Bronte
destroyed, Nov. 18, 1832.
EUCLID, ELEMENTS OF. Euclid was a native of Alexandria, and flourished
there about 300 B. c. The Elements are not wholly his, for mlany of the invaluable truths and demonstrations they contain were discovered and invented
by Thales, Pythagoras, Eudoxus, and others; but Euclid was the first who
reduced them to regular order, and who probably interwove many theorems of his own. to render the whole a complete and connected system of
geometry. The Elemenets were first printed at Basil, by Simon Grynaeus,
in A. D. 1533.
EUNUCHS. This species of mutilation is first mentioned among the Egyptian
and Assyrian nations; and eunuchs in the earliest times were attendants in
courts. The first princess who was waited upon by eunuchs in her chamber, was Semiranmis, queen of Assyria and Babylon, about 2007 B. c.-Lenglet. Numbers of this class of persons are in the quality of attendants on
the ladies of the Seraglio in Turkey.
EUtSTATIA, ST. This island was settled by the Dutch in 1632: it was taken
by the French in 1689; by the English in 1690; and again by the British
forces, under admiral Rodney and general Vaughan, February 3, 1781. It
was recovered by thi French under the marquis de Bouille, Nov. 26, same
year; and was again captured by the British in 1801, and 1810; but restored in 1814.
EVANGELISTS. Mark and Matthew wrote their Gospels in A. D. 44; Luke in
55; and John in 97. In 95, John was thrown into a caldron of boiling oil
at Rome, whence, being taken out unhurt, he was banished to the Isle of
Patmos, and there, in the year 96, he wrote the Apocalypse, and died in 100.
-Blttler'. At the council of Nice in 325, there were 200 varied versions of
the adopted Evangelists.
EVESHAM, BATTLE OF, between prince Edward, afterwards Edward I., and
Simon de Montfort; earl of Leicester, in which the barons were defeated,
and the earl, his son, and most of his adherents slain. Henry III. at one
period of the battle was on the point of being cleft down by a soldier who
did not know his rank, but was saved by his timely exclamation, " Do not
316 THE WORLD7S PROGRESS. rEXL
kill me, soldier, I am Henry of Winchester, thy king!" This victory broke
up the treasonable conspiracy of the barons; fought August 4, 1265.
EXCHANGE. One called Collegiua Mercator'L, existed at Rome, 493 B. c.
The Exchange at Amsterdam was reckoned the finest structure of the kind
in the world. Many edifices of this name in the United Kingdom are magnificent. The exchange of London was founded by sir Thomas Greshamn,
June 7, 1566, and was called Royal, by Elizabeth, on her paying it a visit in
Jan. 1571. Destroyed by fire in 1666 and in 1838: rebuilt and, pened in 1844.
EXCHANGE (MERCHANTS') IN NEW YORK. The present building, on the site
of the one destroyed in the great fire of 1835, was commenced in 1836, and
finished in 1840. It is of blue granite. and cost $1,800,000. That of Boston,
also of Quincy granite, finished in 1846.
EXCHEQUER. An institution of great antiquity, consisting otf officers whose
functions are financial or judicial: the chancellor of the exchequer is the
first of these, and he formerly sat in the court of exchequer above the
barons., The first chancellor was Eustace de Fauconbridge, bishop of London, in the reign of Henry III., about 1221. The exchequer stopped payment from Jan. to May the 24th, Charles II. 1673.-Stowe. The English
and Irish exchequers were consolidated in 1816.
EXCISE. The excise system was established in England by the Long Parilament; was continued under Cromwell and Charles II.; and was organized
as at present in the Walpole administration. It was first collected and an
office opened in 1643, and was arbitrarily levied upon liquors and provisions
to support the parliament forces against Charles I. The excise office was
built on the site of Gresham College, in 1774. The officers of excise and
customs were deprived of their votes for members of parliament in 1782.
See Revelue.
AMOUNT OF THE EXCISE REVENUE OF GREAT BRITAIN IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS.
1744 Great Britain - - ~3,754,072 1830 United Kinadom -;18,644, 90
1786 Ditto - - - 5,540,114 1834 Ditto 16,877,292
1808 Ditto - o - 19,867,914 1837 Ditto - 14,518,142
1820 Ditto - - - 26,364,702 1840. Ditto - 12,607,766
1827 United Kingdon - - 20,995,324 1845 Ditto - - - 13,585,583
EXCOMMUNICATION. An ecclesiastical anathema, or interdict from Cbristian communion. It was originally instituted for preserving the purity of
the church; but ambitious ecclesiastics converted it by degrees into an engine for promoting their own power. Some suppose excommunication to
be of Hindoo origin in the Pariah caste, and that it was adopted by ttle
Jews (who had three degrees of it), and from these latter by the Chris; un
churches. The Greek and Roman priests and even the Druids had similar
punishments in aid of their respective religions.-Phbillips.
EXCOMMUNICATION BY THE POPES. The Catholic church excommuncates by bell, book, and candle.-See Bell, Boo/, eand Candle. The popes
have carried their authority to such excess as to excommunicate and depose
sovereigns. Gregory VII. was the first pope who assumed this extravagant
power. He excommunicated Henry IV. emperor of Germany, in 1077, absolving his subjects from their allegiance; and on the emperor's death,
"his excommunicated body" was five years above ground, no one daring to
bury it. In England were many excommunications in Henry II.'s reign:
and king John was excommunicated by Pope Innocent III. in 1208. when all
England lay under an interdict for six years. The citizens of Dublin were
excommunicated by Clement IV. in 1206. Bulls denouncing hell-fir3 to
queen Elizabeth accompanied the Spanish Armada, and plenary indulgences were offered to all who should assist in deposing her.
EXECITIONS. See Crimne. In the reign of Henry VIII. (thirty-eight yoo
EXP J DICTIONARPY OF DATES. 317
it is shown that no less a number than 72,000 criminals were executed.Stowe. In the ten years between 1820 and 1830. there were executed in England alone 797 criminals; but as our laws became less bloody, the nnumber
of executions proportionally decrased. In the three years ending 1820,
the executions in England and Wales amonnted to 312; in the three years
ending 1830; they were reduced to 178; and in the three years ending 1840,
they had decreased to 62.-Parc. Rheturus.
EXECUTIOTeS IN LONDON IN THE FOLLO'WING YEARS.
In the year 1820 - 43 In the year 1835 - nil In the year 1838 - nil In thle year 1841 - 1
In the year 1825 - 17 In the year 1836 - nil In the year 1839 - 2 In tile year 1842 - 2
In the year 1830 - 6 In the year 1837 - 2 In the year 1840 - 1 In the year 1843 - 1
EXPLORING EXPEDITION (U. S.), consisting of' the Vincennes, sloop of
war; Peacock, ditto; Porpoise, brig; Relief, Flying Fish, and Sea Gull,
smaller vessels, under Lieut. Wilkes, U. S. N., sailed from Hampton Roads,
Va., Aug. 19th, 1838. Antarctic continent discovered, July 19, 1839. Attack on the Fejees for murdering two of the officers, July 25, 1846. The
Peacock lost on the bar of Columbia river, July 1841. The Vincennes
(flag-ship) returned to New York, after an absence of nearly four years,
June 11, 1842. Captain Wilkes's Ngarrative of the Expedition, in 6 vols. inmp.
8vo. and quarto, was published in 1845. The scientific reports of the expedition form about 20 quarto and folio volumes.
EXPORTS, AND IMPORTS oF THE UNITED STATES FROM 1791.
Years. Impnorts. E.xports. Years. Imports. E.xports.
1791 $52.20)0,000 819,012,041 1820 - 74,450.000 - 69,691.669
1792 - 31,500,000 - 20,753,098 1821 - 62,585,724 - 64,974,382
1793 - 31,100,000 26,109,572 1822 - 83,241,541 - 72,160.281
1794 34,600,000 33,026.233 1823 - 77.579,267 - 74,699,030
1795 -69,756,268 47.989,472 1824 - 80,549,007 - 75,986,657
1796 - 81,436,164 67,064,097 1825 - 96,340,075 - 99,535,388
1797 75,379,406 56 850,206 1826 - 84,974,477 - 77,595,322
1798 - 68,551,700 61,527,097 1827 - 79,484,068 - 82,324,827
1799 79,f168,148 78,665,522 1828 - 88.509,824 - 72,264,686
1800 - 91,252,768 - 70,971,780 1829 - 74,492,527 - 72,358,671
1801 -11,363,511 94A115,925 1830 - 70.876,920 - 73,849,508
1802 - 76,333,333 72,483,160 1831 -103,191,134 - 81,310,583
1803 - 64,666,866 - 55.800,033 1832 - 101,029,266 - 87,176,943
1804 - 85,000,000 - 77,699,074 1833 - 108,118,311 - 90,140,433
1805 - 120,000,000 95,566,021 1834 - 126,521,332 - 104,336,973
1806 - 129,000,000 - 101,536,963 1835 - 149,895,742 - 121,693,577
1807 - 138,500,000 108,343,150 1836 189,980,035 - 128,663,040
1808 - 56,990,000 - 22439,960 1837 - 140,989,217 - 117,419,376
1809 - 59,400,000 - 52,203,231 1838 - 108,486,616 - 113,717,404
1810 - 85,400,000 66,757,974 1839 - 121,018,416 - 162,092,132
1811 - 53,400,000 61,316,831 1840 131.571,950 - 104,805,891
1812 - 77,030,000 - 38,527,236 1841 - 127,946,177 - 121,851,803
1813 - 22,005.000 27,855,997 1842 100,162,087 - 104,691,534
1814 - 12,965,000 6,927,44-1 18,43 - 64,753,799 - 84,346,480"
1815 - 113,041,274 - 52,557,753 1844 - 108,435,035t - 111,200,046t
1816 - 147,103,000 81.920,452 1845 - 117,254,564t - 114,646,606t
1817 99250,000 - 87,671,569 1846 - 121,691,797t - 113,488,516t
1818. 121,750,000 93281,133 1847 - 146.545,638t - 158,648,622t
1819 - 87,125,000 70,142,521 1848 - 154,977,876- - 154,032,131t
EXPORTS, GREAT BRITAIN. Edward III., by his encouragement of trade,
turned the scale so much in tavor of English merchandise, that by a balance
of trade taken in his time, tlle exported commodities amounted to 294,0001.,
and the imported to only 3880001.
VALlUE OF EXPORTS FRIOM GREAT BRITAIN TO ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD, VIZ:In 1700 - 6,097,120 In 1.2,0 - -~51,733,113 i In 1842 -. ~102,180,517
In 1750 10,130,9911 I 1230 - 666735,445 In 1843 - - 100,260,101
In 1775 - 16.326,363 In 1835 - - 78;376,732 In 1844. 117,877,278
In 180 - - 38,120,]120 In 1840 - - 97,402.726 In 1845 - - 131.564,503
In 1810 - 45,869,839 In 1841 - 102,705;3721 In 1846 134,509,116
* Only nine months of 1843. t For the year ending June 30.
318 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. FAL
The amounts above given relate to the exports of the United Kingdom
of Britishl and Irish produce only. The total exports, including foreign and
colonial produce, were, according to official returns, as follows:
In 1841 - - ~116,479,678 I In 1813 - - ~113,844,259 I In 1845 - X~145,961,749
In 1842 - - 11,903,668 In 1844 - - 13L,833,391 I In 1846 - 150,879,986
In the year ending 5th January 1846, the amount of imports into the
United Kingdom was 85;281,9581; and the balance of trade in favor of Eingland, deducting this sum from her exports, was 65,598,0281. But even this
great balance has been exceeded in recent years, as, for instance, the year
immediately preceding, when it mounted to upwards of seventy millions.Brit. Revenbue Returns.
EYLAU, BATTLE OF, between the French and Russians, one of the most
bloody of Napoleon's wars: it terminated in favor of Napoleon, who commanded in person; but both armies by this and other recent battles were
so much reduced, that the French retired to the Vistula, and the Russians
on the Pregel: the loss to the victor was 15,000 men, and the Russian loss
in slain alone was 20,000. Feb. 8, 1807.
F.
FABII. A noble and powerful family at Rome, who derived their name fropm
faba, a bean, because some of their ancestors cultivated this pulse: they
were said to be descended from Fabius, a supposed son of Hercules, and
were once so numerous that they took upon themselves to wage war A.?4ainsl
the Veientes. They came to a general engagement near the Cremera, ir
which all the family, consisting of 3806 men, -were slain, B. C. 477. There
only remained one, whose tender age had detained him at Rome, and fronlhim arose the noble Fabii in the following ages.
FABLES. " Jotham's fable of the trees is the oldest extant, and as beaut;O,-1
as any made since."-Addison. Nathan's fable of the poor nian (2 Scae,..
xii.) is next in antiquity. The earliest collectionof fables extant is of east.
ern origin, and preserved in the Sanscrit. The fables of Vishnoo Sarma,
called Pilpay, are the most beautiful, if not the most ancient. in the world.
-Sir Williesam Jones. The well-known _Esop's fables (which see), Awer.
written about 540 years B. c.-Plut'arch.
FACTIONS. Among the IRomans, factions were parties that fought on cha
riots in the cirque, andl who were distinguished by their different color-s,
a green, blue, red, and white, to which Domitian added two others, on
coats emlbroidered eiith gold, a second wearing scarlet, about A. D. 90. Both
the emperors and people had generally greater inclination for some particular color than the rest; but upon a quarrel happening in Justinian's rei go.
between the blue and green, when 40,000 were killed on both sides, th
name of faction was abolished. With us, faction means a party or sect iireligious or civil matters, and is always taken in an ill sense.
FAIRS AND WAKES. They are of Saxon origin, and were first instituted in
England by Alfred, A. D. 886.-Speblman. They were established by order of
Gregory VII. in 1708, and ternled Feerie, at which-the monks celeblatecl. thil
festival of their patron saint; the vast resort of people occasioned a great (I
mancl for goods. wares &c. They wvere called wakes from the people illakin
merry during the vigil, or eve. Fairs were established in France andi Elg
land by Charlemagne and Williani the Conqueror, about A. D. 800 in til
first, aind 1071 in the latter kingdomn. The fairs of Beaucaire, Falaise, an'
Leipsic, are the most famous in Europe.
FALKIRK, BATTLE OF, between the English under Edward I. and the Sects
commanded by the heroic Wallace, in which 40,000 of the latter were slair'
FEU I DICTIONARY OF DATES. 319
the whole Scotch army was broken lup, and was chased off the field with
dreadful slaughter, July 22, 1298.
FAMINES, AND SEASONS of REMARKABLE SCARCITY. The famine of
the seven years in Egypt began 1798 n. c.- Usher; Blair. In a famine that
raged at Rome thousands of the people threw themselves into the Tiber,
436 3. c. Livby.
Awful famine in Egypt - A. D. 42 voured the flesh of horses, dogs, cats,
At Rome, attended by plague - 262 and vermin A. D. 131.5
In Britain, so grievous that people ate One in England and France (Rlapin) - 1353
the bark of trees 272 Again, one so great, that bread was
In Scotland, and thousands die 306 made from fern roots (Stowe) - 1438
In England, where 40,000 perish 310 Awful one in France (Voltaire) - 1693
Awful one in Phrygia - - - 370 One general in Great Britain -1748
So dreadful in Italy, that parents ate One which devastates Bengal - - 1771
their children (Detfresnzoy) - 450 At the Cape de Verds, where 16,000 perIn England, Wales, and Scotland 739 sons perish -1775
Again, when thousands starve 823 One griervously felt in France - - 1789
Again, which lasts four years - 954 One severely felt in England - - 1795
Awful one throughout Europe - - 1016 Again, throughout the kingdom - 1801
In England and France; this famine At Drontheinl, owing to Sweden literleads to a pestilential fever, which cepting the supplies - - -1813
lasts from 1193 to - - - 1195 Scarcity of food, severely felt by the
Another famine in England - - 1251 Irish poor, 1814, 1816, 1822, and - 1845-6
Again, so dreadful, that the people deFAN, The use of the faln was known to the ancients: Cape /oc flabellztem et
veet'lrlltm lttic sic fac/ito.-TERENCE. The modern custom among the ladies
was borrowed friom the East. Fans, together with tultff~s, masks, and false
hair, were first devised by the harlots in Italy, and were brought to England
frolm France.-Stowe. The fan was used by females to hide their faces in
church.-Pardon.
FARCE. This species of dramatic entertainment originated in the droll shows
which were exhibited by charlatans and their buffoons in the open street.
These were introduced into our theatres in a ludicrous and more refined
form; and they are now only shorter, but often superior to the pieces called
comedies. See article Dramsa.
FASTING, AND FASTS. They were practised and observed by most nations
from the remotest antiquity. Annual fasts, as that of Lent, and at other
stated times, and on particular occasions, begun in the Christian church,
to appease the anger of God, in the second century, A. D. 138. Retained as
a pious practice by the reformed churches.-Esrsebius.
VEASTS AND FESTIVALS. The feast of the Tabernacles was instituted by
Moses in the wilderness, 1490 B. C., but was celebrated with the greatest
magnificence for fourteen days, upon the dedication of the temple of Solomon, 1005 B. c.-Joseph/us. In the Christian church, those of Christmas,
Easter, Ascension, and Pentecost or Whitsuntide, were first ordered to be
observed by all Christians, A. D. 68. Rogation days were appointed in 469.
Jubilees in the Romish church were instituted by Boniface VIII. in 1300.
See Jabilecs. For fixed festivals observed in the church of England, as settled at the Reformation, et seq., see Book of Covmeon Prajyer.
FEBRUARY. The second month of the year, so called from Februa, a feast
which was held therein in behalf of the manes of diseased persons, when
sacrifices were performed, and the last offices were paid to the shades of the
dead. This month, with January, was added to the year, whlich had previously but ten months, by Numa, 713 B. c. See Calesndar, and Yeasr.
FERRARA. A city in the papal dominions, evacuated by the Austrians, except the citadel, Dec. 23, 1847.
FEUDAL LAWS. The tenure of land, by suit or service to the lord or owner
of it, was introduced into England by the Saxons, about A. D. 600. The
320 THE WORLD' S PROGRESS. [ FIn
slavery of this tenure was increased under William I. in 1068. This was
done by dividing the kingdom into baronies, and giving them to certain.
persons, requiring them to furnish the king with money, andl a stated number of soldiers. These laws were discountenanced in France by Louis XI.
in 1470. The vassalage was restored, but limited by Henry VII. 1495. Abolished by statute 12 Charles II. 1663. The feudal system was introduced into
Scotland by Malcolm II. in 1008; and was finally abolished in that kingdom
20 George II. 1746.-Littleton; Ruffeicad; Blacksloule.
FEUILLANS. Members of a society formed in Paris to counteract the intrigues
and operations of the Jacobins, named from the Feuillan convent, where
their mheetings were held, early in the revolution. A body of Jacobilti
invested the building, burst into their hall, and obliged them to separate,
Dec. 25, 1791.
FEZ. The ancient Mauritanica, founded by Edrus, a Barbary farnme?. about
A. D. 696. It soon afterwards became the capital of all the western A.I. rocco
States. Leo Africanus describes the Mauritani as containing more than
seven hundred temples, mosques, and other public edifices, in the twelfth
century.
FICTION LAW. Invented by the lawyers in the reign of Edward I. as a meaps
of carrying cases from one court to another, whereby the courts became
checks to each other. —Hl/me. Memorable declaration of Lord Mansfield,
in the court of King's Bench, emphatically uttered, that " NO FICTION OFr LAW
SHALL EVER SO FAR PREVAIL AGAINST THE REAL TRUTH OF THE FACT, AS TO
PREVENT TI-IE EXECUTION OF JUSTICE," May 21, 1784. This constitutional
maxim is now a rule of law.
FIEF. In France we find fiefs-men mentioned as early as the age of Childebert
I., A. D. 511. They were introduced into Italy by the Lombards. Into Spain,
before the invasion of the Moors, A. D. 710. Into England by the- Saxor
(see Feudal Laws). Into Scotland, directly from England, by Malcolhn II., 1008.
FIELD oF THE CLOTH oF GOLD. Henry VIII. embarked at Dover to meet
Francis I. of France, at Ardres, a small town near Calais in France, May 31,
1520. The nobility of both kingdoms here displayed their magnificence with
such emulation and profuse expense, as procured to the place of interview
(an open plain) the name of Thle;Vield of the Cloth of Gold. Many of the
king's attendants involved themselves in great debts on this occasion, and
were not able, by the penury of the rest of their lives, to repair the vai-l
splendor of a few days. A painting of the embarkation, and another of th.
interview, are at Windsor Castle.-Butler.
FIFTH MONARCHY-MEN. Fanatical levellers who arose in the time of
Cromwell, and who supposed the period of the Millennium to be just at
hand, when JESUS should descend from heaven and erect the fifth universal
monarchy. They actually proceeded to elect Jesus CHRIST king at London!
Cromwell dispersed them, 1653.
FIGURES. Arithmetical figures (nine digits and zero), and the method of
computing by them, were brought into Europe from Arabia, about A. D. 900.
They were first known in England about the year 1253, previously to whica
time the numbering by letters was in use there. See Arithmetic.
FIRE. It is said to have been first produced by striking flints together. The
poets suppose that fire was stolen from heaven by Prometheus. Zoroaster.
king of Bactria, was the founder of the sect of the Magi, or worshippers of
Fire, since known by the appellation of Guebres, still numerous in the countries of the East, 2115 a. c.-Justilb; Pliny. Heraclitus maintained that the
world was created from fire, and he deemed it to be a god omnipotent, and
':ip, ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 321
taught this theory about 506 B. c.-Nouv. Didt. In the Scriptures God is
said often to have appeared in, or encompassed with fire-as to Moses in theo
burning bush, on mount Sinai; and to the prophets Isaiah, Ezekiel, and St.
John. The wrath of God is described by a consuming fire, and the angels,
as his ministers, are compared to it. See the Bible.
FIRE-ARMS. Small arms were contrived by Schwartz, A. D. 1378; they were
brought to England about 1388. Fire-arms were a prodigious rarity in Ireland in 1489, when six muskets were sent from Germany as a present to the
earl of Kildare, who was then chief-governor. Muskets were first used at
the siege of Rhegen, in 1525. The Spaniards were the first nation who
armed the foot soldier with these weapons.- Ulloc. Voltaire states, that the
Venetians were the first to use guns, in an engagement at sea against the
Genoese, in 1377; but our historians affirm, that the English had guns at the
battle of Cressy, in 1346; and the year following at the siege of Calais. See
Artillery.
FIRE-ENGINES. The fire-engine is of modern invention, although the forcing
pump, of which it is an application, is more than two centuries old. The
fire-engine, to force water, was constructed by John Vander Heyden, about
the year 1663; it was improved materially in 1752, and from that time to the
present. The fire-watch, or fire-guard of London, was instituted November
1791. The fire brigade was established in London in 1833.';iFIRE-SHIPS. They were first used in the sixteenth century. Among the most
formidable contrivances of this kind ever used, was an explosion vessel to
destroy a bridge of boats at the siege of Antwerp, in 1585. The first use of
them in the English navy was by Charles, lord Howard of Effingham, afterwards earl of Nottingham, lord high admiral of England, in the engagement
with the Spanish Armada, July, 1588.-Rapin.
FIRE-WORKS. Are said to have been familiar to the Chinese in remote ages:
they were invented in Europe at Florence, about A. D. 1360; and were iirst
exhibited as a spectacle in 1588. At an exhibition of' fire-works in Paris,
in honor of the marriage of the dauphin, afterwards Louis XVI., the passages being stopped up occasioned such a crowd, that the people, seized with
a panic, trampled upon one another till they lay in heaps; a scaffold erected
over the river also broke clown, and hundreds were drowned; imore than
1000 persons perished on this occasion, June 21, 1770. Maldamne Blanchard
ascending from Tivoli Gardens, Paris, at night, in a balloon surrounded by
fire-works, the balloon took fire, and she was precipitated to the ground, and
dashed to pieces, July 6, 1819. See Balloon.
FIRES. Some of the most noted and destructive in North America.
In New York, destroying 600 warehou- New York, destroying 302 stores and
ses and /.roperty to amount of $20,- dwelling-houses, and property worth
000,000 - Dec. 16, 1835 $6,000,000-4 lives lost - July 19, 1845
At Washington, destroying the General St. John's, Newfoundland; nearly the
Post Office and Patent Office, with whole town destroyed —6,000 people
10,000 valuable models, drawings, made houseless - - June 12, 1846
&c. - - - Dec. 15, 1836 Quebec Theatre Royal; 47 persons
At Charleston, S. C.; 145 acres and burned to death - Junle 14, 1846
1,158 buildings destroyed - April 27, 1838 Nantucket; 300 buildings, valued
New York; 46 buildings; loss,.10,- $800,00 - - - July 13, 1846
000,000 - - - Sept. 6, 1839 Dupont's powder mills, Md., exploded,
Philadelphia; 52 buildings; loss, 18 persons killed - April 14, 1847
$500,000 - - Oct. 4,1839 At Albany; 600 buildings, besides
Pittsburgh, Pa. 1,000 buildings, and steamboats &c.,24: acres burned over,
property valued about $6,000,000 loss, $3,000,000 Aug. 17, 1849
April 10, 1845 At Brookllyn, N, Y., 200 houses, value,
Quebec, Canada; 1,500 houses burnt, $750,000. - - Sept. 9, 1848
immense loss of property, and se- At St. Louis; 23 steamboats and 15
veral lives, May 28, 1845. Another, blocks of houses destroyed, loss about
burning 1,300 dwellings; in all, two- $3,000.000 - - May 17, 1849
thirds of the city June 28, 1845 At Philadelphia, 300 houses July 9, 1850
14*
322 THE WORLD7S PROGRESS. [ FLO
FIRE OF LONDON, THE GREAT. Destroyed in the tpace of four days eightynine churches, including St. Paul's; the city gates, the Royal Exchange, the
Custom House. Guildhall, Sion College, and many other public buildings,
besides 13;200 houses, laying waste 400 streets. This conflagration happened
(not without strong suspicion of treason), Sept. 2, 1666, and continued three
days and nights, and was at last only extinguished by the blowing up of
houses.-H-Ime; Rapin; Carte.
FIRST FRUITS. Primnitice among the Hebrews. They were offerings which
made a large part of the revenues of the Hebrew priesthood. First fruits
were instituted by pope Clement V., in A. D. 1306; and were collected in
England in 1316. The first year's income of every church benefice in England was given to the popes till the 27th of Henry VIII., 1535, when the
first fruits were assigned, by act of parliament, to the king and his successors.-Carte. Granted, together with the tenths, to increase the incomes of
the poor clergy, by queen Anne, Feb. 1704. Consolidation of the offices of
First Fruits, Tenths, and queen Anne's Bounty, by Statute I Vict.,.Aprlil
1838.
FLAGELLANTS, SECT OF. They established themselves at Perouse, A. D.
1260. They maintained that there was no remission of sins without flagellation, and publicly lashed themselves, while in procession, preceded by t-?,
cross, until the blood flowed from their naked backs. Their leader, Conrac
Schmidt, was burnt, 1414.
FLANDERS. The country of the ancient IBelgie; conquered by Julius Cmsar,
47 B. c. It passed into the hands of France, A. D. 412. It was governed by
its earls subject to that crown, from 864 to 1369. It then came into the
house of Austria by marriage; but was yielded to Spain in 1556. Flanders
shookl off the Spanish yoke in 1572; and in 1725, by the treaty of Vienna, it
was annexed to the German emlpire.-Priestley. Flanders was overrun by
the French in 1792 and 1794, and was declared part of their Republic. T
was made part of the kingdom of the Netherlands in 1814, and was erectec
into the kingdom of Belgium in 1831.-See Belgiuv.
FLAX. The flax seed was first planted in England in A. D. 1533. For many
ages the core was separated from the flax, the bark of the plant, by the hand.
A mallet was next used; but the old methods of breaking and scutching the
flax yielded to a water-mill which was invented in Scotland about 1750.
See article Hewmp.
FLODDEN FIELD, BATTLE OF, between the English and Scots. James IV. of
Scotland, having taken part with Louis XII. of France, against Henry VIII.
of England, this battle was one of the consequences of his unfortunate policy;
and James, and most of his chief nobles, and upwards of' 10,000 of his army
were slain, while the English, who were commanded by the earl of Surry,
lost only persons of small note. Henry VIII. was at the time besieging
Terouenne, near St. Omer; fought Sept. 9, 1513.
FLORENCE. It is said to have been founded by the soldiers of Sylla. and enlarged by the Roman Triumviri. It was destroyed by Totila, and was rebuilt by Charlemagne. This city is truly the seat of the arts. In its palaces, university, academies, churches, and libraries, are to be found ti,
rarest works of sculpture and painting in the world. The Florentine academy, and the Accademia della Cresca, were instituted to enrich the literature
and improve the language of Tuscany; the latter is so named because it
rejects like bran all words not purely Tuscan. Florence was taken by the
French in July 1796, and again in March, 1799; and was restored in 1814.
FLORIDA, now one of the United States, was discovered by Sebastian Cabot
sailing under the English flag, in 1497. Ponce de Leon, a Spanish adven
,PLO ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 323
turer from Hispaniola, explored the country in 1512 and 1516. In 1539,
Hernando de Soto, who had been an officer under Pizarro, overran the peninsula with an armed force, but most of his followers were cut off a few years
after. In 1763 Florida was ceded to Great Britain by Spain in exchange for
Havana. The Spanish reconquered it in 1781, and ceded it to the United
States in 1819. It was admitted into the Union in 1845. First war with the
Seminoles in Florida in 1818, when general Jackson subdued them. Another
protracted and expensive warfare there commenced and continued until
1842. General Jessup, general Taylor, and others, were engaged in it. The
Seminole chief, Osceola, was captured, 1837. Population in 1830, 34,723;
in 1840, 54,477 including 25,717 slaves.
FLORIN. A coin first made by the Florentines. A floren was issued by Edward III, which was current in England at the value of 6s., in 1337.-Cavtmdew. This English coin was called floren after the Florentine coin, because
the latter was of the best gold.-As/ce. The florin:f Germany is in value
2s. 4d.; that of Spain 4s. 41d.; that of Palermo and Sicily 2s. 6d.; that of
Holland 2s.-Ayliffe.
FLOWERS. The most delightful and fragrant among the ornaments of our
gardens are of foreign production. The modern taste for flowers came, it is
said, from Persia to Constantinople, and was imported thence to Europe for
the first time in the sixteenth century; at least many of the productions of
our gardens were conveyed by that channel.-Becklmanzn. With what goodness does GOD provide for our happiness and enjoyments, by making even
the most remote countries contribute towards them!-Sta-rm. From the
reign of Henry VII. to that of Elizabeth, our present common flowers were,
for the most part, introduced into England. The art of preserving flowers
in sand was discovered in 1633. A mode of preserving them from the effects
of frost in winter, and hastening their vegetation in summer, was invented
in America, by George Morris, in 1792. Among the flowers, the periods of
whose introduction to English gardens have been traced, Haydn gives the
following:FLOWERS, PLANTS, &C. Gold-plant, Japan - - 1783
Acacia. N. America, before A. D. 164.0 Golden bell-flower, Madeira - - 1777
Allspice shrub, Carolina - - 1726 Hawthorn, American, from N. AmerAnniseed tree, Florida, about. -.766 ica. beolre - 1683
Arbor Vital, Canada, before - 1596 IHeath, ardent, Cape 1800
Arctopus, Cape of Good Hope - 1774 Heath, beautiful, Cape - - 1795
Auricula, Switzerland 1567 Heath, fiagrant, Cape - - 1803
Azarole, S. Europe, before - 1640 Heath,. garland, Cape - - 1774
Bay, royal, Madeira.. - 1665 Heath, perfumed, Cape - 1803
Bay, sweet. Italy, before - 1548 Honeyflower, great, Cape - - 1688
Camellia, China - 1811 Honeysuckle, Chinese, China - 1806
Chaste tree, Sicily, before - - 1570 Honeysuckle, fly, Cape - - - 1752
Christ's thorn, Africa, before - - 1596 Honeysuckle, trumpet, N. America - 1656
Canary bell-flower, Canaries - 1696 Hyssop, south of Europe, before - 1548
Carnation, Flanders - 1567 Jasmine, Circassia, before - 1548
Ceanothus, blue, New Spain - 1818 Jasmine, Catalonian, East Indies - - 1629
Canary convolvulus, Canaries 1690 Judas-tree, south of Europe, before - 1596
Convolvulus, many-flowered - 1779 Laburnum, Hungary - - - 1576
Coral tree, Cape - - 1816 Laurel. Alexandrian, Portugal, before 1713
Coral tree, bell-flowered, Cape - 1791 Laurestine, south of Europe, before - 1596
Coral tree, tremulous, Cape - 1789 Lavender, south of Europe, before 1568
Creeper, Virginian, N. America - 1603 Lily, Italy, before - - - 1460
Dahlia, China - - 1803 Lily, gigantic, N. South Wales 1800
Dryandra, New Holland - 1803 Lily, red-colored, South America - - 1623
Evergreen thorn, Italy 1629 Loblolly-bay, N. America, before 1739
Everlasting, great-flowered, Cape 1781 Lupine tree, Cape, about - * 1793
Everlasting, giant, Cape - - 1793 Magnolia (see Magnolia), N. America 1688
Fernbush, sweet, N. America - - 1714 Magnolia, dwarf, China - - 1786
Fox-glove, Canaries - - 1698 Magnolia, laurel-leaved, N. America - 1734
Geranium, Flanders. - 1534 Maiden-hair. Japan- - 1714
Gillyflower, Flanders - 1567 Mignionette, Italy - 1528
324 THIE WORLD'S PROGRE:S. [ ON
FLOWERS, continued.
Milk-wort, great-flowered, Cape - - 1713 Rose, tube, from Java and Ceylon - 1629
Milk-wort, showy, Cape - 1814 Rose without thorns, N. America, beMountain tea, N. America, before - - 1758 fore 1726
Mock orange, south of Europe, before 1596 Rosemary, south of Europe - - 15418
Myrtle, candleberry, N. America - - 1699 St. Peter's wort, North America -. 1730
Myrtle, woolly-leaved, China - 1776 Sage, African, Cape - - 1731
Nettle-tree, south of Europe, before 1596 Sage, Mexican, Mexico - - 1724
Olive, Cape, Cape - - - 1730 Sassafras tree, N. America, before 16887
Olive, sweet-scented, China - 1771 Savin, south of Europe, before - - 184
Oleander, red, south of Europe - 1596 Snowdrop, Carolina - - - 1756
Paraguay tea, Carolina, before - 1724 Sorrel tree, N. America, before - - 1752
Passion-flower, Brazil - - - 1692 Sweet bay, south of Europe, before - 1548
Passion-flower, orange, Carolina - 1792 Tamarisk plant, Germany- - 1560
Pigeon-berry, N. America - 1736 Tea tree, China, about - - 176~
Pink, from Italy - 1567 Tooth-ache tree, Carolina, before - 1739
Ranunculus, Alps - 1528 Trumpet-flower, N. America - - 1640
Roses, Netherlands - - 1522 Trumpet-flower, Cape - 1823
Rose, the China, China - 1789 Tulip, Vienna - - - 1578
Rose, the damask, Marseilles, and Virginia creeper, N. America, before 1629
south of Europe, about - 1543 Virgin's-bower, Japan -. - 1776
Rose, the Japan, China - 1793 Weeping willow,.Levant, before 1- 192
Rose, the moss, before - - 1724 Wax tree, China - 1794
Rose, the muslk, Italy - - 1522 Winter berry, Virginia - - 1736
Rose, the Provence, Flanders - - 1567 Youlan, China - - 1789
Rose, sweet-scented guelder, from
China 1821
FLUTE. Invented by Hyagnis, a Phrygian, the father of Marsyas.-Plztarch.
The flute, harp, lyre, and other instruments were known to the Romans;
and the flute was so prized in antiquity, that several female deities lay
claim to its invention. It was in far more general use as a concert instru.
ment than the violin, until early in the last century, when the works of Corelli came over.-See 3ttsic.
FLUXIONS. Invented by Newton, 1669. The differential calculus by Leibnitz, 1684. The finest applications of the calculus are by Newton, Euler.
La Grange, and La Place.
FLYING, ARTIFICIAL. It has been attempted in all ages. Friar Bacon maintained the possibility of the art, and predicted it would be of general practice, A. D. 1273. Bishop Wilkins says, it will yet be as usual to hear a. man
call for his ~wings when he is going on a journey, as it is now to hear him
call for his boots, 1651. We apprehend that many ages will pass away previously to the accomplishment of these predictions.
FONTAINEBLEAU, PEACE OF, concluded between France and Denmark in
1679. Treaty of Fontainebleau between the emperor of Germany anll
Holland, signed November 8, 1785-. Treaty of Fontainebleau between Napoleon and the royal family of Spain, Oct. 27, 1807. Concordat of Fontainebleau between Napoleon and pope Pius VII. January 25, 1813. Fontainebleau was entered by the Austrlians, Feb. 17, 1814. And here,
Napoleon resigned his imperial dignity, and bade a farewell to his army,
April 5, 1814.
FONTENOY, BATTLE OF, near Tournay, between the French under count Saxe,
and the English, Hanoverians, Dutch, and Austrians, commanded by the
duke of Cumberland. The battle was fought with great obstinacy, and the
carnage on both sides was considerable, the allies losing 12,000 men, and
the French nearly an equal number of lives; but the allies were in the end
defeated. Count Saxe, who was at the time ill of the disorder of which
he afterwards died, was carried about to all the posts in a litter, assuring
his troops that the day would be their own; April 30, 1745.
FONTS. Formerly the baptistry was a small room, or place partitioned off in
a church, where the persons to be baptized (many of whom in the early
FOI1 j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 325
ages were adults), were submerged. Previously to these artificial reservoirs, lakes and rivers were resorted to for immersion. Fonts for the initiation into Christianity were instituted in A. D. 167.
FOOLS, FESTIVALS OF, at Paris. They were held on the first of January, and
were continued for 240 years. In their celebration, we are told, all sorts of
absurdities and indecencies were committed, A. D. 1198. Fools or licensed
jesters were kept at court in England (as they were at other courts of Europe), and were tolerated up to the time of Charles I. 1625.
FORESTS. There were in England, even in the last century, as many as 68
forests, 18 chases, and upwards of 780 parks. The New Forest in Hampshire was made by William I., who for that purpose destroyed 36 parishes,
pulled down 36 churches, and dispeopled the country for 30 miles round,
A. D. 1079-85.-Stowe.
FORGERY IN ENCLAND. The forging of, or giving in evidence forged deeds, &c.,
made punishable by fine, by standing in the pillory, having both ears cut
off, the nostrils slit up and seared, the forfeiture of land, and perpetual
imprisonnment, 5 Elizabeth, 1562. Forgery was first punished by death iin
1634.
FORGERY, REMARKABLE EXECUTIONS PRon. The unfortunate Daniel and Robert Perreau, brothers and wine-merchants, were hanged at Tyburn, January 17, 1776. The rev. Dr. Dodd was found guilty of forging a bond,. lin
the name of Lord Chesterfield, for 4,2001.: the greatest interest was made,
and the highest influence was exerted to save him, but when the case came
before the council, the minister of the day said to George III., " if your
majesty pardon Dr. Dodd, you will have murdered the Perreaus;" and he
was hanged accordingly, June 27, 1777. Mr. Henry Fauntleroy, a London
banker, was hanged, November 30, 1824. Joseph Hunton, a quaker merchant, suffered death, December 8, 1828. The last criminal hanged for
forgery at the Old Bailey, was Thomas Maynard, December 31, 1829.
FORKS. They were in use on the Continent in the 13th and 14th centuries.Voltaire. This is reasonably disputed, as being too early. In Fynes Moryson's Itinerary, reign of Elizabeth, he says, " At Venice each person was
served (besides his knife and spoon) with a fork to hold the meat while he
cuts it, for there they deem it ill manners that one should touch it with his
hand." Thomas Coryate describes, with much solemnity, the manner of
using forks in Italy, and adds,'" I myself have thought it good to imitate
the Italian fashion since I came home to England," A. D. 1608.
FORTIFICATION. The Phoenicians were the first people who had fortified
cities. Apollodorus says that Perseus fortified Mycenm, where statues
were afterwards erected to him. The modern system was introduced about
A. D. 1500. Albert Durer first wrote on the science in 1527; and improvements were made by Vauban, towards 1700.
FOTHERINGAY CASTLE, Northamptonshire. Built A. D. 1408. Here Richard
III. of England was born in 1443; and Mary queen of Scots, whose death
is an indelible stain upon the reign of our great Elizabeth, was beheaded
in this castle, in which she had been long previously confined, February 8,
1587, after an unjust and cruel captivity of almost nineteen years in England. It was ordered to be demolished by her son James I. of England.
FOUJNDLING HOSPITAL. " A charity practised by most nations about us
for those children exposed by unnatural parents."-Addison. Foundling
hospitals are, comparatively, of recent institution in England, where it
would appear none existed when Addison wrote. The foundling hospital
at Moscow, built by Catherine II., was an immense and costly edifice, in
which 8000 infant children were succored.
326 TrHi WO\RLD'S PROGRESS. [ riA.
FRANCE. This country was known to the Romans by the name of Gaul. In
the decline of their power it was conquered by the Franks, a people of Germany, then inhabiting what is still called Franconia. These invaders gave
the name to the kingdom; but the Gauls, being by far the most numerous,
are the real ancestors of the modern French. Previous to the revolution,
France was divided into 32 provinces; and after that era it was divided,
first into 84, and subsequently into 103, departments, including Corsica,
Geneva, Savoy, and other places, chiefly conquests. Tab. Views, 65 et seq.
The Franks, under their leader Phara- 1350. John II.; died suddenly in the Savoy,
meond, settle in that part of Gaul till in London.
late called Flanders - - A. D. 420 1364. Charles V., surnamed the Wise; the
Reign of Clovis the Great - - 481 first prince who had the title of dau[The Events in F rench History and the phin. (See article Daulhire.)
succession of sovereigns will be found 1380. Charles VI., the Beloved.
in the Tabular Views in this volume, 1422. Charles VII., the Vict; aious.
commencing p. 65.] 1461. Louis XI., detested fobr his atrocious
720. Childeric IL cruelties.
737. Charles Martel ruled with despotic 1483. Charles VIII., the Affable.
sway during an interregnumn. 498. Louis XII., duke of Orleans, surnamed
742. Childeric IlI., the Stupid; turned the Father of his People.
monkl. 1515. Francis I.
1547. Henry II.: died of a wound received
THE CARLOVINGIANS. at a touriament.
752. Pepin the Short, son of Charles Mar- 1559. Francis I.; married Mary Stuart
tel; this race called Carlovingians. afterwards queen of Scots; died
768. Charlemagne, or Charles the Great; the year after his accession.
also emperor of Germany. 1560. Charles IX. Catherine of Medicis, his
514. Louis I., the Gentle, surnamed, also, mother, obtained the regency, which
the Debonsnsaire; dethroned, and im- trust she abused.
prisoned in a monastery. 1574. Henry III., elected king of Poland;
&,10. Charles I1., surnamed the Bald; poi- nmrdered Aug. 1, 15S9, by Jacques
soned by his physician Hemudlt. Clement, a Dominican friiar. In this
377. Louis the Stammerer. prince was extinguished the house
879. Carloman and Louis ITI. The latter of Valois..
died, 882. Carloman reigned alone. 1589. HIenry IV., the Great, of Bourbon,
s8. Charles the Fat; an usurper. king of Navarre; murdered by Frarl.
887. Eudes or -Ilugh. cis Rlavillac. (See 1Zvillac.)
898. Charles III., the Simple; deposed and 1610. Louis XIII., the Just.
died in prison. 1643. Louis XIV., the Great, also styled
923. Rudolph. Dieu-Donne.
936 Louis IV., d'Outremer; died by a fall 1715. Louis XV., the WTell-Beloved; but
from his horse. which surname he lost.
354. Lothaire III. poisoned; it is said by 1774. Louis XVI., his grandson; guillohis wife Emma. tined, Jan. 21, 1793; and his queen
986. Louis V. the Indolent; poisoned by Maria-Antoinette, Oct. 16, following.
his wife Blanche, and in him ended 1789. The Revolution commences with the
the race of Charlemagne. destruction of the Bastile, July 14.
1795. Louis XVII., dies in prison.
THE CAPETS.
987. Hugh Capet, from whom this race of FRENCH EMPIRE.
kings are called Capevingians.
996. Robert the Sage. 1804. Napoleon Bonaparte declared Empe1031. Henry I. ror, May 18, 1804; crowned by the
1060. Philip I., the Fair. pope, Dec. 2, following; assumes
1108. Louis VI., the Lusty. the iron crown, May 26, 1805. Re1137. Louis VII., the Younlg. nounces the thrones of France and
1180. Philip II., Augustus. Italy, Apr. 5, 1814.
1223. Louis VIII., the Lion.
1226. Louis IX., called St. Louis; died in BOURBONS RESTORED.
his camp before Tunis; canonized.
1270. Philip III., the Hardy. 1814. Louis XVIII.; ascends the throne
1285. Philip IV., the Handsome. May 3, 1814; dies, Sept. 16, 1821.
13514. Louis X., Hutin. 1824. Charles X.; deposed, July 30, 1830,
1316. John, who reigned only eight days. retires to Ralnbouillet same day,
1316. Philip V., the Long. anti subsequently seeks protection
1323. Charles 1V., the Handsome; king of in England.
Navarre.
nOUSE OF ORLEANS.
HOUSE OF VALOIS. 1830. Louis-Philippe; declared "king ot
1328. Philip de Valois. the French," August 9.
i'RE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 32'7
FRANCHISE. A privilege, or exemption from ordinary jurisdiction; and anciently an asylum or sanctuary where the person was secure. In Spain,
churches and monasteries were, until lately, franchises for criminals, as they
were formerly in England. The elective franchise was conferred for counties on persons having 40s. a year in land, 39 Henry VI., 1460.-Rff/teaed's
Statetes. See Electors.
FRANCISCANS. An order of friars, called also Gray Friars, in the Church
of Rome, founded by Francis de Assise in A. D. 1209, or, according to some
authorities, about 1220. Their rules were chastity, poverty, obedience, and
very austere regimen of life. In 1224 they are said to have appeared in
England, where, at the time of the dissolution of Monasteries by Henry VIII.,
they had fifty-five abbeys or other houses, A. D. 1536-38.
FRANKFORT ON TI-IE MAIN. Many ages a free city; it was taken and retaken
several times during the wars of the late and present centuries, and felt the
iron rule of Bonaparte from 1803 to 1813, when its independence was guaranteed by the allied sovereigns. The diet of the princes of Germany was
established here by the Rhenish confederation in 1806.
FREDERICKSHALL, SIEGE Or. Rendered memnorable by the death of
Charles XII., of Sweden, who was killed by a cannon-shot before its walls,
anid while in the trenches, leaning against the parapet, examining the works.
He was found in that position, with his hand upon his sword, and a prayerbook in his pocket, Dec. 11, 1718. It is now generallysupposed that a pistol fired by some near and traitorous hand closed the career of this celebrated monarch, who was too aptly styled the "11Madman of the North."
FREEMAASONRY. It is of great antiquity. Writers on masonry, themlselves
masons, affirm that it has had a being "ever since symmetry began, and
harmony displayed her charlns." Masonry is traced by some to the building of Solomon's temple; and it is said the architects fromn the African coast,
Mahometans, brought it into Spain, about the sixth century, as a protection against Christian fanatics. Its introduction into Great Britain has been
fixed at the year A. D. 674; although by other authorities it is assigned as
much earlier date. The grand lodge at York was founded A. D. 926. Freemasonry was interdicted in England, A. D. 1424; but it afterwards rose into
great repute. In 1717, the grand lodge of England was established; that
of Ireland was established in 1730; and that of Scotland in 1736. Freemasons were excommunicated by the pope, in 1738.,JRENCH LANGUAGE. The language of France and many of the French
laws and customs were first introduced into England by William I. 1066.
The language, and fashions in dress and diet were then very general in England. Law pleadings were changed from French to English, in the reign of
Edward III., 1362. —Sowve.
FRENCHTOWN, CANADA. This town was taken from the British by the
American general, Winchester, January 22, 1813. It was retaken by the
British forces under general Proctor, immediately afterwards, and the American commander and his troops were made prisoners.'RENCH WAR, in North America. The first war between France and England, which was carried on also by the American colonies, 1689. The
French destroyed Schenectady, N. Y., Casco, Me., &c., 1690; but were defeated
by Schuyler at La Prairie, 1691. Peace of Ryswyck, 1697. "Queen Anne's
war," 1702. French and Indians ravaged Maine, 1703. French and Spanish
invade Carolina, 1706. Expedition from New England against the French
in Port Royal, 1707; and against Canada, 1710; both failed. Peace of
Utrecht, 1713. Another war declared by England. 1744; Louisbourg and
Cape Breton taken by English colonists, 1745. Peace, 1749. French en
328 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ FRO
croachment on English colonies, 1750, leads to the noted French war, 1752-3,
Washington's mission, 1754. Braddock's defeat, 1755. Oswego, &c. taken
by French, 1756, and fort William Henry, 1757. Louisbourg taken by the English general Amherst, and fort Du Quesne by general Forbes, 1758. Ticonderoga, Crown Point, Niagara, and Quebec taken by the English (sir W.
Johnson and General Wolfe), 1759. Canada surrendered to Great Britain,
Sept. 8, 1760, and secured to her by the peace of' Paris, 1763.
French alliance with the United States in the war of the revolution, Feb. 6,
1778. French revolution and politics caused serious dissensions in the
United States, 1793-6. French spoliations on American commerce, 1797.
FRIDAY. The sixth day of the week; so called from Friga, a goddess wor
shipped by our forefathers on this day, commonly supposed to be the same
with Venus. Friga was the wife of Thor, and goddess of peace, fertility,
and riches. Good-Friday is a fast in the church of England in memory of;
our Saviour's crucifixion, April 3, 33. See Good Friday.
FRIEDLAND, BATTLE OF, between the allied Russian and Prussian armies on
the one side, and the French, commanded by Napoleon in person, who completely vanquished the allies, with the loss of eighty pieces of cannon, and
50,000 men, June 14, 1807. This victory led to the peace of Tilsit, by which
Russia lost no territory, but Prussia was obliged to surrender nearly half her
dominions.
FRIENDLY ISLES. These islands were discovered by Tasman,.A. D. 1642.
Visited by Wallis, who called them Keppel Isles, 1767; and by capt. Cook,
who called them by their present name on account of' the friendly disposition of the natives, 1773.
FRIENDLY SOCIETIES, ENGLAND. These useful institutions originated in
the clubs of the industrious classes; and since they began to spring into
importance they have been regulated and protected by various legislative
enactments. They have now, with other similar institutions, more than
twenty millions sterling in the public funds. Laws regarding Friendly
Societies consolidated by statute, June, 1829.. See Charities.
FRIESLAND. Formerly governed by its own counts. On the death of prince
Charles Edward, in 1744, it became subject to the king of Prussia; Hanover disputed its possession, but Prussia prevailed. It was annexed to Holland by Bonaparte, in 1806, and afterwards to the French empire; but
Prussia regained the country in 1814. The term Chevaux.z de PrIdise (sometimes, though rarely, written Clheval de Frise, a Friesland Horse) is derived.
fiom Friesland, where it was invented.
FROBISHER'S STRAITS. Discovered by sir Martin Frobisher, the first Englishman who attempted to find a northwest passage to China, in 1576.
After exploring the coast of New Greenland, he entered this strait, which
has ever since been called by his name. Frobisher returned to England,
bringing with him a quantity of black ore, which was supposed to contain
gold, and which induced queen Elizabeth to patronize a second voyage, and
lend a sldop of war for the purpose. The delusion was even kept up to a
third expedition; but all of them proved fruitless.
FROSTS. The Euxine Sea frozen over for twenty days, A. nD. 401.- Univ. Hist.
A frost at Constantinople which commenced in October, 763, and continued
until February of the next year; the two seas there were frozen a hundred
miles from the shore.-U~niv. Hist. A frost in England on Midsmunmer-day
was so violent that it destroyed the fruits of the earth,.1035. —Speed. The
frost in Russia in 1812 surpassed in intenseness that of any winter in that
country for many preceding years, and caused the total destruction of the
French army in its retreat from Moscow, at the close of that memorabli
gUN ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 329
year. Napoleon commenced his retreat on the 9th November, when the
frost covered the ground, and the men perished in battalions, and the horses
fell by hundreds on the roads. What with her loss in battle, and the effects
of this awful and calamitous frost, France lost in. the campaign of this year
more than 400,000 men.
FRUITS of FOREIGN COUNTRIES. Several varieties of fiuit are mentioned
as having been introduced into Italy, 70 B. c. et seq. Exotic firuits and
flowers of various kinds, previously unknown in England, were brought
thither in the reigns of Henry VII. and VIII., and of Mary and Elizabeth,
between the years 1500 and 1578. See Gardeninsg, and Flowers. Among
others of less note, were musk-melons; plum-trees, and currant-plants of sundry sorts, the musk and damask roses tulips, &c.; also saffron, woad, and
other drugs for dyeing, but these last were attempted to be cultivated without success.-Hclcklnyt; Lord Kaimes. The following are among the fruits
whose introduction into England has been traced:FRUITS, ETC. Mulberry, the red, from North AmeAlmond-tree, Barbary - - A. D. 1548 rica, before - - -. 1629
Apples, Syria - - 1522 Mulberry, the paper, from St pan, before 1754
Apple, the custard, North Armericu -1736 Nectarine, Persia - - -1562
Apple, the Osage, ditto - - 1818 Olive, the Cape, Cape - - 1730
Apricots, Epirus. - 1540 Olive, the sweet-scented, China -1771
Cherry-trees, Pontus - - - 100 Oranges - - - 1595
Cornelian cherry, Austria - - -1596 Peaches, Persia - - 1562
Currants, Zante - - - 1533 Pears, from various climes - *
Currant, the hawthorn, Canada - 1705 Pine-apple, Brazils - - -1568
Fig-tree, south of Europe, before -1548 Pippins, Netherlands - - 1525
Fig, the Botany-bay, New South Wales 1789 Plums, Italy - - - - 1522
Gooseberries, Flanders, before - 1540 Plum, the date, Barbary - - 1596
Grapes, Portugal - -1528 Pomegranate, Spain, before - -1548
lemons. Spain - 1554 Quince, Austria - - - 1573
Limes, Portugal - - 1554 Quince, the Japan - 1796
Lime, the American, before - 1752 Raspberry, the flowering, N. America - 1700
Melons, before -. 1540 Raspberry, the Virginian, ditto, before - 1696
Mockl orange, south of Europe, before - 1596 St~awberry, Flanders - - - 1530
Mulberry, Italy - - 1520 Strawbesry, the Oriental Levant -1724
M liberry, white, China, about - - 1596 Walnut, the black, N. America, before 1629
FUNDS To the Venetians is ascribed the origin of the funding system, in
A. D. 1171. Public funds were raised by the Medici family at Florence, in
1340. The English funding system, or the method of raising the supplies
for the public service in England, by anticipations of the public revenues
(the origin of the national debt), introduced at the Revolution, 1689.-1iortimer's Brokes'. The funding system is coeval with the commencement of
the Bank of England.-Anderson. The Three per cent. annuities were created in 1726. The Three per cent. consols were created in 1731. The Three
per cesnt. reduced, 1746. Three per ceit. annuities, payable at the South Seahouse, 1751. Three and a-half per cent. annuities created, 1758. Long annuities, 1761. Four per cent. consols, 1762. Five per cent. annuities, 1797, and
1802. Five per cents. reduced to four, 1822. See ilationaEl Debt.
FUNERAL GAMES are mentioned by most early writers. Among the Greeks
they were chiefly horse races; and among the Romans, processions and tne
mortal combats of gladiators around the funeral pile. These games were
abolished by the emperor Claudius, A. D. 47. Funeral orations have a heathen origin. Solon was the first who spoke one, 580 B. c. They were indispensable among the Romans; the custom of led horses took place A. D
1256. A tax laid on funerals in England, 1793.
FUNERAL ORATIONS. The Romans pronounced harangues over their dead,
when people of quality, and great deeds, and virtues. Theopompus obtained a prize for the best funeral oration in praise of Mausolus, 353 B. c. Popilia was the first Roman lady who had an oration pronounced at her funeral
330 THE WORLD7S PROGRESS. [ GAIL
which was done by her son Crassus; and it is observed by Cicero that Julius
Csesar did the like for his aunt Julia, and his wife Cornelia. In Greece,
Solon was the first who pronounced a funeral oration, according to Herodotus, 580 B. c.
FUR. The refined nations of antiquity never used furs: in later times, as luxury advanced, they were used by princes as linings for their tents. They
were worn by our first Henry, about A. D. 1125. Edward III. enacted that
all such persons as could not spend 1001. a year, should be prohibited this
species of finery, 1337.
G.
GALLEYS. The ancient galleys with three rows of rowers, tri-senmes, were
invented by the Corinthians, 786 B. c.-Blair. They were built at Athens,
786 B. c. For an account of their construction and the method of fighting
in them, see Polybius.
GALVANISM. The discovery of it is recent; it was first noticed in 1767, by
Saltzer; but it was not till about 1789 that Mrs. Galvani, wife of Dr. Galvani
of Bologna, accidentally discovered its extraordinary effects on animals; and
from the name of the discoverer it was called galvanism. Mrs. Galvan`
having observed the convulsions produced in the muscles of frogs by the,
contact of metals, directed her husband's attention to the phenomenomen aoln
in 1791, Galvani announced the result of his observations on this subject.
Since that period a great many experiments have been made, and many curious facts observed, which have excited nluch attention among philosophers.
See Electr'o- Galvanism. Bonaparte, after the discovery of the true principles
of galvanic electricity by Volta, presented him with a gold mecdal, and 3000
livres, in 1808.-Phillips. See AMesmelrism.
GAME LAWS. The laws restricting the killing of game are peculiar to thi
north of Europe, and partake of tlse nature of the forest laws imposed by
William the Conqueror, who, to preserve his game, made it forfeiture of
property to disable a wild beast, and loss of eyes for a stag, buck, or boar.
Of these laws the clergy were zealous promoters: and they protested against
ameliorations under Henry III. The first game act in England passed in
1496. Game certificates were first granted with a duty in 1784-5. Numerous statutes have been passed on this subject from time to time.
GAMING, EXCESSIVE. Introduced into England by the Saxons; the loser was
often made slave to the winner, and sold in traffic like other merchandise.Camden; Stowe. Act, prohibiting, gaming to all gentlemen (and interdicting
tennis, cards, dice, bowls, &c., to inferior people, except at Christmas time),
33 Henry VIII. 1541. Gaming-houses were licensed in London in 1620. Act
to prevent excessive and fraudulent gaming, when all private lotteries, and
the games of Faro, Basset, and Hazard were suppressed, 13 George II. 1739.
-Rf.l/ziead's Stcatqtes. The profits of a well-known gaming house in London
for one season have been estimated at 150i0001. In one night a million of
money is said to have changed hands at this place.-Leigh.
GAMES. Those of Greece and Rome will be found under their respective
heads. The candidates for athletic games in Greece used to be dieted on
new cheese, dried figs, and boiled grain, with warm water, and no meat. The
game.s were leaping, foot-races, darting, quoits, wrestling, and boxing. See
the Capitolisne, Isthmian, Olympic, Pyltiian, Secicar', anvd other Games.
GARDENING. Gardening was one of the first arts that succeeded the art of
building houses.- Walpole. Noah planted a vineyard, and drank of the wine
Of fruit, flower, and kitchen gardens, the garden of Eden was, no doub
GArP ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 331
the prototype. —ldenm. There wants nothing but the embroidery of a parterre to make a garden in the reign of Trajan serve for a description of one
in that of our William III. —Ideam. The art of gardening became better
understood in England about A. D 1500, before which time many of our
vegetables were imported fiom Brabant. The era of the art was the reign
of Elizabeth; but the modern mode of gardening was introduced about
1700. The following came from the countries respectively named:ROOTS AND VEGETABLES. Carrots - - Flanders Plums - Damascus
Brocoli - Cyprus Oranges - Spain
Rice, from - Ethiopia Beans - - - Greece Lemons - - Spain
Buckwheat - - Asia Peas- - Spain Pink - Italy
Borage - - Syria Provence-rose - Marseilles
Cresses - - Crete FRUITS AND FLOWERS. Convolvulus - Canaries
Cauliflowr - Cyprus Arctopus - - Cape
Asparagus - - Asia Jasmine - Circassia Bell-lqower - Canaries
Lettuce - - Brabajlt Elder-tree - Persia Cherr,es - - Pontus
Artichokes - - Holland Tulip - - - Cappadocia Figs- - - Italy
Garlic - The East Daffodil - Italy Date-plum - - Barbary
Shallots - - Siberia Lily - Syria Mulberry - Italy
Horse-radish - China Tuberose - Java, &c. Nectarine - Persia
Kirdney-beans - East Indies Carnation ~ Italy, &c. Passion-flower Brazil
Gourds - Astracan Ranunculus Alps Pomegranate - Spain
Lentils - France Apples - ~ Syria Rosemary - Italy
Chervil - - Italy Apricots - Epirus Laburnum - - Hungary
Celery - - - Flanders Currants - - Zante Laurel - -,evaut
Potatoes - Brazil Damasl-rose - Damascus Lavender - -Italy
Tobacco - - America Hops - - - Artois Peaches - - Persia
Cabbage - I-Iolland Gooseberries - Flanders Quilce - Austria
Anise - - - Egypt Gilly-flowers - Toulouse Weep. Willow Levant
Parsley - - Egypt Musk-rose - Damascus Fennel- - - Canaries
Musk-ml elons and other rich fruits that are now cultivated in England, and
the pale gooseberry, together with salads, garden-roots, cabbages, &c.,
were brought fiom Flanders, and hops from Artois, in 1520. The damaskrose was brought hither by Dr. Linacre, physician to Henry VIII., about
1540. Pippins were brought to England by Leonard Mascal, of Plumstead,
in Sussex. 1525. Currants or Corinthian grapes were first planted in England in 1533, brought f-rom the Isle of Zante. The musk-rose and several
sorts of plums were brought fiorn Italy by lord Cromwell. Apricots came
from Epirus, 1.540. The tamarisk plant uvas brought from Germany, by
archbishop Grindal, about 1570; and about Norwich, the Flemings planted
flowers unknown in England, as gilly-fiowers, carnations, the Provence rose,
&c., 1567. Woadl came originally from Toulouse, in France. Tulip roots
from Vienna, 1578; also, beans, peas and lettuce, now in common use,
1600. See Flowers; -raLits.
GARTER, ORDER OF THE. Thlis institution outvies all other similar institutions in the world. It owes its origin to Edward III., who conquered France
andt Scotland, and brought their kings prisoners to England. Edward,
with a view of recovering France, which descended to him by right of his
mother, was eager to draw the best soldiers of Europe into his interest, and
thereupon projecting the revival of king Arthur's round table, he proclaimed
a solemn tilting, to invite foreigners and others of quality and courage to
the exercise. The king, upon New Year's day, 1344, published royal
letters of protection for the safe coming and returning of such foreign
knights as had a mind to venture their reputation at the jousts and tournaments about to be held. The place of the solemnity was Windsor; it
was begunt by a feast, and a table was erected in the castle of 200 feet diameter, in imitation of king Arthur's at Winchester, and the knights were
entertained at the king's own expense of 1001. a weel. In 1346. Edward
gave his garter for the signal of' a battle that had been crowned with success (supposed to be Cressy), and being victorious on sea and land, and
having David, king of Scotland, a prisoner; and Edward the Black Prince,
332 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ GEN
his son, having expelled the rebels in Castile, and enthroned the lawful sovereign, Don Pedro, he, in memory of these exploits, instituted this order.
A. D. April 23, 1349-50. Edward gave the garter pre-eminence among the
ensigns of the order; it is of blue velvet bordered with gold, with the inscription in old French —" toni soit qei mnal y pease "-evil to him who evil
thinks. The knights are always installed at Windsor; and were styled
Eqxeites auscree Periscelidis, knights of the golden garter.-Beatson.
GAS. The inflammable aeriform fluid was first evolved from coal by Dr.
Clayton, in 1739.-P/lil. Tranes. Its application to the purposes of illumination was first tried by Mr. Murdock, in Cornwall, in 1792. The first display of gas-lights was made at Boulton and Watt's foundry, in Birminghairt
on the occasion of the rejoicings for peace in 1802. Gas was permanently
used to the exclusion of lamps and candles at the cotton mills of Phillips
and Lee, Manchester, where 1000 burners were lighted, 1805. Gas-lights
were first introduced in London, at Golden-lane, August 16, 1807. They
were used in lighting Pall Mall, in 1809; and were general through London
in 1814. They were first used in Dublin in 1816, and the streets there generally lighted in October, 1825. The gas-pipes in and round London extend to 1100 miles. The streets in New York (the first in the United States)
first lighted with gas, 1823-4.
GAZETTE. A paper of public intelligence and news of divers countries, first
printed at Venice about the year 1620, and so called (some say) because
ance gazetta, a small piece of Venetian coin, was given to buy or read it.
Others derive the name from gaeza, Italian for magpie, i. e. chatterer.Trmesler. A gazette was printed in France in 1631; and one in Germany in
1715.-Nouv. Diet. Hiist.
GAZETTE, THE LONDON. See Newspapers. The firstEnglish gazette was published at Oxford, the court being then there on account of the plague, Nov.
7, 1665. On the removal of the court to the capital, the title was changed
to the London Gazette, Feb. 5, 1666. Londorn Gazettes Ext'raordinary are
used for the publication of extraordinary official news. One of these latter
was forged with a view of affecting the funds, May 22, 1787. The fraud
succeeded, but the planners of it were never discovered. —Phillips. The
Dublin Gazette was first published in an official form about 1767.
GENERAL ASSEMBLY or SCOTLAND. The first General Assembly of the
church was held December 20, 1560. The General Assembly constitutes
the highest ecclesiastical court in the kingdom; it meets annually in Edinburgh in May, and sits about ten days. It consists of a grand commissioner, appointed by the king, who represents his majesty, and delegates
from presbyteries, royal boroughs, and universities, some being laymen.
To this court all appeals from the inferior ecclesiastical courts lie, and its
decision is final. See Chie:cie of Scotland.
GENERALS. This rank has been given to commanders from very remote
times. Matthew de Montmorency was the first officer honored with the
title of General of the French armies, A. D. 1203.-Henault. It is observed
by M. Balzac that cardinal Richelieu first coined the word Generalissizio,
upon his taking the supreme command of the French armies in Italy, in
1629.
UENEVA. Part of the empire of Charlemagne, about A. D. 800. The Republie was founded in 1512. It became allied to the Swiss Cantons in 1584.
Memorable insurrection here, February 1781: about 1000 Genevans, in
consequence of it, applied, in 1782, to earl Temple, lord lieutenant of Ireland, for permission to settle in that country: the Irish parliament voted
50.0001. to defray the expenses of their journey, and to purchase them
lands near Waterford, called New Geneva. Many of the fugitives came te
GEO ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 333
Ireland in July 1783, but they soon after abandoned it: at this period many
Genevan families settled in England. Another revolution, July 1794. Geneva was admitted by the diet into the Swiss Confederation, in 1813.
GENOA. Its ancient inhabitants were the Ligures, who submitted to the Romans. 115 B. c., and underwent the revolutions of the Roman empire till
A. n. 950. The Genoese revolt against their count, choose a doge and other
magistrates from among their nobility, and become an aristocratic Republic,
1030 to 1034. Several revolutions occurred up to 1528, when the celebrated
Andrew Doria rescued his country from the dominion of foreign powers.
Bombarded by the French in 1684, and by the British in 1688 and 1745.
Genoa was taken by the Imperialists, Dec. 8, 1746; but their oppression of
the people was such, that the latter suddenly rose, and expelled their conquerors, who again besieged the city the next year, August 17, without
effect, Genoa lost Corsica 1730. The celebrated bank failed 1750. The
city sustained a siege by a British fleet and Austrian army, until literally
starved, and was evacuated by capitulation, May 1800; but it was surrendered to the French soon after their victory at Marengo. The LJigurian
Republic was founded upon that of Genoa, in 1801, and the doge solemnly
invested, August 10, 1802. Genoa annexed to the French empire, May 25,
1805. It surrendered to the combined English and Sicilian army, April 18,
1814; and was transferred to the king of Sardinia in 1816. Insurrection
against Victor Emmanuel, April 1; subdued April 11, 1849.
GENTLEMEN. The Gauls observing that, during the empire of the Romans,
the Scutarii and Gentiles had the best appointments of all the soldiers, apt
plied to them the terms 6chyers and gentilshommnes. This distinction of gentleman was much in use in England, and was given to the well descended,
about A. D. 1430.-Sidney.
GEOGRAPHY. The first correct record we have of geographical knowledge
is from Homer. He describes the shield of Achilles as representing
the earth, surrounded by the sea.-Iliad. He accurately describes the
countries of Greece, islands of the Archipelago, and site of Troy. The
priests taught that the temple of Apollo at Delphos was the centre of the
world. Anaximander of Miletus was the inventor of geographical maps,
about 568 B. c. Hipparchus attempted to reduce geography to mathematical bases, about 135 B. c. It was first brought to Europe by the Moors of
Barbary and Spain, about A. D. 1201.-Lenglet. The invention of the mariner's compass is the important connecting link between ancient and modern
geography. The modern maps and charts were introduced into England
by Bartholomew Columbus to illustrate his brother's theory respecting a
western continent, A. D. 1489.
GEOLOGY. The science of the earth has been the subject of philosophical
speculation from the time of Homer; and this science is said to have been
cultivated in China many ages before the Christian era. When the theories
and discoveries of geologists were first propounded, they were condemned as
being opposed to the statements of the Bible; but in this enlightened age the
astronomer and geologist, in proportion as their minds are expanded by
scientific investigation, see that there is no collision between the discoveries
in the natural world, and the inspired record. We are not called upon by
Scripture to admit, neither are we required to deny, the supposition that
the matter without form and void, out of which this globe of earth was
fiamed, nmay have consisted of the wrecks and relics of more ancient worlds,
created and destroyed by the same Almighty power which called our world
into being, and will one day cause it to pass away. Thus while the Bible
reveals to us the moral history and destiny of our race, and teaches us that
man and other living things have been placed but a few thousand years
334 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ GEF
upon the earth, the physical monuments of our globe bear witness to the
same truth; and as astronomy unfolds to us myriads of worlds, not spoken
of in the sacred records, geology in like manner proves, not by argumient.
drawn from analogy, but by the incontrovertible evidence of physical phenomena, that there were former conditions of our planet;, separated from
each other by vast intervals of time, during which tliis world was teeming
with life, ere man, and the animals wehich are his contemporaries, had been
called into being.%-Dr. _Mantell and Bishop BlonzJield.
GEOMETRY. Its origin is ascribed to the Egyptians; the annual inundations
of the Nile having given rise to it by carrying away the landmarks, and the
boundaries of farms. Thales introduced geometry into Greece about 60tC
B.c. Euclid's Elements were compiled about 280 B. c. The doctrine of
curves originally attracted the attention of.geometricians from the conic
sections, which were introduced by Plato about 390 B. C. The conchoid
curve was invented by Nicomedes, 220 B. c. The science of geometry was
taught in Europe in the thirteenth century. Books on the subject of geometry and astronomy were destroyed in England, being regarded as infected
with imagic, 7 Edward VI., 1552.-Stowe.
GEORGES' CONSPIRACY. The memorable conspiracy in France; general
Moreau, general Pichegru, Georges Cadoudal, who was commionly knot al
by the name of Georges, and others, arrested at Paris, charged with a conspiracy against the life of Bonaparte, and for the restoration of Louis XVIII.,
Feb. 23, 1804. The conspirators were tried June 9, when seventeen were
sentenced to death, and many to imlprisonment. Moreau was suffered to leavr
France, and was escorted from the tenmple to embark for America, June 22.
In 1813 he received his mortal wound before Dresden, is/ticA see.
GEORGIA, one of the United States, was granted by George II. to Gen. Oglethorpe, who, with forty followers, founded Savannah, Feb. 1, 17833. Savall
nah taken by the British in the revolutionary war, Dec. 29, 1778; the town
and State evacuated by them in July 1782. The State unanimously adopted
the Federal Constitution, Jan. 2, 1788. Population in 1790, 82;584; in 1840,
691,392, including 280,944 slaves. Staple commodities, cotton and rice.
GERMANIC CONFEDERATION. Napoleon had determined that the German,
or Holy Roman Empire, as it was called, should no longer exist; but that
instead thereof, a confederation of states should be formed; and this arrangenment was adopted in 1815, by the allied sovereigns; and Germany is
now governed by a diet. consisting of seventeen voices, and in case any
alteration be requisite in the constitution, they are then to take a new division, and the general assembly then to be formed is to contain sixty-five,
divided according to the relative consequence of the states. See Addenda.
GERMANY. From Germncenni, warlike men. First mentioned by the Roman
historians about 211 a. c.: it was anciently divided into several independent
states until 25 B. C., when the Germans withstood the attempt of the Romans
to subdue them, although they conquered some parts; but by the repeated
efforts of the Germans they were entirely expelled, about A. D. 290. In 4329
the IHuns, driven fiom China, conquered the greatest part of this extensive
country; but it-was not totally subdued till Charlemange, the first emperor,
became master of the whole, A. D. 802.
Charlemagne crowned emperor of the I Charles III. was the first sovereign who
West at Rome - - a. 800 added in the year of our Lord" to
lie adds a second head to the eagle, to his reign.... -7
denote that the empires of Rome and The German princes assert their indeGermany are united in him - - 802 pendence, and Conrad reigns - 912
Louis (Debonnzaire) separates Germany [The electoral character assumed about
fri m France. 814 this time. See Elecitos.] - - tt'
GER ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 335
GERMANY, continued.
Reign of Henry I. (king) surnamed the and demands for reform granted in
Fowler; he vanquishes the HIuns, various degrees by sovereigns of
Danes, Vandals, and Bohemians - 919 Pruissia, Bavaria, &c.; and by those
Otho I. extends his dominions, and is of the smaller principalities of Gercrowned emperor by the pope - 962 many - - Feb. and March, 18418
Henry Ill. conquers Bohemia, wasting A federal union of the German States
it with fire and sword - 1042 demanded by Prussia March, 1848
Peter the Hermit leads the crusaders Congress of deputies at Frankfort-Mitthrough Germany, where they mnas- ter-Meyer, President March 31, 1848
sacre the Jews- - - 1095 German Parliament meets at FrankHenry IV. excommunicated by pope fort - - - May 18, 1848
Pascal I. (Hildebrand) about - 1106 The archduke, John of Austria, elected
Disputes relating to ecclesiastical in- by the parliament as lord-lieutenant
vestitures, with the pope - - 1122 of the Empire - - June 29, 1848
The Guelph and Ghibeline feuds begin 1140 He is installed at Frankfort, and names
Conrad III. leads a large army to the his ministers - - July 15, 1848
holy wars, where it is destroyed by Great excitement in Germany on acthe treachery of the Greeks - - 1147 count of the execution at Vienna of
Teutonic order of knighthood - -1190 Robert Blum, a Leipsic publisher,
Reign of Rodolph, count of lapsburgh, for aiding the insurrection Nov. ^ 1848
chosen by the electors - -1273
The famous edict, called the Golden A. D. EMPERORS CP CG RM-tANY.
Bull, by Charles IV. - 1356 800. Charlemagne the Great.
Sigismond, king of Bohemia, elected 814. Louis the Debonnaire.
emperor. ie betrays John Huss and 840. Lothaire.
Jerome of Prague, who are burned 855. Louis II.
alive (see BoJlhemia) - 1414 875. Charles II., the Bald; poisoned.
Sigismond being dliven from the throne, 878. Louis III., the Stammerer.
Albert II., duke of Austria, succeeds. 879. Charles III., the Gross.
(In his family the crown resides for 887. Arnould.
three centuries) - - 1438 899. Louis IV.
The Pragmatic sanction (swhicnh see) -1439 912. Otho, duke of Saxony; he refused the
The empire divided into circles 1512 dignity on account of his age.
Era of the Refolrmation (Luther) 1517 912. Conrad, duke of Franconia.
Abdication of Charles V. - 1556 919. -Henry I., the Fowler.
War of the two parties, the Evangelic 936. Otho I., the Great.
union under Frederick, elector pala- 973. Otho II., the Bloody.
tine, and the Catholic league, under 983. Otho III., the Red; poisoned.
the duke of Bavaria - 1618 1002. Henry II., duke of Bavaria; the Holy
Battle of Prague, which lost the elector and Lame.
palatine the crown - - -1620 1024. Conrad II., the Salique.
Treaty of Westphalia -. - 1648 1039. Henry III., the Black.
Jolls Sobieski, king of Poland, defeats - 1055. Henry IV.; deposed.
the Turks in many battles, and obliges 1077. Rodolphus; killed in battle.
them to raise the siege of Vienna - 1683 1080. Henry IV.; re-instated.
The peace of Carlowitz - - 1699 1105. Henry V.
The Pragmatic sanction (wohich see) - 1722 1125. Lothaire II.
The reign of Charles VI. is chiefly occu- 1138. Conrad II.
pied with wars against the Turks, and 1152. Frederick Barbarossa; drowned in Boin establishing the Pragmatic sanc- hemia.
tion, in favor of the succession of his 1191. hIenry VI., the Sharp.
daughter, Maria Theresa, married to 1198. Philip; killed at Bamberg.
the dukte of Lorraine 1711 to 1742 1208. Otho IV; deposed.
Francis I., Dulke of Lorraine, marries 1211. Frederic II.; deposed.
the heiress of Austria, the celebrated 1245. Henrv VII; Itlled.
Maria Theresa, queen of Hungary; 1246. William; killed in battle.
and is elected emperor - 1745 1273. Rodolphus, count of Ilapsburg, the
Joseph II. extends his dominions by the first of the Austrian family.
dismemberment of Poland - - 1772 1291. Adolphus; deposed.
Again, by the final partition of that de- 1298. Albert I.; killed by his nephew.
voted kingdom - - 1795 1308. Henry VIII.; poisoned by a priest, in
[In the ruinous wars between Germany the consecrated waier.
and France, the emperor loses the 1314. Louis IV., of Bavarla; killed by a fall
Netherlands, all his territories west from his horse.
of the Rhine, and his estates in Italy, 1347. Charles IV., of Luxembourg.
1793, et seq.] 1378 Wenceslaus, king of Bohemia.
Francis I. assumes the title of empe- 1399. Frederickc, Dulke of Brunswick.
Tor of Austria - - Aug. 11, 1804 1400. Rupert, palatine of the Rhine.
Dissolution of the German empire; for- 1410. Sigismond, lking of Hungary.
mation of the Confederation of the 1437. Albert 11., duke of Austria and king of
Rhine - July 12, 1805 Bohemia.
General agitation among the people, 1440. Frederick III., archduke of Austria.
336 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. rGIS
GERMANY, continued.
1493. Maximilian I.; he married the heiress 1745. Francis I.; husband of Maria Theresa
of Burgundy. queen of Ilungary and Bohemia.
1519. Charles V., king of Spain. 1765. Joseph T1.
1558. Ferdinand I., king of Hungary. 1790. Leopold II.
1564. Maximilian II. 1792. Francis II.; he takes the title of eml
1576. Rodolphus II. peteror of Austsria only, in 1806.
1612. Matthias I. 1806. Confederation of the Rhine (which see).
1619. Ferdinand II., kIing of Hungary. 1815. Germanic Confederation.
1637. Ferdinand III., ditto. 1835. Ferdinand I., of Austria.
1658. Leopold I., ditto (See Tabular Views in this vol., beginning.1705. Joseph II., ditto, and of Bohemia. p. 76; see, also, Austria, Bavaria,
1711. Charles VI. Prussia, TlVurtenburg, &c.)
1742. Charles VII.
There are about 20 German principalities with territories equal to Englis-i
counties. The free towns are Hamburg, Bremen, Frankfort on the Maine
(one of the greatest trading places in Europe), and Lubeck, which was the
head of the famous Hanseatic League, formed in that city in 1164.
GHENT. Anciently the capital of the Nervii. Prince John, third; son of Edward II. of England, was born here, and hence named Jo/lr of Gau^st.
Pacification of Ghent, November 8, 1576. Ghent was taken by the duke of'
Marlborough in A. D. 1706, and several times taken and retaken by the contending armies during the late wars. The peace of Ghent between Great
Britain and the United States, was signed here, December 24, 1814.
GIANTS. The emperor Maximus was eight feet and a half in height; he was
also of great bulk, and used the bracelet of his wife as a ring for his thumb,
and his shoe was longer by a foot than that of an ordinary man.-Zcing/liss.
"The tallest man that hath been seen in our age was one named Gabara,
who in the days of Claudius the late emperor was brought out of Arabia.
He was nine feet nine inches high." —Pliqy. John Middleton, of Hale, in
Lancashire, born in 1578, was nine feet three inches high. Patrick Cotter,
the celebrated Irish giant, born in 1761, was eight feet seven inches iin
height; his hand, from the commencement of the palm to the extremity of
the middle finger, measured twelve inches, and his shoe was seventeen inches long; he died in September 1806, in his 46th year. Giants' bones 17, 18,
20, and 30 feet high, were once reported to have been found; but there is
now no doubt that they were organic remains of colossal quadrupeds.
GIBRALTAR. A fortress, whose immense strength excites wonder and admiration, and renders it impregnable: it is the ancient Calpe, which, with
Abyla on the opposite shore of Africa, obtained the name of the Pillars e.
Hercules. The height of the rock, according to Cuvier, is 1437 English
feet: it was taken by the Saracens under Tarik (Gibel- Trcaiki, Mountain of
Tarik, whence its present name) in A. D. 712. In the year 1462 the Iking of
Castile took Gibraltar from the Moors; and the English, under sir George:
Rooke, the prince of Hesse Darmstadt, sir John Leake, and admiral Byrig,
bravely won it, July 24, 1704. It was surrendered. after a dreadful cannonade, to the British, by the governor, the marquis de Salines; and it has since
continued an appendage to the British crown.
Gibraltar attacked by the British on the 20,000 men, and lose 5000, while the
21st July, and taken on the 24th, A. D. 1704 loss of the English is only 300 - 1727
Besieged by the Spanish and French; Meimorable siege of the Spaniards and
they lose 10,000 men, and the victori- French, whose prodigious armaous English but 400 - Oct. 11, 1704 mlents (the greatest ever broughit
The Spaniards agtain attack Gibraltar, a'ainst a fortress) were wholly overand are repulsed with great loss - 1720 thrown. The siege continued friom
They again attack it with a force of July 1779, to Feb. - 1783
The army amounted to 40,000 men. The duke of Crillon commanded 12,000 of the best troops
of France. 1000 pieces of artillery were brought to bear against the fortress, besides which, thlsre
',LE D] ICTIONARY OF DATES. 337
GILDING. First practised at Rome, about 145 B. c. The capitol was the first
building on which this enrichment was bestowed.-Pliny. Of gold leaf for
gilding the Romans made but 750 leaves, four fingers square, out of a whole
ounce.-Plia/. It consequently was more like our plating. — 1Ts7sler. A
single grain of gold may now be stretched out under the hammer into a leaf
that will cover a house.-Dr. Halley. Gilding with leaf gold on bole anbmnoniac was first introduced by Margaritone, in 1273. The art of gilding on
wood, previously known, was improved in 1680.
GISORS, BATTLE OF, in France, between the armies of F1'rance and England, in
which the former was signally defeated by Richard I., whose parole for the
day was Dieu et eon, droit" —" God and my righlt;" and from this time it
was made the motto to the royal arms of England, A. D. 1198.
GLADIATORS. They were originally malefactors who fought for their lives,
or captives who fought for their freedom. They exhibited at the funeral
ceremonies of the Romans, 263 B. c., probably following the Greek custom
of sacrificing to the manes of deceased warriors the prisoners taken in battle.
Gladiator fights afterwards exhibited at festivals, about 215 B. c. When
Dacia was reduced by Trajan, 1000 gladiators fought at Rome in celebration of his triumph for 123 days, A. D. 103. Their combats on public theatres were suppressed in the East by Constantine the Great,. D. 325. Finally suppressed by Theodorick, in the year 500.-Lncnglet.
GLASGOW. Erected into a burgh in A. D. 1180. Its charter was obtained from
James II., in 1451, at which period the university was founded. Its earliest
commerce was in salmon, about 1420.
GLASS. The Egyptians are said to have been taught the art of making glass
by Hermees. The discovery of glass took place in Syria.-Pliny. Glasshouses were erected in Tyre, where glass was a staple manufacture for
many ages. This article is mentioned among the Romans in the time of
Tiberius; and we know, from the ruins of Pompeii, that windows were
formed of glass before A. D. 79. Italy had the first glass windows, next
France, whence they camle to England. Used for windows in private houses
in the reign of Henry II., 1177, but imported.-An1der'son. The manufacture
was established in England at Crutcheci-friars, and in the Savoy, in 1557.Stowe. It was improved in 1635, and was brought to great perfection in the
reign of William III. The duties on glass in England were entirely remlitted, 1845.
G-LASS, PAINTING ON. This was a very early art. It was practised at Marseilles
in a beautiful style, about A. D. 1500. It is said the art existed in England
towards the 12th century. It reached to a state of great perfection about
1530.
GLENCOE, MAssACRE oF. This was the horrible massacre of the unoffending
and unsuspecting inhabitants, the Macdonalds, merely for not surrendering
in time to king William's proclamation. About 38 men were brutally slain;
and women and children, their wives and offspring, were turned out naked
were 47 sail of the line, all three-deckers; 10 great floating batteries, esteemed invincible, carrying
212 guns; innumerable frigates. xebeques, bomb-letches, cutters, and gun and mortar boats;
while small craft for disenlbarking the forces covered the bay. For weeks together, 6000 shells
wcere daily thrown into the town; and on a single occasion, 8000 barrels of gunpowder were expended by the enemy. Yet in one night, their floating batteries were destroyed with red-hot balls,
and their whole line of works annihilated by a sortie from the garrisor, commanded by general
Elliot, Nov. 27, 1781. The enemy's loss in munitions of war, onr this night alone, was estimated at
upwards of 2,600,0001. sterling. iut their grand defeat by a garrison of only 7000 British, occurred
Sept. 13, 1782.
15
338 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ G01
in a dark and freezing night, and perished by cold and hunger: this black
deed was perpetrated by the earl of Argyle's regiment, May 9, 1691.
GLOBE. The globular form of the earth, the five zones, some of the principal
circles of the sphere, the opacity of the mnoon, and the true cause of lunar
eclipses, were taught, and an eclipse predicted, by Thales of Miletus, about
640 B. c. Pythagoras demonstrated from the varying altitudes of the stars
by change of place, that the earth must be round; that there might be antipodes on the opposite part of the globe; that Venus was the morning and
evening star; that the universe consisted of twelve spheres-the sphere of
the earth, the sphere of the water, the sphere of the air, the sphere of fire,
the spheres of the moon, the sun, Venus, Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
and the sphere of the stars, about 506 B. c. Aristarchus, of Samos, maintained that the earth turned on its own axis, and revolved about the suni
which doctrine was held by his contemporaries as so absurd, that the philosopher had nearly lost his life to his theory, 280 B. c. The first voyage
round the globe was performed by Picaro, commanding a ship of Magellan's squadron, 1520-4. The first English navigator who performed the same
enterprise was sir Francis Drake, 1577.-See Ci'cumxrnavigatioo, and Earth.
GLORY. The glory or nimbus drawn by painters round the heads of saints,
angels, and holy men, and the circle of rays on images, were adopted frofin
the Cesars and their flatterers, by whom they Were used in the first century.
The doxology of the prayer Gloricn Partin was ordained in the church of
Rome, and was called doxology because it began with 6d4a, glory, A.D.
382.
GLOVES. They were in use in very early times. In the middle ages, the giving
of a glove was a ceremony of investiture in bestowing lands and dignities; and
two bishops were put in possession of their sees by each receiving a glove,
A D. 1002. In England, in the reign of Edward II. the deprivation of gloves
was a ceremony of degradation. The Glovers' company of London was incorporated in 1556. Embroidered gloves were introduced into England in
1580, and are presented to judges at maiden assizes to this day.
GNOSTICS. Ancient heretics, who were famous from the first rise of Christianity.
The tenets of this sect were revived in Spain, in the fourth century, by ihe
Priscillianists; but the name, which was once glorious, at length became infamous. The Gnostics were not so much a particular sect of heretics, as a
complication of many sects; and were so called, because they pretended t
extraordinary illuminations and knowledge, one main branch of which cr..
sisted in their pretended genealogies or attributes of the Deity, in which
they differed among themselves as much as they did from others.
GOBELIN-TAPESTRY. Tapestry so called from a noted house at Paris, in the
suburb of St. Marcel, formerly possessed by famous wool-dyers, whereof the
chief, called Giles Gobelin, who lived in the reign of Francis I., is said to
have found the secret of dyeing scarlet, which was from him called the
scarlet of the Gobelins; the house and river that runs by it also took the
same name. This house was purchased by Louis XIV. for a manufactory.
all manner of curious works for adorning the royal palaces, under the dlirection of Mons. Colbert, especially tapestry, designs for which were drawn by
the celebrated Le Brun, by appointment of the king, A. D. 1666.-DiL Fresioy.
GODFATHERS AND GODMOTHERS. The Jews had godfathers in the zircnmcision of their sons. In the Christian church sponsion in baptism arose
in the desire of assuring that the child should be of the religion of Christ.
It was first ordained to be used, according to some, by pope Alexander;
according to others, by Sixtus, and others refer it to Telesphorus, about A I.
Goo ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 339
130. In Catholic countries they have godfathers and godmothers in the
baptism of their bells.
GOLD. The pulrest and most ductile of all the metals, for which reasen it has,
fiom the earliest ages, been considered by almost all nations as the most
valuable. It is too soft to be used pure, and to harden it it is alloyed with
copper or silver: in its pure state it is twenty-four carats; that used in our
coin is twenty-two carats, and two parts of' copper. In the early ages no
metals were used beut those found pure, as gold, silver, and copper. The
smelting of ores was a comparatively late invention, and ascribed both to
observations on volcanoes and to the burning of forests.
SOLD MINES. Gold is found in various parts of the earth, but is most
abundant in Africa, Japan, and South America, in which last gold was discovered by the Spaniards in 1492, from which time to 1731, they imported
into Europe 6000 millions of pieces of eight, in register gold and silver, exclusively of what were unregistered. In 1730, a piece of gold weighing
ninety marks, equal to sixty pounds troy (the mark being eight ounces),
was found near La Paz, a town of Peru. Gold was discovered in Malacca,
in 1731; in New Andulasia in 1785; in Ceylon in 1800; in Virginia 1829;
in North Carolina 1824; South Carolina 1829; in Georgia 1830: in California, April 1848.
GOLD AND SILVER. Quantity produced in forty years from 1790 to 1830, as
stated in the lfiDiinog Jo-Crnacl:
Gold. Sillver.
Mexico... 1G6,436,453-= ~139,818,032
Chili 2,768,488 = 1.822,924
Buenos Ayres.... 4,024,895 = 27,182,673
Russia - - - - - - - 3,703,743 = 1,502,981
~17,003,579 =.~170,326,610
The mines of North and South America had, in 1840, sent to Europe 3~
times more gold, and 12 times more silver, than those of the other hemisphere. The gold mines in Virginia, North and South Carolina, and Georgia,
discovered 1824-30, had produced altogether up to 1835, $4,377,500. Those
of California, discovered in the spring of 1848, had produced up to Feb.
1850, at least 25 millions of dollars in value, a considerable part of which
was sent to Europe. The amount of California gold coined at the U. S.
mint in 1849 was about $6,000,000. The total annual production of gold in
the world was estimated in 1840 at about 36 tons, proportioned thus: North
and South America 11, Europe and Asiatic Russia 64, Indian Archipelago,
43, Africa 14. See Coins.
GOLDEN FLEECE. Jason, the Argonaut, sailed with his companions from
lolchos to Colchis to avenge the death of his kinsman Phryxus, and to recover his treasures, which the perfidious Aeotes, king of Colchis, had seized,
after murdering their owner. The ship in which Phryxus had sailed to
Colchis, was adorned with the figure of a ram on the poop; which gave
occasion to the poets to pretend that the journey of Jason was for the recovery of the golden fleece, 1263 B. C.
GOLDEN NUMBER. The cycle of nineteen years, or number which shows
the years of the moon's cycle; its invention is ascribed to Meton, of Athens,
about 432 n. c. —Pliny. To find the golden number or year of the Lunar
cycle, add one to the date and divide by nineteen, then the quotient is the
number of cycles since Christ, and the remainder is the Golden number.
GOOD FRIDAY. From the earliest records of Christianity, this day has been
held as a solemn fast, in remembrance of the crucifixion of our Saviour on
Friday, April 3, A. n. 33. Its appellation of good appears to be peculiar to
the Church of England: our Saxon forefathers denominated it Loing F1'i
340 THIE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ GO~V
day, on account of the great length of the offices observed, and fastings enjoined on this day.
GORDIAN KNOT. The knot made of the thongs that served as harness to
the wagon of Gordius, a husbandman, who was afterwards king of Phrygia,
Whosoever loosed this knot, the ends of which were not discoverable, the
oracle declared should be emperor of Persia. Alexander the Great cut
away the knot with his sword until he found the ends of it, and thus, in a
military sense at least, this " conqueror of the world" interpreted the oracle, 330 B. c.
GORDON'S "NO POPERY" MOB: occasioned by the zeal of lord George
Gordon. It consisted of 40,000 persons who assembled in St. Georgee
Fields, under the name of the Protestant Association, to carry up a petitioc
to parliament for the repeal of' the act which granted certain indulgences
to the Roman Catholics. The mob once raised, could not be dispersed, but
proceeded to the most daring outrages, pillaging, burning, and pulling down
the chapels and private houses of the Catholics first, but afterwards of several
other persons; breaking open prisons, setting the prisoners free, even attempting the Bank of England, and in a word totally overc( ning the civil
power for nearly six days. At length, by the aid of armed associations of
the citizens, the horse and foot guards, and the militia of several counties,
then embodied and marched to London, the riot was quelled. It commenced June 2; and on the 3d, the Catholic chapels, and numerous private.
mansions, were destroyed, the bank attempted, and the jails opened;
among these were the King's Bench, Fleet, and Bridewell prisons; on the
5th, thirty-six fires were seen blazing at one time. In the end, 210 of the
rioters were killed, and 248 were wounded, of whom 75 died afterwards in
the hospitals. Many were tried, convicted, and executed. Lord George
was tried the year after for high treason, but acquitted, June 2 to 7, 1780.
-A nnual Register.
GOSPELS. St. Mark wrote his gospel A. D. 44; St. Matthew in the same year;
St. Luke in 55; and St. John in 96-7. The gospel of Matthew was found
buried in the tomb of St. Barbus, and was conveyed to Constantinople in
485.-Butler. John wrote his gospel at Ephesus two years after he was
thrown into a caldron of burning oil, from which he was taken out unhurt,
and barnished to the isle of Patmos.-Idem. The gospel is the glad tidings
of the actual coming of the Messiah, and hence the evangelical history of
Christ.-Hammo/nd. Dr. Robert Bray was the author of the first plan for
propagating the gospel in foreign parts. Society for the Propagation of t'ne
Gospel in Foreign Countries, incorporated in 1701.
GOSPELLERS. The name which was given to the followers of Wickliffe, who
first attempted the reformation of the Church from the errors of popery:
it was affixed to them by the Roman Catholics in derision, on account of
their professing to follow and preach only the gospel, A. D. 1377.-Bislop
B'urnet.
GOTHS. A warlike nation that inhabited the space between the Caspian,
Pontus. Euxine, and Baltic seas. They attacked the Roman empire A. ),.
251. They were defeated by Claudius, and 320.000 slain, A. n. 269. After
the destruction of the Roman empire by the Heruli, the Ostrogoths, under
Theodoric, became masters of the greater part of Italy, where they retained
their dominion till A. D. 553, when they were finally conquered by Narses,
Justinian's general. The Visigoths settled in Spain, and founded a kingdom, which continued until the country was subdued by the Saracens.
GOVERNMENT, COST OF, IN EUROPE AND THE UNITED STATES. In an
elaborate article in the American Almanac, 1847, this result is reached, viz.:
GRA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 341
In the United States: aggregate of loch, the average is equal, per
national expenditure, for each in- head, to $12 33
habitant - - - - $0 97 In France, according to Chevalier,
Aggregate of State expenditure, for in 1833, the cost was about 1,250
each inhabitant - - 0 50 millions of francs, or 40 llrancs per
Aggregate of town or city expendi- head-say - - - - $7 50
ture, for each inhabitant - 092 Thus, France pays about three
Total cost of Government in the - times, and Great Britain five times
United States, per head - - $2 39 as lnuch for Government as the
or $47.800,000 if the population is United States. (See Admzinistra20 millions. tions of the United States.)
In England, according to MIacculGRACE AT MEAT. The table was considered by the ancient Greeks as the
altar of friendship, and held sacred upon that cecount. They would not
partake of any meat until they had first offered part of it, as the first fruits,
to their gods; and hence came the short prayer said before and after meat
in all Christian countries from the earliest times.-Lebgilet.
GRAMMARIANS, on CRITICS. Anciently, the most eminent men in literature were denominated grammarians. A society of grammarians was formed
at Rome so early as 276 a. c.-Blair. Apollodorus of Athens, Varro, Cicero, Messala, Julius Caesar, Nicias, iElius Donatus, Remnmius Palemon,
Tyrannion of Pontus, Athenaeus, and other distinguished men, were of
this class. Cobbett declared Mr. Canning to be the only purely grammatical orator of his time; and Dr. Parr, speaking of a speech of Mr. Pitt's
said, "We threw our whole grammatical mind upon it and could not discover one error."
GRANARIES. The Romans formed granaries in seasons of plenty, to secure
food for the poorer citizens; and all who wanted it were provided with corn
from these reservoirs, in necessitous times, at the cost of the public treasury. There were three hundred and twenty-seven granaries at Rome.Univ. Hist. Twelve new granaries were built at Bridewell to hold 6000
quarters of corn, and two store-houses for sea-coal to hold 4000 loads,
thereby to prevent the sudden dearness of these articles by the great increase of inhabitants, 7 James I., 1610. — Stowe.
GRANICUS, BATTLE OF, in which Alexander the Great signally defeated the
Persians. The Macedonian troops crossed the Granicus in the face of the
Persian army, although the former did not exceed 30,000 foot and 5000
horse, while the Persian army amounted to 600,000 foot, and 20,000 horse.
-Justin. Yet the victors lost in this great battle but fifty-five foot soldiers,
and sixty horse. Sardis capitulated, Miletus and Halicarnassus were taken
by storm, and numerous other great towns submitted to the conqueror, 334
B. c.-Bo0ssnCt.
GRATES. The hearths of the early-Britons were fixed in the centre of their
halls. The fire-place originally was perhaps nothing more thati a large
stone depressed below the level of the ground to receive the ashes. There
were arched hearths amorg the Anglo-Saxons; and chafing dishes were
most in use until the genultal introduction of chimneys, about A. D. 1200.
See Chist7zseys.
GRAVITATION. This, as a supposed innate power, was noticed by the
Greeks, and als'o by Seneca, who speaks of the moon attracting the waters,
about At. D. 38. Kepler enlarged upon it, about A. m. 1615; and Hook published it as a system. The principles of gravity were proved by Galileo, at
Florence, about 1633; and they were subsequently adopted by Newton,
about 1687.,TRAECIA MAGNA. That part of Italy where the Greeks planted colonies,
342 THE WORLD7S PROGRESS. [ GRE
but its boundaries are very uncertain. Some say that it extended to the
southern parts of Italy; and others suppose that Magna Grscia comprehended only Campania and Lucania. To these is added Sicily, which wax
likewise peopled by the Greek colonists.-Le-enprcre.
GREECE. The first inhabitants of this justly celebrated country of the ancient world, were the progeny of Javan, fourth son of Japheth. Greece
was so called from a very ancient king namled Gr cus; and another king
named Hellen, gave his subjects the appellation of Hellenists. Homer calls
the inhabitants, incliffrently, Myrmidions, Hellenists, and Achains.:For
ancient Grecian history, see Tabulcar Views, p. 5 et seq.
Sicyon founded (Eusebius) - B. c. 2089. The first Messenian war - B. C. 7-3
Uranus arrives in Greece (Len, let) - 2042 The second Messenian war - - 685
Revolt of the Titans - The capture of Ira - - - 670
War of the Giants - - The Messenians emigrate to Sicily, and
Kingdom of Argos begun (Eusebius) - 1856 give their own name /lfessene to ZanReign of Ogyges in 13ceotia (ideir) - 1796 cle (now called Messina) - - 6G8
Sacrifices to the gods first introduced in Sea-figlit, the first on record, between
Greece by Phoroneus - - -1773 the Corinthians and the inhabitanlts
According to some authors, Sicyon was of Corcyra - - - 664
now begun (Leng/let) -- 1773 Byzantium built by tile Argives - 658
Deluge of Ogyges (/whichc see) - - 1764 Sybaris, in Magna Gre-cia, destroyed,
A colony of Arcadians emigrate to Italy 100,000 Crotonians under Milo defeat
under (Enotrus: the country first 300,000 Sybarians - - - 08
called Ggnortria, afterwards _llamna Sardis taken. nd burnt, whicl occaGr,cias (Exsebius). - 1710 sions the Persian invasion -. 504
Chronology of the Arundelian marbles Thrace and Macedonia conquered - 496
commences (Euzsebius) - - 1582 Battle of Marathon (which see) - 490
Cecrops comes into Attica (ide.rs) - 1556 Xerxes invades Greece, but is checlked 480
The Areopagus instituted - -1506 at Thermopylte by Ieonidas -
Deluge of Deucalion (ELesebizus) - 1503 Battle of Salamtis (whic/s, see) - 480
Rleign of HIellen (ideiz) - - - 1459 Mardonius defela.ed at Plataea - - 479
Cadmus, with the Phcenician letters, Battle of Eurynmedon - 476
settles in Boeotia - - 1493 The third Messenian war - 465
Lelex, first king of Laconia, afterwards Athens begins to tyrannize over the
called Sparta - - 1490 other states of Greece - 459
Arrival of Danaus, with the first ship Peloponnesus overrun by Pericles - 455
ever seen in Greece - - 1485 The first sacred war - - - 448
He gets possession of Argos. His fifty Herodotus reads his history i- the
dauoghters 1475 Council at Athens - 445
First Olympic games celebrated at Elis, The sea-fight at Cnidus - - - 294
by the Idati Daciyli (Eusebitcs) - 14:B3 Battle of Mantinea - - - 633
Iron discovered by the Itcle Dactyl - 140; Sacred war ended by Philip, who takes
Corinth rebuilt, and so named - - 1384 all the cities of the Phoceans 348
Ceres arrives in Greece, and teaches Battle of Chieronea - - 338
the art of -naking bread -1383 Alexander, the son of Philip, enters
The Isthmii games instituted - - 326 Greece; subdues the Athenians, and
Mycenae created out of Argos - 1313 destroys the city of Thebes - 335
Argonautic expedition (zwhichz see) - 1263 Commencement of the Macedonian ol
The Pythian ganmes by Adrastus - 1263 Grecian Mlonarchy - - 331
War of the seven Greek captains - 1225 Alexander goes to Susa, and sits on tIhe
The Amazonian war; these martial fe- throne of Darius - - - 330
males penetrate into Greece - -1213
Rape of Helen by' heseus - 1213 Alaric invades Greece - -.D. 395
Rape of Ielen by Paris - 1198 The empire under Niceplhorus cornCommencement of the Trojan war - 1193 menced - - 811
Troy talen and destroyed on the night Greece mastered by the Latins - 1204
of the 7th of' the month Thargelion Re-conquered - - 12
(27th May, or 11th.June) - - 1184 Invaded by the Turks - - - I3
fEneas sets sail, winters in Thrace, and Its final overthrow. See Eastern E,
arrives in Italy - - - 1181 p/e - - - - 1353
Migration of the eolian colonies, who [This country, so long illustrious for the
build Smyrna, &c. - - - 1124 military exploits. the learlning, an
Settlement of the Ionians from Greece arts of its people, becarne of late
in Asia Minor - - - - 104 years the scene of desperate conThe first laws of navigation originate flicts with the Turls, in order to rewith the Rhodlians - - - 916 gain its independence, and the counHomer flourishes about this time cils of the great powers of Europe
(Aruzndelian Marbles) - - 907 were friendly to the design.]
Olympic games revived at Elis - E88 Great struggle for ihdepondence - 177
GR:E j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 343
GREECE, coatiantued.
The first decided msovement in these lat- lbrahim Pacha takes Mist'olonlhi by
ter times, by the Servians - A. D. 1800 assault - - April 23, 1826
The Servians defiat the Turks at Nyssa The Greelks land near Salonica; battle
April 2, 1807 with Omer Pacha - June 1, 1826
100,000 Turks, under Chourshid Pasha, Ibrahim Pacha signally defeated by the
overrun the country, committing the Mainotes - August 8 and 9, 1826
most dreadful excesses - - 1813 Redschid Pacha takes Athens, Aug. 15, 1826
Insurrection in Moldavia and Walla- Tltaty of London, between Great Brichia, in which the Greelks join - 1821 tain, Russia, and France, on behalf
Proclamation of prince Alexander to of Greece. siglled - July 6, 1827
shake off the Turkish yoke March, 1821 Battle of Navarino t(hitclh see); the
The Greek patriarch put to death at Turkish fleet destroyed - Oct. 20, 1827
Constantinople - April 23, 1821 Count Capo d'Istria arrives as Presi10,000 Christians perish in Cyprus, al- dent of Greece - - Jan. 18, 1.828
though not eungaged in the revolt - 1821 The Panhellenion or Grand Council of
Massacre of the inhabitants of Bucha- State established Feb. 2, 1828
rest; even the women and clildren National Bank lounded - Feb. 14, 1828
not spared -- 1821 Greece divided into departments, viz.
Independence of Greece formally pro- Argolis, Achaia, Elis, Uppe'Ilesseclaimed Jan. 27, 1822 nia, Lower Messenia, Laconia, and
Siege of Corinth - Feb. 1822 Ascadia, and the islands formed also
Bombardment of Scio; its capture; into epartments - April26, 1828
most horrible massacre recorded in Final evacuation of the MIorea by the
modern history* - April 23, 1822 Turks - - Oct. 30, 1828
Victories of the Greels at Larissa, Missolonghi surrenders - May 17, 1829
Thermopylae, and Salonica, - July 8, 1822 Greek National Assembly commences
National Congress at Argos - April 10, 18S3 its sittings at Argos - July 23, 1829
Victories of Marco Botzars - June, 1823 The Porte acklnowledges tlhe indepenr.Lord Byron lands in Greece, to devote ence of' Greece - - April 25, 1830
himself to its cause - August, 1823 Prince Leopold finally declines the soLamented death of Lord Byron, at Mis- vereignlty - - May 21, 1830
solonghi - - April 19? 1821 Count Capo d'Istria, President of
Signal defeat of the Capitan Patcha, at Greece, assassinated' by the brother
Samos - - August 16, 1824 and son ofMavrolmlichaelis, a Mainote
The Provisional Government of Greece chiel; whom he had imprisoned Oct. 9, 1831
instituted - - Oct. 12, 182-4 The assassins put to death Oct. 29, 1831
The Greelk fleet defeats that of the Capitan Pacha - - June 2, 1825 Otho T. elected king of Greece, Jan. 25, 1833
The Provisional GovernmentofGreece Colocotroni's conspiracy - Oct. 27, 1833
invites the protection of England A bloodless revolution at Athens, to enJuly 24, 1825 force ministerial responsibility and
Siege of Missolonghi: the besiegingl national representation, is consumTurlts are defeated in a formidable mated - - Sept. 14, 1843
attack upon it - August 1, 1826 The kIing accepts the new constitution
The Greeks disperse the Ottoman fleet March 16, 1844
Jan. 28, 1826 [See Athens, Mo1acedoz, Sparta, %Thrace, and
other states of Greece.]
CREEK CHIURCH. A difference arose in the eighth century betaween the
eastern and western churches, which in the course of two centuries and a
half terminated in a separation: this church is called Greek in contradistinction from the latter, or Romane church. The Greek church claims priority as using the language in which the Gospel was first promulgated, and
many of its forms and ceremonies are similar to those of the Roman Catholics; but it disowns the supremacy of the pope. It is the established religion of Russia.
GREEK FIRE. A composition of combustible matter invented by one Callinlicus, an ingenious engineer of Heliopolis, in Syria, in the seventh century,
*The slaulghter lasted 10 days; 40,000 of both sexes falling victinms to the sword, or to the fire
which raged until every house, save those of the foreign consuls, was burned to the grolund. 7000
Greeks, who had fled to the maountains, were induced to surrender by a promise of aslnsesty, suaranteed by the consuls of England, Fraince and Austria, yet even they were, every man of thern,
butchered! The only exception made during the massacre was in favor of the young and nmore
beautitil women and boys, 30,0 r3 of whom were reserved for the markets. The narrative of plunder, violation, and crime, while the infidel army was let loose upon the captured city. is too long
nad too shocking for transcription here.
344 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. L GUA
in order to destroy the Saracens' ships, which was effected by the general
of the emperor Pogonat's fleet,; and 30,000 men were killed. The property
of this fire was to burn briskest in water, to diffuse itself on all sides, according to the impression given it. Nothing but oil, or a mixture of vinegar, urine, and sand, could quench it. It was blown out of long tubes of
copper, and shot out of cross-bows, and other spring instruments. The invention was kept a secret for many years by the court of Constantinople;
but it is now lost.
GREEK LANGUAGE. The Greek language was first studied in Europe
about A. D. 1450-in France, 1473. William Grocyn, or Grokeyn, a learned
English professor of this language, travelled to acquire its true pronuncia
tion, and introduced it at Oxford, where he had the honcr to teach Erasmus,
1490.- Wood's Athen?. Oxon.
GREENLAND. Discovered by some Norwegians from Iceland, about A,. 980,
and thus named on account of its superior verdure compared with the latter
country. It was visited by Frobisher, in 1576. The first ship friom England
to Greenland was sent for the whale fishery by the Muscovy Comlpany, 2
James I. 1604. In a voyage performed in 16030, eight men were left behind
by accident, and suffered incredible hal:dships till the following year, when
the company's ships brought them home.-T-lindal. The Greenland Fishing
Company was incorporated in 1693.
GREENWICH OBSERVATORY. Built at the solicitation of sir Jonas Moore
and sir Christopher Wren, by Charles IT., on the summit of Flarmstead-hill,
so called from the great astronomer of that name, who was the first astronomer-royal here. The English began to compute the longitude fiom the
meridian of this place, 1675; some make the date 1679. This observatory
contains a transept circle by Troughton; a transit instrument of eight feet
by Bird; two mural quadrants of eight feet, and Bradley's zenith seeto,'.
The telescopes are forty and sixty inch achromatics, and a six-feet reflector; and among other fine instruments and objects is a famous camera
obscura.
GREGORIAN CALENDAR. Ordained to be adopted by pope Gregorj XIII,
from whom it derives its name, A. D. 1582; and introduced into the Catholic
states of Europe in that year; into most other states in 1710; and adopted
by England in 1752. To the time of Gregory, the deficiency in the Julian calendar had amounted to ten days; and in the year 1752 it had amounted to
eleven days. See Calend(ar, and New Style.
GRENADA. Conquered by the Moors, A. D. 715; it was the last kingdom possessed by them, and was not annexed to the crown of Castile until 1491
the capital of this province is magnificent. New Grenada was conquered
by the Spaniards in 1536. Grenada, in the West Indies, was settled by the
French, 1650; it was taken from them by the English in 1762, and was
ceded to England in 1763. The French possessed themselves of it again,in
1779; but it was restored to the English at the peace of 1783. In 1795 the
French landed some troops, and caused an insurrection in this island, which
was not finally quelled till June, 1796.
GROCERS. One of the oldest trades in England. The word anciently meant
" ingrossers or monopolizers," as appears by a statute, 37 Edwiard III. The
Grocers' Company is one of the twelve chief companies of the city of London, incorporated in 1429.
GUADALOUPE. Discovered by Columbus, A..D. 1493. It was colonized by
the French in 1635. Taken by the English in 1759, and restored in 1763.
Again taken by the English in 1779, 1794, and 1810; and in order to allure
LOUy ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 345
the Swedes into the coalition against France, gave them this island. It was,
however, by the consent of Sweden, restored to France in 1814.
GUELPHS AND GHI-BELINES. These were party names, and are said to have
been derived from IIiewelf and Hiegiblin, the names of towns. The designation began in Italy, A. D. 1139, and distinguished the contending armies
during the eivil wars in Germany; the Guelphs were for the pope, and the
Ghibelines were for the emperor. Guelph is the name of the present royal
family of England.-See Brunsiicck. The Guelphic order of knighthood
was instituted for the kingdom of Hanover, by the prince regent, afterwards
George IV., in 1816.
GUILLOTI[NE. An engine for decapitation, which has made an otherwise
obscure name immortal. A similar instrument, but of ruder form, may be
seen in an engraving accompanying the Slymgbolicc Q.estiones of Achilles
Bocchius, 4to, 1555 (see the Travels of Father Labat in Italy); it is there
called the Manlaia. In Scotland, also at Halifax, England (see hIalifax;
Maiden), soon after it was in use, and served to behead its introducer, the
regent Morton. Dr. Guillotin, about 1785, recommended its use in France,
from motives of humanity, as a substitute for the more cruel gibbet, and his
name was applied to it, at first from mere waggishness. Its unwilling godfather was imprisoned during the revolutionary troubles, and ran some
hazard of being subjected to its deadly operation; but he (contrary to a
prevailing opinion) escaped, and lived to become one of the founders of the
Academy of Medicine at Paris. He died May 26, 1814, aged seventy-six,
enjoying to the last the esteem of all who knew him, for his mild virtues.
GUJINEAS. An English gold coin, so named from their having been first
coined of gold brought fiom the coast of Guinea, A. D. 1673. They were
then valued at 30s. and were worth that sum in 1696. They were reduced
in currency from 22s. to 21s. by parliament in 1717. Broad pieces were
coined into guineas in 1732. The original guineas bore the impression of
an elephant, on account of their having been coined of this African gold.
GUNPOWDER. The invention of gunpowder is generally ascribed to Bertholdus or Michael Schwartz, a Cordelier monk of Goslar, south of Brunswick, in Germany, about A. D. 1320. But many writers maintain that it was
known much earlier in various parts of the world. Some say that the Cilinese possessed the art a number of centuries before. Its composition,
moreover, is expressly mentioned by our own famo-us Roger Bacon, in his
treatise De Nullitrate Macgiw, which was published at Oxford, in 1216.
GUNPOWDER PLOT IN ENGLAND. The memorable conspiracy known by
this name, for springing a mine under the houses of parliament, and destroying the three estates of the realm-king, lords, and commons-there
assembled, was discovered on Nov. 5, 1605. This diabolical scheme was
projected by Robert Catesby, and many high persons were leagued in the
enterprise. Guy Faux was detected in the vaults under the House of' Lords,
preparing the train for being fired on the next day. Catesby and Percy (of
the family of Northumberland) were killed; sir Everard Digby, Rockwood,
Winter, Garnet, a Jesuit, and others, died by the hands of the executioner,
as did Guy Faux, January 31, 1606. The vault called Guy Faux cellar, in
which the conspirators lodged the barrels of gunpowder, remained in the
late houses of parliament till 1825, when it was converted into offices.
GUY'S HOSPITAL. This celebrated London hospital is indebted for its origin
to Thomas Guy, an eminent and wealthy bookseller, who, after having bestowed immense sums on St. Thomas's, determined to be the sole founder
of another hospital. At the age of seventy-six, in 1721, he commenced the
erection of the present building, and lived to see it nearly completed. It
15*
346 T'HE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ HA->;
cost him 18,7938., in addition to which he left to endow it, the immense sum
of 219,4991. A splendid bequest, amounting to 200,0001. was made to this
hospital by Mr. Hunt, to provide additional accommodation for 100 patients,,
his will was proved Sept. 24, 1829.
GYMNASIUM, a place among the Greeks, where all the public exercises were
performed, and where not only wrestlers and dancers exhibited, but also
philosophers, poets, and rhetoricians repeated their compositions. In wrestling and boxing, the athletes were often naked, whence the word Gymnasium-g- manos, qlldus. They anointed, themselves with oil to brace their
limbs, and to render their bodies slippery, and more difficult to be grasped.
The first modern treatise on the subject of Gymnastics was published in
Germany in 1793. London society forimed, 1826.
GYPSIES, oR EGYPTIANS. A strange commonwealth of wanderers and peculiar race of people, who made their appearance first in Germany, about A. D.
1517, having quitted Egypt when attacked by the Turks. They are the descendants of a great body of Egyptians who rev olted from the Turkish yoke,
and being defeated, dispersed in small parties all over the world, while their
supposed skill in the black art gave them an universal rece% tion in'hat age
of credulity and superstitiori. Although expelled from France in 1560, and
from most countries soon aftery, they are yet found in every part of Europe.,
as well as in Asia and Africa. Having recovered their footing, they have contrived to maintain it to this day. In England an act was made against their
itinerancy, in 1530; and in the reign of Charles I. thirteen persons were executed at one assizes for having associated with gypsies for about a month,
contrary to the statute. The gypsey settlement at Norwood, near London,
was broken up, and they were treated as vagrants, May 1797. There were
in Spain alone, previously to the year 1800, more than 120,000 gypsies, and
many communities of them yet exist in England; and notwithstanding their
intercourse with other nations, they are still, like the Jews, in their manners.
customs, visage, and appearance, wholly unchanged.
H.
HABEAS CORPUS. The subjects' Writ lf Right, passed for the security and
liberty of individuals, May 27, 1679. This act is next in importance to
Mc'-?ta Chartac, for so long as the statute remains in force, no subject of England can be detained in prison, except in cases wherein the detention is
shown to be justified by the law. The tHabeas Corpus Act can alone be Srspended by the authority of parliament, and then for a short time only, and
when the emergency is extreme. In such a case, the nation parts with a
portion of its liberty to secure its own permanent welfare, and suspected
persons may then be arrested without cause or purpose being assigned.Blackstone.
HACKNEY COACHES are of French origin. In France, a strong kind of cobhorse (haqlenee) was let out on hire for short journeys: these were latterly
harnessed (to accommodate several wayfarers at once) to a plain vehicle
called coche-a-haqLenle: hlonce the name. The legend that traces their cGigin to Hackney, near London, is a vulgar error. They were first licensed in
1662, and subjected to regulations, 6 William and Mary, 1694.-SLarvey of
Londont. The number plying in London fixed at 1000, and their fares raised,
1771. The cabriolets are of Parisian origin; but the aristocratic taste of
Englishmen suggested the propriety of obliging the driver to be seated on
the outside of the vehicle.
HAGUE. Once called the finest villag'e in Europe: the place of meeting of the
States-General, and residence of the former earls of Holland, the princes ce
iiAMl ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 347
Holland, &c. Here the States, in 1586, abrogated the authority of Philip
II. of Spain, and held a conference in 1610, upon the five articles of the remonstrants, which occasioned the synod of Dort.Y Treaty of the Hague,
entered into with a view to preserve the equilibrium of the North, signed
by England, France, and Holland, May 21, 1659. De Witt was torn in pieces
here, August 20, 1672. The French took possession of the Hague in January, 1795; favored by a hard firost, they marched into Holland, where the
inhabitants and troops declared in their favor, a general revolution ensued,
and the stadtholder and his family were compelled to leave the country and
escape to England. The Hague was evacuated in Novembers1813, shortly
after the battle of Leipsic, and the stadtholder returned to his dominions
and arrived here in December, that year. Treaty of Commerce between
England and Holland, December 16, 1837.
HAIR. By the northern nations, and in Gaul, hair was much esteemed, and
hence the appellation Gallia comata; and cutting off the hair was inflicted
as a punishment among them. The royal family of France had it as a particular mark and privilege of the kings and princes of the blood, to wear
long hair, artfully dressed and curled. The clerical tonsure is of apostolic
institution.-Isidorus Hisyalensis. Pope Anicetus forbade the clergy to wear
long hair, A. D. 155. Long hair was out of fashion during the Protectorate
of Cromwell, and hence the term Round-heads. It was again out of fashion
in 1795; and very short hair was the mode in 1801. Hair-powder came into
use in 1590; and in 1795 a tax was laid upon persons using it in England,
which yielded 20,0001. per annutm.
HALCYON DAYS, in antiquity, implied seven days before and as many after
the winter solstice, because the halcyon laid her eggs at this time of the
year, and the weather during her incubation was always calm. The phrase
was afterwards employed to express any season of transient prosperity, or
of brief tranquillity, the seplesa placidi dies of human life.-Butler.
HALLIDON HILL, BAvTTLE OF, near Berwick, between the English and Scots,
in which the latter were defeated with the loss of 13.000 slain, while a comparatively small number of the English suffered, reign of Edward III., July
19, 1333. After this victory, Edward placed Edward Baliol on the throne of
Scotland.-Robertson.
HALIFAX, YORKSHIRE. Here prevailed a remarkable law. The woollen manufacture being very great, and prodigious quantities of cloths, kerseys,
shalloons, &c. being continually on the tenters and liable to be stolen, the
town, at its first incorporation, was empowered to punish capitally any criminal convicted of stealing to the value of upwards of thirteen pence halfpenny,
by a peculiar engine, which beheaded the offender in a moment; but king
James I. in the year 1620, took this power away: and the town is now under
the ordinary course of justice. See Maiden.
HALLELUJAH AND AMEN. Hebrew expressions frequently used in the
Jewish hymns: from the Jewish they came into the Christian church. The
meaning of the first is Praise the Lord, and of the second So be it. They were
first introduced bySHaggai, the prophet, abofit 584 B. c.; and their introduction from the Jewish into the Christian church is ascribed to St. Jerome;
one of the primitive Latin fathers, about A. D. 390.-Cave's Hist. Lit.
HAiMBURGH. The company of Hambro' merchants was incorporated in 1296.
France declared war upon Hamburgh for its treachery in giving up Napper
Tandy, (see Nappe Tand?/,) October 1799. British property sequestrated,
March 1801. Hamburgh taken by the French after the battle of Jena in
1806. Incorporated with France, Jannary 1810. Evacuated by the French
on the advance of the Russians into Germany in 1813; and restored to its
348 THE WORLD'S PROGIRESS. [ HAF:independence by the allied sovereigns, May 1814. Awful fire here, which
destroyed numerous churches and public buildings, and 2000 houses; it continued for three days, May 4, 1842.
HAMPTON-COURT PALACE. Built by cardinal Wolsey on the site of the
manor-house of the knights-hospitallers. In 1526. the cardinal presented it
to his royal master, Henry VIII. Here Edward VI. was born, and his
mother, Jane Seymour, died; and Mary, Elizabeth, Charles, and others of
our sovereigns, resided. Most of the old apartments were pulled down, and
the grand inner court built, by William III. in 1694. In this palace was
held, in 1604, the celebrated conference between the Presbyterians and the
members of the Established Church, which led to a new translation of the
Bible. See Conference.
HANGED, DRAWN, AND QUARTERED. The first infliction of this barbarous punishment took place upon a pirate, named William Marise, a nobleman's son, 25 Henry III., 1241. Five gentlemen attached to the duke of
Gloucester were arraigned and condemned for treason, and at the place ef
execution were hanged, cut down alive instantly, then stripped naked, and
their bodies marked for quartering, and then pardoned, 25 Henry VI. 1447.
— Stowe. The punishment of death by hanging has been abolished in numerous cases by various statutes. See Deathl, pneis/lmemZt of. Hanging in
chains was abolished 4 William IV., 1834.
HANOVER. This country had no great rank, although a duchy, until George
I. got possession of' Zell, Saxe, Bremen, Verden, and other duchies and
principalities. Hanover -became the ninth electorate, A. D. 1692. It was
seized by Prussia, April 3, 1801; was occupied by the French, June 5, 1805;
and annexed to Westphalia, March 1, 1810. Regained to England by the
crown prince of Sweden, November 6, 1813. and erected into a kingdclom,
Oct. 13, 1814. The duke of Cambridge appointed lieutenant governor, in
November, 1816. Visited by George IV. in October, 1821. Ernest, duke
of Cumberland, succeeded to the throne, June 20, 1837; he granted freeddin
of the press and other concessions, March 17, 1848.
HANOVERIAN SUCCESSION, established by law, June 12, 1701, when an
act passed limiting the succession of the crown of England, after the demise
of William III. and of queen Anne (without issue), to the princess Sophia,
of Hanover, and the heirs of her body, being protestants, she being the
granddaughter of James I. George I. the son of Ernest Augustus, duke of
Brunswick Luneburgh; elector of Hanover, and of Sophia, ascended the
throne, to the exclusion of the exiled family of the Stuarts, August 1, 1714.
HANSE TOWNS. A commercial union called the Hanseatic league, was
formed by a number of port towns in Germany, in support of each other
against the piracies of the Swedes and Danes: this association began in
1164, and the league was signed in 1241. At first it consisted only of towns
situate on the coasts of the Baltic Sea, but its strength and reputation increasing, there was scarce any trading city in Europe but desired to be
admitted into it, and in process of time it consisted of sixty-six cities. They
grew so formidable as to proclaim war on Waldenmar, king of Denmark,
about the year 1348, and against Erick in 1428, with forty ships, and 12.C03
regular troops besides seamen. This gave umbrage to several princes, who
ordered the merchants of' their respective kingdoms to withdraw their
effects, and so broke up the greatest part and strength of the association.
In 1630, the only towns of note of this once powerful league retaining the
name, were Lubeck, Hamburg, and Bremen.
HAPSBURGH, HousF or,. One of the most illustrious famlilies in Europe.
Hapsburgh was an ancient castle of Switzerland, on a lofty eminence, near
Schllintznachl. This castle was the cradle, as it were, of the house of Aistria.
HAS ] DICT1ONARY OF DATES. 349
whose ancestors may be traced back to the beginning of the 13th century,
when Rodolph, count of Hapsburgh, was elevated to the empire of Germany
and archduchy of Austria, A. D. 1273. See Getrmany.
HARLEQUIN. This term is derived from alfaimous and droll comedian, who
so much frequented Mr. Harley's house, that his friends and acquaintance
used to call him Ilarlequ'ino, little Harley.-Menage. Originally the name
implied a merry andrew, or buffoon; but it now means an expert dancer at
a play-house.
H-JARLOTS. Women who were called by synonyma conveying the meaning of
harlot, were tolerated among the Jews, Greeks, and Romans. The celebrated Lais of Corinth, a beautiful courtesan, but remarkable for her vicious
amours, was assassinated in the temple of Venus, by the women of, Thessaly, in order to prevent her corrupting the fidelity of their husbands, about
350 B. C. It is affirmed that the mother of' William I., of England, a furrier's daughter of Falaise, whose name was Arlotta, was of so infamous a
character, that our odious term harlot is derived fiom her name.-Dr. Jo/enSOe. In Englancl, harlots were obliged to wear striped hoods of party?olors,
and their garments the wrong side outwards, by statute 27 Edward III.,
1352.
iIARMONIC STRINGS. Pythagoras is said to have invented harmonic strings,
in consequence of hearing four blaclksmiths working with hammers in harmony, whose weights le found to be six, eight, nine, and twelve; or rather
by squares, as thirty-six, sixty-four, eighty-one, and one hundred and forty-four. The harmonica, or musical glasses, airs fromn the tones of them were
first formled by an Irish gentleman named Pukericlge.-Flralb/Ulim. The invention was improved by Dr. Franklin in 1760.
HARP. It is traced to the earliest nations. David played on the harp
before Saul. — Sam. xvi. 23. The lyre of the Greeks is the harp of the
moderns. The Romans had their harp; so had the Jews, but it had very
few strinlgs. The Cimbri or English Saxons had this instrument. The celebratecd Welch harp was strung with gut; and the Irish harp, like the more
ancient harps, with wire.
HARRISON'S TIME-PIECE. Mr. Harrison's first instrument was invented in
1735; his second in 1739; his third in 1749; and his fourth, which procured
hi1m the reward of 20,0001., advertised 13th Anne by the Board of Longitude, was produced a few years after. His celebrated time-piece was perfected in 1772.
HARTFORD CONVENTION. The celebrated convention of delegates from
the New En-land States opposed to the war and to the administration of
Madison, met Dec. 15, 1814.
HASTINGS, BATTLE OF, one of the nmost memorable and bloody, and in which
more than thirty thousand were slain, fought between Harold II. of England, and William,c duke of Normandy, in which the former lost his life and
kingdom. William, hence surnamed the Conqueror, was soon after crowned
king of England, and introduced a memorable epoch, known as the Conquest, in the annals of the country, Oct. 14, 1066.
HASTINGS, WARREN, TRIAL OF. Mr. Hastings, governor-general of India,
tried by the peers of Great Britain for high crimes and misdemeanors, but
acquitted, althoughll he had committed many acts during his government
which, it was thought, ought to have led to a different result. Among other
charges against him, was his acceptance of a present of 100,0001. from the
nabob of Oude, and this was not a solitary instance of his irregular means
of accumulating wealth. The trial lasted seven years and three months,
350 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. r[ EU
1788-95. Sheridan's celebrated speech. on the impeachment of Mr. Hastings, attracted universal adcliration.
HATS. See article Caps. First made by a Swiss at Paris, A. D. 1404. They
are mentioned in history at the period when Charles VII. made his triumphal entry into Rouen, in 1449. He wore a hat lined with red velvet, and
surmounted with a rich plume of feathers. It is from this reign that the
use of hats and caps is to be dated, which henceforward began to take place
of the chaperoons and hoods that had been worn before in France. Hats
were first manufactured in England by Spaniards, in 1510: before this time
both men and women wore close-knit woollen caps.-Stowe. Very high
crowned hats were worn by queen Elizabeth's courtiers; and high crowns
were again introduced in 1783. A stamp-duty was laid upon hats in Eng
land in 1784, and again in 1796; it was repealed in 1811.
HAVRE-DE-GRACE. This place was defended for the Huguenots by the
English, in 1562. It has been bombarded several times by the British navy,
in 1759, in 1794. in 1795 and in 1798. Declared to be in a state of blockade,
Sept. 6, 1803. The attempts to burn the shipping here failed, August 7,
1804.
HAYTI, on HAITI, the Indian name of St. Domingo, discovered by Columbus in
1492. Before the Spaniards finally conquered it, they are said to have d..,
stroyed in battle or cold blood, 3,000,000 of its inhabitants, including
womlen and children. Toussaint established an independent republic in St.
Domingo, July 22, 1801. He surrendered to the French, May 7, 1802. Dessalines made a proclamation for the massacre of all the whites, March 29,
1804. See St. Domiyngo. Dessalines was crowned king, by the title of' Jacques I., Oct. 8, 1804. He died Sept. 21, 1805. Henry Christophe, a man of
color, became president in Feb. 1807, and was crowned emperor by the title
of Henry I., in March 1811; while Petion ruled as president at Port —au-Prince.
Numerous black nobility and prelates were created same year. Petion dieI,
and Boyer was elected in his room, in May 1818. Christophe committed
suicide in Oct. 1820. Independence declared at St. Domingo, in Dec. 1821.
Decree of the king of France confirming it, April 1825. Souloque elected
president, March 2, 1847; proclaimed emperor of Hayti, August 24, 1849.
HEBRIDES, NEW, discovered by the navigator Quiros, A. D. 1606. Bourgainville visited them in 1768, and found that the land was not connected, but
composed of islands, which he called the Great Cyclades. Cook, in 1774,
ascertained the extent and situation of the whole group, and gave them the
nanme they now bear.
HIECATOMB. This was a sacrifice among the ancients of a hundred oxen;
but it was more particularly observed by the Lacedemonians when they
possessed a hundred capital cities. In the course of time this sacrifice was reduced to twenty-three oxen; and in the end, to lessen the
expense, goats and lambs were substituted for oxen.-Potter.
HECLA. Its first eruption is recorded as having occurred A. D. 1004. About
twenty-two eruptions have taken place, according to Olasson and Paulson.
The most dreadful and multiplied convulsions of this great volcani,
mountain occurred in 1783. See Icelanld.
HEGIRA, ERA OF T'rE, dates firom the flight of Mahomet fiom Mecca to Medina,
which event took place in the night of Thursday the 15th July, A. nD. 622;
the era commences on the following day, viz: —the 16th of July. ManyT
chronologists have computed this era from the 15th July; but Cantemir
has given examples proving that, in most ancient times, the 16th was the
first day of tllhe era; and there is now no doubt it is so. See Ilahomaetismn
and Aledina..
lior ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 351
HEIDELBERG, AND HEIDELBERG TUN. Heidelberg, in Germany, on the
river Neckar, was formerly the capital of the Palatinate: the protestant
electoral house becoming extinct in.1693, a bloody war ensued, in which the
famous castle was ruined, and the elector removed his residence to Mannheim. Here was the celebrated Heildelberg Tun, which held 800 hogsheads,
and was formerly kept full of the best Rhenish wine. The University of
Heidelberg, one of the most celebrated in Europe, was founded in 1346,
contained in 1840, 622 students.
HELEN, RAPE of, which caused the Trojan war, 1204 B. C. Helen was the
most beautiful woman in the world, and even in her childhood was so very
lovely, that Theseus stole her away in her tenth year. From him, however,
she was released. yet innocent, by her brothers; and after her return to the
court of Sparta she was eagerly sought in marriage by the princes of Greece,
and Ulysses persuaded the suitors to bind themselves on oath to abide by
the uninfluenced choice of Helen, and to defend her person and character
from that time. The princes took the oath, and Helen then made choice of
Menelaus. Paris coming soon after to the court of this king, abused his
hospitality by corrupting the fidelity of Helen: carrying her away, though
not an unwilling captive, to Asia Minor. At Troy, the father of Paris, Priam,
received her in his palace without difficulty; and Menelaus, assembling the
princes of Greece, reminded them of their oath: and the siege and destruction of Troy followed, 1184 B. c. Paris was previously married, his wife
being (Enone, who lived with him in happiness on Mount Ida; and at his
death by one of the arrows of Hercules, then in the possession of Philoctetes, he desired in his dying moments to be carried to (Enone, whom lie
had so basely deserted; but he expired on the way. The nymph, however,
still mindful of their former happiness, threw herself upon the body, bathed
it with her tears, and then plunged a dagger in her heart.
ITELENA, ST. This island was discovered by the Portuguese, on the festival
of St. Helena, A. D. 1502. The Dutch were afterwards in possession of it
until 1600, when they were expelled by the English. The British East India
company settled here in 1651; and the island was alternately possessed by
the English and Dutch, until 1673, when Charles II. on Dec. 12, assigned it
to the company once more. St. Helena was made the place of Napoleon's
captivity, Oct. 16, 1815, and it became the scene of his death, May 5,
1821.
HELIGOLAND. This island formerly belonged to the Danes, from whom it
was taken by the British, Sept. 5, 1.807, and formed a dep6t for British merchandise intended for the Continent during the war. Confirmed to England
by the treaty of Kiel, Jan. 14, 1814, the same treaty by which Norway was
ceded to Sweden. Though a mere rock, this is an important possession of
the British crown.
HELIOMETER. A valuable scientific instrument for measuring the stars, invented by M. Bouguer, in 1774. The helioscope was invented by Christopher Scheiner in 1625.
H]ELMETS. They were worn, it is said, by the most savage tribes. Among
the Romans the helmet was provided with a vizor of grated bars, to raise
above the eyes, and a bever to lower for eating; the helmet of the Greeks
was round, and that of the Romans square. Richard I. of England wore a
plain round helmet; and after this monarch's reign most of the English
kings hadl crowns above their helmets. Alexander III. of Scotland, 1249, had
a flat helmet, with a square grated vizor, and the helmet of Robert I. was
surmounted by a crown, 1306.-Gvlillim.
IHELOTS. The people of Helos, against whom the Spartans bore desperate
352 THE WORtLD'S PROGRESS. [ IHEln
resentment for refusing to pay tribute, 883 B. c. The Spartans, not satisfied
with the ruin of their city, reduced the Helots to the most debasing slavery;
and to complete their infamy, they called all the slaves of the state, and the
prisoners of war, by the degrading name of Helote, and further exposed
them to every species of contempt and ridicule, 669 B. c. But in the Peloponnesian war the Helots behaved with uncommon bravery, and were rewarded with their liberty, 431 B. c. But this act of justice did not last long; and
the sudden disappearance of 2000 manumitted slaves was attributed to the
Lacedemonians.-He}rodots.
ItEMP AND FLAX. Flax was first planted in England, when it was directed
to be sown for fishing-nets, A. D. 1533. Bounties were paid to encourage its
cultivation in 1783; and every exertion should be made by the government
and legislature to accomplish such a national good. In 1785 theise were imported friom Russia in British ships, 17,695 tons of hemp and flax.-Sir Jo/ul
Sinclair. The annual importations of these articles now amount to about
100,000 tons. More than 180,000 lbs. of rough hemp are used in the cordage
of a first-rate man-of-war, including rigging and sails.
HEPTARCHY. The Heptarchy (or government of seven kings} in England
was gradually formed from A. D. 455, when Hengist became the king of' Kent,
and that kingdom was erected. The Heptarchy terminated in A. D. 825,
when Egbert reduced the other kingdoms, and became sole monarch of
England. For the several kingdoms of the Heptarchy, see Br-itain.
HERACLIDAg, THE, or the return of the Heraclidca into the Peloponnesus: a
famous epoch in chronology that constitutes the beginning of profane history, all the time preceding that period being accounted fabulous. This
return happened 100 years after they were expelled, and eighty years after
the destruction of Troy, 1104 B. c.
HERALDRY. Signs and marks of honor were made use of in the first ages of
the world.-Nzsbet. The Phrygians had a sow; the Thracians, Mars; the
Romans, an eagle: the Goths, a bear; the Flemings, a bull; the Saxons, a
horse; and the ancient French, a lion, and afterwards the fleur-de-lis, wh/ich
see. Heraldry, as digested into an art, and subjected to rules, may be ascribed
in the first instance to Charlemagne, about the year 800; and in the next,to Frederick Barbarossa, about the year 1152; it began and grew with the
feudal law.-Sir Gcorge Maclckezze. It was at length methodized and
perfected by the crusades and tournaments, the former commencing in
1095.
HERCULANEUM. An ancient city of Campania, overwhelmed, together with
Pompeii, by an eruption of Vesuvius, Aug. 24, A. D. 79. Herculaneum was
buried under streams of lava, and successive eruptions laid it still deeper
under the surface. All traces of them were lost until A. D. 1711, from which
year many curiosities, works of art, and monuments and memorials of civilized life have been discovered to the present time. 150 volumes of MSS.
were found in a chest, in 1754; and many antiquities were purchased by sir'
William Hamilton, and re-purchased by the trustees of the British museur-n,
where they are deposited; but the principal antiquities are preserved in the
museum of Portici.
HERETICS. Formerly the term heresy denoted a particular sect; now here-'
tics are those who propagate their private opinions in opposition to the Catholic church.-Bacon. Tens of thousands of them have sufibred death by
torture in Roman Catholic countries.-Bn~'-et. See Itquisition. Simon
Magus was the first heretic; he came to Rome A. D. 41. Thirty heretics
came from Germany to England. to propagate their opinions, and wer?
HIG ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 353
branded in the forehead, whipped, and thrust naked into the streets in
the depth of winter, where, none daring to relieve them, they died of hunger and cold, 1160.-Speed. In the reign of Henry VIII. to be in possession
of Tindal's Bible constituted leresy. The laws against heretics were repealed, 25 Henry VIII., 1634-5.
HERMITS. The name first given to, those that retired to desert places, to
avoid persecution, where they gave themselves up to prayers, fasting, and
meditation. They were also called anchorets; and commonly lodged in
dark caves, where their food was such roots as nature bestowed freely without culture. From these came the monks, and almost all the sorts of religious assemblies that live in monasteries. In the seventh persecution of the
Christians, one Paul, to avoid the enemies of his faith, retired into Thebais,
and became the first example of a monastic life, about A. D. 250.
HERO AND LEANDER: their amour. The fidelity of these lovers was so
great, and their attachment to each other so strong, that Leander in the
night frequently swam across the Hellespont, from Abydos to Sestos, to
have secret interviews with Hero, a beautiful priestess of Venus, she 4iirecting his course by a burning flambeaux. After many stolen interviews,
Leander was drowned in a tempestuous night, and Hero threw herself from
her tower, and perished in the sea, 627 B. c.-Livy, Herodctvs.
HERRING-FISHERY. It was largely encouraged by the Scotch so early as
the ninth century. The herring statute was passed in 1357. The mode of
preserving herrings by pickling was discovered about 1390, and gave rise to
the herring fishery as a branch of commerce.-Aibderson. The British
Herring Fishery Company was instituted Sept. 2, 1750.
HERSCHEL TELESCOPE, THE. Herchel's seven, ten, and twenty-feet reflectors were made about 1779. He discovers the Georgium Sidus (w.hic/h
see), March 21, 1781. He discovers a volcanic mountain in the moon, in
1783; and about this time laid the plan of his great forty-feet telescope,
which he completed in 1787, when he discovered two other volcanic mountains, emitting fire from their summits. In 1802, he by means of his telescopes, was enabled to lay before the Royal Society a catalogue of 5000 new
nebule, nebulous stars, planetary nebulm, and clusters of stars which he
had discovered.
HESSE, HousE or. Its various branches derive their origin from Gerberge,
daughter of Charles of Lorraine, uncle of Louis V. of France, who was
descended from Louis the Courteous. She was married to Lambert II. earl
of Louvain, from whom the present landgraves of Hesse-Cassel, by Henry
V., first of the family who bore the title of landgrave, are descended.
There is no family in Germany more noble by their alliances than this; and
it gives place to none for the heroes and statesmen it has produced. Six
thousand Hessian troops arrived in England, in consequence of an invasion
being expected, in 1756. The sum of 471,0001. three per cent., stock, was
transferred to the landgrave of Hesse, for Hessian auxiliaries lost in the
American war, at 301. per man, Nov. 1786. The Hessian soldiers were again
hired by England, and served in Ireland during the memorable rebellion
there in 1798.
HIEROGLYPHICS. The first writing men used was only the single pictures
and engravings of the things they would represent. — Woodwnard. Hieroglyphic characters were invented by Athothes, 2112 a. c.-Usher. The
earliest records of them were the Egyptian, the first step towards letters,
and some monuments whose objects were described by exaggerated tradition, or when forgotten, imagined.-Phillips.
HIGH CHURCH AND LOW CHURCH PARTIES. These were occasioned by
354 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ HOL
the prosecution of Dr. Sacheverel, preacher at St. Saviour's Southwark, for
two seditious sermons, the object of which was to rouse the apprehensions
of the people for the safety of the Church, and to excite hostility against
the dissenters. His friends were called High Church, and his opponents
Low Church, or moderate men, 8 Anne, 1710. The queen, who favored Sacheverel, presented him with the valuable rectory of St. Andrew's, Holborn.
He died in 1724.
HIGH TREASON. The highest offence known to the law, and in regulating
the trials for which was enacted the memorable statute, so favorable to
British liberty, the 25th of Edward III. 1552. By this statute two living
witnesses are required in cases of high treason; and it arose in the refusal
of parliament to sanction the sentence of death against the duke of Somerset-it is that which regulates indictments for treason at the present day.
By the 40th George III. 1800, it was enacted that where there was a trial
for high treason in which the overt act was a direct attempt upon the life
of the sovereign, such trial should be conducted in the same manner as the
case of an indictment for murder. See Trials.
HIGHNESS. The title of Highness was given to Henry VII.; and this, and
sometimes Your Grace, was the manner of addressing Henry VIII.; but
about the close of the reign of the latter mentioned king, the title of Highness and " Your Grace " were absorbed in that of Majesty.
HINDOO ERA, or Era of the Caliyug, began 3101 B. c. or 756 before the Deluge, in 2348: and the Hindoos count their months by the progress of the
sun through the zodiac. The Samoat era begins 57 B. c.: and the Saca era,
A. D. 77: they are all used by the Hindoo nations.
HISTORY. Previously to the invention of letters the records of history are
vague, traditionary, and erroneous. The chronicles of the Jews, the Parian
Chronicle, the histories of Herodotus and Ctesias, and the poems of Homer,
are the foundations of early ancient history. Later ancient history is considered as ending with the destruction of the Roman empire in Italy, A. D.
476; and modern history dates from the age of Charlemagne, about A. D.
800. There was not a professorship of modern history in either of the.
English universities until the years 1724 and 1736, when Regius professorships were established by George I. and George II. A professorship of
history founded at Harvard College, was filled by Jared Sparks, who was
succeeded by Francis Bowen, 1850.
HOHENLINDEN, BATTLE or, between the Austrian and French armies, the
latter commanded by general Morean. The Imperialists were defeated
with great loss, their killed and wounded amounting to 10,000 men, and
their loss in prisoners to 10,000 more, November 3, 1800.
HOLLAND. The original inhabitants of this country were the Batavians, who
derived their origin from the Catti, a people of Germany. Having been
obliged to abandon their country on account of civil wars, they came and
established themselves in a morass, formed by the waters of the Rhine and
the Waal, which they named Bettuive, or Batavia, from Batton, the son Gf
their chieftain. To these have since been added a pretty large proportion
of Francs and Frisians.
Sovereignty lbunded by Thierry, first Burgundy and its dependencies become
count of Ii;!land - A. D. 868 a circle of the empire - - - 1521
The county o' Iolland devolves to the They fall to Spain, whose tyranny and
counts of Hainault - - 1299 religious persecution cause a revolt
It falls to the crown of Philip the Good, in Batavia - - - 566
duke of Burgundy - - 1436 The revolted states with William,
100,000 persons are drowned by the sea prince of' Orange, at their head, enbreaking in at Dort -.1446 ter into a treaty at Utrecht - - 1579
HOL ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 355
HOLILAND, continued.
They elect William as Stadtholder - 1579 Holland erected into a kingdom, and
The Stadtholder, William, is assassi- Louis Bonaparte declared king
natedl 1584 June 5, 1806
The Dutch East India company found- Louis abdicates - July 1, 1810
ed -1602 Holland united to France - July 9, 1810
After a struggle of thirty years, the kIcing Restored to the house of Orange, and
of Spain is obliged to declare the Ba- Belgium annexed to its dominions
tavians free - - - -1609 Nov. 18, 1813
The republic wars against Spain in the The prince of Orange is proclaimed soEast, and inl America; the Dutch ad- vereign prince of the United Nethermiral, Peter I-Hen, takes several Spa- lands - - - Dec. 6, 1813
nish galleons, value 20,000,0001. ster- He receives the oath of allegiance
ling - - -1635 from his subjects - March 30, 1814
Cromwell declares war against Hol- And takes the title of king as William
land, and many naval battles are I. - - - March 16, 1815
fought; Blake signally defeats Van The revolution in Belgium (which see)
TroIlp - -1653 commenced - - Aug. 25, 1830
AWilliamn, prince of Orange, having The Belgians take the city of Antwerp
married Mary, daughter of James II., (whic/r' a.ee) - - Ot~.27, 1830
is called to the British throne - 1688 Belgium is separated from Holi-md,
The office of Stadtholder is made here- and Leopold of Cobourg is elected
ditary in the Orange family - -1747 king - - July 12, 1831
Era of the civil war - - -1787 Holland renews the war against BelThe French Republican army march gium - - - Aug 32 1831
into Holland; the people declare in Conference in London on the affiairs of
their favor - - - 1793 Holland and the Netherlands termiThe Stadtholder expelled Jan. 15, 1795 nates, see Belgizm? - Nov. 15, 1831
I-le arrives in England - Jan. 21, 1795 Treaty between Holland and Belgium,
Battle of Camnperdown, Duncan sig- signed in London - April 19, 1839
nally defeats the Dutch - Oct. 11, 1797 Abdication of William I. in favor of
The Texel fleet, of twelve ships of the his son - - - Oct. 8, 1840
line, with thirteen Indiamnen, surren- Death of the ex-ling - Dec. 12, 1844
dered to the British admiral Duncan, The king promises his assent to all rewithout firing a gun - Aug. 28, 1799 forms passed by the chambers
A new constitution is given to the Ba- March 14, 1848
tavian republic; the chief officer (R. New constitution appears, April 17, 1848
J. Schimmelpennick) takes the title Death of William II. - MIach 17, 1849
of Grand Pensionary - April 26, 1805
STADTHOLDERS, ETC.
A.D.1554 William the Great succeeds his cou- 1702 John William Frizo, drowned in passsin Rene, to whvom the Ulnited Pro- ing a ferry in Holland.
vinces owe their foundation and glo- 1711 Charles Henry Frizo.
ry: killedl by an assassin, hired by 1747 William IV., first hereditary stadtPhilip of Spain. holder.
1584 IHenry Philip William. 1751 William V.
1618 Maurice, a consummate general. KINGS.
1625 Frederick HI-enry. 1813 William I.
1647 William II. 1840 William II.
1650 William III. made stadtholder in 1672, 1849 William III., present king, (1852.)
and king of England in 1689. See Belgium..HOLLAND, NEW. It is not clearly ascertained when this country was first
discovered. In 1605, ct seq., various parts of' the coast were traced by the
Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, and English. What was deemed till lately the
south extremity, was discovered by Tasman, in 1642. The eastern coast,
called New South Wales, was taken possession of, in his Britannic majesty's
name, by captain Cook, in 1770. See Botaety Bcay, NJCt Sosttit Wkles, and
Vacb Ditteictb's Lcasd.
HOLY ALLIANCE. A league so called between the emperors of Russia and
Austria, and the king of Prussia, by which they ostensibly bountd themselves, among other things, to be governed by Christian principles in all
their political transactions. This alliance was ratified at Paris, September 26, 1815.
HOLY WATER is said to have been used in churches as early as A. D. 120.Asite.
356 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ HO
HOMER'S ILIAD AND ODYSSEY. The misfortunes of Troy furnish the two
most perfect EPIC* poems in the world, written by the greatest poet that
has ever lived; about 915 a. c. The subject of the first is the wrath of
Achilles; the second recounts the voyages and adventures of Ulysses after
the destruction of Troy. Among the thousands of volumes burnt at Constantinople, A. D. 477, were the works of Homer, said to have been written
in golden letters on the great gut of a dragon, 120 feet long. —Univ. Hrtit.
The works of Homer are supposed by some to have done great injury to
mankind, by inspiring the love of military glory. Alexander was said to
sleep with them always on his pillow.-Darwin.
HOMICIDE. This crime was tried at Athens by the Areopagites, 1507 B. c.
He that killed another at any public exercise of skill, or who killed another
that lay perdue to do a person mischief of a grievous nature, was not
deemed guilty. He who killed a man taken with another's wife, sister,
daughter, or concubine, or he who killed a man who, without just grounds,
assaulted another violently, was not deemed a homicide. Among the Jews,
wilful murder was capital; but for chance-medley, the offender should fly
to one of the cities of refuge, and there continue till the death of the high
priest. In the primitive church, before the Christians had the civil power,
wilful homicide was punished with a twenty years' penance. Our laws dis
tinguish between justifiable homicide and homicide in its various degrees
of guilt, and circumstances of provocation and wilfulness. See 12er'de'r.
HONEY-MOON. Among the ancients, a beverage prepared with honey, such
as that known as mead, and as metheglin, in England, was a luxurious
drink. It was a custom to drink of diluted honey for thirty days or a
roon's age, after a wedding-feast, and hence arose the term honey-moon, of
Teutonic origin. Attila, the devastating Hun, who ravaged nearly all Europe, drank, it is said, so freely of hydromel on his marriage-day, that lhe
died in the night from suffocation, 453 A. D. His death is, however, ascribed
to another cause. See Atlila.
"HONI SOIT QUI MAL Y PENSE." It is said that the countess of Salisbury, at a ball at court, happening to drop her garter, the king, Edward
III., took it up, and presented it to her with these words: " Hoeni soit quti mzeal
y sense," "evil be to him who evil thinks." They afterwards became the
motto of the Garter; but this statement of the origin of the motto is unsupported by sufficient authority.- Goldsmith.
HONOR. Honor was a virtue highly venerated by the ancients, particularly
among the Romans, and temples were ultimately erected to Honor by that
people as a divinity. The first temple was built by Scipio Africanus, about
B. c. 197; and others were raised to her worship by C. Marius, about 102
B. c. These temples were so constructed that it was impossible to enter
that to Honor without going through the temple of Virtue; and Marius
ordered his edifices not to be built too much elevated or too lofty, thereby
to intimate to the worshippers that humility was the true way to hon or.
HOPS. Introduced from the Netherlands into England, A. D. 1524, and were
used in brewing; but the physicians having represented that they were unwholesome, parliament was petitioned against them as being a wicked weed,
and their use was prohibited in 1528.-Anderson. At present there are
between fifty and sixty thousand acres, on an average, annually under the
* The epic poems of HOMErE and VIRGIL, the Gierusalesmme of TAsso, the Paradise Lost of
MILTON, and the -Ienliade of VOLTAIRE, are the noblest that exist; and MILTON'S is considered
fo rank next to HeonEar's. "Paradise Lost is not the greatest of epic poems," observes Dr. JOHNSON, "only becatuse it is not the first." —Butler.
HUD ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 357
culture of hops in England. They are grown chiefly in Hereford, Kent, and
Worcestershire.
HORATII AND CURATTI, TIE, COMBAT OF THE, 669 B. C. The Romans and the
Albans contesting for superiority, agreed to choose three champions on
each side to determine to which it belonged; and the three Horatii, Roman
knights, and the three Curatii, Albans, being elected by their respective
countries, engaged in the celebrated combat which, by the victory of the
Horatii, united Alba to Rome.
HORSE. The people of Thessaly were excellent equestrians, and probably
were the first, among the Greeks at least, who rode upon horses, and broke
thenl in for service in war; whence arose the fable that Thessaly was originally inhabited by centaurs. And Solomon had 40,000 stalls of horses for
his chariots, and 12,000 horsemen. —1 Kigs, iv. 26. The power of the
horse is equal to that of five men.-Smeatoa. A horse can perform the
work of six men.-Bossuet. The Greeks and Romans had some covering
to secure their horses' hoofs from injury. In the ninth century, horses were
only shod in the time of frost. The practice of shoeing was introduced
into England by William I., 1066. In England there are two millions
of draught and pleasure horses, and one hundred thousand agricultural
horses, which consume the produce of seven millions of acres. The horsetax was imposed in 1784, and was then levied on all saddle and coach horses
in England. The existing duty upon " horses for riding" only in England,
amounts to about 350,0001. per year. See Race Horses.
HOSPITALLERS. Military knights of the order of St. John, of Jerusalem,
who were under religious vows; instituted by opening a hospital for the
reception of pilgrims at Jerusalem, in A. D. 1048. They became a monastic
order in 1092; and a military order in 1118. See Maltea.
HOSPITALS or LONDON. Several of these most valuable and mercifill institutions are of ancient date, and richly endowed. One of the most munificent erections by a single individual is that of Guy's Hospital, Southwark,
a London bookseller of that name having built it at the cost of 18,7931., and
endowed it, in 1724, by a bequest of 219,4991. See Infire'aies.
HOST, ELEVATION OF TI-IE. Introduced in Roman Catholic worship, and prostration enjoined, in A. D. 1201. Pope Gregory IX. was the first pontiff who
decreed a bell to be rung as a signal for the people to betake themselves to
the adoration of the host, which is done to this day.-Dr. A. Rees.
HOURS. The day began to be divided into hours from the year 293 B. c., when
L. Papirius Cursor erected a sun-dial in the temple of Quirinus at Rome.
Previously to the invention of water-clocks (whichl see), 158 B. c., the time
was called at Rome by public criers. The Chinese divide the day into
twelve parts of two hours each. The Italians reckon twenty-four hours round,
instead of two divisions of twelve hours each, as we do. In England, the
measurement of time was alike uncertain and difficult: one expedient was
by wax candles, three inches burning an hour, and six wax-candles burning
twenty-four hours: these candles were invented by Alfred, clocks and hourglasses not being then known in England, A. D. 886.
HUDSON'S BAY. Discovered by captain Henry Hudson, when in search of a
North-West passage to the Pacific Ocean, A. D. 1610; but in fact, this part
of North America may more properly be said to have been discovered by
Frobisher in the reign of Elizabeth, although Hudson ventured further
north. The latter, passing the winter in this bay on his fourth voyage, was,
with four others, thrown by his sailors into a boat, and left to perish. The
Hudson-Bay Company obtained chartered possessions here, in 1670. The
forts were destroyed by the French in 1686 and 1782.
358 THIE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ if;U
HUE AND CRY. The old common-law process of pursuing' "with horn and
with voice," from hundred to hundred, and county to county, all robbers
and felons. Formerly the htnlelred was bound to make good all loss occasioned by the robberies therein committed, unless the felon were taken;
but by subsequent laws it is made answerable only for damlage committed
by riotous assemblies.
HUGUENOTS. This word is of uncertain derivation. It was used, as a termf
of reproach, by the French Catholics, to nickname their countrymen of the
reformed churches, or Protestants of France, and had its rise in 1560. The
memorable massacre of the Huguenots of France, on the festival of St.
Bartholomew, took place on Aug. 24, 1572.-See Bartholomewv, St. A considerable number of Huguenots emigrated after that event to North America, and settled on the Delaware, and in the Carolinas.
HUMILIATI. A congregation of religious in the church of Rome, which was
formed by some Milanese who had been imprisoned under Frederick I.,
1162. This order had ninety monasteries; but it was abolished for luxury
and cruelty by pope Pius V., and their houses were given to the Domiricans and Cordeliers, in 1570.
HUNGARY. The Pannonia of the ancients, and subject to the Romans, 11
B. c., and kept possession of by them until, in the fourth century of the
Christian era, the Vandals drove thetm out of it. About forty years afterwards, the Vandals migrated towards Gaul, and their deserted settlements
were occupied by the Goths, who in the beginning of the fifth century were
expelled by the Huns, a ferocious tribe of Scythians, headed by Attila,
whose dreadful ravages obtained him the appellation of " The Scourge of
God."-In more recent times, the Hungarians have been much intermixed
with Sclavonic nations, as Bohemians, Croats, Russians, and Vandals; besides German settlers, as A ustrians, Styrians, Bavarians, Franks, Swabians,
Saxons, &c. Hungary was annexed to the empire of Germany under Chailemagne, but it became an independent kingdom in 920.
Stephen receives the title of Aplostolic IHe obtains the crown of Bohemia, and
kcing from the pope - - A. D. 997 is elected emperor of Germany - 1410
The Poles overrun Hungary - 1061 Albert of Austria succeeds to the throne,.
Dreadful ravages of the Tartars under of Hutngary, thus laying the foundathe sons of Jenghis Khan, throughout tion of the subsequent power and
Hungary,Bohemia,and Russia, 1226 et seq. greatness of the house of Austria - 1437
Victories of Louis the Great in Bulga- It passes to the king of Poland - 1439
ria, Servia, and Dalmatia - - 1342 Solyman II., emperor of the Turks, inLouis carries his arms into Italy -1342 vades Hungary, and takes Buda;.
lie dies, and the history of Hungary battle of Mohatz (zvhich see)- - 1526
now presents a frightful catalogue of Buda sacked a second time by the
crimes.....1378 Turks, and all the inhabitants put to
Charles Duras is murdered; Elizabeth, the sword - - - 1540
queen of Louis, is drowned, and king' Sclavonia taken by the Turks - - 1540
IMIary, their daughter, marries Sigls- Temeswar taken by them - - 1552
moncl, marquis of Brandenburg, and Transylvania seized by Solyman - 1556
causes the rivers of tHungary to flow The duke of Lorraine loses 30,000 men
with blood - - - 1378 in a fruitless attempt to take Buda
The unhappy Hungarians call the fi'om the Turks - 1681
Turks to their assistance - -1380 I-e at lenth carries Buds by storm,
Sultan Bajazet vanquishes Sigismond and delivers up the Mahonmetans to
in battle - - 1389 the fury of the soldiers - -1680
Sigismond recovers from this blow, Temeswar wrested from the Turks by
and makes Wallachia and Moldavia prince Eugene- - 1710
tributary to him - 1390
* The Hlungarian people have an irreconcilable aversion to the name of qteen; and consequently, whenever a female succeeds to the throne of Hungary, she reigns with the title of kting.
Thus, in 1383, when Mary, the daughter of Charles Duras, came to the crown, she was style-d
King lMary.
.UN DICTIONARY OF DATES. 359
HUNGARY, coeTliutecd.
Servia and Wallachia ceded to Turkey miles of Vienna; Jellachich also adat the peace of Belgrade - - 1739 vances there, October 11; Kossuth
Temeswar incorporated with the king- retreats to H-Iungarian territory, 17th,
dom of Ilungary - - - 1778 Hungary declares itself an independent
Tihe struggle for independence cornm- republic - - - Dec. 18418
menced in -1818 Raab (Dec.) and Buda Pestlh, entered
Count Lomnburg, Austrian commission- by Windisgratz - - Jan. 5, 1849
er, murdered at Pesth Sept. 27, Ukase of Russian emperor Nicholas,
The Hungarian Diet dissolved by the declaring his purpose of aiding Ausemperor of Austria; martial law tria against Hungary - April 26,
proclaimed; Jellachich, Ban of Cro- Glrgey, commander-in-chief, surrenatia, appointed to the supreme gov- ders the Itungarian army to the Ausernment, - - Oct. 3, 1848 trians at Villargos - Aug. 11, 1&49
Kossuth appointed by the Diet presi- The war ended by the complete subjudent of the defence committee and gation of Hungary, and the flight or
dictator - Oct. 1848 execution of her leaders.
[Insurrection of Vienna, Oct. 6.] See Germcany.
Hungarian army advances within six
KINGS OF HUNGARY.
A. D. 997 Stephen, duke, assumes the title of king. 1309 Charles Robert.
1038 Peter I., deposed. 1342 Louis I. the Great.
1041 Otto, killed in battle. 1383 Mary.
1044 Peter again ascends the throne; is 1389 Mary, and her husband Sigismr, ad.
again deposed, and has his eyes put 1437 Albert; he died of a surfeit of melons.
out. 1440 Ladislaus IV., killed in battle with the
1047 Andrew, assassinated by his brother Turks.
Bela. 1444 Ladislaus V., poisoned while an infant.
1059 Bela, killed by the fall of a ruinous 1458 SMatthias I., son of Huniades, late retower. gent.
1063 Solomon, deposed by his son. 1490 Ladislaus VI.
1073 Geiga 1. 1516 Louis II. drowned whilst fighting the
1076 St. Ladislaus. Turks.
1095 Coloman. 1526 John Sepusius, deposed.
1114 Stephen II., surnamed Thunder; turn- 1527 Ferdinand, kcing of Bohemia.
ed monk. 1534 John Sepusius, again.
1131 Bela II.; he had his eyes put out by 1539 John II.
his uncle Coloman, so that his queen 1561 Maximilian, qfterzeoads emperor of
ruled the kingdom. Germany.
1141 Geiga II. 1573 Rodolplius.
1161 Stephen III. 1609 Matthias II.
1173 Bela III. 1618 Ferdinand 1I., emperor of Germany.
1191 Emeric. 1625 Ferdinand III., ditto.
1200 Ladislaus II. 1647 Ferdinand IV.
1201 Andrew II. 1656 Leopold, emperor of Germany.
1235 Bela IV. 1687 Joseph, ditto.
1275 Stephen IV. 1711 Charles VI, ditto.
1278 Ladislaus III., murdered. 1740 Maria Theresa.
1291 Andrew III. 1780 Joseph, her son, emperor of Germany.
1301 Wenceslaus. See Germnany.
1304 Otho.
On the death of Charles VI., in 1740, his daughter, Maria Theresa, who had
married into tlhe house of Lorraine, was in danger of being deprived of her
father's hereditary dominions by France, and also by Bavaria; but at length
overcoming all difficulties, her husband was elected emperor, and Hungary,
Austria, and Bohemia are at this time governed by their descendants. See
Gee'mawy.
HUNS. A fierce and warlike nation, occupying eastern Tartary nearly 1200
years; they were almost wholly exterminated by the Chinese, in A. n. 93, and
the remnants settled on the Volga, and attacked the Roman allies on the
Danube, in 376; but having been subsidized under Attila, they turned their
arms towards Germany. The latter country and Scythia were conquered by
them, about A. D. 433. 100,000 of them were slain on the plains of Champagne in 447. They were defeated by Charles the Great in several battles
during eight years, and were almost extirpated, and soon ceased to appear as
360 THE WORLDUS PROGRESS. IA-.
a distinct nation after 780. When they settled in Pannonia, they gave it the
name of Hungary, wovhichi see; see also Attila.
HUSS, JOHN; HIs MARTvYRnoM. The clergy having instigated the pope to
issue a bull against heretics, Huss, who had been zealous to promote a reformation, was cited to appear before a council of divines at Constance to give
an account of his doctrines. To encourage him to do so, the emperor Sigisnmund sent him a safe conduct, and engaged for his security. On the
strength of this pledge he presented himself accordingly, but was soon
thrown into prison, and after some months' confinement was adjudged to be
burned alive. He endured this dreadful death with magnanimity and resignation, July 6, 1415. The same unhappy fate was borne with the same
fortitude and constancy of mind by JERaoM oF PRAGUE, the intimate colmpanion of Huss, who came to this council with the generous design of supporting and seconding his persecuted friend: he, too, suffered, May 30, 1416.
See Cranmer', and M2artyrs.
HUSSARS. This species of force originated in Poland and Hungary; and as
they were more fitted for a hasty enterprise than a set battle, they are supposed to have taken their names from the ]hazzas or shout they made at their
first onset. They were generally opposed to the Turkish horse, "and were
oddly clothed, having the skins of tigers and other wild beasts hanging
their backs, against bad weather, and wore fur caps, with a cock's feather,"
-Pardon.
HYDROMETER. The oldest mention of the Hydrometer occurs in the fifth
century, and may be found in the letters of Synesius to Hypatia; but it is
not improbable that Archimedes was the inventor of it, though no proofs
of it are to be found.-Bec/cmani?. Hypatia was torn to pieces, 415 A. D.,
and Archimedes was killed 212 a. c. Hydraulic chemistry became a science
in 1746.
HYDROSTATICS were probably first studied in the Alexandrian school, aboJt
300 a. c. The pressure of fluids was discovered by Archimedes, about 250
B. c. The forcing-pump and air-fountain were invented by Hero, about 120
B. C..Water-mills were known about the time of the birth of Christ. The
science was revived by Galileo, about A. D. 1600. The theory of rivers wmas
scientifically understood in 1697. The correct theory of fluids and oscillation of waves, explained by Newton, in 1714. A scientific form was given
to hydrodynamics, by Bernoulli, 1738.
HYMNS. Religious songs, or odes, were at first used by the heathens in pra;ise
of their false deities, and afterwvards introduced both into the Jewish anca
Christian churches. St. Hilary, the bishop of Aries, in France, is said
to have been the first who composed hymns to be sung in Christian churches,
about A. D. 431. The hymns of the Jews are usually accompanied with
trumpets, drums, and cymbals.
IAMBIC VERSE. Iambe, an attendant of MetaniT,' wife of Coleus, king of
Sparta, when trying to exhilarate Ceres, while the latter was travelling over
Attica in quest of her daughter Proserpine, entertained her with jokes;
stories, and poetical effusions; and from her free and satirical verses hale,
been called Iclmbics.-A)potlodoer's. Iambic verses were first written, abol
700 a. c., by Archilochus, who had courted Neobule, the daughter of Lycambes; but after a promise of marriage, the father preferred another suitor.
richer than the poet; whereupon Archilochus wrote so bitter a satire on t: -
old man's avarice, that he hanged himself. lIeCodotus.
-no ] DICTIONARtY OF DATES. 361
ICE. Galileo was the first who observed ice to be lighter than the water which
composed it, and hence ice floats, about 1597. Ice produced in summer by
means of chemical mlixtures, prepared by Mr. Walker and others, in 1782.
Leslie froze water under the receiver of an air-pumlp by placing under it a
vessel full of' oil of' vitriol. One part of sal-allmmonia and two of col-mmon
salt, with five of snow, produce a degree of cold twelve degrees below the
zero of Fahrenheit. Five parts of muriate of lime and foour of snow freeze
mercury; and mercury cain be solidified by preparations of sulphuric acid,
so as to bear the stroke of a hamnmer. See Coel.
ICE TRADE, TIHE, in the United States, was commenced by Frederick Tudor,
of Boston, in 1805, who shipped the first cargo to Viartinique and the first to
Calcutta, 1833. The ice-houses of the dealers near Boston at present are
capable of containing 141,332 tons.
ICELAND. Discovered by some Norwegian chiefs who were compelled to
leave their native country, A. D. 871; according to some accounts, it had
been previously visited by a Scandinavian pirate. It was peopled by the
Norwegians, in 874. In 1783, there occurred here the most tremendous volcanic eruption on record; it was accompanied by violent wind and rain, and
a darkness of the heavens; and it was feared that the island wnauld fall to
pieces. Three-fire spouts broke out of' Mount Skapta, which, after rising
to a considerable height in the air, formed a torrent of red-hot lava that
flowed for six weeks, and ran a distance of 60 miles to the sea, in a broken
breadth of nearly 12 miles: 12 rivers were dried up; 21 villages totally
overwhelmed by fire or water; and 34 others were materially injured.
ICELANDIC LITERATURE, ROYAL SOCIETY OP, in Copenhagen. Their
library, containing 2000 Icelandic MSS. and many books, burnt, September
26, 1847.'CONOLOGY. The science that describes men and deities, distinguished by
some peculiar characteristic, and the doctrine of picture or image representation. Thus, Saturn is represented as an old man with a scythe; Jupiter
with a thunderbolt, and an eagle by his side; Neptune with a trident, in a
chariot drawn by sea-horses; Mercury, with wings on his hat and at his
heels; Bacchus, crowned with ivy; Pallas, leaning on her regis; Venus,
drawn by Swans or pigeons; Juno, riding in a cloud, &c. I-Ieathen mythology gave rise to the later worship of the sun, moon, stars, and other objects;
and to the representation of the true God in various forms; and to images.
The Iconoclastic schism rent asunder the Rolman Catholic church in the
early part of the eighth century. See Idols.
DES. In the Ronian calendar, the ides meant the thirteenth day of each
month except in March, May, July, and October, in which Ilonths it was
the fifteenth day, because in these four it was six days before the nones,
and in the other months four days. The ides of March was the day on
which Julius Cesar was assassinated in the senate house by Casca and other
conspirators, 44 B. c.
-DIOTS. It is shown by the latest returns, that exclusive of lunatics (see Insanity), there are in England, pauper idiots, or idiots protected by national
institutions, males, 83372; females, 8893; total, 7265. In England there is
one lunatic or idiot in every 1033 individuals; in Wales, there is one in
every 807; in Scotland, one in 731; and in Ireland, one in 812.
DrOLS, AND IDOLATRY. The public worship of idols was introduced by Ninus, king of Assyria, 2059 B. c. — Vossius. Idols are supposed to have originated in the pillar set up by Jacob, at Bethel, about 1800 B. c. —Dzf'esnoy.
Constantine, emperor of Rome, ordered all the heathen temples to be destroyed, and all sacrifices to cease, 330 A. D.-Dltfresnoy. In Britain, the
1.6
362 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ J1~.
religion of the Druids gave way to the more gross and barbarous superstitions of the Saxons, who had their idols, altars, and temples, and they soon
overspread the country with them: they had a god for every day in tile
week. See WTeek. The idolatrv of the Saxons yielded to Christianity after
the coming of St. Augustin. See Chtristianity.
ILIUM. A city was built here by Dardanus, and called Dardania, 1480 B. C.
Troy (whuichb see), another city, was founded by Troas, about 1341 B. c.; atid
Ilus, his successor, called the country Ilium. This kingdom existed 296
years from the reign of Dardanus, Priam being the sixth and last king. The
Trqjan war was undertaken by the united states of Greece to recover Helen,
whom Paris, son of Priam, had borne away from her husband, Menelalis,
king of Sparta, 1204 B. C. See Helen. AMore than 100,000 warriors engaged
in this expedition; and the invaders, having wasted many defenceless townse
and villages, laid siege to the capital, 1193 B. c. Troy was taken after ten
years' war by stratagem, and burnt to ashes by the conquerors, who put the
inhabitants to the sword, or carried them off' as slaves, 1184 B. c. —ApElodorus.
ILLINOIS. One of the United States, first settled on the Kaskaskia and Cahokia by the French from Canada. Ceded to Great Britain at the peace of
1763. Chiefly settled by emigrants from other states since 1800. In 178t. 1:
was part of the North-West territory. In 1809 it was made a separate terrl
tory, and in 1818 admitted into the Union, being the 23d state. Populatior
in 1810, 12,282; in 1830, 157,575; in 1840, 476,183. It is a free state and has
always been so. The chief products are grain and Indian corn; it has inexhaustible lead-mines. New constitution adopted August 31, 1847.
ILLUMINATI. These were heretics who sprang up in Spain, where they wer(
called Alumbrados, about A. D. 1575; and after their suppression in Spain
they appeared in France. One of their leaders was the friar Anthony Be,
chet. The chief doctrine of this sect was, that they obtained grace, an
attained perfection, by their own sublime manner of prayer..A secre
society bearing this name was founded by Dr. Adam Weishaupt, in May
1776.
ILLUMINATED BOOKS AND PAGES. The practice of adopting ornaments
drawings, and emblematical figures, and even portraits, to enrich MSS., is c
great antiquity; and illuminated pages are, many of them, exquisitely painted
Varro wrote the lives of 700 illustrious RPomans, which he embellished witl
their likenesses, about 70 B. c.-Plin. Hist. Nat.
IMPEACHMENT. The first impeachment by the commons house of parli,
ment, and the first of a lord chancellor, was in 1386. By statute of the 12.
and 13th of William and Mary, it was enacted, that no pardon under t'
great seal shall be pleaded to an impeachment by the commons in parl
ment, 1699 and 1700. Memorable impeachment of Warren Hastings, Fe
13, 1788; the trial lasted seven years, ending April 25, 1795, in an acquitta
Impeachment of lord Melville, April 29, and his acquittal, June 12, 180t
Inquiry into the charges preferred by colonel Wardle against the duke
York, commenced Jan. 26, and ended March 20, 1809, in his acquit.
Trial of Caroline, queen of George IV., by bill of pains and penalties, Uefore the house of lords, commenced Aug. 16; Mr. Brougham entered
her majesty's defence, Oct. 3; and the last debate on the bill took plac
Nov. 10, 1820. See Queen of George IV.
IMPERIAL PARLIAMENT. By the Union with Ireland, the parliament,;.
Great Britain became Imperial; and the first Imperial parliament, admit
ting 100 Irish members into the commons, and 28 temporal and 4 spiritusl
peers into the house of lords, wgs held at Westminster, January 22, 180
SM.? J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 363
The Imperial parliamnent is now constituted thus: in the Commons, since
the passing of the Reform Bill (wuAicA see), in 1832, there are 471 English;
29 Welsh; 105 Irish; and 53 Scotch mnembers-in all 658. In the Lords,
459 members, of whom 28 ale temporal, and 4 spiritual representative peers
of Ireland; and 16 representative peers of' Scotland. See Commons, Lords,
ParliascLt, and Refo rm.
IMPORTS or MERCHANDISE IN THIE UNITED STATES. See E. poq-ls, &c.
Table, p. 317.
VALUE OF IMPORTS INTO GREAT BRITAIN, FROM ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD.
In 1710 - ~4,753,777 In 1800 - ~30,570,605 I In 1830. ~46,245,241
1750 - 7,289,582 1810 - - 41,136,135 1840 - 62,004,000
1775 - 14,815,855 1820 - - 36,514,564 1845 - 85,281,958
MPOSTORS. The names and pretensions of religious, political, and other impostors, would fill a volume; they have been, of course, found in every
country, and have existed'ij every age. The following are selected from
various authorities, as being among the most extraordinary:Aldebert, who, in the eighth century, pre- Boleyn. She and her confederates were
tended he had a letter from the Redeem- hanged at Tyburn, 24 Henry VIII, 1534.er, which fell from heaven at Jerusalem; Rapin.
he seduced multitudes to follow him into In the first year of Mary's reign, after her
woods and deserts, and to live in imitation marriage with Philip of Spain, Elizabeth
of John the Baptist. Croft, a girl of 18 years of age, was seGonsalvo Mlartin, a Spaniard, pretended to creted in a wall, and with a whistle, made
be the angel Michael; he was bullt by for the purpose, uttered many seditious
the inquisition of Spain, in 1360. speeches against the queen and the prints,
George David, son of a waterman at Ghent, and also against the mass and confession,
styled himself the nephew of God, sent for which she was sentenced to stand upon
into the world to adopt children worthy of a scaffold at St. Paul's cross, during serheaven; he denied the resurrection,'mon-time, and snake public confession of
preached against marriage, in favor of a her imposture, 1553: she was called the
community of women, and taught that Spirit of the Wall.-Baoker's Chrlon.
the body only could be defiled by sin; he William Ilacket, a fanatic, personated our
had many followere; died at Basle, 1556. Saviour, and was executed for blasphemy,
Demetrius Griska Eutropeia, a friar, pre- 34 Eliz., 1591.
tended to be the son of Basilowitz, czar of James Naylor, personated our Saviour; he
Muscovy, whom the usurper Borls had was convicted of blasphemy, scourged,
put to death; but he maintained that ano- and his tongue bored through with a hot
ther child had been substituted in his iron on the pillory, by sentence of the
place: he was supported by the arms of House of Commons, under Cromwell's
Poland; his success astonished the Itus- administration, 1656.
sians, who invited him to the throne, and Valentine Greatrakes, an Irish impostor,
delivered into his hands Fedor, the reign- who pretended to cure all diseases by
ing czar, and all his family, whom he stroking the patient; his imposture decruelly put to death: his imposition being ceived the credulous, and occasioned very
discovered, he was assassinated in his warm disputes in Ireland, in 1665, and in
palace, 1606.-D'Alembeort's Revoloetioes England, where it fell into disrepute, in
of Russia. 1666, upon his examination before the
Sabbata Levi, a Jew of Smymna, amused Royal Society, after which we hear no
the Turks and Jews a long time at Con- more of him. Birch's Memnoirs of the
stantinople and other places, by person- Roy. Society.
ating our Saviour, 1666. Dr. Titus Oates. See Conspiracies.
Mary Tofts, of Godalming, by pretending
IMPOSTORS EXTRAORDINARY IN BRITISH she bred rabbits within her, so imposed
HISTORY. upon many persons (among others, Mr.
Two men crucified, both pretending to be St. Andre, surgeon to the king), that they
the Messiah; and two women executed for espoused her cause, 1726.
assuming the characters of the Virgin The Cock-lane ghost imposture by William
Mary and Mary Magdalen, 5 Henry IlI., Parsons, his wife, and daughter, 1762.
1221. - Johanna Southcote, who proclaimed her
Elizabeth Barton, styled the IHoly maid of conception of the Messiah. and had a mulKent, spirited up to hinder the Reforma- titude of followers; she died in Dec. 1814.
tion, by pretending to inspirations from IN THE UNITED STATES.
heaven, fortelling that the kinr would have Matthias, alias Matthews, who professed to
an early and violent death if he divorced be the Messiah, New-York. 1830-31.
Catherine of Spain, and married Anne Joseph Smith. See article Mormons.
IMIPRESSMENT or SEAMEN. Affirmed by Sir M. Foster to be of ancient
364 THE WORLD'S PROGIESS. [LOD
practice. The statute 2 Richard II. speaks of impressment as a matter well
known, 1378. The first commission for it was issued 29 Edward III. 1355.
Pressing, either for the sea or land service, declared to be illegal by the ]nritish parliament, Dec. 1641. None can be pressed into the king's naval service
above 55, nor under 18. No apprentice nor landsimen who hlave not served at
sea for 3 or 2 years. No masters of merchants' ships, first-mates of 50 tons,
and boatswains and carpenters of 100 tons. No men employed by the public boards, and none except by an officer with a press-warrant.
INCENDIARIES. The punishment for arson was death by the Saxon laws and
Gothic constitutions. In the reign of Edward I. incendiaries were burnt to
death. This crime was made high treason by statute 8 Henry VI., 1429;?ird
it was denied benefit of clergy, 21 Henry VIII., 1528.
INCIEST. It has been looked upon with horror by most nations, but Persia and
Egypt are exceptions. The history of the latter country abounds with instances of incestuous marriages among its sovereigns. Physcon married his
brother's queen, then repudiated her, and married her daughter by his
brother, and murdered his children by both wives, 129 B. c. See Eg/ypt.
In our own country, Vortigern, a king of South Britain, married his own
daughter, A. D. 446. The instances are numerous in Portugal. Maria,
queen of Portugal, married her uncle, the prince of Brazil, June, 1760; and
the son of that incestuous marriage, Joseph, then in his sixteenth year, married his aunt, the princess Mary, Feb., 1777. The present Don Miguel of
Portugal was betrothed to his niece, Donna Maria, by procuration at Vienna,
in Oct. 1826, she being then only seven years of age. In England, incest was
early punished with death; and was again made capital by a law of the
Commonwealth, in 1650.
INCOME TAX IN ENGLAND. This is not. as some suppose, a new impost.
In 1512, parliament granted a subsidy of two fifteenths from the comanons,
and two tenths from the clergy, to enable the king to enter on a war with
France. —Rapix. This tax was attempted in 1793, and 1799: and again in
1802; but was abandoned. In 1803, it was revived, at the rate of 5 per
cent. on all incomes above 1501., and lower rates on smaller incomes. Iln
1805, it was increased to 61 per cent.; and in 1806 was raised to 10 per cent.
embracing the dividends at the bank. It produced —
In 1804, at Is. in the pound - ~4,650,000 In 1806, at 2s. in the pound - ~11,500,00(
In 1805, at Is. 3d. ditto - 5,937,500 And subsequently - 16,548,938
The tax produced from lands, houses, rentages, &c., 8,657,9371.; from ftun
ed and stock properties, 2:885.5051.; the profits and gains of trade, 3,831,08
~and salaries and pensions, 1,174,4561.; total, sixteen millions and a 1i
Repealed in March, 1816. Sir Robert Peel's bill, imposing the present tt'
of 21. 18s. 4d. per cent. pcr cxnn., to subsist for three years, passed June 22
1842; it produced about 5,350,0001. a year. This tax was renewed for thret
yearss more, in March, 1845.
INDEPENDENTS. Sects of Protestants, chiefly in England and Holland. The:
are such as hold the independency of the church, or that each congt-eg:-tioi
may govern itself in religious matters. They say there is no absolute occa
sion for synods or councils, whose resolutions may be taken to be wise mut
prudent advice, but not as decisions to be peremptorily obeyed; they afrirn
that one church may advise or reprove another, but has no authority to ex
communicate or censure. Their first meeting-house founded in England wa
that by Henry Jacobs, 1616.
INDEX EXPURGATORY. A catalogue of prohibited books in the Church o
Rome, first made by the inquisitors, and approved by the council of T eu'
:iN3D DICTIONARY OF DATES. 365
The index of heretical books, by which the reading of the Scriptures was
forbidden (with certain exceptions) to the laity, was confirmed by a bull of
pope Clement VIII. in 1595. It enumerated most of the celebrated works
of France, Spain, Germany, and England, and which are still prohibited.
-Ashe.
INDIA. Known to the ancients, many of whose nations, particularly the Ty-rians and Egyptians, carried on much commerce with it. It was conquered by
Alexander, 327 B. c., and subsequently the intercourse between India and
the Roman empire was very great. The authentic history of Hindoostan is
reckoned to commence with the conquests of Mahmudl Gazni, A. D. 1000.Renneel.
Irruption of the Mahometans, under whom 123 perish in ohe night. See
IMIahmud Gazni - - A.D. 1000 Blackchole. - - May 19, 1756
Patna, or Afghan empire founded - 1205 Calcutta retaken by colonel, afterwards
Reign of Jenghis Khan, one of the most lord Clive; he defeats the soubah, at
bloody conquerors of the world; Plassey - - June 20, 1757
14,000,000 of the human race perish Warren Hastings becomes governor of
by his sword, under the pretence of Bengal -April 13, 1772
establishing the worship of one god; India Bill. See Idia Bill June 16, 1773
he died - - — 1237 Supremine court established - -1773
The Mogul Tartars, under the conduct Pondicherry taken - Oct. 11, 1778
of the celebrated Timour, or Tamer- The strong fortress of Gualior taken by
lane, invade Hindostan - - 1398 major Popham - Aug. 4,1778
Tamerlane takies the city of Delhi; de- Hyder Ali overruns the Carnatic, and
feats the Indian army, makes a con- defeats the British - Sept. 10, 1780
quest of Ilindostan, and butchers He talkes Arcot - - Oct. 31, 1780
100,000 of its people - - - 1399 Lord Macartney arrives as governor of
The passage to India discovered by Madras - June 22, 1781
Vasco da Gama - 1497 Hyder Ali signally defeated by Sir Eyre
Conquest of the country completed by I Coote -. - July 1, 1781
the sultan Baber, founder of the 1Mo- Death of Hyder, and accession of his
gul empire - - - - 1525 son, Tippoo Saib - Dec. 11, 1782
Reign of the illustrious Acbar, the Trial of Warren Hastings. See Telastgreatest prince of Itindostan - - 1555 inzgs, 7'Tial of - Feb. 13, 1788
Reign of Aurungzebe; his donlinions Definitive treaty with Tippoo; his two
extending from 10 to 35 degrees in sons hostages - - March 19, 1792
latitude, and nearly as much in longi- Government of lord Mornington, aftertude, and his revenue amounting to wards marquis Wellesley May 17, 1793
32,000,0001. sterling - 1660 Seringapatam stormed, and Tippoo
Invasion of the Persian, Nadir Shah, or Saib ktilled - - May 4, 1799
-tuli Khan - 1738 Victories of the British; the Carnatic.Delhi he orders a general massacre, conquered - - - 1800,and 150,000 persons perish - 1738 Victories of Sir Arthur WVellesley - 1803.-le carries away treasure amounting Marquis Cornwallis resumes the govto 125.000,0001. sterling - 1739 emiinent - - July 30, 1805
Defeat of the last imperial army by the I Act by which the trade to India was
Rohillas - 1749 thrown open; that to China remain[The Mlogul empire now became mere- ing1 with the company July 31, 1813
ly nominal, distinct and independent Lord Amherst's government - Aug. 1, 1823
sovereignties being formel by nu- Lord William Bentinck arrives as gomerous petty princes. The empe- vernor-general - - July 4,1828
rors were of no political consequence Act opening the trade to India, and tea
from this period. trade, &c. to China, lorming a new
era in British commerce - Aug. 28, 1833
BRITISH POWER IN TNDIA. Lord Auckland, governor-general; he
Attempt made to reach Indial by the leaves England - - Sept. 1835
north-east and north-west palssages - 1528 Battle of Ghizny; victory of Sir John,
Sir Francis Drake's expeditions - 1579 now Lord Keane. (See Ghizsy)
Levant company make a land oxpedi- July 23, 1839
tioni to Itidia - - -1589 Shah Soujah restored to his sovereignty,
First advrenture from England - 1591 and he and the British army enter
First charter to the London compai-ly Cabul - - - Au. 7, 1839
of merchants - - - - 1600 English defeat Dost Mahomed, - Oct. 18, 1840
Second charter to the East India com- Kturrock Singe, Iking of Lahore, tlies; at
paty -1609 his funeraL his successor is killed by
Calcutta purchased - - -1698 accident, and Dost Maholmed, next
Capture of Calcutta by Serajah Dowla. heir, surrenders to England - Nov. 5, 1840
See Calcultta. - -17561 General rising against the British at
lie imprisons 146 British subjects, of'
366 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. ['^.L,
INDIA, contieznsed.
Cabul; Sir Alexander Burnes and Ameers of Scinde defeated by Sir Char.
other officers murdered - Nov. 2, 1841 les Napier; Scinde is afterwards anLord Ellenborough appointed governor- nexed to the British empire - Feb. 17, 1843
general -. Oct. 13, 1841 Battles of Maharajpoor and Punniar;
Sir William Macnaghten treacherously the strong fort of Gwalior, the " Gibassassinated - - Dec. 25, 1841 raltar of the East," taken - Dec. 29, 1843
The British, under a convention, evacu- Sir Henry Hardinge appointed goverate Cabul, placing Lady Sale, &c., as nor-general - May 2, 1844
hostages in the hands of Akba:r Khan;
a dreadful massacre ensues - Jan. 6, 1842
THE LATE WAR BETWEEN THE SIKHS AND THE BRITISH.
The Sikh troops cross the Sutlej river, The citadel of Lahore is occupied by
and attack the British post at Feroze- the British under Sir Hugh Goug1h;
pore, which was held by Sir John and the war terminates - Feb. 20, 1846
Littler - - Dec. 14, 1845 Great battle between the British under
Battle of Aliwal; the Sikhs defeated Lord Gough, and the Sikhs under
Jan. 28, 1846 Sheere Singh, at Ramluggar, Nov. 22, 1848
Battle of Sobraon; the enemy defeated Moultan taken, after a long sie _e, Janl. 3, 1849
with immense loss in killed and Sheere Sing defeated by Lord Gough
drowned - - Feb. 10, 1846 Feb. 21, 1849
[The Sikhs lost 10,000 men; the British The Punjaub formally annexed to the
2,338 in killed and wounded.] British crown March 29, 1849
INDIA COMPANY, THE EAST. The first commercial intercourse of the English with the East Inclies, was a private adventure with three ships fitted
out in 1591; only one of them reached India, and after a voyage of three
years, the commander, captain Lancaster, was brought home in another
ship, the sailors having seized on his own; but his information gave rise to
a capital mercantile voyage, and the Company's first charter, in Dec. 1300.
Their stock then consisted of 72,0001., and they fitted out four ships, and
meeting with success, have continued to trade ever since. India stock sol'
at 5001. for a share of 1001., in 1683. A new company was formed in 1698,
and both were united in 1702. The India-house was built in 1726, and enlarged in 1799. Board of' control instituted 1784.
INDIA BILL. The bill placing the company's affairs under the control of the
British government, and re-organizing the various departments in India
passed June 16, 1773. See East India Bill. Mr. Fox's celebrated bilb
passed in the commons. but was thrown out in the lords' house, 1783. Mr.
Pitt's bill constituting the Board of Control passed August 13, 1784.
INDIA RUBBER. Also called Caoutchouc, first brought to Europe firow
South America, about the beginning of the eighteenth century. Se:'vera
plants produce various kinds of elastic gum; but that in comnmerce i.
chiefly the juice of the Siphonia Elastica, or syringe tree. Incisions in th(
bark of this tree give vent to a liquid which forms India rubber. No subl
stance is yet known which is so pliable, and at the same time so exceeding.
elastic; it oozes out under the form of a vegetable milk, from incision.
made in the tree, and is gathered chiefly in the time of rain, because i
flows then most abundantly. —M. Macquer.
INDIANA, one of the western United States, first settled at Vincennes by tht
French; ceded to England at the peace of 1763, but no settlement mlad
by them until 1787. Was part of the N. W. Territory in 1801. Sutfere,
much during the war of' 1812. See battle of Tippecanoe. Admitted int,
the Union in 1816. Population in 1800, 5,641; in 1820, 147,178; in 18-4(
685,866.
INDIANS, NORTH AMl.ICrcAN. The origin of the aborigines of this continet:
continues to be a matter of speculation among the ethnologists. The
have gradually but now almost entirely disappeared before the track of th
white man east of the Mississippi, and even in the far west their nunbhfa,
Ir.D ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 367
are yearly becoming smaller. King Philip's Indian war in New England,
1675. Indians joined the French against the English colonies, 1690. Attacked by Capt. Church, 1704; burned Deerfield, Mass., 1704; and Haverhill, N. H., 1708; Indian war in South Carolina, 1715; again joined the
French, 1754-9; Cheroxees subdued, 1761; Indians besieged Detroit, 1763.
[During the revolutionary war the Indians were employed at times on both
sides, but chiefly by the British.] Treaty with the Choctaws, 1786; with
the Creeks, 1790; Gen. Harmer defeated by the Indians near Chillicothe,
1790; Gen. Butler defeated by the Indians on the Miami, 1791; treaty
with Six Nations, &c., 1794; with the Delawares, 1804; Gov. Harrison defeated hostile Indians on the Wabash, May 16, 1811; Creek war in Florida,
Gen. Jackson, 1813; treaty with Choctaws, Cherokees, &c., by Gen. Jackson, 1816; Indian land in Ohio ceded to the United States, 1816; war with
Seminoles, 1817; bill for removing the Indians west of Mississippi, passed
May 27, 1832; war with Winnebagoes, 1832; Black Hawk captured, Aug.
27, 1832; Winnebagoes subdued by Gen. Scott, 1832; war against the
Indians in Florida, Alabama, and Georgia, conducted by Gens. Scott, Gaines,
Jessup, &c., 1835-40. In 1836 the Secretary of War reported as follows:
Number of Indians emigrated from the Atlantic States to the lands provided for
them west of the Mississippi 3L,357
Number yet to be removed 72,181
Number of Indians of indigenous tribes, between the Mississippi and the Rocky
Mountains -150,341
Total within the territory of the United States - 352,879
Treaty with the Sioux, they relinquishing 5,000,000 acres west of Mississippi for $1,000,000, Sept. 29, 1837; with Winnebagoes, Oct. 1, 1837; Powell
alias Osceola, the Seminole chief, with 50 warriors, taken prisoners in Florida, Oct. 20, 1837; great mortality from small-pox among the Mandans,
Mintarees, Blackfeet, and other Indians in Missouri territory-the Mandans
tribe entirely destroyed-Nov., Dec., 1837; fight in Arkansas between the
Ross and Ridge parties and Cherokees-Ross and about 40 others killed, June
28, 1839; 150 Chippewas treacherously massacred by the Sioux, at a meeting for a treaty at the Falls of St. Anthony, July 1, 1839; Cayuse Indians
in Oregon having attacked and murdered 15 persons, and carried off 64 prisoners from a missionary station, are chastised by the settlers in a severe
engagement, Nov. 29, 1847.
INDIGO. Before the American colonies were established, all the indigo used
in Europe came from the East Indies; and until the discovery of a passage
round the Cape of Good Hope, it was conveyed like other Indian products,
partly through the Persian Gulf, and partly by land to Babylon, or through
Arabia and up the Red Sea to Egypt. The real nature of indigo was so
little known in Europe, that it was classed among minerals, as appears by
letters-patent for erecting works to obtain it from mines in the principality
of Halberstadt, dated Dec. 23,,1705; yet what Vitruvius and Pliny call
indicum is supposed to have been our indigo.-Beckmasnn. The first mention of indigo occurs in English statutes in 1581. The first brought to
Europe was procured from Mexico. Its cultivation was begun in Carolina,
in 1747. The quantity imported into Great Britain in 1840, was 5,831,2691b.,
and in 1845, it was 10,127,4881b.
INDULGENCES. They were commenced by Leo. III., about A. D. 800; were
much used by Urban II. 1090; and were subsequently conferred by the Roman pontiffs in the twelfth century as rewards to the crusaders. Clement
V. was the first pope who made public sale of indulgences, 1313. In 1517,
Leo. X. published general indulgences throughout Europe, when the practice led to the Reformation in Germany, in 1517, and to the Reformation in
368 THEU WOrLD'S PROGRESS. [ IN.
England, in 1534.-Bower's Lives of the Popes. Indulgences were for the
pardon of sins, and were sometimes so extensive as to be for the past, present, and to come. They were written upon parchment, and sealed anti
signed by the pope or his delegates.-Ashe.
INFIRMARIES. Ancient Rome had no houses for the cure of the sick. Diseased persons, however, were carried to the temple of Asculapius for a cure,
as Christian believers were taken to churches which contained wonderworking images. Benevolent institutions for the accommodation of travellers, the indigent, and sick, were first introduced with Christianity, and
the first infirnaries or hospitals were built close to cathedrals and monasteries. The emperor Louis II. caused infirmaries situated on mountains to Lb
visited, A. D. 855. In Jerusalem the aknights and brothers attended on the
sick. There were hospitals for the sick at Constantinople, in the 11th century. The oldest mention of physicians and surgeons established in infirmaries, occurs in 1437.-Beckima-ro. See Hospitals.
INFORMERS. This tribe was once very numerous in Greece and Rome, they
being countenanced by wicked princes. The emperor Titus punished informers by banishment, and sometimes death; and Pliny gives i)raise to
Trajan for the like good policy. In England, and iparticularly in London,
numbers of unprincipled men obtain large gains as informers against pe.
sons whose slightest infractions of the law, often unconsciously committed,
subject them to the power and exactions of this despised class.
INK. The ancient black inks were composed of soot and ivory-black, and
Vitruvius and Pliny mention lamp-black; but they had likewise valiouc:
colors, as red, gold, silver, and purplle. Red ink was made by them of vermilion and various kinds of gum. INDIAN INK is brOUight from China, and
must have been in use by the people of the cast from the earliest ages,
most of the artificial Chinese productions being of very great antiquity.
It is usually brought to Europe in small quadrangular cakes, and is composed of a fine black and animal glue.-Beckmanav.
INNS or' COURT. A number of inns of court were established at different
periods, in some degree as colleges for teaching the law. The Temple (of
which there were three societies, nanely, the Inner, the Middle and the
Outer) was originally founded in the Temple chulrch, built by the knig'hts
Templars, 32 Henry II. 1185. The inner and Middle Temple were made
inns of law in the reign of Edward III., about 1340; the Outer not until the
reign of Elizabeth, about 1560.-Stowe's Sur'vey.
INOCULATION. Lady Mary Wortley Montague introduced inoculation in
England from Turkey. In 1718 she had her own son inoculated at Adrianople, with perfect success; and she was allowed to have it tried, for the
first time in England, on seven condemned criminals, 7 George I. 1721.
The practice was preached against by many of the bishops and other clergy
from that period until 1760.* Vaccine inoculation was introduced by Dr.
Jenner, January 21, 1799; he had discovered its virtue in 1796, and had
been making experiments during the intermediate three years. He was
voted 10,0001. as a reward by parliament, June 2, 1802. The emperor Na
poleon valued this service of Dr. Jenner to mankind so highly that he libeberated Dr. Wickham, when a prisoner of war, at Jenner's request, and
subsequently the emperor liberated whole families of English, making it a
i Inoculation was deemed a very precarious affair by our grandfathers. The London Daily
Advertiser (Nov. 7, 1751) has this paragraph:-" We hear that the son and daughter of Thomas
Davison, esq., of Blakestone, have been inoculated in this town (Newcastle), and that they are
both well recovered." Dr. Mead practised inoculation very successfully up to 1754, and Dr
Dimsdale of London inoculated Catharine II., empress of Russia, in 1768. See small Pox.
tNS ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 369
point to refuse him nothing that he asked. Innoculation introduced in the
United States by Dr. B. Waterhouse, 1800. See SliLall Pox and Vaccinatio;n.
INQUISITION. Before the conversion of Constantine the Great, the bishops
only examined into doctrines, and punished heresy with excommunication; but after the emperors became Christians, they ordained that such as
were excommunicated should be also banished and forfeit their estates.
This continued till about the year 800, when the western bishops' power
was enlarged to the authority of citing persons to their courts, both to convict and punish them by imprisonment, penances, or death. In the twelfth
century, heresy, as it was then called, was much increased; and the inquisition arose in the persecution of the Albigenses and Waldenses. It was
instituted by pope Innocent III., in 1203; and Gregory IX. in a council held
at Toulouse in 1229, gave it its final form, committing the management of
it to the bishops; but afterwards thinking these too indulgent, he gave the
direction of his inquisition to the Dominicans. It was established in France,
by St. Louis, in 1226; and in the four Christian kingdoms of Spain. It was
established in Portugal in 1536. The last great Auto da Fe was celebrated
in 1781; and although the rack and faggot are not now employed in the
work of torture and death, yet the power of the Holy office is still exercised in encouraging vexations; enjoining ridiculous penances and privations; prohibiting liberal institutions; and interdicting useful books.
INSANITY. In England within twenty years, insanity has more than
tripled. In France it is more extensive in proportion to its population than
it is in most other countries. The total nullber of lunatics and idiots in
England is as follows: lunatics 6806-idiots 5741-together 12.547; but
allowing for defective retulrns, the number may be taken at 14,000-an average of onte to every t/housaLd of the population. In Wales: lunatics 133idiots 763-total 896; and adding for parishes that have made no returns,
they may be set down at 1000 —a proportion of one to eight hunmdred. Scotland
has 3652 insane persons-or ogle to about seven hundred. In Ireland the number of lunatics and idiots exceeds 8000, as shown by returns, which, however,
were not completed.-Sir Andrew elalliday. The number of insane persons
and idiots in the United States, in 1840, was 17,434. There were 23 asylums
*-capable of containing 2840 patients. Great advances have been made of
late years in the treatment of insanity. The late Dr, A. Brigham of Utica,
formerly of Hartford, was an able and successful philanthropist in. this
cause.
INSOLVENCY IN THE UNITED STATES. In May, 1837, a'commercial crisis'
was at its height. The'heavy' failures, in two months, in New York alone
amounted to 260, besides countless smaller ones. Failures in New Orleans
to the amount of' $27.000;000 in two days. In Boston 168 failures from Nov.
1, 1836, to May 12, 1837. New York city Banks all suspended specie payments May 10, 1837. The New England Banks generally; immediately
after.
INSOLVENCY. The first Insolvent Act in England was passed in 1649, but it
was of limited operation; a number of acts of more extensive operation were,passed at various periods, and particularly in the reign of George III. The
benefit of the act known as the Great Insolvent Act, was taken in Eugland,
by 50,733 insolvents, from the time of its passing in 1814, to March 1827, a
period of thirteen years. Since then, the acts relating to insolvency have
been several times amended. Persons not traders, or, being traders, whose'debts are less than 3001., may petition the Court of Bankruptcy, and propose
compositions, and have pro ten. protection from all process against his person and property, 6 Vict., 1842. Act amended, 8 Vict., Aug., 1844.
INSURANCE ON SHIPS AND MERCHANDISE. Suetonius conjectures that
16*
370 THE WORLDIS PROGRESS. [INV
Claudius was the first contriver of it, A. D. 43. Insurance was in general use
in Italy in 1194, and in England in 1560. Insurance policies were first used in
Florence in 1523. The first law relating to insurance was enacted in 160;i.
Insurance of' houses and goods in London began in 1667. This was the year
following that of the great fire of London. An office was then set up for
insuring houses and buildings, principally contrived by Dr. Barton, one of
the first and most extensive builders of the city of London. The first regular
office set up in London was the Hand-in-Ltanld, in 1696. A duty was laid
on insurances of Is. 6d. per hundred pounds insured, in 1782: this duty was
increased in 1797, and was variously altered since. The date of the first insurance office in the United States, has not been ascertained.
INSURRECTIONS IN THE UNITED STATES. Shay's Insurrection in Massachusetts (caused by the scarcity of money and heavy taxes), 1786. Insurrection in Pennsylvania, caused by duties on spirits, 1794. See the accounts
of Conspiracies, Massacrles, Rebellions, Riots, &c.
INTEREST or MONEY. It was twenty per cent. in Europe in the twelfth century. Fixed at twelve per cent. in Spain, Germany and Flanders, by Charles
V. in 1560.-Robertson. Till the fifteenth century,. no Christians were allowed to receive interest of money, and Jews were the only usurers, and, therefore, often banished and persecuted. Interest was first settled by law'in
England at ten per cent., 37 Henry VIII., 1546. This law was repealed by
Edward VI.; but it was restored by Elizabeth. In those days the monarch
could not borrow without the collateral security of the metropolis. Interest
was reduced to eight per cent., and the word first used instead of usury, 21
James I., 1624. Reduced by the Rump-parliament to six per cent.; and so
confirmed at the Restoration. Reduced to five per cent., 13 Anne, 1714, at
which rate it remains. The rate in Ireland is six per cent.; regulated 14
George III., 1773. All interest above the legal standard of Britain is usury.
and punishable by the statute.-Btackstone. The law does not now apply,-t
bills having only 60 days to run. See Usury Laws.
INTEREST or MONEY IN THE UNITED STATES. The rates vary in different States, viz:-In La. five pr. ct., in Maine, N. H., Vt., Mass., R. I., Conn.,
N. J., Pa., Del., Md., Va., N. Ca., Tenn. Kent., Ohio, Ind., Illin., Misco.,
Ark., and the United States government claims, the rate is six per cent. In
N. Y., S. Ca., Mich., and Wise., seven per cent. In Geo., Ala., Mississ., and
Flor., eight per cent. Laws against usury, with penalty of forfeiting the
whole debt, in Me., ConI., N. Y., N. J., Penn., Del. Forf'eit of the usury,
and double, treble, the usury, in 14 other States. Usurious contracts void
in Md., N. Ca., Geo., Tenn., Ohio, Ark.
INUNDATIONS, It would be impossible to record in this volume the numerous
catastrophes which class under this head; the following are among the most
remarkable:An inundation at Glasgow, which drowned lands, and were called The Great Waters
more than 400 families, 738.-Fordun. for 100 years after, 1 Richard 1II. 1483. —
Flanders inundated by the sea, and the town Hollinshed.
and harbor of Ostend totally immersed, A general inundation by the failure of th,
1108. The present city was built above a dikes in Holland, 1530; the numberi of
league from the channel where the old one drowned said to have been 400,000.
lies submerged.-Iistoise de Flandre. At Catalonia, where 50,000 persons perishAt the Texel, which first raised the cornm- ed, 1617.
merce of Amsterdam, 1400. An inundation at Yorkshire, when a rock
The sea broke in at Dort, and drowned 72 opened,'and poured out water to the height
villages, and 100,000 people, and formed of a church steeple, 1686. —Vide Phil.
the Zuyder Sea (see Dort), April 17,1446. Trans.
The Severn overflowed during ten days, and Part of Zealand overflowed, 1300 inhabitants
carried away men, women, and children, were drowned, and incredible damage was
in their beds, and covered the tops of many done at Hamburg, 1717.
mountains; the waters settled upon the At Madrid, several of the Spanish nobility
lOW J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 371
~INUNDATIONS, conotintned.
and other persons of distinction perished, At Vienna, the dwellings of 50,000 of its in1723.-Du Fresnoy. habitants laid under water. Feb. 1830.
In Navarre, where 2000 persons lost their 10,000 houses swept away, arkd about i000
lives by the torrents from the mountains, persons perished, at Cantor.,. ir Chma, in
Sept. 1787. consequence of an inundation, occasioned
At Pest, near Presburg, the overflow of the by incessant rains. Equal or greater caDanube, by which 24 villages and their lamity was pruduced by the same cause
inhabitants were swept away, April 1811. in other parts of China. Oct. 1833.
By the overflow of the Danube, a Turkish Awful inundation in Firance; the Saone
corps of 2000 men, on a small island near poured its waters into the Rhone, broke
Widdin, were surprised, and met instant through its banks, and covered 60,000
death, Sept. 14, 1813. acres; Lyons was inundated, in Avignon
In Silesia, 6000 inhabitants perished, and the 100 houses were swept away; 218 houses
ruin of the French army under Macdonald were carried away at La Guillotiere; and
was accelerated by the floods; also in Po- upwards of 300 at Vaise, Marseilles, and
land 4000 lives were supposed to have Nismes; the Saone had not attained such
been lost, same year. a height for 238 years, Oct. 31 to Nov. 4,
In Germany, 119 villages were laid under 1840.
water, and great loss of life and property Inundation of the Mississippi at New Orwas sustained, in March 1816. leans, 160 squares and 1600 houses floodAwful inundation at Dantzic, occasioned by ed, May 12, 1849.
the Vistula breaking through some of its The inundations of the Ohio, Mississippi,
dikes, by which 10,000 head of cattle and &c., at different times, have caused great
4000 houses were destroyed, and numerous destruction of property, and (at times) of
lives lost, April 9, 1829. life.
INVOCATION OF THE VIRGIN AND SAINTS. The practice of the Romish
church of invoking the intercession of saints with God, particularly the
prayers to the Virgin, has been traced to the time of Gregory the Great,
about A. D. 593.-Ashe. The Eastern church begun (in the fifth century) by
calling upon the dead, and demanding their suffrage as present in the divine offices; but the Western church carried it so far as frequently to canonize those they had any regard for, though the wickedness of their lives
gave'them no title to any such honor, to make processions, masses, litanies,
prayers and oblations for and to them.
IODINE. This most important substance was discovered by M. de Courtois, a
manufacturer of saltpetre at Paris, in 1812; the discovery was pursued with
great advantage by M. Clement, in 1813. Iodine is very active; it is of a
violet hue, easily evaporates, and melts at 220 degrees; changes vegetable
blues to yellow, and a seven-thousandth part converts water to a deep yellow color, and starch into a purple. Five volumes of oxygen and one of
iodine form iodic acid.
IONIAN ISLANDS. They were subject to Venice until ceded byche treaty
of Campo-Formio to France, in 1797. By a treaty between Russia and
Great Britain they were placed under the protection of the latter power,
November 5, 1815. A constitution was ratified by the prince regent of
England for the government of these islands in 1818. The Ionian Islands
are now among the free states of Europe. Corfu is the principal, and the
seat of government.
IONIC ORDER oF ARCHITECTURE. This order which is an improvement
on the Doric, was founded by the Ionians, about 1350 B. c.- Vitruvius by
Perra ault.
IONIC SECT or PHILOSOPHERS. Founded by Thales of Miletus, 570 B. c.
This sect distinguished itself for its deep and abstruse speculations, under
the successors and pupils of the Milesian philosopher, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Auaxagoras, and Archelaus, the master of Socrates.
IOWA, now one of the United States, once formed part of the French possessions, and was included in the vast tract of country purchased in 1803
under the general name of Louisiana. First purchase of land from the
Indians in Iowa was made in 1832. Iowa separated from Wisconsin as a territory, 1838. Admitted into the Union, Dec. 1846. Population in 1840, 43,111.
372 TIE WORLD'S PROG.IJSS. [ IRO
IPSUS, BATTLE OF, by which Seleucus is confirmed in his kingdom by the defeat and, death of Antigonus, king of Asia. On the one side were Antigonus and his son; on the other Seleucus, Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Cassander. The former led into the field an army of above 70,000 foot, and
10,000 horse, with 75 elephants. The latter's forces consisted of 64,000 infantry, besides 10,500 horse, 400 elephants, and 120 armed chariots. Antigonus and his son were defeated, 301 B. c.-Plutarc/b.
IRELAND. It is disputed by historians from what nation this country was
originally peopled. It seems, however, to be satisfactorily shown that the
first colonists were Phoenicians. The Partholani landed in Ireland about
2048 B. c. The descent of the Damnonii was made about 1463 B. c. This was
followed by the descent of Heber and Heremon, Milesian princes, from Galicia, in Spain, who conquered Ireland, and gave to its throne a race of 171
kings.
Arrival of Heremonr - B. C. 1070 sacre the Protestant settlers iniUlster,
A colony from Spain bring with them to the number of 40,000 persons, cornthe Phoenician letters, about - - 500 menced on St. Ignatius's day, Oct. 23, 1641
Arrival of St. Patrick - A. D. 448 Cromwell and Ireton reduce the whole
The renowned Brian Boiroimhe is island to obedience between 1649 and 1656
crowned at Tara - - - 1002 Landing of king William III. at CarBattle of Clontarf, which terminates rickiergus - - June 14, 1690
the power of the Danes -1039 Battle of the Boyne; the Duke of
[In the twelfth century Ireland is divi- Schomberg killed. July 1, 1690
ded into five kingdoms, viz.: Ulster, Memorable Irish rebellion commenced
Leinster, Meath, Connaught, and May 4,1798, and was not finally supMunster; besides a number of petty pressed until the next year - - 1799
principalities, whose sovereigns con- Legislative Union of Great Britain and
tinually war with each other.] Ireland - - - Jan. 1, 1S0-L
Adrian IV. permitted Henry II. to in- Emmett's insurrection - July 23, 1803
vade Ireland, on condition that he Roman Catholic emancipation. (See
compelled every Irish family to pay sRomean Catholics) - April 13, 1829
a carolus to the Holy See, and held Great repeal movement; meeting at
it as a fief of the church - 1157 Trim. (See Repeal) - March 19, 1843
Henry II. lands near Waterford, and re- O'Connell's trial. (See Ts-ials) Jan. 15, 1844
ceives the submissions of the kings O'Connell died at Genoa, aet. 72, May 13, 1847
and princes of the country, settles the Famine and great distress in Ireland
government upon a footing similar to throughout - - - - 1847
that of England, and makes his son Relieved by England, and by voluntary
John lord of Ireland - -1172 gifts from the United States.
Ireland wholly subdued - - - 1210 Bill for suppression of crime in Ireland
English laws and customs introduced passed parliament - Dec. 20, 1517
by king John - - - - 1210 Mitchell convicted of treason - AMay26,1848
Henry VIII. assumes the title of king, Habeas Corpus act suspended, July25, 1848
instead of lord of Ireland - - 1542 Smith O'Brien arrested, and the rebelThe Catholics enter into a conspiracy to lion put down - Aug. 5, 1848
expel the English, and cruelly masIRON. It was found on Mount Ida by the Dactyles, owing to the forests of the
mount having been burnt by lightning, 1432 B. c.-Ar)lbdeliast 1MIarblcs.
The Greeks ascribed the discovery of iron to themselves and referred glass
to the Phoenicians; but Moses relates that iron was wrought by Tubal-Cain.
Iron furnaces among the Romans were unprovided with bellows, but were
placed on eminences with the grate in the direction of the prevailing winds.
Swedish iron is very celebrated, and Daunemora is the greatest mine of
Sweden. British iron was cast by Ralph Page and Peter Baude, in Sussex
in 1543.-Rysnmer-'s Eaderca. Iron-mills were first used for slitting iron into
bars for smiths by Godfrey Bochs, in 1590. Tinning of iron was first
introduced from Bohemia in 1681. There are upwards of 800,000 tons of
iron produced annually in England.* For iron vessels, iron war-steamers,
&d., see Steamers.
* There is iron enough in the blood of forty-two ien to make a ploughshare weighing twentyfour pounds.-Anon.
iTA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 373
IRON-MASK, THE MAN OF THE. A mysterious prisoner in France, wearing a
mask, and closely confined, under M. de St. Mars, at Pignerol, Sainte Marguerite, and afterwards at the Bastile. He was of noble mien, and was
treated with profound respect; but his keepers had orders to dispatch him
if he uncovered. M. de St. Mars himself always placed the dishes on his
table, and stood in his presence. Some conjecture him to have been an
Armenian patriarch forcibly carried from Constantinople, although he died
ten years before the mask; others that he was the count de Vermandois,
son of Louis XIV., although he was reported to have perished in the camp
before Diximude. More believe him to have been the celebrated duke of
Beauf0lt, whose head is recorded to have been taken off before Candia;
while,till more assert that he was the unfortunate James, duke of Monmouth, who, in the imagination of the Londoners, at least, was executed on
Tower-hill. But there are two better conjectures; he is said to have been
a son of Anne of Austria, queen of Louis XIII., his father being ttl-: duke
of Buckingham; or the twin-brother of Louis XIV., whose birth was concealed to prevent civil dissensions in France, which it might one day have
caused. The mask died after a long imprisonment, Nov. 19, 1703.
ISLAMISM. The religion of Mahomet, planned by him in a cave near Mecca,
where he employed a Persian Jew, well versed in history and laws, and two
Christians, to assist him. One of' these latter was of the Jacobite, and the
other of the Nestorian sect. With the help of these men he framed his
Koran, or the book which he pretended to have received at different times
from heaven by the hands of the angel Gabriel. At the age of forty he
publicly assumed the prophetical character, calling himself the apostle of
God, A. D. 604. See Ko'rant,.Mecca, f c.
ISLE OF FRANCE. Discovered by the Portuguese in 1500; but the Dutch
were the first settlers in 1598. The French formed their establishment at
Port Louis in 1715. This island, together with six French frigates and
many Indiamen was taken by the British, Dec. 2, 1810. They retain possession of it, and it is now a fixed British colony. Seecacsoitiius.
ISMAEL, SIEGE or', in Bessarabia. After a long siege by the Russians, who
lost 20;000 men before the place, the town was taken by storm, December
22, 1790; when the Russian general, Suwarrow, the most merciless and savage warrior of modern times, put the brave Turkish garrison, consisting
of 30,000 men, to the sword; every man was butchered; and Suwarrow,
not satisfied with this vengeance, delivered up Ismael to the pillage of
his ferocious soldiery, and ordered the massacre of 6000 women, who were
murdered in cold blood.
ISSUS, BATTLE OF. Alexander defeats Darius in this, his second great battle
with him; Darius loses 100,000 men, and his queen and family are captured, 333 B. c.-PIlt arcc. The Persians lost 100,000 foot and 10.000 horse
in the field; and the Macedonians only 300 foot and 150 horse.-Diodoribs
SiculLcs. The Persian army, according to Justin, consisted of 400,000 foot
and' 100,000 horse, and 61,000 of the former, and 10,000 of the latter, were
left dead on the spot, and 40,000 were taken prisoners.-Juistin.
iSTHMIAN GAMES. These were combats among the Greeks, and received
their name from the isthmus of Corinth, where they were observed, instituted in honor of Melicerta, 1326 a. c.-Lenglet. They were re-instituted
in honor of Neptune by Theseus, and their celebration was held so sacred
and inviolable that even a public calamity could not prevent it, 1259 B. c.Ar'ndelian farbicbles.
ITALY. The garden of Europe, and the nurse of arts as well as arms. It received its name from ItalhZLs, a king of the country, or from Itrlos, a Greek
word signifying an ox. The aborigines of Italy were the progeny of
374 THIE WORLD S PROGRESS. [JAG.
Meshech, the sixth son of Japheth. In process of time, the Gomerites or
Celts, who inhabited the greatest part of Gaul, sent several colonies into
Italy, while other colonists arrived from Greece, and the country was di
vided into three grand parts, viz.-Cisalpine Gaul, the settlement of the
Celts; Italia Propria, the residence of the first inhabitants; and Magna
Grwecia, the seat of the Grecian colonists. The modern inhabitants of Italy
may be derived from the Goths and Lombards, who contributed so largely
to the overthrow of the Roman empire, and who founded on its ruins the
kingdoms of Italy and Lombardy. For Roman empire, see Taburlar VFiws.
Rome taken and plundered by the Visi- The papal seat -removed for seventy
goths under Alaric. See Rome A. D. 410 years to Avignon, in France - - 1308
The Ituns ravage the Roman empire The cardinals not agreeing in the elecunder Attila, "the Scourge of God" - 447 tion of a pope, they set fire to the conThe Western Roman empire is de- clave, and separate, and the papal
stroyed by the Heruli, whose leader, chair is left vacant for two years - 1314
Odoacer, erects the kingdom of Italy 476 Louis Gonzaga makes himself master
The reign of Totila, who twice pillages of Mantua, with the title of imperial
Rome, and reduces the inhabitants to vicar 1328
such distress, that the ladies and peo- Lucca becomes an independent repuL
ple of quality are obliged to beg for lic -1370
bread at the doors of the Goths - 511 to 552 Naples conquered by Clarles VIII. - 1492
The power of the Goths destroyed, and The republic of Venice loses all its Itatheir kingdom overthrown by the ge- lian provinces in a single campaign,
nerals of the Eastern empire - - 553 assailed by the pope, the emperor,
Narses, governor of Italy, invites the. and the kings of Spain and France - 1509
Lombards from Germany into this Leo X. having exhausted all his financountry 568 ces, opens the sale of indulgences and
The Lombards overrun Italy - 596 absolutions, which soon replenishes
Venice first governed by a doge - 697 his treasury - - - - 1517
Charlemagne invades Italy - - - 774 Parma and Placentia made a duchy - 1545
Ite repairs to Rone, and is crowned Cosmo de Medicis made grand-duke of
emperor of the West - - 800 Tuscany by Pius V. - - - 1569
[During the reign of Charlemagne, the Pope Gregory XIiI. reforms the calenpope of Rome, who had hitherto been dar. See Calendar - - - 1582
merely a spiritual minister, finds Ambassadors from Japan to the pope.
means to assume a temporal power, See Jeddo. -.161.)
not only independent of, but superior The Corsicans'revolt from the Genoese,
to all others.] and choose Theodore for their king.
Pope Damasius II. is the first who caus- See Corsica - - - - 1736"
es himself to be crowned with a tiara 1053 Milan vested in the house afAustria by
Pope Gregory VII., surnamed Hilde- the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle 1748
brand, pretends to universal sove- Division of the Venetian states by
reignty, in which he is assisted by the France and Austria - -1797
countess Matilda, mistress of the Italy overrun, and Pius VI. deposed by
greater part of Italy, who makes a do- Bonaparte - 1798
nation of all her estates to the Church 1076 The Italian republic - - -1802
Disputes between the popes and empe- Italy formed into a kingdom, and Naporors, relative to the appointment of leon crowned - - -1866
bishops, begin about 1106, and agitate Eugene Beauharnois made Viceroy of
Italy and Germany during several Italy -1805
centuries. The kingdom ceases on the overthrow
The Venetians obtain many victories of Napoleon - - - 1814
over the Eastern emperors - -1125 [The various other events relating to
Tuscany becomes independent - - 1208 Italy will be found under the respecThe duchies of Ferrara, Modena, and tive heads of Genoa, Lombardy. llMiReggio are created - - -1228 lan, Naples, Rsome, Venice, tc.]
Milan erected into a duchy - -1277
Tile population of the whole of Italy proper now amounts to 23,677,000.Aln, de Gothia.
J.
J. Introduced into the alphabet by Giles Beys, printer, of Paris, 1660.-Du
Fresnoy.
JACOBINS. The name given to one of the principal parties in the French revolution. The Jacobin club originated from a small and secret association
of about forty gentlemen and menof letters, who had united to disseminate
JAN J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 375
political and other opinions; the members were called Jacobins fi-om their
meeting in the hall of the Jacobin friars at Paris. The club became numerous and popular, and fraternal societies were instituted in all the principal towns of the kingdom. From its institution, one principal object was,
to discuss such political questions as seemed likely to be agitated in the
national assembly, in order that the members might act in concert. They
are represented as having been determined enemies of monarchy, aristocracy, and the Christian religion, and may be regarded as the first grand
spring of the revolution. They were suppressed October 18, 1794. The
religious sect called Jacobins are those of both sexes who follow the rules
of St. Dominick. See Dominicans.
JACOBITES. A-sect among the eastern Christians, so called from Jacob Baradseus, a Syrian, whose heresy spread to a great extent in the sixth and
seventh centuries. In England existed a political party called Jacobites.
They were the partisans of James II., and were so named after his expulsion in 1688. Those who openly appeared in arms for, or who expressed
their wishes to restore the.abdicated family, were called Jacobites; the distinction is now entirely lost.
JAFFA. Celebrated in Scripture as Joppa, the port whence Jonah embarked,
and the place where Peter raised Tabitha from the dead. In profane history,
the place whence Perseus delivered Andromeda. Jaffa was taken by Bonaparte in February 1799; and the French were driven out by the British in
June, same year. Here, according to -sir Robert Wilson, were massacred
3800 prisoners by Bonaparte: but this is reasonably doubted.
JAMAICA. Discovered by Columbus, May 3, 1495. It was conquered from
the Spaniards by admiral Penn, and the land forces commanded by Venables
in 1655; the expedition had been planned by Oliver Cromwell against St.
Domingo. An awful earthquake occurred here in 1692; and the island was
desolated by a furious hurricane in 1722; and again 1734 and 1751. In June
1795, the Maroons, or original natives, who inhabit the mountains, rose
against the English, and were not quelled till March 1796. Tremendous
hurricane, by which the whole island was deluged, hundreds of houses
washed away, vessels wrecked, and a thousand persons drowned, October
1815. An alarming insurrection, commenced by the negro slaves, in which
numerous plantations were burned, and property of immense value destroyed. Before they were overpowered, the governor, lord Belmore, declared
the island under martial law, Dec. 22, 1831. Awful fire here, Aug. 26,
1843. The Cholera in 1850.
JANISSARIES. This order of infantry in the Turkish army was formerly
reputed to be the grand seignor's foot guards. They were first raised by
Amurath I. in 1361; and have several times deposed the sultan. Owing to
an insurrection of these troops on the 14th June, 1826, when 3000 of them
were killed on the spot, the Ottoman army was reorganized, and a firman
was issued declaring the abolition of the Janissaries two days afterwards.
JANSENISM. This sect was founded by Cornelius Jansen, bishop of Ypres,
about 1625. Jansen was a prelate of piety and morals, but his "AZtlastinuss," a book in which he maintained the Augustine doctrine of free grace,
and recommended it as the true orthodox belief, kindled a fierce controversy on its publication in 1640, and was condemned by a bull of pope Urban VIII.
JANUARY. This month, the first in our year, derives its name from Janus, a
divinity among the early Romans. See next article. January was added to
the Roman calendar by Numa: 713 B. c. He placed it about the winter solstice, and made it the first month, because Janus was supposed to preside
over the beginning of all business. This god was painted with two faces,
3876 THE WORLD S PROGIESS. L JEbecause, as some persons have it, on the one side the first of January looked
towards the new year, and on the other towards the old one. On the first
day, it was customnary for friends and acquaintances to make each otherpresents, from whence the custom of new year's gifts, still retained among
us, was originally taken.
JANUS, TEMPLE OF, at Rome. Was erected by Romulus, and kept open in
the time of war and closed in time of peace. It was shut only twice, during
above 700 years, viz: —under Numa, 714 B. c. and under Augustus, 5 B. c.;
and during that long period of time, the Romans were continually employed
in war.
JANVILLIERS, BATTLE OF, between the French and Prussians, in which, after:
an obstinate engagement, Blucher, who commanded the latter army, was
driven back to Chalons with considerable loss, February 14, 1814. About
this period there were many battles fought between Napoleon and Blucher,
and Napoleon and prince Schxvartzenberg, until the capitulation of Paris,
March 31, 1814.
JAPAN. This island was first made known to Europe by Marco Paulo; and
was visited by the Portuguese about 1535. The Japanese are as fabulous as
the Chinese in the antiquity of their empire, but the certain period begins
with the hereditary succession of the ecclesiastical emperors, from the year
660 B. c. The English visited Japan in 1612. There was once a great number of Christians in different parts of the empire; but, in 1622, they underwent great persecutions, insomuch that they were all extirpated. See
Jeddo.
JAVA. The atrocious massacre of 20,000 of the unarmed natives by the Dutch,
sparing neither women nor ch-ildren, to possess their efbects, took place in 1740,
and for its cruelty and cowardice fixes an indelible stain not only upon
their nation, but upon man. The island capitulated to the British, August
8, 1811. The sultan was dethroned by the English, and the hereditary
prince raised to the throne, -in June, 1813. Java was restored to Holland
in 1814.
JEDDO. The capital of Japan, containing about 1.680,000 inhabitants, a numnearly equal to London. In 1619, ambassadors fiom Japan arrived at the
court of Paul V. to do him homage as the head of the Christian religion,
which their master had embraced through the preaching of the Jesuit missionaries; but the misconduct of the Jesuits, who were endeavoring to overturn the Japanese government, caused them to be expelled in 1622, and thite
inhabitants relapsed into their former idolatry. The emperor's palace is of
indescribable magnificence; its hall of audience is supported by many pillars
of massive gold and plates of gold cover its three towers, each nine stories
high. Several other costly palaces, belonging to the emperor, empress, concubines, and vassal kings, enrich this great eastern city.
JEMMAPPES, BATTLE OF, one of the most obstinate and bloody of modern
times; 40,000 French troops forced 28,000 Austrians, who were intrenched in
woods and mountains, defended by forty redoubts, and an immense number
of cannon; the revolutionary general Dumouriez was the victor in this battle,
which lasted four days. According to the most authentic accounts, the
number of killed on the side of the Austrians amounted to 10,000, on that
of the French to 12,000, Nov. 5, 1792.
JENA, BATTLE OF, one of the most sanguinary of modern times, between the
French and Prussian armies; the one commanded by the emperor Napoleon, and the other by the Prussian king, who was signally defeated, with
the loss of 30,000 slain, and nearly as many thousands made prisoners. In
-JES j DICTIONARY OF DATE-S. 377
this battle the Prussians lost 200 field-pieces, and Napoleon advanced to
Berlin, Oct. 14, 1806.
JERSEY. GUERNSEY, SARK, AND ALDERNEY, appendages to the duchy
of Normandy, were united to the crown of England, by William the Conqueror, in 1066. Jersey was attempted by the French in 1779 and 1781. A
body of French troops surprised the governor,' made him prisoner, and
compelled him to sign a capitulation; but major Pierson, the commander of
the English troops, refusing to abide by this forced capitulation, attacked
the French, and compelled them to surrender prisoners of war; but he was
killed in the moment of victory, Jan. 6, 1781.
JERUSALEM. Built 1800 a. c. The first and most famed Temple was founded by Solomon, 1015 B. c.; and was solemnly dedicated on Friday, October
30, 1004 B. c., being one thousand years before the birth of Christ.-Blair;
Usher; Bible. Jerusalem was taken by the Israelites, 1048 B. c. and by
Nebuchadnezzar, 587 B. c. Razed to the ground by Titus, A. D. 70, after one
of the most remarkable sieges in history. More than 1,100,000 of the Jews
perished on this occasion. A city was built on the ruins of the former by
the emperor Adrian, A. D. 130. The walls were rebuilt by the empress Eudoxia in 437. Jerusalem was taken by the Persians in 614; by the Sar.acens
in 636; and by the crusaders, when 70,000 infidels were put to the sword,
1099. A new kingdom was founded, which lasted 88 years. Taken from
the Christians by Saladin, in 1187; and by the Turks, who drove away the
Saracens in 1217. Jerusalem was taken by the French under Bonaparte in
February 1799. See Jews.
JESTER. In some ancient works, a jester is described as " a witty and jocose
person, kept by princes to inform them of their faults, and those of other
men, under the disguise of a waggish story." Several of the early English
kings kept jesters; and particularly the Tudors. There was a jester at court
in the reign of James I., but we hear of no licensed jester afterwards.
JESUITS. The order was founded by Ignatius Loyola (who was canonized),
a page to Ferdinand V. of Spain, and subsequently an officer of his army.
Loyola having been wounded at the siege of Pampeluna, in both legs, A. D.
1521, —devoted himself to theology while under cure, and renounced the military for the ecclesiastical profession. His first devout exercise was to dedicate his life to the Blessed Virgin as her knight; he next made a pilgrimage
to the Holy Land, and on his return laid the foundation for his new order
in France. He presented the institutes of it in 1539, to pope Paul III. who
made many objections to them; but Ignatius adding to the three vows of
chastity, poverty, and obedience, a fourth of implicit submission to the
holy see, the institution was confirmed by'a bull, September 27, 1540, by
which their number was not to exceed 60. That clog, however, was taken
off by another bull, March 14, 1543; and popes Julius III., Pius V., and
Gregory XIII., granted them such great privileges as rendered them powerful and numerous. But though Francois Xavier, and other missionaries,
the first brothers of the order, carried it to the extremities of the habitable
globe, it met with great opposition in Europe, particularly at Paris. The
Sorbonne issued a decree in 1554, by which they condemned the institution,
as being calculated rather for the ruin than the edification of the faithful.
Even in Romish countries. the intrigues and seditious writings of this order,
have occasioned it to be discountenanced. The Jesuits were expelled England by proclamation, 2 James I. 1604, and Venice 1606. They were put
down in France by an edict from the king, and their revenues confiscated,
1764; and were banished Spain 1767. Suppressed by pope Clement XIV.
in 1773. Restored by Pius VII. in 1814; and since tolerated in other states,
378 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ JEwand even where not tolerated, the body, as now in England, possesses a secret and extensive existence.
JESUS CHRIST. Born on Monday, December 25, A. M. 4004, in the year of
Rome 752; but this event should be dated four years before the commencement of the common era. See Nativity. Christ's baptism by John, and
his first ministry, A. D. 30. He celebrated the last passover, and instituted
the sacrament in its room, on Thursday, April 2. He was crucified on Fiiday, April 3, at three o'clock in the afternoon. He arose, April 5; ascended
to heaven from Mount Olivet, on Thursday, May 14, following: and his
Spirit descended on his disciples on Sunday, the day of Pentecost, May 24,
A. D. 33.
JEWELRY. Worn by most of the early nations. So prodigious was the extravagance of the Roman ladies, that Pliny the elder says, he saw Lollia
Paulina wearing ornaments which were valued at 322,9161. sterling. Jewels
were worn in France by Agnes Sorel, in 1434. The manufacture was extensively encouraged in England in 1685. See article Dress.
JEWISH ERA. The Jews usually employed the era of the Seleucidse until
the fifteenth century, when a new mode of computing was adopted by them.
They date from the creation, which they consider to have been 3760 years
and three months before the commencement of our era. To reduce Jewxxi-'h
time to ours, subtract 3761 years.
JEWS. A people universally known both in ancient and modern times. They
derive their origin from Abraham, with whom, according to the Old Testament and the Jewish writers, God made a covenant, 1921 B. c. See Tabulr
Views, p. 6 to p. 42.
JEWS, MODERN HISTORY OF.
Titus takes Jerusalem; the city and are condemned in a fine of 20,000
temple are sacked and burnt, and marks 1235
1,100,000 of the Jews perish, multi- They crucify a child at Lincoln, for
tudes destroying themselves A. D. 70 which eighteen are hanged - 1255
100,000 Greeks and Romans are mur- 700 Jews are slain in London, a Jew
dered by the Jews about Cyrene - 115 having forced a Christian to pay him
Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem, and erects more than 2s. per week as interest
a temple to Jupiter - - 130 upon a loan of20s.-Stowe. - 1262
More than 580,000 of the Jews are slain Statute that no Jew should enjoy a freeby the Romans, in 135 and -. 136 hold, passed.. 1269
[They are now banished from Judea by Every Jew lending money on interest
an edict of the emperor, and are for- compelled to wear a plate on his
bidden to return, or even to look back breast signifying that he was a usuupon their once flourishing and be- rer, or to quit the realm - -1274
loved city, on pain of death. From 267 Jews hanged and quartered for -
this period, the Jews have been scat- clipping coin - -1277
tered among all other nations.] They crucify a child at Northampton,
for which fifty are drawn at horses'
GENERAL HISTORY. tails and hanged -1282
Jews first arrive in England - - 1078 15.660 Jews are apprehended in one
Thinking to invoke the divine mercy, at day, and are all banished England. —
a solemnization of the Passover, they Rapir - -.1287
sacrifice a youth, the son of a rich Massacre of the Jews at Verdun by the
tradesman at Paris, for which the peasantry; 500 defend themselves in
criminals are executed, and all Jews a castle, where, for want of weapons,
banished France - 1080 they throw their children at their enThe Jews massacred in London, on the emies, and then destroy one another i:317
coronation-day of Richard I., at the A fatal distemper raging in Eulope,
instigation of the priests - 1089 they are suspected of having poison500 being besieged in York castle by ed the springs, and 1,500,000 are masthe mob, they cut each other's throats sacred.-Lenglet. - - - 1348
to avoid their fury - - 1190 500,000 Jews ale banished Spain, and
Jews of both sexes imprisoned; their 150,000 from Portugal - - 1492
eyes or teeth plucked out, and num- They are banished France - - 1494
bers inhumanly butchered, by king After having been banished England
John -1204 365 years, they are re-admitted by
They circumcise and attempt to cruci- Cromwell, in virtue of a treaty with
fy a child at Norwich; the offenders Manasseh Ben Israel - - - 1552
JUD ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 379
JFWS, continued.
Statute to naturalize them in England, land, lost on the second reading, by a
passed -1753 majority in the Commons, 228 against
This act repealed on the petition of all 165 - - - May 17, 1830
the cities in England - - 1754 Moses Montefiore, esq., elected sheriff
The Jews of Spain, Portugal, and of London; and knighted by the
Avignon are declared to be citizens queen, being the first Jew on whom
of France - - - 1790 that honor has been conferred, Nov. 9, 1837
Sitting of the great Sanhedrim, of Paris, Ukase of the emperor of Russia, perconvened by the emperor Napoleon mitting the title of citizen of the first
Jan. 20, 1807 class to be held by any Jew who renLondon Society for promoting Christi- ders himself worthy of it - - 1839
anity among the Jews - 1808 Owing to the disappearance of a Greek
Alexander of Russia grants land on the priest, a persecution of the Jews besea of Azoph to converted Jews, gan at I)a. ascus.-See Damascus
Sept. 1, 1820 Feb. 1, 1840
Bill for Jewish emancipation in EngJOAN OF ARC, OR MAID OF ORLEANS. The young and celebrated heroine
of France. The English under Bedford closely besieging Orleans, Joan of
Are pretended she had a divine commission to expel them, and Charles
VII. intrusted her with the command of the French troops. She raised
the siege, and entered Orleans with supplies, April 29, 1429, and the English who were before the place from October 12, preceding, abandoned the
enterprise, May 8, following. She captured several towns in the possession
of the English, whom she defeated in a battle near Patay, June 10, 1429.
In her various achievements no unfeminine cruelty ever stained her conduct.
She was wounded several times herself, but never killed any one, or shed
any blood with her own hand. She was taken at the siege of Compiegne,
May 25, 1431; and to the great disgrace of the English, was burnt for a
witch five days afterwards at Rouen, in the 22d (some say 29th) year of her
age.- Voltair'e's Pucelle d' Orleans.
JOHN DOE AND RICHARD ROE. Names, as pledges to prosecute, well
known in the law. Magna Char'ta demanded witnesses before trial, and
since the reign of Edward III. the fictitious names of John Doe and Richard
Roe are put into writs, as pretended witnesses.
JUBILEE. By Mosaic institution the Jews celebrate a Jubilee every fifty
years. Among the Christians a jubilee every century was instituted by
pope Boniface VIII., in the year 1300. It was celebrated every fifty years
by command of pope Clement VI.; and was afterwards reduced by Urban
VI. to every thirty-third year; and Sixtus V. to every twenty-fifth year, at
which period it is now fixed.
JUDGES. On the Norman conquest the judges had the style of Jzusticia'iets
Anglie.: these judges continued until the erection of the Courts of King's
Bench and Common Pleas. The last who had the office of JtLsticiarixs Angtice
was Phillip Basset, in 1261. Judges punished for bribery, 17 Edward I.
1288, when Thomas de Weyland was banished the land; and in 1351, William de Thorp was hanged. John de Cavendish was beheaded by the Kentish rebels, 1382. Tresylian, chief justice, was executed for favoring despotism, and other judges were seized and condemned, 1388. The prince of
Wales was committed by Judge Gascoigne for assaulting himn on the bench,
1412. Sir Thomas More, lord chancellor, was beheaded, July 6, 1535.
Judges threatened with impeachment, and Berkeley taken off the bench
and committed by the commons, 1641. Three impeached, 1680. Most of
them dismissed for not allowing the legality of a dispensing power in the
crown, 3 James II. 1687. The celebrated Judge Jefferies was committed by
the lord mayor to the Tower, where he died, 1689. The independence of the
judges in England was established by making their appointments patents
for life, 1761. Judges were sent to India, 1773. Three additional judges,
380 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [JUL
one to each court, were appointed, 1784. A new judge took his seat as
vice-chancellor, May 5, 1813.
JUDGES IN THE UNITED STATES. Those of the Supreme Court, eight in
number, are appointed for life or during good conduct, by the President and
Senate. The chief justices of the Supreme Court of the United States have
been John Jay, appointed, 1789; William Cushing, of Mass., 1796; Oliver
Ellsworth, 1796; John Marshall, 1801; Roger B. Taney, 1836. U. S. Circuit Judges were first appointed 1801. The judges of the several States
are thus appointed:By the Gove'rnor and Legislature, or Senate, or Council, in Maine, New
Hampshire, Massachusetts, Maryland, Louisiana, Missouri, Indiana, and
Michigan.
By the Legislature alone, in Vermont, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Jersey,
Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Arkansas,
Tennessee, Ohio, and Illinois.
By the Governor alone in Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Kentucky.
By popular vote, in Mississippi and in New York.*
THE TERM OF OFFICE of the superior judges, is for life (or " during good
behavior ") in Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia.
North Carolina, South Carolina, Louisiana, Kentucky and Illinois.
Until seventy years of age, in Maine, New Hampshire, Connecticut.
Until sixty-five years of age, in Missouri.
For periods varying from two to twelve years, in New Jersey, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Tennessee, Ohio, Indiana, Michigan; and for
one year in Rhode Island, and Vermont.
THEY ARE REMOVABLEBy impeachment in fourteen States. By conviction of misconduct in a court
of law, in Maryland. By joint resolution of Senate, and two-thirds of Assembly, in New York.
JUDICIAL COMMITTEE oP THE PRIVY COUNCIL, in lieu of the Court of
Delegates, for appeals from the Lord Chancellors of England and Ire.
land in cases of lunacy-from the Ecclesiastical and Admiralty Courts
of England, and Vice Admiralty Courts abroad-fiom the Courts of the
Isle of' Man, the Colonial Courts, &c., fixed by statute 3 and 4 William
IV. 1833.
JUGGERNAUT, or "Lord of the world." The first object of Hindoo venerawtion, is a celebrated idol of an irregular pyramidical black stone, with two
rich diamonds to represent eyes; the nose and mouth are painted vermnillion, and the visage is frightful. The number of pilgrims that visit the god
is stated at 1,200,000 annually: of these a great many never return, and7
to the distance of fifty miles the way is strewed with human bones: the
temple of Juggernaut has existed above 800 years.
JUGURTHA, THE WAR WITH. -A memorable war against the Numidian to reduce his kingdom, commenced 111 B. c. and continued five years. Cecilius
Metellus was first sent against him, and defeated hinm in two battles; and
afterwards Sylla and Marius; the latter of whom dragged him in chains to
Rome to adorn his triumph. The name and wars of Jugurtha have been
immortalized by the pen of Sallust.
JULIAN PERIOD. A term of years produced by the multiplication of the
lunar cycle 19, solar cycle 28, and Roman indiction 15. It consists of 7980
* The election of judges by the people, in New York, was first provided for by the new consti.
tution of 1846.
JUIt] DICTIONAIRY OF DATES. 381
years, and began 4713 years before our era. ~ It has been employed in computing time, to avoid the puzzling ambiguity attendant on reckoning any period
antecedent to our era, an advantage which it has in common with the mundane eras used at different times. By subtracting 4713 from the Julian
period, our year is found; if before Christ, subtract the Julian period from
4714. For Julian year, see Calendcar and Year.
JULY. The seventh month of the year, from the Latin Jadiis, the surname of
C. Cesar, the dictator of Rome, who was born in it. It was the fifth month
in the Roman calendar until Numa added January and February to the
year, 713 B. c. See t/hose mont/es severally, and article Year.
rUNE. The sixth month, but originally the fourth month of the Roman year.
It had its name Juenis, which some derive a Jueneone, and others 4 JenDioribils, this being for the young, as the month of May was for aged persons.
When Numa added two months before March, this month became, as it is
now, the sixth of the calendar, 713 B. c. See Year.
JUNIUS'S LETTERS. Junius was the assumed name of a concealed political
writer, who published his letters in the Public Advertiser', in 1769. They
were written in a nervous, sarcastic, and clear style, and produced a powerful impression, and the volume is now one of the most admired in British
literature. These letters have been ascribed to Mr. Burke, Mr. William
Gerard Hamilton, commonly called single-speech Hamilton, John Wilkes,
Mr. Dunning (afterwards lord Ashburton), Mr. serjeant Adair, the rev. J.
Rosenhagen, John Roberts, esq., Mr. Charles Lloyd, Mr. Samuel Dyer, general Lee, Hugh Boyd, esq., and sir Philip Francis; but'lse matter is still
hidden in obscurity. "I am the depositary of my own secret, and it shall
perish with m e."-Jitniqss.
JUPITER. Known as a planet to the Chinese and the Chaldeans: to the formner, it is said 3000, B. c.; and correctly inserted in a chart of' the heavens,
made about 600 B. c., and in which 1460 stars are accurately described; this
chart is said to be in the royal library at Paris. The satellites of Jupiter
were discovered by Galileo, A. D. 1610; but Jansen, it is affirmed, claimed
some acquaintance with them about twenty years before.
JURIES. Trial by jury was introduced into England during the Saxon Heptarchy, mention being made of six Welsh and six Anglo-Saxon freemen
appointed to try causes between the English and Welsh men of property,
and made responsible with their whole. estates, real and personal, for false
verdicts.-Lanbard. But by most authorities their institution is ascribed
to Alfred. In M~/agcna Chartae, juries are insisted on as the great bulwark of
the people's liberty. When either party is an alien born, the jury shall be
one-half denizens, and the other half aliens, statute 28 Edward III. 1353.
By the common law a prisoner upon indictment or appeal, might challenge
peremptorily thirty-five, being under three juries; but a lord of parliament,
and a peer of the realm that is to be tried by his peers, cannot challenge
any of his peers.
JURIES, COERCION oF. About the year 927, the plaintiff and defendant used
to feed the jury empanelled in their action, and hence arose the common
law of denying sustenance to a jury after the hearing of the evidence. A
jury may be detained during the pleasure of the judge if they cannot agree
upon a verdict; and may be confined without meat, drink, or candle, till
they are unanimous. Some jurors have been fined for having fruit in their
pockets, when they were withdrawn to consider of their verdict, though
they did not eat it.-Leon. Dyer, 137. A jury at Sudbury not being able to
agree, and having been some time under duress, forcibly broke from the
court where they weire locked up, and went home, October 9, 1791.Phillips.
382 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ Kih'
JUSTICES OP THE PEACE. These are local magistrates, invested with extensive powers in minor cases, but subject to supercession and punishment by the king's bench for an abuse of' their authority. Justices of tlhe,peace in every county first nominated by William the Conqueror, in 1076.
-Stowe. Ini the United States the office is held by special appointment,
and the tenure is different in different States; it is usually for seven years.
JUSTINIA.N CODE. Wherein was written what may be termed the statut3
law, scattered through 2000 volumes, reduced to fifty, completed A. D. 529.
To this code of laws Justinian added the Pandects, the Institutes, and
Novels. These compilations have since been called. collectively, the body
of civil law (coipmus jl'riS civilis). A digest was made in 533.-Blair.
K.
KALEIDOSCOPE. This optical instrument, which combines mirrors, and produces a symmetrical reflection of beautiful images, was invented by Dr.
Brewster of Edinburgh; it was first suggested in 1814, and the instrument
perfected in 1817, when it found its way into every body's hands. It is intended to assist jewellers,, glass-painters, and other ornamental artists, in the
formation of patterns, of which it produces an infinite number.
KAMTSCHATKA. The peninsula on the eastern coast of Asia. It was discovered by Morosco, a Cossack chief, A. D. 1690; and was taken possession of
by Russia in 1697; it was not ascertained to be a peninsula until visited by
Behring, in 1728. Four months, commencing at our midsummer, may be
considered as the spring, summer, and autumn here, the rest of the year
being dreary winter.
KENILWORTH CASTLE. Built in 1120, but much of the pile was erected
subsequently by John of Gaunt; and its remains now form one of the most
picturesque objects in the kingdom. This celebrated castle was conferred
on Dudley, earl of Leicester, by queen Elizabeth, whom he afterwards entertained within its walls for seventeen days. His sumptuous entertainment
of the queen commenced July 19, 1575, and cost the earl daily 10001. a vast
expenditure in those times.
KENTUCKY, one of the United States, was first explored by Daniel Boone,
an enterprising hunter, in 1770. First white settlement near Lexington, 1775
Was a part of Virginia until 1782, when it was made a separate district. Ad
mitted into the Union 1792. Population in 1790, 73,677; in 1810, 406,511
in 1830, 688,844; in 1840, 779,828, including 182,258 slaves.
KEYS. The invention of them is ascribed to Theodore, of Samos, by Pliny,
about 730 B. c. But this is an error, as keys are mentioned in the siege of
Troy, 1193 i. c. Keys were originally made of wood, and the earliest form
was a simple crook similar to the common picklock now in use. The ancient
keys now to be found in the cabinets of the curious are mostly of bronze.
The late Francis Douce, esq., had some of remarkable shapes, the shaft terminating on one side by the works, on the other by a ring. Keys of this
description were presented by husbands to wives, and were returned again
upon divorce or separation.
KIEL, TREATY OF. Between Great Britain, Sweden, and Denmark, signed January 14, 1814. By this treaty Norway was ceded to Sweden. Previously
the Norwegians had been deserted by the king of Denmark, and had sent
a deputation to England, to interest that country in their favor. The missioln
was fruitless. On the contrary, the English blockaded the ports of Norway,
and the Swedes entered by land. The Norwegians fought sonime brave actions,
but they were defeated. The prince of Denmark quitted Norway, and the
diet elected the king of Sweden to be their king.
:(klN |. DICTIONARY OF DATES. 383
KING. The Latin Rex, the Scythian Reis, the Spanish Rey, the French Roi,
all come fiom the Hebrew Rosch, chief, or head. Nimrod was the first
founder of a kingdom, 2245 B. C.-Due, Fi1esnoy. 3Misraim built cities in
Egypt, and was the first who assumed the title of' king in that division of the
earth. Saul was the first king of Israel, 1095 B. C. Most of the Grecian states
were governed by kings; and kings first ruled in Rome. The Egyptians
understood the only just principle of government, namely, to make the people happy; and although among them the monarchy was hereditary, the
sovereign was as much bound by the laws as his meanest subject: there was
a peculiar code for his direction in the most minute particulars of public
and private life. The king's hour of rising, the portion of time he should
devote each day to the services of religon, the administration of justice,
the quality of his food, and the rank of persons by whom he was served,
were all prescribed.
KING oF ENGLAND. The style " kirg of England," was first used by Egbert
A. D. 828; but the title Rex gentis Anglo'rua, king of the English nation,
existed during the Heptarchy. See Britain. The plural phraseology of we,
us, our, was first adopted by king John, in 1207. The title of "king of Ireland," by British sovereigns, was not assumed until T542, when Henry VIII.
changed lor'd of Ireland into king. The style " Great Britain " was adopted
at the union of England and Scotland, 6 Anne, 1707; and of the "United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland " at the union of these countries, January 1, 1801, when the royal style and title was appointed to run thus:"Geor'ius Tertius, Dei Graltia Britanniaru'oL Rex, Fidei Defensor," ".George
the third, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain
and Ireland King, Defender of the Faith."
KING or THE FRENCH. Decreed by the National Assembly that the title of
"king of France" should be changed in the person of Louis XVI. to that of
"king of the French," October 16. 1789. The royal title was abolished in
1792; but restored in the Bourbon family, in 1814. Louis-Philippe I.
was invited to the monarchy under the style of the " king of the French,"
August 9, 1830. See France.
KiNG op HUNGARY. The averseness of the Hungarian people to the term
queen, has led to the custom among them, that whenever a female succeeds
to the throne, she shall be called king. Thus it will be seen in the annals of
Hungary, that the daughter of Louis I. reigned as kin-g Mary, in 1383. See
HIungary.
KING OF THE ROMANS. The emperors of Germany, in order that their eldest
sons might be chosen their successors, in their own lifetime politically obtained them the title of "king of the Romans," this people being comprehended in that sovereignty. The first emperor so elected was Henry IV., in
1055. Richard, brother of Henry III. of England, was induced to go to
Germany, where he disbursed vast sums under the promise of being elected
next emperor; he obtained the title of "king of the Romans," but failed in
succeeding to the Imperial crown. The style " king of Rome " was revived
by Bonaparte, who conferred it on his son, upon his birth, in April, 1811;
but the title ceased with the extinction of the dynasty of Napoleon, April
5, 1814.
SCING'S BENCH, COURT oP, IN ENGLAND. Obtained its name from the king..sometimes sitting here on a high bench, and the judges, to whom the
judicature belongs in his absence, on a low bench at his feet. The jurisdiction of this court extends all over England, and is not so subject to control
as others, because the law presumes the king to be here in person. The
name of this court has been altered to that of Queen's Bench, since the
384 THE WORLD IS PROGRESS. [ E^'accession of Victoria, in'June, 1837, as is the case with all institutions in
immediate connection with, or dependent upon the sovereign.
KING'S EVIL. Supposed to be cured by the touch of the kings of Englanhd.
The first who touched for it was Edward the Confessor, 1058. This vulgar
credulity had in the age of Charles II. arisen to such a height, that in foLrteen years, 92,107 persons were touched; and, according to Wiseman, the
king's physician, they were nearly all cured! Queen Anne officially an1nounced in the Loadoen Gazette, March 12, 1712, her royal intention to touch
publicly for the cure of the evil; and touching for it continued a custom un.
til it was wisely discouraged, and ultimately dropped by George I., 1714.
KING'S SPEECH. The first royal speech from the throne was delivered 1 y
Henry I., in 1107. A late celebrated writer, after remarking with his accustomed harshness upon Mr. Canning, who had just then (April 1827) become
chief of a new administration, said-" Canning being now minister, of one
thing, and one thing only, we are certain, we shall have no more grammatical blunders in king's speeches; these things will still be written in the
same meagre way, in point of matter, as before; but we shall have them in
a perspicuous and pure style."-Cobbett.
KINGDOMS. The origin of kingdoms may be referred to Belus, supposed to
have been the Nimrod of Holy Writ; he was the founder of the Babylonr;iA
monarchy, 2245 B. c.-Usher-. Menes, or Misraim, makes his son Atholas,
surnamed the first Mercury, king of Upper Egypt; and another son, Tosothrus, he establishes at Memphis, 2188 B. c.-Blair. Ninus founds the Assyrian monarchy, 2059 B. c.-Leaglet.
KISSING. Kissing the hands of great men was a Grecian custom. Kissing
was a mode of salutation among the Jews, as we may collect from Judas
approaching his master with a kiss; it was also customary in Rome. Kissing the pope's foot took its rise from the custom of kneeling to sovereigns,
and began with Adrian I. or Leo III. at the close of the eighth centart-y.
From kneeling to sovereigns came also the ceremony of a vassal kneeling
to his lord in homage, first practised, A. D. 709.
KIT-KAT CLUB. A society which consisted of about thirty noblemen and
gentlemen of distinguished abilities, instituted in 1703, for the purpose -of
promoting the Protestant succession in the house of Hanover, which they'
effected by spirited publications as well as other measures. Addison, Steele,
and Dr. Garth were members, and made several epigrams upon the toasts o"
the club. The club took its name from one Christopher Kat, a pastry-coolr
who lived near the tavern where they met, in King-street, Westminster, and
who served them with pastry.-Bolwyer's Life of Qneeva Anne.
KNIGHT. The origin of this title as a military honor is said to be derived
fiom the siege of Troy, but this solely depends upon a passage or two in
Homer. With certainty we may trace the distinction to the Romans, who.
after their union with the Sabines, created three centuries of knights, about
750 B. C.-Livy.
KNIGHT-ERRANTRY. Took its rise in the combats of the Celtic nations,
particularly the judicial combats, and much prevailed in Spain, France,ar'
Germany. Tilts and tournaments commenced with the return of the crui
saders from the holy wars, and for about 300 years they were the chief
amusements of courts, and the successful combatants acquired knighthood,
and the favor of the ladies. When public combats declined, the knights
travelled in search of adventures, to correct injustice, and fight in the
cause of the fair; and the consequent follies gave rise to the novel of Doll
Quixote.
KNIGHTHOOD. Was conferred in England by the priest at the altar, after
kIll] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 385
confession and consecration of the sword, during the Saxon Heptarchy.
The first knight made by the sovereign with the sword of state was Athelstan, on whom Alfred bestowed this new dignity, A. D. 900. —Spelmr a. The
custom of ecclesiastics conferring the honor of knighthood was suppressed
in a synod held at WestIninster in 1100.-As/hzole's Institutes. All persons
having ten pounds yearly income were obliged to be knighted, or pay a fine,
38 Henry III. 1254. — Sa' mon.
KNIGHTHOOD IN EUROPE. As a system, under the denomination of chivalry, knighthood is to be dated from tile eleventh century. On the decline of the empire of Charlemagne, all Europe being reduced to a state of
anarchy, the proprietor of every manor became a petty sovereign; his mansion was fortified by a moat, and defended by a guard, and called a castle.
Excursions were made by one petty lord against another, and the women and
treasure were carried off by the conqueror. At length the owners of rich
fiefs associated to repres these marauders, and to. make p'operty secure, and
to protect the ladies; binding themselves to these duties by a solemn vow,
and the sanction of a religious ceremony. The first knights being men of
the highest rank and largest possessions, adixission into the order was
deemted a great honor.
MILITARY, tRELIGIOUS, AND HONORARY ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD.
Alcantara, instituted - - A.. 1160 Generosity, Brandenburgh - 1685
Alexander Nevskoi, Russia - 1700 Golden Fleece, instituted at Bruges by
Amaranta, Sweden - - 1645 Philip, surnamed the Good - -1429
Angelic Knights, Greece - 456 Golden Lion, Hesse-Cassel - -1785
Annunciada, Mantua - -1618 Golden Shield and Thistle - - 1370
Annunciation, Savoy - -1355 Golden Spur, by Pius IV. - 1559
Argonauts, Naples - - -1382 Guelphic, Hanover - - -1816
Avis, Portugal - - - 1147 Holy Ghost, France, 1468. Revived - 1559
Band, Spain - - - -1232 Holy Ghost, Romne - - 1193
Bannerets, England, 1360. Renewed. Holy Trinity - - 1211
See Bannerets - - 1485 Hospitallers (which see) - 1092
Bath, England, 1399. Renewed. See Januarius, Naples. - 1738
Bath - - 1725 Jerusalem. See 3lalta - - 1048
Bear, Switzerland - - - -1213 Jesus, France - - 1206
Black Eagle, Prussia, instituted by Jesus Christ, Rome, instituted by John
Frederick I. - - - 1701 XXII., 1415. Reformed by Paul V. 1610
Blood of Christ, Ma3ntua - - - 1608 Knot, Naples. - -1351
Brotherly Love, instituted - 1708 La Calza, Venice. - 1400
Burgundian Cross - - 1535 Legion of Honor, France, instituted by
Calatrava, Castile, instituted by San- Napoleon Bonaparte - - -1802
cho II. - -. - 1156 Lily of Arragon - - 1403
Carpet, England - - 1553 Lily of Navarre - - - -1048
Catharine, Russia - - - 1698 Loretto, Lady of - - 1587
Chase, instituted by the duke of Wir- Malta. See Alallta. - - - 1531
temberg - - - 1719 Martyrs, Palestine - - -1319
Christ, Livonia - - - 1203 Maria-Theresa, Order of Ladies, Spain 1792
Christ, Portugal - - - 1319 Mauritians, Savoy - - - 1430
Christian Charity, France - - 1590 Merit, instituted by the landgrave of
Cincinnatus, America - 1783 Hi-esse Cassel -1785
Conception of the Virgin - -1619 Merit, Prussia - - - -1740
Concord, Prussia, instituted by Chris- Noble Passion, Germany - - 1704
tian Ernest, elector of Brandenburgh 1660 Oak of Navarre, Spain - - 722
Crescent, Naples - 1448 Passion of Jesus Christ, France -1382
Crown Royal, France - - - 802 Pinus, founded by Pius IV. - 1559
Daneburgh, Denmarkl, instituted by Porcupine, France - - - 1393
Waldemar II., 1219; revived by Red Eagle, Prussia - - - 1792
Christian V. - - 1671 Redemption, instituted - - 1212
Death's Head, Female Order, by the Rosary, Spain - - 1172
widow Louisa Elizabeth of Saxe Round Table, England-See Knights
Mersburgh - - 1709 of the Roused Table - - - 528
Dove of Castile - - 1379 St. Andrew, Russia (tradition ascribes
Dragon, IIungary - - 1439 to this saint the introduction of ChrisEar of Corn, Brittany - - - 1050 tianity into Muscovy) - 1698
Elephant, Denmark, by Christian I. -1478 St. Andrew, Scotland, 809; renewed
Ermine, France - - - 150 1452; and again by James VI. - 1605
Garter, Engla.nd - - 1350 St. Anthony. Ethiopia - 357
17
386 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [mM-.:
KNIGHTHOOD IN EUROPE, continued.
St. Anthony, Hainault - 1382 St. Michael, Germany - - ]6iC
St. Blaze, Acon - - - 1250 St. Patrick, Ireland - - 7S3
St. Catharine, Palestine- - 1163 St. Paul, Rome - - - 1540
St. Catharine, Russia - - 1698 St. Peter, Rome - - 1520
St. Denis, France - - 1267 St. Rupert, Germany, by the archbishSt. George, Austria -1470 op of Saltzbutrgl' - - 1701
St. George, Carinthia - - - 1279 St. Sepulchre, Palestine - 1092
St. George, Defender of the Immacu- St. Stephen, by Casimir de Medicis,
late Conception, Bavaria - - 1729 grand-dulke of Tuscany -1561
St. George, England; instituted by Ed- St. Thomas of Acon - - 1370
ward III. See Gariter - 1349 Saviour, Greece - June 1. 1833
St. George; tutelary saint of Genoa, by Seraphirns, Sweden - - - - 1334
Frederick II. - - - - 1460 Ship and Crescent, France -1269
St. George, Rome - -1496 Sincerity, instituted by the elector of
St. George, Russia - - - -1782 Saxony — 1690
St. George, Spain - - - 1318 Slaves of Virtue, Germany - -1662
St. George, Venice - - - -1200 Swan, Cleves - - - 960
St. Hubert, Germany, by the dulce of Sword, Cyprus - -119[
Juliers and Cleves - 1447 Sword, Sweden, 1523; revived - - 1772
St. James, Holland - - - 1290 Templars.-See 7Teemplars - 1118
St. James, Portugal - -1310 Teste Morte, Wurtemburg - - - 1652
St. James, Spain - - - 1030 Teutonic, 1190; renewed in Prussia - 1522
St. Jerome, Germany - - - 1154 Thistle of Bourbon - - - 1370
St. John of Acon - 1370 Thistle of Scotland, 812; revived 1540)
St. John of Jerusalem - 1048 Tl'rinitarians, Spain - - 1.94
St. Johtn of Malta - - 1522 Truxillo, Spain - - - 27
St. John of Rhodes - - -1300 United Ladies for the honor of ile
St. Julien, of Alcantara - - 1176 Cross, in Germany - - 1666
St. Lazarus, and St. Maurice, by Eman- Virgin Mary - - -1233
uel Philibert, duke of Savoy - - 1572 Virgin of Mount Carmel, France - 1607
St. Louis, France - - 1693 - Warlare of l'hrist, Poland - - 1705
St. Mark, Venice, 830; renewed - 15il Warfare of Christ, Russia - - 1325
St. Mary the Glorious - - 1233 Winlg of St. Michael, Portugal - 1165
St. Mary de Merced, Spain - 1218'Wladimlir, Russia - - 1689
St. Michael, France - - - 1469
KNIGHTS, FEMALE. The title of knight, which was given to men of superior
worth, ability, and fortune, in former times, was sometimes given to w.nle
also. As an instance, it was conferred on the women who preserved the
city of Tortosa from falling into the hands of the Moors in 1149, by their
stout resistance and vigorous attack of the besiegers, by which means the
Moors were forced to raise the siege. Large immunities and favors wv-ere
granted to them and their descendants for their heroism on this occasion.
KNIGHTS or THE ROUND TABLE. Instituted by king Arthur, about A. I
528. —Asser's Life of Alfred. T'his ancient order was revived by Edlwai
III. at Windsor, upon New Year's day, 1344. The king, with a view to tl
recovery of France, which descended to him in right of' his mother, became
anxious to draw the best soldiers of Europe into his interest, and thereupor
projecting and setting up king Arthur's Round Table, he proclaimed,.
solemnn tilting, to invite foreigners of quality and courage to the exerciseHe published his royal letters of protection, for the safe coming and return
of such foreign knights as had a mind to venture their reputation at those
jousts and tournaments.-BecLtsol.
KNIGHTS o' THE SHIRE. The barons, or tenants in chief, or freeholders b
Doomsday-book, were'700 in number, but being split into small parts. wgreater and lesser, all of whom were entitled to sit in parliament; but tf.
latter. or lesser barons, were allowed to choose two representatives, henc,
called knights of the shire, A. D. 1307.
KNIGHTS TEMPLARS. A religious and military order, instituted A. Di. 111'
They came to England early in Stephen's reign, alend settled at the Temo
in London; and at other places in the reign of Henry II. All the knigh,
were arrested in France in one day, being charged with great crimes, an
possessing great riches; fifty-nine of them were burnt alive at Paris in Oc:
Lta 1 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 387
1307. Those in England were all seized the same year. Their order was
abolished by Philip the Fair of France, at the council of Vienne, in 1312;
and many thousanrds were subsequently massacred, their wealth being given
to the knights of ]Malta. See.,dlldce.
(NIVES. First made in England ii 1563. They were the earliest branch of
cutlery, and were first manufitcttured by one Mlathews, of Fleet-Bridge, London, 5th Eliz., 1563.-CiCt2bc'lain's EL'nglanld, edit. 1683. See For?/s.
KORAN, OR ALKORAN or MAHOMET, written about A. D. 610. Its general
aim was, to unite the professions of Idolatry and the Jews and Christians in
the worship of one God (whose unity was -the chief point inculcated), under
certain laws and ceremonies, exacting obedience to Mahomet as the prophet. It was written in the Koreish Arabic, and this language, which certainly possessed every fine quality, was said to be that of paradise. Maho.
met asserted that the Koran was revealed to him, during a period of twentythree years, by the angel Gabriel. The style of this volume is beautiful,
fluent, and concise, and where the majesty and attributes of God are described, it is sublime and magnificent. Mahomet admitted the divine mission both of Moses and Jesus Christ.-Dr. Joltin. The leading arti.le of
faith which this impostor preached, is compounded of an eternal truth, and
1a necessary fiction, namely, that there is only one God, and that Mahomet
is the apostle of God. —Gibbon. The Koran was translated into Latin in
1143; and into English and other European languages about 1763, et seq.
It is a rhapsody of 3000 verses, divided into 114 sections. See Alcorcan;
Islarnissm; Mecca; 3lrla/ometism, i-c.
L.
LA HOGUE, BATTLE Or, between the English and Dutch combined fleets, under
admirals Russel and Rooke, and the French fleet commnanded by admiral
Tourville. The English attacked the French near La Hogue, gaining a
splendid victory, burning thirteen of the enemy's ships, destroying eight
more, forcing the rest to fly, and thus preventing a threatened descent upon
England, May 19, 1692.
Lii PEROUSE'S VOYAGE. It was commenced in 1785, when Perouse sailed
from France for the Pacific, with the BouLssolc and Astrolabe under his command. The last direct intelligence received from him was from Botany Bay,
in March 1788. Several expeditions were subsequently dispatched in search
of Perouse, but no certain information was had until captain Dillon, of the
East India ship ResearcAh, ascertained.that the French ships had been cast
away on two different islands of the New Hebrides-a fate authenticated by
various articles of the wreck of these vessels, which capt. Dillon brought
with him to Calcutta, April 9, 1828, 40 years afterwards.
LA VENDEE, WAR oF. The French Royalists here took to arms, and were
successful in a number of battles with the Republican armies, fought between July 12, 1793, and January 1, 1794, when they experienced a severe
reverse. Numerous other engagements were fought, with various success,
antil this war terminated, Jan. 10, 1800.
LABYRINTH. There were four most famous in history: the first was built by
Dcedalus, in the island of Crete, to secure the Minotaur, about 1210 B. c.;
the second in Egypt in the isle of Mceris, by Psammeticus, king of' that
place, 683 B. c.; and the fourth in Italy, erected by Porsenna, king of the
Hetrurise, about 520 s. c.-Plinzy. The beauty and art of the labyrinth of
Egypt were almost beyond belief; it had 12 halls and 3000 chambers, with
pillars, was encrusted with marble, and adorned with sculpture.-Herodotes.
The labyrinth of Woodstock is famous from its connection with the story of
388 THIE WORLD7S PROGRESS. Lt'ent
Fair Rosamond, mistress of Henry II.; there is a curious Maze at Hampton
Court that is much visited.
LACE. Mention is made of it as being of very delicate texture in France ald
Flanders in 1320; and fine laces were much in use for ruffles and frills for
the men, and headdresses for the women, in the fifteenth century. Lace
was general in the court costume of ]Elizabeth's reign. Dresden, Valenciennes, Mechlin, and Brussels, have long been famous for their fine lace. An
ounce weight of Flanders thread has been frequently sold for four pounds
in London, and its value when manufactured has been increased to forty
pounds, ten times the price of standard gold.
LACED1EMON. See Spar'ta. Lelez begins the kingdom of Lelegia, in Laconia, 1516 B. c. Eurotas gives his daughter Sparta in marriage to Lacedamon, and makes him partner on the throne, 1490 B. c. The city of Spart.,
was built about this time, and hence the name by which the country is most
known. The Lacedl'mon republic became famous in history after 700 B. c.
particularly by the conquest of Athens. It was made a Roman province 71
B. c. The territory now belongs to the Turks.- T/lucydides; Priestlcy.
LADIES. The mistresses of manor-houses, in former times, served out to the
poor weekly with their own hands certain quantities of bread, and were
therefore called Lef-daqys-two Saxon words signifyling bread-giver, and -Ythe
words were at length corrupted, and the mistress is called to this day Lady,
that is, Lef-day. The introduction of ladies to court, was first to that of
Louis XII. of France in 1499. As a title of honor, the title of lady properly
belongs only to the daughters of earls, and all of higher rank; but custom
has made it a term of complaisance for the wives of knights, and all women
of eminence or gentility. See Loi'd.
LADRONE ISLES. Discovered by Magellan, in 1520; they are eleven in nun_
ber; at the island of Guam he first touched. Here, some of the natives
having stolen some of his goods, and showing a great disposition to theft,
he, named the islands the Ladrones, or Islands of Thieves, which they are
called to this day.
LADY DAY. This festival, the 25th March, was instituted about A.o. 350,
according to some authorities, and not before the seventh century acdording to others. On this day, the 25th of March, the angel Gabriel brought
to the Virgin Mary the message concerning her son Jesus; hence it is called
the Annunciation, and is celebrated in the Catholic church as one of its
chief feasts; and in the Reformed church also, on account of the col'
nection between the circumstance commemorated and the Incarnation. I.
England, before the alteration of the style, the new year began on the 25tl1
of March.
LA FAYETTE'S first visit to the United States, to aid the cause of America.
independence; he arrived at Charleston, April 25, 1777, being then nin6teer
years old. He raised a corps at his own expense; was wounded at Brandy.
wine; employed in Rhode Island, 1778; visited France, promoting new re.
inforcemnents for the United States, and returned 1779. His triumpha
reception in the United States on'a visit of pleasure, Aug. 18, 182' r1:
ceived from C6ngress the sum of $200.000 and a township of land in rewvare
for his services; returned to France in the frigate Brandywine, Septembe?
7, 1825.
LAMPS. See Landterns. Lamps are mentioned in all the early ages;,the?
were in use in Egypt, Greece, and Rome. The earthen lamp which Epic
tetus the philosopher had in his study sold, after his death, for 300G
drachllas, A. D. 161. Lamps with horn sides were the invention of Alfred
LTamps were in general use through the streets of London up to the cl
LAN ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 389
of the 18th century, as were flambeaux which were carried by link-boys.
London streets were first lighted by oil-lamps in 1681; and with gas lamps
in 1814. The domestic lamp is now of elegant mlanuflteture; of this kind
is the Argand lamp, brought into general use in England in 1785, et seq.
See Safetly Lamnp.
LANCASTERIAN SCHOOLS. On a system of education by means of mutual
instruction, propagated by Joseph Lancaster and Dr. Bell; they were not
much patronized till about 1808, when Lancaster's system attracted general
-attention, notwithstanding the prejudices that existed against the founder,
wnho had been laboring to introduce schools upon his economic plan fiom
1798. They became general in 1818, and there are now some hundreds of
them in England, and in London more than forty. They were founded in
Senegal, and were extensively instituted in Russia, in 1819.
LAND. Was let generally in England for Is. per acre, 86 Henry VIII. 1544.
The whole rental of' the kingdom was about 6,000,0001. in 1600. It was
about 14,000,0001. in 1688. In 1798 Mr. Pitt proposed his Income Tax of
10 ye? cent. on an estimate of 100 millions, taking the rent of land at 50
millions, the rent of houses at 10 millions, and the profits of trade at 40
millions; but in this estimate were exempted much land and the inferior
2lass of houses. See Icomte Tax.. The rental of the United Kingdom has
been recently estimated in parliament at 127 millions, but authorities vary
much on the amount. See Pulblic Lands, U. S.
LANDGRAVE. This is from lanzd, and glrave a count, a German title of dominion, which appears to have commenced in the eleventh century; it became the title of the house of Hesse Cassel, about the year 1300; and the
rank was subsequently assumed by the branches of Hesse Homburg, Hesse
Philipstal, HIesse Darlmstadt, &c. See Hesse.
LANGSIDE, BATTLE OF; between the forces of the regent of Scotland, the
earl of Murray, and the army of MIary queen of Scots, in which the latter
suffered a complete defeat, May 15, 1568. Immediately after this last fatal
battle, the unfortunate Mary fled to England, and landed at Workington, in
Cumberland, on May 16; and was soon afterwards imprisoned by Elizabeth.
LATGUAGE. Language nmust. either have been revealed originally firom heaven. or it is the firuit of human invention. The latter opinion is embraced by
Horace, Lucretius, Cicero, and most of the Greek and Roman writers; the
former opinion by the great ma jority of the Jews and Christians,and the profoundest philosophers of France and England. It has been affirmed that
Hebrew was the language spoken by Adam: but others deny this, and say that
the Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic, are only dialects of the original, which has
for many ages been lost andt unklnown. Psanmmeticus the Powerful, desiring
to know the most ancient people and language on the earth, caused two
children to be kept from all knowledge of the use of speech, until they
were two years old:, they were then brought into his presence, and they
both pronounced the sound beccos, the Phcenician term for bread. He therefore gave the Phoenician the preccdence, in point of antiquity, to all other
nations, 647 a. c.-Her'edot;s, PPolye.., Strabo.
ANGUAGES. Of the Hebrew, the Chaldee and Syriac are dialects. The
original European ones are thirteen, viz: Greek, Latin, Dutch, Sclavonian,
spoken in the east; Welsh, Biscayan, spoken in Spain; Irish, Albanian, in
the mountains of Epirus, Tartarian, the old Tllyrialn, the Jazygian, remaining yet in Liburnia; the Chauci 1, in the north of Hungary; and the Finnic,
in East Friesland. Arabic is the mother tongue of Africa. From the Latin
sprung the Italian, French and Spanish; and fi'Olll the Spanish the Portuguese. The Turkish is a mixed dialect of the Tartarian. Fromn the High
Dutch, or Teutonic, sprang the Danlish, Swedish, Norwegian, English, Scotch,
390 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [LAT
&c. There are 3661 known languages now used in the world. Of these,
937 are Asiatic; 587 European; 276 African; and 1624 American languages
and dialects.-Professor Adeluog.
LANTERNS. In general use from a very early date. Those of scraped horn
were invented in England, it is said by Alfred, and it is supposed that horn
was used for window-lights also, as glass was not known in Alfred's reign,
A. D. 872-901. —Stowe's C/hoon. London was lighted by suspended lanterns,
with glass sides, A. D. 1415. The pellucid laminee of the ox horn has served
for ages for the sides of lanterns instead of glass, and for many uses are
preferred. See article, Lasups.
LAOCOON. This exquisite work of art, executed in marble, is univers:lly
allowed to be the triumph of Grecian sculpture. It was modelled by Agesander, Athenodorus. and Polydorus. all of Rhodes, and of great eminence
as statuaries; and in all ages, and by all nations, this beautiful group is
allowed to be the greatest victory of art that has ever been achieved by
human hands.
LATERAN, COUNCILS oF THE. They were held in the Basilica cf the La.
teran, at Rome. Of these councils there were five: by the first, the right
of investitures was settled between pope Calixtus II. and the emperor Henry
V., 1122; by the second council was secured the temporalities of eccles-agtics, 1139; the third was to denounce schismatics, 1.179; the fourth on
church affairs, attended by 400 bishops and 1000 abbots; and the fifth was
the faimous council of Julius II., 1512.
LATHE, for turning ivory, wood, iron, and other substances, so as to sl'ape
them to the views of the artist, was originally an instrument of rude
construction, invented by Talus, a grandson of DTedalus, about 1240 B. c.
Pliny ascribes the invention to Theodore of Samos. Modern lathe eng-inc
frequently cost thousands of pounds.
LATIN LANGUAGE. One of the thirteen originl languages of Europe,' and
from which sprang the Italian, French, and Spanish. It is named after the
Latini, and the Latini fromn Latinus, their king. A vast portion of ouli most
beautiful and expressive words are derived friom the Isatin. It ceased to be
spoken in Italy, about A. D. 581; and was first taught in England by,Adelinus, brother of Ina, in the seventh century. During six or seven hundred
years the Latin tongue prevailed in all public proceedings fronm the Tweetd
to the Euphrates, and fiom the Danube to Mount Atlas, and has been mort
or less retained even to this day. In Elgland it was ordered to be discoe1tinued in conveyancing, and in courts of law, in 1731.
LATITUDE. First determined by Hipparchus of Nice, about 170 B. c. It i.
the extent of the earth, or of the heavens, reckoned from the equator t(
either pole. Maupertuis, in latitude 66.20, measured a degree of latitudc
and made it 69.493; he measured it in 1737. Swanberg, in 1803, made
69.292. At the equator, in 1744, four astronoimers made it 68.732; arm
Lambton, in latitude 12, made it 68.743. Mudge, in England, mlade i
69.148. Cassini, in France, in 1718 and 1740, made it 69.12; andl Bio
68.769; while a recent measure in Spain makes it but 68.63-less tlhln a
the equator; and contradicts all the others, proving the earth to be a p(:
late spheroid, which was the opinion of Cassini, Bernouilli, Euler. ans
others, while it has more generally been regaCrded as an oblate spheroid.
LATIUM. Now the city of Romania; built by Latinus, king of Janicululm
who gave his name to tle country, calling his subjects Latines, 90 B. (
Laurentun m was the capital of the country in the reign of Latinus, Lavillim
under.ineas, and Alba unclder Ascanius. The Latins, though originall
known only among their neighbors, soon rose in rank when Romulus 1founded the city of Romle in their country.
LAW ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 391
LATTER-DAY SAINTS. A. new sect, whose principles are variously represented. By some we are told that their tenets do not vary much from those
of the Clhurch of England, the Scriptures, without mysticism, being the
foundation of them. By others it is said that they assume the power of
curing the sick, resisting the operations of the deadliest poisons, and working miracles of several kinds; and maintain that this is the last generation
of men. They have appeared in Hertfordshire, Lancashire, and Yorkshire:
and anaddress was published by them at Manchester, in May, 1840. Great
numbers of these fanatics have lately emigrated to the United States.
LAWS, ANCIENT. The laws of Phoroneus, in the kingdom of Argos, 1807
B. c., were the first Attic laws, reduced to a systelll by Draco, for the Athenians, 623 B. c.; but the latter code was afterwards superseded by that of
Solon, 578 B. c. The Spartan laws of Lycurgus were made 884 B. C.B they
remained in full force for 700 years, and are calculated to raise our admliration, as well by their singularity, as by the effect they had in forming a iace
of men totally different-fi om all others living in civilized society. The Roman
laws were founded on those of Phoroneus. The Gregorian and Hermlooin;au
codes were published in A. n. 290. The Theodosian code in 485. The JuLtinian code, in 529, andlthe digest, in 533.-Blair. See Civil Lacw.
LAWS, BRITISH. The British laws of earliest date were translated into the
Saxon, in A. D. 590. The Saxon laws of Inia were published in 709. Alfred's
code of laws, which is the foundation of the common law of England, was
compiled in 887, but in use previously. Eclward the Confessor prlomulgated
his laws, in 1065. Stephen's charter of general liberties, 1186; Henry II.'s
confirmation of it, 1154 and 1175. The maritime laws of Richard I., 1194.
See article Oleron. Magna Charta, by king John, 1215. Its confirmation
by Henty III., 1216, et seq. See clag"na~ Cheartla and Foresis, Charlatc' of tlhe.
Celebrated declaration made by the lord chief justice of' the King's Bench,
"That no fiction of law shall ever so far prevail against the real truth of the
fact as to prevent the execution of justice," May 21, 1784.-Lord in Msfield.
LAW'S BUBBLE. The most ruinous speculation of modern times. The projector, John Law, of Edinburgh. raised himself to the dignity of comptrollergeneral of the finances of France, upon the strength of a scheme for establishing a bank, an East India, and a Mississippi company, by the profits of
which the national debt of France was to be paid off. He first offered his
plan to Victor Amadeus, king of Sardinia, who told him he was not powerful
enough to ruin himself. The French ministry accepted it in 1710; and in
1716, he opened a bank in his own name, under the protection of the duke
of Orleans, regent of France; and most of the people of property of every
rank in that kingdom, seduced by the prospect of immense gains, subscribed
both in the bank and the companies. In 1718 Law's was declared a Royal
bank, and the shares rose to upwards of twenty-fold the original value, so
that in 1719, they were worth more than eighty times the amount of all the
current specie in France. But the following year this great fabric of false
credit fell to the ground, and almost overthrew the French government,
ruining tens of thousands of families. It is remarkable that the same des-perate game was played by the South Sea directors in England, in the same
fatal year, 1720.-H-Iist. of bro-awnce, Nouv. Dict.
LAWYyERS. The pleaders of the bar, called barristers, are said to have been
first appointed by Edward I. or in his reign, 1291. Seijeants, the highest
nembers of the bar, are alone permitted to plead in the court of Com1mon
Pleas. The first kiing's counsel under the degree of seljeant was sir Francis
Bacon, in 160-1. There are about 1200 barristers in England: and the number of lawyers in England and Wales, counting London and country attorneys, solicitors, &c., is about 14,000. A list of 19,527 practising lawyers in
the United States, was published in New-York, 1850.
392 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. rLEA
LEAD. Is found in various countries, and is abundant in various parts of Britain, and in some places richly mixed with silver ore. The famous Clydesdale mines were discovered in 1513. The lead mines of Cumberland amn,
Derbyshire yield about 15,000 tons per annLwa. The finest sort of black lead,
that most fit for pencils, is produced only at Borrowdale, but there in great
quantities. Leaden pipes for the conveyance of water were brought into use
in 1236.
LEAGUES, POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS. The League of the Public Good,
was one between the dukes of Burgundy, Brittany, and Bourbon, and other
princes against Louis XI. of France, in 1464. The League of Cambray was
entered into in 1508. The Holy League against Louis XII., 1510. The
League of Smalcald, 1529. The League of the Beggars (the Protestants so
called, though Catholics joined the league) to oppose the institution of the
Inquisition in Flanders, 1560.'Tfe League, so denominated by way of eminence, to prevent the accession of Henry IV. of IFrance, who was then of the
reformed religion, was commenced in 1576. The LeanLe of Wurtzburg,
1610. League against the emperor, 1626. Solemn Leagle and Covefant in
Scotland, against the episcopal government of the church, and the regal
authority, 13 Charles I., 1638. League of Augsburg, 1686.
LEAP-YEAR, on BISSEXTILE. The Leap-year originated with the astrono,
mers of Julius Cesar, 45 B. c. They fixed the solar year at 365 days 6 hours,
comprising, as they thought, the period from one vernal equinox to another;
the six hours were set aside, and at the end of four years, foilming a day, the
fourth year was made to consist of 366 days. The day thus added:was
called intercalary, and was added to February. See Bisscxlile. This almost
perfect arrangement was denominated the Julian style, and prevailed throughout the Christian world till the time of pope Gregory XIII., in 1582, when
the calendar was altered to its present state. See Calendac?. The difference
between 365 clays 6 hours, and 365 days 5 hours, 48 minutes, 51 seconds,
and 6 decimals, which last is the true length of the astronomical year, in
the course of years caused 1700 and 1808 not to be leap-years. nor will 1900
be a leap-year; but the year 2000 will be one. See Jetirit Yccar, Grceg-oicei
Ccaldenda, 4.c.
LEARNING AND THE ARTS. These were carried to their height among the
Greeks during the fourth century B. c.; and with the Romans with the commencement of the Christian era. On the death of Augustus they declined
until the refugees from Greece caused them to revive in Italy, about A. D.
1250. Learning had been found so to obstruct the tyranny of the emperors,
that mathematicians and philosophers were, by several decrees, banished from
Rome, A. n. 16, and 89, et seq. After the dark ages, came Brunetto, Latini,
and numerous enlightened men; and Leo X., about 1513, gave vast encouragement to literature and the arts.
The illustrisus Medici fanmily greatly promoted learning in Italy, about 1550.
-Fontancca. And about this time literature began to flourish in France,
Germany, and England. The reign of Anne has been called by some the
" golden," by others, the "Augustan age" of English literature.
LEATHER. It was very early known in Egypt and Greece, and the thongs 6f
manufactured hides were used for ropes, harness, &c., by all ancient nations.
The Gordian knot was made of leather thongs, 330 B. c. The ancients understood the art of tanning leather, and it was practised early in England,
and great improvements made in it up to 1795. Leather is converted into
many uses: a leathern cannon was proved at Edinburgh, fired three times,
and found to answer, Oct. 23, 1788.-Phlillips. The duty on leather produced
annually in England, 450,0001., and in Ireland, about 50,0001. It was abolished in both countries, May 29, 1830.
LEP ] DICTIONARIY OF DATES. 393
LEGHORN. Livorlo. This city suffered dreadfully by an earthquake in 1741.
It was entered by the French army in the revolutionary war, July 17, 1796,
but the immense amount of British property then there had been previously
removed. Leghorn was evacuated by the French in 1799, and was retaken
the following year. It was unsuccessfully attacked by the British and Italian allied forces, in Dec. 1813.
LEGION. The Legio was a corps of soldiers in the Roman armies, and was first
formed by Romulus; under whom it consisted of 3000 foot and 300 horse,
about 750 B. c. When Hannibal was in Italy, 216 B. c., the legion consisted
of 5000 soldiers; and under Marius, in 88 B. C. it was 6200 soldiers, besides
700 horse. There were ten and sometimes as many as eighteen legions kept
at Rome. Augustus maintained a standing army of twenty-five legions,
about 5 B. c.; and the peace-establishment of Adrian w.s thirty of these
formidable brigades. The peace of Britain was protected by three legions,
A legion was divided into 10 cohorts, and every cohort into 6 centuries, with
a vexillum, or standard guarded by 10 men.
LEGIO()N oF HONOR. A military order in France, embracing all distinctions
in the army: and including in its incorporation civil officers, and all such
individuals as have eminently distinguished themselves for services to the
state, military deeds, and for public virtue; instituted by Napoleon Bonaparte, when first consul, May 18, 1802. On the restoration of the Bourbon
family, Louis XVIII. confirmed this order, April 1814.
LEIPSIC. Famous for its university and its fair. Here Gustavus Adolphus,
king of Sweden, defeated the Imperialists, Sept. 7, 1631. The siege of Leipsic was sustained in 1637. Leipsic was taken by the Prussian army, 1756. In
the same year, the Austrians laid siege to Liepsic in vain, but they took it
two years afterwards, though they did not retain it long. In the late wars
it has fiequently fallen into adverse hands. See next article.
LEIPSIC, BATTLE OF. One of the greatest: most sanguinary, and decisive of
modern times, between the French army, commanded by Napoleon, on the
one side, and the Austrian, Russian, and Prussian armies on the other; the
former 160,000, and the latter 240,000 strong. This great battle was lost
by the French, chiefly owing to 17 German battalions, their Saxon allies,
tursing upon them in tile heat of the engagement. 80,000 men perished in
the field, of whom more than 40,000 were French, who also lost 65 pieces of
artillery, and many standards. The victory of the allies was followed by
the capture, next day, of Leipsic, and of the rear-guard of the French army.
The king of Saxony and his family were also made prisoners; and the emlperor of Austria and Russia, the king of Prussia, and crown prince of Sweden, entered Leipsic immediately after the battle, Oct. 16 and 18, 1812.
LENT. The quadragesimal fast observed in the Catholic church, from AshWednesday (which see) to Easter-day, and supposed to be of apostolic institution. The primitive Christains did not commence their Lent until the Sunday
which is now called the first Sunday of Lent: and the four days beginning
were added by pope Felix III., in the year 487, in order that the number of
fasting days should amount to forty. Lent was first observed in England
by command of Ercombert, king of Kent, in 640. Baier's Chlt'on.
LIEPANTO. BATTLE OF. The great naval engagement between the combined
fleets of Spain, Venice, and Pius V., and the whole maritime force of the
Turks., Don John of Austria commanded the Christian fleet, which consisted of 206 galleys, and 30,000 men, while the Turks had 250 galleys, of
which, after a dreadful conflict, they saved but 100, losing 30.000 men in
killed and prisoners; and thus was prostrated for a time the naval power of
Turkey, Oct. 7, 1571. —Voltaie.
17*
394 THE WOULD7S PROGRESS. [LEX'
LETTERS. Those of the alphabet were invented by Memnon, the Egyptian,
1822 s. c. —Usher, Blai?. The first letter of the Phoenician and Hebrew
alphabet was aleplh, called by the Greeks nlp/6a, and abbreviated by other
nations to A. The letters, both in the ancient and modern languages, so
vary in number and sound, that a volume mnight be written in describing the
alphabets which are known. See Alpicabet.
LETTERS oF MARQUE AND REPRISAL. These are licenses, first issued in
England by Edward I., for the seizure of the enemy's vessels, and for reprisal and retaliation upon the enemy on the sea. —Rynzer"s Eaderta. They were
first granted in 1295.-Bake"r's Ch'bon. They are usually granted in time of
war to private armed ships, and do great mischief to the commerce of
belligerent nations.-Powel.
LETTERS DE CACHET. These instruments of oppression were so much in
use by the French government previously to the Revolution, that one of the
earliest acts of the National Assenmbly was to denounce them, and decree
their abolition. and the abolition of arbitrary imprisonment, Nov. 1, 1789.Hist. of the FPrencl Reveol.
LEUCTRA, BATTLE OF. One of the most faluonus of ancient history, fought at
the village of Leuctra, between Plati-a and Thespia, between the Thebans,
under Epaminondas, and the superior force of Cleombrotus, king of Sparta,
the victory being with the former. In this battle, 4000 Spartans, with their
king, were slain, and not more than 300 Thebans; July 8, 371 B. c. From
this day the Spartans lost their preponderance in Greece, which they had
maintained for about 500 years, and it passed to the Thebans.-Plseiarch.
LEVELLERS. Men whose purpose is to destroy superiority, and' bring all
things to a level or equality.-Collier. There were various associations of
this kind. The most extraordinary was that of which Muncer and Storck
were the chiefs. These two began by pulling down all the images in the
churches which Luther had left standing; and then, finding an army in their
followers, they became levellers, and Muncer openly taught that all distinctions of rank were usurpations on the rights of mankind. At the head of
40,000 men, he wrote to the sovereign princes in Germany and to the magistrates of cities to resign their authority; and on his march to enforce
these principles of equality and reformation, his followers ravaged the country. The landgrave of Hesse at length defeated him; 7000 of the enthusiasts fell in battle, and the rest, with their leader, fled; he was taken and beheaded at Mulhausen, in 1525.-Nolwv. Didt. Hist. At the period of the French
Revolution some knots of persons styled levellers appeared in England.
LEWES, BATTLE O0., Between Henry III., king of England, and Montfort,
earl of Leicester, and the rebellious barons, fought May 14, 1264. In this
battle the royal army was overthrown, and the king, his brother, Richard
king of the Romans, his son, and prince Edward, afterwards Edward I.,
were taken prisoners. One division of four of Montfort's army, a body of
Londoners, gave way to the furious attack of prince Edward, who pursuing
the fugitives too far, caused the battle to be lost. From this time Montfort
used his power so despotically as to be in the end the cause of his own destruction. See Eveshasn.
LEXICOGRAPHY. Morrison mentions a standard dictionary in the Chinese
language of 40,000 hieroglyphic characters, as having been compiled 1100
B. c. Numerous dictionaries appeared in Europe about the close of the fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth century. Calipini's dictionary appeared about A. n. 1500. The Lexicon Heptaglotton was published in 1759.
See article, Dictiocary.
LEXINGTON, BATTLE OF. This battle claims distinction as being the first
fought between Great Britain and the United States of America, in the wa*r
LIB ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 395
of independence. The British troops, under Major Pitcairn, sent from Boston to destroy the American stores at Lexington, were attacked by the
Americans and 273 of theim were killed and wounded, April 19, 1775.
LEYDEN, SIEGE or. A memorable siege sustained against the armies of Spain,
and during which 6000 of the inhabitants died of famine and pestilence, A. D.
1574. In commemoration of this long siege, a university was founded, celebrated for its colleges and medicinal garden, and valuable library, 1575.
The university was almost destroyed by the catastrophe of a vessel laden
with 10,000 lbs. weight of gunpowder blowing up, and demolishing a large
part of the town, and killing numbers of people, Jan. 1807.
LIBEL. By the laws of Rome (those of the XII. Tables), libels which affected
the reputation of another, were made capital offences. In the British law,
whatever renders a man ridiculous, or lowers a man in the opinion or esteem
of the world, is deemed a libel. "The greater the truth, the greater the
libel," the well-known law maxinm of a high authority, is now disputed.
Amnong the most remarkable cases of libel were, viz.: Lord George Gordon's libel on the queen of France, for which he was sentenced to imprisonment for five years and fined 5001., Jan. 28, 1788. The Tirnes' libel on
the prince of Wales, afterwards George IV., Feb. 1790. The Mor'igb Post's
libel on lady Elizabeth Lambert, damages 40001. July 9, 1792. Peltier's libel
on Napoleon Bonaparte, in L'Aanzbigqu, of which he was found guilty, Feb.
21, 1803. Act against blasphemous and seditious libels, punishing the offender by banishment for the second offence, passed in England, 1820. Act
regulating the law of libel in England, July 1830. By statglte in New York
and Massachusetts, the truth may be a justification, if the publication was
made with good motives and for justifiable ends.
LIBERIA. Colony in West Afiica, founded by colored people sent out by
American Colonization Society, 1822; Jehudi Ashmnun was the first superintendent of the colony; new Constitution-Roberts elected presidentOct. 5, 1847; ratification of a treaty of commerce with Great Britain, August 1, 1849.
LIBERTINES. A sect distinguished by its monstrous doctrines. Its heads
were persons named Quintin and Corin. They maintained that whatever
was done by men was done by the Spirit of God, and that there was no
sin but to those who thought so; that to live without any doubt or scruple
was to return to the state of innocency; that the soul died with the body;
that heaven was a dream, and hell a phantom;'religion a mere state trick;
with many other monstrous opinions. This sect arose in A. D. 1525; and
the term libertine has been held in a bad sense ever since.
LIBRARY. The first public library of which we have any certain account in
maistery was founded at Athens, by Pisistratus, 544 B. c. The second of any
note was founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus, 284 B. c. It was nearly destroyed when Julius Cmesar set fire to Alexandria, 47 B. c. 400,000 valuable
books in MS. are said to have been lost by this catastrophe.-Blair-. The
first private library was the property of Aristotle, 334 B. c.-St'abo. The
first library at Rome' was instituted 167 B. c.: it was brought from Macedonia. The library of Apellicon was sent to Rome, by Sylla, from Athens,
86 B. c. This library was enriched by the original manuscripts of Al istotle's
works. A library was founded at Constantinople by Constantine the Great,
about A. D. 335; it was destroyed in 477. A second library was formed
frorn the remaians of the first, at Alexandria, by Ptolemy's successors, conststing of 700,000 volumes, which was totally destroyed by the Saracens, who
heated the water of their baths for six months, by burning books instead
of wood, by command of Omar, caliph of the Saracens, in 642.-Nouzov.
Di/t. Hist. Pope Gregory I. ordered that the library of the Palatine
396 TmHE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [LI:
Apollo should be committed to the flames, under the notion of confining the
clergy to the attention of the Scriptures. From that time, all ancient learning which was not sanctioned by the authority of the church, has beer
emphatically distinguished as profane in opposition to sacred. The early
Chinese literature suffered a similar misfortune to that of the west in the
destruction of the Alexandrian library; their emperor, Chee-whang-tee,
ordered all writings to be destroyed, that every thing might begin anew as
from his reign; and books and records were afterwards recovered by succeeding emperors with great difficulty.
LIBRARIES IN EUROPE. There are in Europe 383 public libraries, containing over 10,000 volumes each. The number of books which are thus publicly accessible are in this proportion, viz.: in Saxony, for every 100 inhabitants, there are 417 books; in Denmark, 412; in Bavaria, 339; in Tuscany,
261; in Prussia, 200; in Austria 167; in France, 129; in Belgium, 95; in
Great Britain, 53. The first public library in Europe, before the invention
of printing is said to have been founded by Richard de Bury, chancellor of
England, as early as 1341. The first in Italy was founded by Nicholas
Niccoli, one of the great restorers of learning; at his death he left his library for the use of the public, A. D. 1436. It was enlarged by Cosmoo de
Medici. The first permanent libraries were, Turin Univ., 1436; Vienna,
(imperial,) 1440; Vatican, 1465; &c. See table, below.
In the following tables, the libraries containing less than 10,000 volumes
each (of which there are, in France alone, at least seventy or eighty,) are
not taken into the account:
France has 107 Public Li- Saxony has 6 containing 554,000 vols
braries, containing 4,000,000 vols. Bavaria'" 17 do. 1,267,000 "
Belgium has 14 do. 538,000 " Denmarlc' 5 do. 645,000 "
Prussia " 44 do. 2,400,000 " Tuscany " 9 do. 411,000 "
Austria " 48 do. 2,400,000 " G. Britain" 33 do. 1,771,493
Taking the capital cities we find the following results:Paris has 9 Public Li- Dresden has 4 containing 340,500 vols.
braries, containing 1,474,000 vols. Munich "2 do. 800,000 i
Brussels has 2 do. 143,500 " Copenhaagel" 3 do. 557,000 "
Berlin " 2 do. 530,000 " Florence 6 do. 318,000
Vienna " 3 do. 453,000: London "4 do. 490,500'
Milan: 2 do. 230,000 "
Arranging these libraries according to their extent, they would stand as
follows:Fsoznded. Vols. Fourrdecl. Vols.
Paris (1) National Lib., 1595 824,000 Milan, Brelea Lib., 1797 170,00YQ
Munich, Royal Lib., 1550 600,000 Paris (3), St. Genevieve, 1624 150,000
Petersburg Imperial Lib., 446,000 Darmllstadt, Grand Ducal, 1760 150,000
London, British Museum, ]753 435,000 Florence, Magliabecchian, 1714 150,000
Copenhagen, Royal Lib., 1550 412,000 Naples, Royal Lib., 150,000
Berlin, Royal Lib., 1650 410,000 Brussels, Royal Lib., 1839 133,500
Vienna, Imperial Lib., 1440 313,000 Rome (1), Casanate Lib. 1760 120,00q
Dresden, Royal Lib., 1656 300,000 Itague, Royal Lib., 100,00f
Madrid National Lib., 1712 200,000 Paris (4), Blazarine Lib., 1661 100,00,
Wolfenbuttel, Ducal Lib., 1604 200,000 Rome (2), Vatican Lib., 1465 100,00C
Stuttgard, Royal Lib., 1765 187,000 Parma, Ducal Lib., 1760 10000..
Paris (2) Arsenal Lib., 1781 180,000
The chief University Libraries may be ranked in the following order:-:Folunded. Vols. Focndrled. Vol.
Gottingen, University Lib., 1736 360,000 Vienna, University Iib., 1777 115,0N
Breslau, University Lib., 1811 250,000 Leipsic, University Lib., 1544 112,0
Oxford, Bodleian Lib., 1597 220,000 Copenhag en, University Lib., 1730 110,0(
Tubingen, University Lib., 1562 200,000 Turin, University Lib., 1436 ll0,0O
Munich, University Lib., 200,000 Louvaine TUniversity Lib., 1639 105,0tHeidelburg, University Libt., 1703 200.000 Dublin, Trinity College Lib., 104,2:.,
Cambridge, Public Lib., 1484 166,724 Upsal, University Lib., 1621 100,000
Bologna, University Lib., 1690 150,000 Erlangen, UJniversity Lib., 1743 100.000
Prague, University Lib., 1777.130,000 Edinburgh, Univ. Lib., 1582 90,;35
IIB J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 397
The largest Libraries in Great Britain are those of the
Founded. Vols, Foundeid. Vole
1 British Museum, London, 1753 435,000 Royal Institution, London,
2 Bodleian, Oxford, 1598 220,000 London Institution,
3 University, Cambridge, 1484 166,724 Iondon Library.
4 Advocates, Edinburgh, 16S2 148,000 Sion College, &c.
5 Trinity College, Dublin, 1601 104,239
LIBRARIES IN TEIE UNITED STATES. The number of volumes in the chief
public and college libraries of the United States'n 1849, was stated to be
1.294,000. The number of libraries is 182. Of these, 43 contain over
10,000 volumes each; 9 over 20,000; and only 2 over 50,000. In 1849 the
precedence of the largest as to numbers stood thus:
Vols. Vols.
I Harvard College, including Divin- 6 lercantile Library, New York - 32,000
ity and I,aw Schools - - 72,000 7 Georgetown College, D. C. - 25,000
2 Philadelphia and Loganian Library 60,000 8 B1rown University - 24,000
3 Boston Athenu - - -50,000 9 New Yorl State Library 24,000
4 Library of Congress - - - 50,000 10 Yale College - - 21,000
5 New Yorkl Society Library- - 32,000 11 Astor I,ibrary, New York- - 20,000
The Astor Library is scarcely yet opened, and the building is not yet erected.
The Smithsonian Institute at Washington has not yet commenced collecting
its library. The number of volumes in the School District libraries of' the
State of New York, in 1819, was 1,338,848. There are 10.621 school districts. and 1,785 incorporated dr private schools. The mercantile libraries,
chiefly for merchants' clerks, in tile large cities, are of comparatively recent
date and of great utility. That in New York was founded in 1820, and
contains 32,000 volumes; in Boston, founded 1820, contains 7,637 volumes';
in Philadelphia, founded 1822, contains 12.200 volumes. There are similar
ones in Baltimore, Cincinnati, St. Louis, Troy, &c.
The public libraries containing over 5000 volumes, were distributed (according to evidence in the British Museum Report in 1849) thus:Vols. Vols.
1 Alabama, has 1 Public Library, 6,000 Blrought up, - 34, 454,366
2 Columbia, Dist. of, has 2, 53,000 12 New Jersey, has 3. 28,500
3 Connecticut. " 6, 81,449 13 New Yorkl, 12; 157,411
4 Georgia, " 1, 13,000 14 North Carolina, " 1, 10,000
5 Kentucky, 1. 7.000 15 Ohio, " 1, 30,497
6 Louisiana, " 1; 5,500 16 Pennsylvania, " 14, 159,200
7 Maine,' 3, 38,860 17 Rhode Island, " 3, 37,185
8 Maryland, "4 1, 12,000 18 South Carolina, " 2, 30,000
9 Massachusatts, " 14, 200.000 19 Tennessee, 2, 16,000
10 Missouri, " 2, 14,300 20 Vermont, " 2, 16,254
11 New Hampshire, " 2, 22,500 21 Virginia, " 4, 41,000
34, 454,366 Total - - - 81, 980,134
The above estimate is perhaps below the mark, and does not in-6ludc school,
parish and town libraries, which are numerous, but of moderate extent.
The city of Paris alone has 1,474,000 volumes, in large public libraries; i. e.
half as many again as the whole of the United States. See Parl. Rep. Brit.
MIcs.; Prof. Jewelt's Rep. Smithsooiara Inst.; G. Livel rmore ie N. Anmer. Rev.,
July 1850, 4c.,IEGE. Formerly called, on account of the number of its churches and convents, " the paradise of priests, the purgatory of men, and the hell of women." In the time of Louis XI. of France, A. D. 1461, Liege was a large
and wealthy place, and the prince bishop was a prelate of almost sovereign
power. Taken by the English under the duke of Marlborough, in 1702;
and by the French and other powers, at variouls times, up to 1796, when it
was annexed to France. Liege was incorporated with the Netherlands, in
1814.
398 mTHE:WORLD S PROGRESS. [ LIS
LIGHT-HOUSES. They were erected by all the ancient commercial people,
and called Tros, or pillars, as those of Hercules, near Gibraltar; that of
Pharos, at Alexandria, 550 feet high, and visible forty-two miles; the Pharos
of gM.Iessina; the Colossus of -Rhodes, &c. There are forty-two round the
coasts of England, fifteen on the east coast, thirteen in the English channel,
and folbujteen in the Irish chanuel. There are seventeen on the Scottish
coasts, and twenty-six on the Irish coasts.
1JGURIAN REPUBLIC. Founded in June, 1802, upon the ruins of that of
Genoa. The doge of this new republic was solemnly invested at Genoa,
August 10. 1802. The Ligurian republic was incorporated with France, it;
having denmanded a union with the latter country, May 25, 1805. It merged
into the kingdom of Italy.
LIMA. See Amer?'icac and Colinalbia,. In 1524, Pizarro, marching through Peru,
was struck with the beauty of the valley of Rimac, and there he founded a
city, and gave it the name of Cisdcad de los Reyes, or City of the Kings.
This Spanish name it retains in all legal deeds, but it is better known as
Lima. Awful earthquakes occurred here, since solemnly commemorated by
annual festivals, A. D. 1586, 1630,; 1687, and October 28, 1746. In the last it
was almost totally destroyed, as well as Callao, wvhich see.
LINEN. A fabric of very remote antiquity. Pharaoh arrayed Joseph in vestures of fine linen.-Ge~. xli. 42. This article was first manufactured in
England by Flemish weavers, under the protection of Henry III.. 1253.
Befbre this period woollen shirts were generally worn. A company of linen
weavers established itself in London, in 1368; and the art of staining linen
_becamle known in 1579. A colony of Scots in the reign of James I., and
other Presbyterians wvho fled friom persecution in that country in the succeeding inglorious reigns, planted themselves in the northeast part of Ireland, and there established the linen manufacture. It was liberally encouraged by the lord deputy Wentworth, in 1634. Hemp, flax, linen, thread,
and yarn, from Ireland, were permitted to be exported duty free, 1696.
This law gave rise to the subsequently improved state of the manufacture
there. The Irish Linen Board was established in 1711; the Linen-hall, Dublin, was opened, 1728; the board was abolished in 1828. Dunfernmline in
Fifeshire, Dundee in Angusshire, and Barnsley in Yorkshire, are, in Great
Britain, chief seats of the linen manufacture.
I,TNNSAN SYSTEM. The system of Botany of the eminent Linne. a Swede,
or, as his nlame is Latinized, Linnweus, was commenced about 1725-30; and
his first great work was a dictionary of 7300 plants arranged in classes,
orders and genera; he classed the plants according to the number and situation of the sexual parts, and made the flower and fruit the test of his various genera. The Linnman Society in London was instituted in 1788, and
was incorporated March 26, 1802.
LISBON. The Moors are said to have given the name of Lisboa to this city
when they conquered it, An. 716. It was made the capital of Portugal by
Emanuel, 1506. Lisbon was almost destroyed by an earthquake, November
1. 1755. See Eas'tlqezakes. It became a point of the late Jwar, and the coiurI
fled to the Brazils, November, 1807, in which month (the 30th) the French,
arimy under Junot entered Lisbon, and held possession of it until the battle
of Vineiram in which they were defeated by the British, under sir Arthur
Wellesley, August 21, 1808. Insurrection at Lisbon, August 21, 1831. Alassaocre at Lisbon, June 9, 1834. See Poril-ale.
LISLE, SI oGE oF. Lisle was besieged by the duke of Marlborough and the
allies; and though its immense fortifications were deemed impregnable, it
was taken after a three months' siege, in 1708. It was restored by the treaty
of Utrecht, in 1713, in consideration of the demolition of the fortifications
LIV ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 399
of Dunilrk: this siege is reckoned one of the most famous of modern history. In the Revolutionary war, Lisle sustained a severe bombardment from
the Austrians, who were obliged to raise the siege, Oct. 7, 1792.
LITANIES. They were first used in processions and other devotions, about
A. D. 400. Litanies to the Virgin Mary were first introduced by pope Gregory I., in or about 595.-=-Newlon on the Prophecies. The first English litany
was conmmandel to be used in the Reformed Churches by Henry VIII., in
1543.- Cotlier's Ecc. List.
LITERARY PROPERTY, IN ENGLAND. See Copyright. The statute of queen
Anne, 1709-10, securing literary property, was confirmed by a memoerable
decision at the bar of the House of Lords, and the claim of perpetual copyright was overruled Feb. 22, 1774. The statute declared the author to have
an exclusive right for 14 years, and if at the end of that term he were living,
the right to again return to him for the same term of years. The later acts
extended the author's right to 28 years, and if living at the end of that time,
then to the remainder of' his life. By the 5th and 6th of Victoria, the right
is to endure for the life of the author, and for seven years after his death;
but if that time expire earlier than 42 years, the right is still to endure for
42 years, for which term also any work published after the author's death is
to continue the property of the owners of' the manuscript; act passed July
1, 1842. The Dramatic Authors' Protection act, passed June 10, 1833. The
International Copyright bill, passed July 31, 1838; this act secures protection in England to works of authors of any country which concedes the
same protection to English authors.
LITERARY SOCIETIES, CLUB, FUND, &c. The various societies connected
wvitll literature in London, will be found in their respective places through
the volume. The celebrated Literary Club was instituted by Dr. Johnson,
and included many of the illustrious men in literature of the age, 1765.
The Literary Fund, in Lincoln's-Inn Fields, was founded in 1790, to relieve
authors and literary men who by age or infirmities are reduced to poverty:
this society was incorporated in 1818. The Royal Society of Literature was
established Sept. 15, 1825.
L1THOGRAPHY. The invention of it is ascribed to Alois Sennefelder, whose
first essays were executed about 1796; and shortly afterwards the art was
announced in Germany, and was known as polyautography. It became partially known in England in 1801 et seq., but its general introduction lnay be
referred to Mr. Ackermann, of' London, about 1817. Sennefelder died in
1841.
LITURGY. In the ancient Greek and Roman lchurchles the word Liturgy was
iestrained to signify the mass only. The present ENGLISI- LITURGY was first
composed, and was approved and confirmed by parliament, in 1547-8. The
offices for morning and evening prayer were then put into nearly the same
form in which we now have them, but other parts were different. Upon the
solicitation of Calvin and others, the liturgy was reviewed and altered to
very nearly its present state, 1551. It was first read in Ireland. in the Eng-lish language in 1550, and in Scotland, where it occasioned a tumult, in 1637.
Again altered in 1661. The liturgy was revised by Whitehead, formerly
chaplain to Anna Boleyn, and by bishops Parker, Grindall, Cox, and Pilkington, and dean May, and secretary Smith.
LIVERIES. In England they originated with our ancestors, who clothed their
vassals in uniform, thereby to distinguish families; they were originally a
single article of dress, or a plarticular color used on a part of some one garment; and in the end they became rich suits and gaudy trappings.-Ashe.
LtTVERPOOL. This town, which within the last century has, by a progressive
400 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ LOt
increase in extent, population, and commercial importance, obtained the first
rank after the metropolis, in England, is supposed to. be noticed in Domesday-book under the name Esmedune, or, Smedune. In other ancient records
its various appellations are, Litherpuil, and Ly7rpul, signifying probably, in the
ancient dialect'of the county, the lower pool'; though some have deduced
its etymology from a pool frequented by an aquaticfowl, called the "Liver,"
or from a sea-weed of that name; it was but a small fishing place, until, in
1172, its favorable situation, and the convenience of its port, attracted the
notice of Henry II., who made it the place of rendezvous and embarkation
of his troops for the conquest of treland. Ih 1843, the number of ships
which entered the port of Liverpool was as follows; British,'2,615, of the
aggregate burthen of 691,707 tons;'foreign, 1,014, burthen, 417,621 tons.
The amount of duties paid at the custom-house for the year ending 5th January, 1844, was ~4,121,522.-Parl. Ret.
LLOYD'S, LONDON. The coffee-house in connection with the Royal Exchange,
and held previously to the late fire (see Exchange) on the northern side
of that building. Lloyd's was established in 1772, and is the resort of
eminent merchants, underwriters, insurance brokers, &c.; and here are
effected insurances for all the world on ships and merchandise. The books
kept here contain an account of the arrival and sailing of vessels, and -are
remarkable for their early intelligence of maritime affairs.
LOADSTONE. One of the most wonderful productions of the earth. Its
virtues were but indistinctly known to the ancients, yet its attractive quality had been taken notice of from very remote times.-Sturmisus. Aristotle
assures us that Thales made mention of it, and Hippocrates speaks of'it
under the name of stone that attracts iron, and Pliny was struck with its
attractive power. The polar attraction of the loadstone was, it is said,
known in France before A. D. 1180; but this honor is accorded to Roger
Bacon about I267. The Italians discovered that it could communicate jis
virtues to steel or iron; and Flavio Giojo of Amalfi, was the inventor of
the mariner's compass. See Coimipass.
LOANS. Those for the service of the crown of England were generally borrowed at Antwerp until after the reign of Elizabeth. In 1559, that queen
borrowed 200,0001. -of- the city of Antwerp, to enable her to reform her own
coin, and sir Thomas Gresham and the city'of London joined in the secu*rity,-Rapin. The amount of the English loans, during four late memorable periods, was, viz:
Seven years' war - fiom 1755 to 1763 - - ~52,100,000
American var - from 1776 to 1784 - - - 75,500,000
French revolutionary war. - from 1793 to 1802 - - 168,500,000
War against Bonaparte — from-1803 to 1814 - 206,300,000
Besides the property tax. In 1813, were raised two loans of twenty-one
millions and twenty-two millions; and it deserves to be recorded that-a
subscription loan to carry on the war against France was filled up in London in fifteen hours and twenty minutes, to the amount of eighteen millions, Dec. 5, 1796.
LOCHLEVEN CASTLE, KINRoss. Built on an island in the celebrated lake
of Loch Leven, in 1257, and was a royal residence when Alexander III. and
his queen-were forcibly taken from it to Stirling. It was besieged by the
English in 1301, and again in 1335.. Patrick Graham, first archbishop of
St. Andrew's, was imprisoned and died within its walls, 1447. The earl
of Northumberland was confined in it in 1569. It is, however, chiefly r-"markable as the place of the unfortunate -teen Mary's imprisonment, in
1567, and of her escape, on Sunday, May 2, 1568. In this castle Mary was
compelled to sign her abdication of the throne of Scotland, of which an
interesting account is given by sir Walter Scott, in The Abtbot; and of whict
LOM J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 401
also, some new and affectig particulars are given by Mr. Tytler, in the 7th
volume of his tistory of Scotland, published in August, 1840.
LOCKS. Those of the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, were clumsy contrivances. Denon has engraved an Egyptian lock of wood. Du Cange
mentions locks and padlocks as early as A. D. 1381. The French are accounted the worst locksmiths in Europe and the English the best. Bramah's celebrated patent locks were registered in 1784. Locks have been
made at Wolverhampton in suits of eight, ten, or more, of exquisite workmanship, all with different keys, so that none of them call open any but its
own lock, yet a master key will open all. See Keys.
LOCUSTS. The visits of these animals in Eastern countries have frequently
superinduced pestilence and death, and many instances are recorded of
these consequences. Owing to the putrefaction of vast swarms in Egypt
and Lybia, upwards of 800,000 persons perished, 128 B. c. The country of
Palestine was infested with such swarms that they darkened the air, and
after devouring the fruits of the earth they died, and their intolerable
stench caused a pestilential fever, A. D. 406. A similar catastrophe occurred
in France in 873. ~A remarkable swarm of locusts settled upon the ground
about London, and consumed the vegetables; great numbers fell in the
streets, and were preserved by the curious; they resemlbled grasshoppers,
but were three times the size, and their colors more variegated, Aug. 4,
1748. They infested Germany in 1749, Poland in 1750, and Warsaw in June
1816.
TODI, BATTLE OF TmIE BRIDGE OF. One of the great early achievements in
Italy of Bonaparte. He commanded the French army, which was opposed
to the Austrians commanded by general Beaulieu, and obtained a brilliant
and decisive victory after a bloody engagement in which several thousands
o.f the Imperialists perished on the field, and many thousands were made
prisoners, May 10, 1796. The conqueror pursued his advantage with wonderful rapidity, as after this battle all Lombardy lay open to his army, and
the republican flag floated in:Milan a few days afterwards.
LOG-LINE, used in navigation, A. D. 1570; and first mentioned by Bourne
in 1577. The log-line is divided into spaces of fifty feet, and the way which
the ship makes is measured by a half-minute sand glass, which bears nearly
the same proportion to an hour that fifty feet bear to a mile: the line used
in the royal navy is forty-eight feet.
IOGARITHMS, so useful in mathematics, are the indexes of the ratio of
numbers one to another. They were invented by baron Merchiston, an
eminent Scotchman (sir JTohn Napier) in 1614. The method of computing
by means of marked pieces of ivory was discovered about the same time,
and hence called Napier's bones. The invention was afterwards completed
by Mr. Briggs, at Oxford.
LOLLARDS. The name given to the first reformers of the Roman Catholic
religion in England, and a reproachful appellation of the followers of Wickliffe. —Chiancer. The original sect was founded by Walter Lollard in 1315;
he was burned for heresy at Cologne in 1322. After his death the disciples
of Wickliffe were called Lollards. The first martyr in England on account
of religious opinions was William Sawtree, the parish priest of St. Osith,
London, Feb. 19, 1401, reign of Henry IV. The Lollards were proscribed
by the English parliament in 1416, and about 1414, numbers of them, or
persons to whom the name was given, were burnt alive. —MAlorei; Caste.
LOMBARD MERCHANTS. In England they were understood to be composed of natives of some one of the four republics of Genoa, Lucca, Florence,
or Venice. —Anderson on Commerce. Lombard usurers were sent to England
402 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ LOG
b)y pope Gregory IX. to lend money to convents, commnnities, and private
persons, who were not able to pay down the tenths which were collected
throughout the kingdom with great rigor that year, 13 Henry III., 1229.
They had offices in Lombard-street, which great banking street is called
after them to this day. Their usurious transactions caused. their expulsion
friom the kingdom in the reign of Elizabeth.
LOMBARDY. The Lombards were a detachment of Alemanni from the
marches of Brandenburgh, famous for their bravery. They were invited
into Italy by Justinian, to serve against the Goths. To reward their services, the emperor gave them part of Upper Pannonia, A. D. 548. They
passed into Italy, and their chief was proclaimed king by his army at Milan,
in 570. The kingdom of Lombardy supported itself and:made considerable
conquests till 772, when Charlemagne took Desiderius, the last king, and
annexed his territories to the German empire.-La Cowmbe. See Milan, &c.
LONDON. The greatest and richest city in the world. Some will have it that
a city existed on the spot 1107 years before the birth of Christ, and 354
years before the foundation of Rome. It was the capital of the Trinobantes
54 B. c. and long previously the royal seat of their kings. In A. D. 61, it
was known to the Romans as Lundinium. Lundiniuml or Colonia Augusta
was the chief residence of merchants at that period, and the great mart of
trade and commerce, though not dignified with the name of a colony.Tacitus. It is said, but not truly, to.have derived its name from Lucd, an
old British king, who was buried near where Ludgate formerly stood; but
its name is from LlyI-Dimt, the "town on the lake." See Fires, Plague, &c.
LONGEVITY. In Great Britain the instances of it are remarkable, though
rare. Golour M'Crain, of the Isle of Jura, one of the Hebrides, is said to
have kept 180 Christmasses in his own house, and died in the reign of
Charles I., being the oldest man on any thing approaching to authentic record for upwards of 3000 years. —Greig. Thomas Parr, a laboring man of
Shropshire, was brought to London by the earl of Arundel, in 1635, and
considered the wonder of his time, being then in his 153d year, and in perfect health; but the journey and change of air and diet killed him, Nov.
15, the same year. Henry Jenkins, of Yorkshire, died in 1670, and was
buried in Bolton church-yard, Dec. 6, in that year, aged 169 years. There
are some extraordinary instances of great age in Russia; and at Dantzic a
man is said to have died at 184; and another to be living in Wallachia, aged
186 years. In Holy Writ, Methuselah is stated to have lived 969 years, the,.
greatest age of any on record, according to the reckoning before the Flood;
but the length of the years of that time is not ascertained; hence there is
no fixed principle to determine the real ages of that epoch.
LONGITUDE, determined by Hipparchus at Nice, who fixed the first degree
in the Canaries, 162 B. c. Harrison made a time-keeper in A. D. 1759, which
in two voyages was found to correct the longitude within the limits required
by the act of parliament, 12th Anne, 1714; and in 1763, he applied for the
reward of 20,0001. offered by that act, which he received. The celebrated
Le Roi of Paris, in 1776, invented a watch that keeps time better; and the
chronoimeters of Arnold, Earnshaw, and Br6guet bring the longitude almost to the truth. Philosophers have sought the longitude in vain; but
Newton has said it will yet be discovered by a fool.
LOOKING-GLASSES. Made only at Venice in 1300. They were made in
England, by Venetian artists, some of whom took up their abode in Lambeth, in 1673.-Salnzon. The French excelled in their manufactur e of them
in the last century; but the English have brought their factories to great
perfection of late years, and now make looking-glasses to cover, in a single
plate, the walls of large rooms.
LOT ] DICTIONARtY OF DATES. 403
LOOM-ENGINE. The weaver's, otherwise called the Dutch loom, was brought
into use in London from Holland, in or about the year 1676, since when the
general principal of the loom has been infinitely varied by mechanical ingenuity. There are about 250,000 hand-looms in Great Britain, and 75 000
power-looms, each being equal to three hand looms, making twenty-two
yards each per day. The steam-loom was introduced in 1807.
LORD. In the Old and New Testament, Lord is a particular appellation for
the supreme majesty of GoD and CHRIST, and in that sense cannot be applied to any other being. With us, it is a term of nobility.-See Lo'rds and
Bacro?. The word lord is abbreviated from two syllables: it was originally
HIIaford, which, by dropping the aspirate became Laford, and afterwards by
contraction Lord. "The etymology of this word," a writer observes, "is
worth observing, for it was composed of hlafj a loaf of bread, and ford, to
give or afford; so that Hlclford, now Lord, implies a giver of bread; because in those ages, such great men kept extraordinary houses, and fed the
poor; for which reason they were called givers of bread."-See Ladies. The
nickname of " My Lord," given by vulgar people to hunchbacked persons,
is from the Greek word lordos, crooked.-cHaydn.
LORDS. The now recognized nobility of England take their creation from the
1st of William the Conqueror, 1066, when William Fitzosborne, the first
peer, was made earl of Hereford; Walter Devereux made earl of Salisbury;
Copsi, earl of Northumberland; Henry de Ferrers made earl of Derby, and
Gerbodus (a Fleming) made earl of Chester. Twenty-two other peers were
nlade in this sovereign's reign. Peers of England are free from all arrests
for debts, as being the king's hereditary counsellors. Therefore a peer cannot be outlawed in any civil action, and no attachment lies against his person; but execution may be taken upon his lands and goods. For the same
reason, they are free from all attendance at courts leet or sheriff's turns; or,
in case of a riot, fiom attending the posse co2aitatus. See Bacros; Earl;
liIar'quess, &c.
LORDS, HousE or. The peers of England were sumnioned ad consLdlendml7a, to
consult, in early reigns, and were summoned by writ 6 and 7 John, 1205.
The commons did not form a part of the great council of the nation until
some ages after the conquest. —HLzee. Deputies from certain boroughs
were returned to meet the barons and the clergy in 1258.-GoldsmitA. And
writs are extant of the date of Jan. 23, 1265; but severll historians maintain
that the first regular parliament of the three estates, as now constituted, was
held 22 Edward I., 1293-4. The house of lords includes the spiritual as well
as temporal peers of England. The bishops are supposed to hold certain ancient baronies under the king, in right whereof they have seats in
this house. The temporal lords consist of the several degrees of nobility:
some sit by descent, as do all ancient peers; some by creation, as all newmade peers; and otlhers by election, since the union with Scotland in 1707,
and with Ireland in 1801. Scotland elects 16 representative peers, and Ireland 4 spiritual lords by rotation in sessions, and 28 temporal peers for life.
The house of lords now consists of 3 princes, 20 dulkes, 21 mnarquesses. 115
earls, 22 viscounts, 201 barons, 16 Scotch lords, 28 Irish lords, 26 English
prelates, and 4 Irish bishops-in all 456 peers.
LOTTERY, STATE. The first mentioned in Enolish history began drawring at.
the western door of St. Paul's cathedral, Jaiuary 11 11, 169, and continued
day and knig'ht until May 6 following. Its profits were for repairing the
fortifications on the coast of England. and the prizes were pieces of plate.
The first lottery mentioned for sums of money took place in 1630. Lotteries were established in 1693, and for more than 130 years yielded a large
annual revenue to the crown. The Irish state lottery was drawn in Dublin
404 TIE WOXLD7S PROGRESS. [ LUT
in 1780. All lotteries were suppressed in France by a decree of the national
convention, Nov. 15, 1793. They were abolished in England, 1826; and an act
was passed imposing a penalty of 501. for advertising foreign or any lotteries
in the British newspapers, 1836. Abolished in Bavaria by unanimous vote
of the deputies, Oct. 19, 1847. They have long been abolished in New England; in New York they were prohibited about 1830. In nearly all the states
there is a penalty against lotteries not specially authorized by the legislatures.
IOUISIANA, ONE OF THE UNITED STATES. First explored by the French, and
received its name in 1682, from M. La Salle, in honor of Louis XIV., and a
settlement was attempted in 1684, but failed. In 1699, a more successful
attempt was made by M. Iberville, who entered the Miss., and founded a
colony. His efforts were folowed up by one Crozat, a man of wealth, who
held the exclusive trade of the country for a number of years. About the
year 1717, he transferred his interest in the province to a chartered company,
at the head of which was the notorious John Law, whose national bank and
Mississippi speculation involved the ruin of half the French nobility. In
1731; the company resigned the concern to the crown, who, in 1762, ceded
the whole of Louisiana to Spain. In 1800, Spain reconveyed the province
to the French, of -whom it was piirchased by the United States, in 1803, for
$15,000,000. The purchase included the territory of the United States WV. of
the Mississippi. In 1812, the present State of Louisiana formed a constitution, and was admitted into the Union. Population in 1810, 76,556; in 1820,
153,407; in 1830, 215,575; in 1840, 352,411, including 168,452 slaves.
LOUVRE. This renowned edifice in Paris was a royal residence in the reign
of Dagobert, A. D. 628; but Francis I. laid the foundation of what is now
called the Old Louvre, 1522. Here were deposited the finest collection of
paintings, of statues, and treasures of art known in the world. The chief
of them were brought from Italy during the triumph of Bonaparte's arms,
but most of them have since been'restored to the rightful possessors.
LUCCA, TIIE DrICHY OF, adjoining Tuscany. On the fall of the Lombard kingdO1n, A. D. 774, it was annexed to the German empire. In 1815 it was occupied
by the Austrians and granted to Maria Louisa, daughter of Charles IV. of
Spain. The duke retires to Massa, but returns and yields to his people's
demand for reforms, Sept. 3, 1847: appointed a regency and again fled,
Sept. 15. The duchy sold by the duke to Tuscany for an annuity of $215,000, until he should succeed to the duchy of Parma, on the death of Maria
Louisa, present duchess, Oct. 10, 1847.
LUCIA, ST,. First settled by the French in 1650. Taken by the British several
tiuves in the subsequent wars. Memorable insurrection of the French
negroes, April 1795. In this year Guadaloupe, St. Vincent, Grenadla, Dominica, St. Eustatia, and St. Lucie, were taken by the British. St. Lucia was
restored to France at the peace of 1802; but was again siezed on by England the next year, and confirmed to her by the treaty of Paris in 1814.
See Colonies.
LUNEVILLE, PEACE OF, concluded between the French republic and the emperor of Germany, confirming the cessions made by the treaty of Campo
Formio, stipulating that the Rhine, to the Dutch territories, should form
the boundary of France, and recognizing the independence of the Batavian,
Helvetic, Ligurian, and Cisalpine republics, Feb. 9, 1801.
LUSTRUM. An expiatory sacrifice made for the whole body of the Roman
people, at the end of every five years, after the census had been taken, 572
B. c. Every five years were called a ltLst'rus; and ten, fifteen, or twenty
years were commonly expressed by two, three, or four lfest?'a.
LUTHERANISM. Sprung up in Germany in 1517, in which year Leo X. published his indulgences for money; and Iccelius, a Dominican friar, who was
LY ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 405
deputed with others of his order to collect in Saxony, carried his zeal to such
a height as to declare his commission unbounded; that no crime could be
committed too great to be pardoned: and that by purchasing indulgences,
not only past sins, but those which were intended, were to be forgiven.
Against these practices Luther openly preached with wonderful success, and
thus began the Reformation in Germany.-Melc/ior Adam, in Vita Lilltheli.
LUTZEN, BATTLE OF, between the French army commanded by Napoleon on
the one side, and the combined armies of Russia and Prussia, commanded
by general Wittgenstein, fought May 2, 1813. This sanguinary battle opened
the campaign of that year; and though each of the adversaries claimed the
victory, it was manifestly on the side of France; but in this engagement
marshal Duroc was mortally wounded. The battles of Bautzen and Wurtzen immediately followed (May 20 and 26), both in favor of Napoleon, when
the allies were compelled to pass the Oder, and an armistice was agreed to,
and afterwards prolonged, but unfbrtunately for the French emperor it did
not produce peace.
LUTZENGEN, on LUTZEN, BATTLE OF; Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden,
against the emperor. In this sanguinary and memorable battle, Gustavus,
the most illustrious hero of his time, and the chief support of the Protestant religion in Germany, and in alliance with Charles I. of England, was
foully killed in the moment of victory, Nov. 6, 1632. This is also called the
battle of Lippstadt.
LUXEMBURG. Considered the strongest fortress in the world. It was taken
and pillaged by the French in 1543; was taken by the Spaniards in 1544
by the French in 1684; and restored to Spain in 1697. It was again taken
by the French in 1701; and afterwards given to the Dutch as a barrier town,
and ceded to the emperor at the peace in 1713. These are among the chief
occurrences. Luxemburg withstood several sieges in the last century; it
surrendered to the French after a long and memorable siege, June 7, 1795.
The garrison, on their capitulation, took an oath not to serve against the republic of France until exchanged, and were conducted to the right side of
the Rhine immediately after.
LUXURY. The instances of extravagance and luxury are numerous in the histor-' of almost all countries, ancient and modern, and many laws have been
enforced to repress them. Horace mentions fowls dressed in Falernian wine,
muscles and oysters from the Lucrine lake and Circean promontory, and
black game from the Umbrian' forests.-Larldeter. Lucullus, at Rome, was
distinguished for the immoderate expenses of his meals; his halls were
named from the different gods; and when Cicero and Pompey attempted to
surprise him, they were amazed by the costliness of a supper which had been
prepared upon the word of Lucullus, who merely ordered his attendants to
serve it in the hall of Apollo: this feast for three persons casually met,
would have sufficed for three hundred nobles specially invited. In England,
luxury was restricted by a law wherein the prelates and nobility were confined to two courses every meal, and two kinds of food in every course,
except on great festivals. The law also prohibited all who did not enjoy a
free estate of 1001. per asnnt2et, from wearing furs (see PFTtrs), skins, or silk;
and the use of foreign cloth was confined to the royal family alone; to all
others it was prohibited, A. D. 1337. An edict was issued by Charles VI. of
France, which said, " Let no man presume to treat with more than a soup
and two dishes," 1340.
LYCEUM. The Lyceum took its name from its having been originally a temple of Apollo Lyceus; or rather, a portico, or gallery, built by Lyceus, son
of Apollo. The Lyceum was a celebrated spot neat the banks of the Ilissus in Attica, where Aristotle taught philosophy; and as he generally taught
406 TI-HE WORLD7S PROGRESS. [ LY:.
his pupils while he walked, hence they were called peripctetics, and his philosophy was called from this place, the philosophy of the Lyceum, 342 B. C.
-SlaLley.
LYDIA. A very ancient kingdom under a long dynasty of kings, the last of
whom was Croesus, whose riches became a proverb: he was con4'ttered by
Cyrus, 548 a. c. The coinage of money of gold and silver (together with
many other useful inventions, and the encouragement of commerce) is as
cribed to the Lyclians. A numlber of illustrious men flourished here.-Herodlot-ts.
Argon, a descendant of Hercules, reigns Crcesus, son of Alyattes, succeeds to the
in Lydia.-He-rod. - B. C. 1223 throne, and becomes celebrated for his
The kingdom of Lydia, propertly so victories and conquests - B.. 56
called, begins under Ardysus I.- Ephesus falls into his hands; the IoniBlair-. 797 ans, ZEolians, and other parts of Asia
Alyattes reigns. v. 761 Minor are subjected to his dominion - 55-1
Meles commences his rule - - 747 All the nations west of the Halys are
Reign of Candaules - - 735 conquered, and that river becomes
Gyges. first of the race called Mermna- the boundary of the kingdom.Blair - 550
din, puts Candaules to death, marries Cresus, dreading the power of Cyrus,
his queen, usurps the throne, and whose conquests had reached to the
makes great conquests - - 718 borders of Lydia, crosses the Halys
Ardysus II. reigns; the Cimbri besiege to attack the Medes, with an army of
Sardis, the capital of Lydia - 680 420,000 men and 60,000 horse 5AR
The Milesian war commenced under I-Ie is defeated by Cyrus, pursued, beGyges, is continued by Sadyattes, who sieged in his capital, and taken - 548
reigns - - 631 The conqueror orders Cresus to be
Reign of Alyattes II. 619 burned alive, and the pile is already
Battle upon the river Halys between the. on fire, when lie calls on the name of
Lydians and Medes, intercepted by an Solosl in agony of mind, and Cyrus
almost total eclipse of the sun, which hearing him pronounce it, spares his
superstitiously occasions a conclu- life 548
sion of the war.-Blair - May 28, 585 Lydia, the kingdom of the "richest of
[This eclipse had been predicted many mankind," is made a province of the
years before by Thales, of Miletus.- Persian empire - 548
Blair.]
PEsop, the Phrygian fabulist, Aleman, the first Greekl poet who wrote in a
style of gallantry, Thales of Miletus, Anaximenes, Xenophanes, Anacreon of
Tees, Heraclitus of Ephesus, &c., flourished in Lydia. The country reinained subject to the Persian empire until the latter was conquered by Alexander, about 330 B. c. It next became part of the new kingdom of Pergamus,
founded by Philmterus, the eunuch; Attalus afterwards ibequeathed it to the
Romans, and finally the Turkls conquered it fiom the Eastern Empire, A. D.
1326.-Prieslecy.
LYONS. Founded by L. Plancus, 43 B. c. The city was reduced to ashes in a
single night by lightning, and was rebuilt in the reign of Nero. Two general councils were held here in the 18th and 14th centuries. The silk manufacture commenced in the reign of' Francis I., 1515. Lyons was besieged
in 1793 by the convention army of 60,000 men, and surrendered Oct. 7
when awful scenes of blood and rapine followed. The National Convention
decreed the demolition of the city, Oct. 12, same year. It capitulated to the
Austrians, March 1814, and July 1815. An insurrection among the artisans,
which led to great popular excesses for many days, broke out, Nov. 21. 1831.
Dreadful riots, April 15, 1834. A dreadful inundation occurred at Lyoan,
Nov 4, 1840. See Isnzndcations.
LYRE. Its invention is ascribed to the Grecian Mercury, who, according to
Homer, gave it to Apollo, the first that played upon it with method, and
accompanied it with poetry. The invention of the primitive lyre with three
strings, is due to the first Egyptian Hermes. Terpandcer added several
strings to the lyre, making the number seven, 673 B. c. Phrynis, a musician
of Mitylene, added two more, making nine, 438 B. C.
MitAC ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 407
MI.:ACEDON. The first kingdom was founded by Caranus, aboutt 814 B. c. It
\was an inconsiderable country, sometimes under the protection of Athens,
sometimes of Thebes, and sometimes of Sparta, until the reign of Philip.
the father of Alexander the Great, who by his wisdom as a politician, and
exploits as a general, made it a powerful kingdom, and paved the way to his
son's greatness. Macedon had twenty-one kings, from Caranus to Alexander inclusive,; after the conqueror's death, when his dominions were divided among his generals, Cassander seized Macedon, and established a new
kinngdom. See Tabudlar Views, p. 15 to p. 37.
Reign of Caranus - - nB.. 814 to the ground; the house of Pindar is
Reign of Perdiccas I. - - 729 alone left standingl - 335
Reign of Argweus I. - 678 The Almighty- oIvors Alexander with a
Reign of Philip I - - - - 640 vision, in which the high-priest of the
Reign of 2ropas; he conquers the Illy- Jews appears to him, exhorting him
rians - - - - 602 to pass into Asia. See Jews - 334
Reign of Amyntas - - 547 lie passes into Asia, and gains his first
Reign of Alexander I. - - 497 1 battle over Daris., Sue GranicLus,
Reign of Perdiccas II. - 454 Battle of - - 334
Archetaus, natural son of Perdiccas, Sardis surrenders to the conqueror; ITamurders the legitimate heirs of his licarnassus is taken, and numerous
father, and seizes the throne - - 413i cities in Asia Minor - - - 334
Ie is surnamed the "Patron of Learn- i Memnon ravages the Cycla(tes; Darius
in".4' - - - - - 411 takes the field with 460,000 inlantry
Iie is murdered by a favorite to whom and 100,000 cavalry - 333
he promised his daugihter in marriage, [ Battle of Issues (which see) - 333
yet gave her to another - 399 Alexander, in his way to Egypt, lays
Reign of Amyntas II. - - 399 siege to T'yre, which is destroyed after
He is driven from the throne - - 398 seven months - 332
Recovers his crown, and puts Pausanaias Damascus is taken, and the vast treato death - 397 sures of Darius comle into the possesThe Illyrians enter Macedonia, expel sion of the victor - 332
Amyntas, and put Arggeus, brother of Gaza surrenders - - - - 332
Pausanias, on the throne - - 392 Alexander enters Jerusalem; and
Amyntas again recovers his kingdlom -'390 Egypt conquered - 332
Reign of Alexander I. - - - 371 Alexandria founded - - - - 332
He is assassinated - - - 370 Great battle of Arbela, the third and
Reign of Perdiccas III. - - 366' last between Alexander and Darius;
He is killed in battle 360 the Persian army totally defeated.
Reign of Philip II. and institution of the See Arbela - - - 331
Macedonian phalanx 360 Alexander proclaimed master of Asia;
Philip gains the battle of Methon over he enters Babylon in triumph - 331
the Athenians. 360
He defeats the Illyrians in a desperate GRECIAN OR MACEDONIAN EtPItE.
engagement 359 Alexander sits on the throne of Darius,
He takles Amphipolis, and receives an at Susa - - - 330
arrow in his right eye. See Archery 358 Parthia and Ilyrcania are overrun by
He conquers Thrace and Illyria 356 Alexander - 329'Birth of Alexander the Great 3561 Thalestris, queen of the Amazons, visits:Philip adds to his conquests - 348 himn, attended by a retinue of 300 woClose of the first sacred war 348 men. See Amnazozs - - 329
Illyricum overrun by the army of Philip 344 l Ie puts his friend Parmenio to death,
Thrace made tributary to Macedon - 343 on a charge of conspiracy, supposed
Aristotle appointed tutor to the young to be false - 329
prince Alexander - - - 343 Alexander makles more conquests - 328
War against the Athenians - - 341 His expedition to India; Porus, king of
Philip besieges Byzantium - 341 India, is defeated and taken; and the
Battle of Chweronea; Philip conquers. country as far as the Ganges is overSee Clharone - - - 338 run 327
Philip is assassinated by Pausanias, at Calisthenes is put to the torture for reEgxea, during the celebration of games fusing to render divine homage to
in honor of his daubhter's nuptials - 336 Alexander - 326
Alexander III., surnamed the Great, Subjection of the Cosseas - - 326
succeeds his father - 336 Death of Alexander - - 323
He enters Greece 335 His conquests are divided among his
The Greeks appoint him general of their generals - - - - 323
armies against the Persians - 335 His remains are transported to AlexalnThe Thebans revolt; he levels Thebes dria, and buried by Ptolemy - 322
408 ) THE WORLD'S rROGRESS. [ MA'
MACEDON, conltinuLed.
The Greeks defeated by sea and land Reign of Antigonus Gonatus - n. c. 277
near Cranon (which see) - B. c. 322 Pyrrhus invades Macedon, defeats AnThebes rebuilt by Cassander - - 315 tigonus, and is proclaimed king - 274
Seleucus recovers Babylon - - 312 Pyrrhus slain; Antigonus restored 272
Cassander puts Roxana and her son to Antigonus takes Athens - - 268
death, and usurps the throne 311 The Gauls again invade Macedon - 268
Battle of Ipsus (which see) -. 301 Revolt of the ParLhians - - 250
New division of the empire - 301 Reign of Demetrius 11. - 242
Reign of Philip, his son - 232
~MACE3DON It. His war against the Rhodians 202
Death of Cassander - - 298 Philip is defeated by the Romnans - 198
Reign of Alexander and Antipater 298 He is totally subdued - - - 196
Demetrius murders Alexander, and The reign of Perseus - - 179.
seizes the crown of Macedon - - 294 Perseus defeated by the Romans - 171
Irruption of the Gauls - - - 279
The consul aEmilius Pautlus enters Macedon, and pronounces it a Roman
province. Perseus and his sons are made prisoners, 168 B. c., and next year
walk in chains before the chariot of 2Emilius in his triuQpph for the conquest
of Macedon. The country is finally conquered by the Turks under Amurath
II. in A. D. 1429. Piriestley.
MACHIAVELIAN PRINCIPLES. These are principles laid down by Nicholas Machiavel, of Florence, in his Practice of Politics, and T/ee Prince. By
some they are stigmatized as "the most pernicious maxims of government,
founded on the vilest policy;" and by others as " sound doctrines, notwithstanding the prejudice erroneously raised against them." The work appeared
in 1517; and was translated into English in 1761.*
MADAGASCAR. One of the largest islands in the world, discovered by Lcrenzo Almneida A. D. 1506. In the centre of the island is said to exist a race
of dwarfs, with a strange peculiarity of form; but this rests on the unsupported statement of a French traveller who was in possession of a preserved
pigmy which he had brought fiom Madagascar. A paper describing the
pigmy was presented to the Royal Society by an eminent physician, in 1800'.
MADEIRA. So called on account of its woods; it was discovered, it is said,
by Mr. Macham, an English gentleman, or mariner, who fled from England
for an illicit amor. He was driven here by a storm, ancl-his mistress. a French
lady, dying, he made a canoe, and carried the news of his discovery to
Pedro, king of Arragon, which occasioned the report that the island was
discovered by a Portuguese, A. D. 1345. But it is maintained that the Portuguese did not visit this island until 1419, nor did they colonize it until 1431.
It was taken possession of by the British in July 1801. And again, by admiral Hood and general (now viscount) Beresford, Dec. 24, 1807, and retained
in trust for the royal family of Portugal, which had just then emigrated to
the Brazils. It was subsequently restored to the Portuguese crown.
MADRAS. Colonized by the English, and Fort George built by permission of
the king of Golconda, 17 James I., 1620. Madras was taken by the French
in 1746, and was restored in 1749, immediately after the peace of Aix-laChapelle.
MADRID. Mentioned in history as a castle belonging to the Moors. It was
sacked A. D. 1109. It was made the seat of the Spanish court in 1516. Tlhe
Escurial was built in 1557, et seq. The old palace was burnt down in 1734.
The French took possession of this city in March 1808, after the royal family
hsad retired into France; and on May 2, the citizens rose up in arms to
The writings of this celebrated politician countenanced (another commentator says) " the doing
of any act to compass or bring about those things which are neither honorable nor just, whereby
ambitious sovereigns or evil ministers may accomplish what their extravagant desires protrpt
them to, at the expense of their subjects' peace, or their country's safety."-Ferguson.
MitG'| DICTIONARY OF DATES. 409
expel them, when a dreadlfll conflict and carnage tookl place. Joseph Bonaparte entered Madrid as king of Spain, July 20, 1808; but soon retired.
Retaken by the French Dec. 2, same year; and retained till Aug. 12, 1812,
when. Madrid was entered by the British army. Ferdinand VII. was restored
May 14, 1814. Madrid was the scene of various occurrences during the
late civil war, for which see Spai'.
iVfAESTRICHT. This city revolted from Spain 1570, and was taken by the
prince of Parima in 1579. In 1632, the prince of Orange reduced it after a
memorable siege, and it was confirmed to the Dutch in 1648. Lewis XIV.
took it in 1673; William prince of Orange invested it in vain, in 1676; but,
in 1678, it was restored to the Dutch. In 1748, it was besieged by the French,
who were permitted to take possession of the city on condition of its being
restored at the peace then negotiating. At the commencement of 1793, Maestricht was unsuccessfully attacked by the French, but they became masters
of it toward the end of the following year. In 1814, it was delivered up to the
allied forces.
MAGDALENS AND MAGDALENETTES. Communities of nuns and women
the latter class consisting chiefly of penitent courtesans. The convent of
Naples was endowed by queen Sancha A. D. 1324. That at Metz was instituted in 1452. At Paris, 1492. The Magdalen at Rome was endowed by
pope Leo X., in 1515; and Clement VIII. settled a revenue on the nuns, and
further ordained that the effects of all public prostitutes who died without
will should fall to them, and that those who made wills should not have
their bequests sanctioned by the law unless they bequeathed a part of their
effects to the Magdalen institution, which part was to be at least one-fifth,
1594. The Magdalen hospital, London, was founded in 1758, principally
under the direction of Dr. Dodd. In New-York a similar institution called
"a Home for the friendless," was founded, 1846.
MAGELLAN, STRAITS osf. They were passed by Ferdinand Magellan (Fernando de Magelhae'ns) a Portuguese, with a fleet of discovery fitted out by
the emperor Charles V., in 1519. The first voyage round the world was
undertaken by this illustrious navigator; and his vessel performed the enterprise although the commander perished. The Spaniards had a fort here,
since called cape Famine, because the garrison had all perished for want
of food.
MAGI, oR WORSHIPPERS OF FIRE. The prime object of the adoration of
the Persians was the invisible and incomprehensible God, whom, not knowing, they worshipped as the principle of all good, and they paid particular
homage to fire, as the emblem of his power and purity. They built no altars
nor temples, as they deemed it absurd to pretend to confine an omnipresent
God within walls; accordingly their sacred fires blazed in the open air, and
their offerings were made upon the earth. The Magi were their priests, and
their skill in astronomy rendered the secrets of nature familiar to them, so
that the term Magi was at length applied to all learned men, till they were
finally confounded with the magicians. Zoroaster, king of Bactria, was the
reformer of the sect of the Magi: he flourished 1080 B. c.-Du Pivresoey.
MAGIC LANTERN. This was the invention of the illustrious Roger Bacon,
England's great philosopher, about A. D. 1260. Bacon first invented the convex magnifying glasses in 1252; and he afterwards, in his many experimenlts,
applied them to this use.
MAGNA CHARTA. The great charter of English liberty may be said to have
been derived from Edward the Confessor, continued by Henry I. and his
successors, Stephen, Henry II., and John. But the Charter more particularly
meant, was a body of laws, the great charter of our rights granted by John,
18
410 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ M-iJ
and signed at Runnymede, near Windsor, June 15, 1215. The barons took
arms to enforce this sacred possession, which was many times confirmed,
and as fiequently violated, by Henry III. This last king's grand chart-r
was granted in the 9th year of his reign, 1224, and was assured by Edward
I. It is remarked, that when Henry III. granted it, he swore on the word
and faith of a king, a Christian, and a knight, to observe it. For this grant
a fifteenth of all moveable goods were given to the king, whether they were
temporals or spirituals; yet sir Edward Coke says that even in his days -it
had been confirmed above thirty times.
MAGNET. Sturmius, in his Epistola, dated at Altorf, 1682, observes that the
attractive quality of the magnet has been taken notice of from time immemorial; but, that it was our countryman, Roger Bacon, of Ilchester,!n
Somersetshire (he died the 17th June, 1294), who first discovered its property of pointing to the north pole. The Italians discovered that it could
communicate its virtue to steel or iron. The variation not being always the
same was taken notice of by Hevelius, Petil, and others. Flavio Gioja, of
Naples, invented or improved the mariner's compass, in 1302. The important discovery of the inclination or dip of the magnetic needle was made
about 1576 (published 1580) by Robert Norman, of London. Dr. Gilbert's
experiment was made in 1600. Artificial magnets were invented, or rather
improved, in 1751. A magnetic clock, invented by Dr. Locke, of Ohio, &anounced at Washington, Jan. 5, 1849.
MAHOMETISM. See Alcora'n and Ko'ran. The creed of Mahomet was promulgated A. D. 604, by Mahomet, styled by some writers as a renowned
general and politician; and by others as a successful impostor and tyrant.
Mahomet asserted that the Koran was revealed to him by the angel Gabriel
during a period of twenty-three years. It was written in the Koreish Arabic, which he asserted was the language of Paradise, and it is considered
as possessing every fine quality of a language. It has 1000 terms for sword,
500 for lion, 200 for serpent, and 80 for honey. It is spoken and written iil
various parts of Asia and Africa. Mahomet died in 631, of the effects, it is
said, of a slow poison, given to him in a piece of mutton three years before,
by a Jew, who took this method to discover if he was a true prophet, and
immortal, as he had declared himself to be. —Pideaz x.
MAIL-COACHES IN ENGLAND. Were first set up at Bristol in 1784; and
were extended to other routes in 1785, at the end of which year they became general in England. This plan for the conveyance of letters was the
invention of Mr. Palmer of Bath; the mails had been previously conveyed
by carts with a single horse, or by boys on horseback.
MAINE, cue of the United States; first permanent settlement in, at Bi'stol.
The district was granted in 1635 to sir Ferdinand Gorges, who appointed a
governor and council. It was purchased of the heirs of Gorges in 1652 by
the State of Massachusetts, for $5,334; annexed to Massachusetts, under
charter from William & Mary, in 1691: became a separate State in 1820.
Population in 1790 was 96,540; in 1810, 228,705; in 1840, 501,793.
MAJESTY. Among the Romans, the emperor and imperial family were addressed by this title, which was previously given to their great officers of
state. Popes also had the title of majesty. The emperors of Germany
took the title, and endeavored to keep it and the closed crown to themselves.
It was first given to Louis XI. of France, in 1461.- Voltaire. Upon Charles
V. being chosen emperor of Germany in 1519, the kings of Spain took the
style of Majesty. Francis I. of France, at the interview with Henry VIII. of
England on the Field of the Cloth of Gold, addressed the latter as Your
Majesty, 1520.-See Field of the ClotA of Gold. James I. coupled this title
with the term " Sacred," and " Most Excellent Majsty." See Titles.
M[AN ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 411
MAJORCA AND MINORCA. For occurrences relating to these islands, see
/Yii or ca.
MALPLAQUET, BATTLE Or. The allies under the duke of Marlborough and
prince Eugene, against the arms of France commanded by marshal Villars.
The armies consisted on each side of nearly 120.000 choice soldiers, and the
victory was with the allies; but this action was attended with great slaughter on both sides, the allies losing 18.000 men, which loss was but ill repaid
by the capture of Mons; fought Sept. 11, 1709.
MALTA, KNIGHTS OP. A military-religious order, called also Hospitallers of
St. John of Jerusalem, Knights of St. John, and Knights of Rhodes. Some
merchants of Melphis, trading to the Levant, obtained leave of the caliph
of Egypt to build a house for those who came on pilgrimage to Jerusalem,
and whom they received with zeal and charity, A. D. 1048. They afterwards
founded a hospital for the sick, from whence they were called Hospitallers.
This foundation was laid in A. D. 1104, in the reign of Baldwin, and they
now became a military order in 1118, into which many persons of quality
entered, and changed their name into knights. After the Christians had
lost their interest in the East, and Jerusalem was taken, the knights retired
to Margett, and then to Acre, which they defended valiantly in 1290; then
they followed John, king of Cyprus, who gave them Limisson in his domninions, xwhere they staid till 1310, and that same year they took Rhodes,
under the grand master Foulques de Vallaret, and next year defended it
under the duke of Savoy, against an army of Saracens; since when, his
successors have used F. E. R. T. for their device, that is, FortituLdo ejus
Rlodtms teaeit, or, he kept Rhodes by his valor; from this they were called
knights of Rhodes; but Rhodes being taken by Solyman in 1522, they retired into Candia, thence into Sicily. Pope Adrian VI. granted them the
city of Viterbo for their retreat; and in 1530, the emperor Charles V. gave
themu the isle of Malta. The emperor Paul of Russia declared himself
grand-master of the order in June, 1799.
MALTA. The memorable siege by the Turks, who were obliged to abandon
the enterprise after the loss of 30,000 men, 1566. The island was taken by
-general Bonaparte in the outset of his expedition to Egypt, June 12, 1798.
He found in it 1200 cannons, 200,000 lbs. of powder, two ships of the line,
a frigate, four galleys, and 40.000 muskets: besides an immense treasure
collected by superstition; and 4500 Turkish prisoners, whom he set at liberty. Malta was blockaded by the British from the autumn of 1798, and
was taken by major-general Pigot, Sept. 5, 1800; but, at the peace of
Amiiens, it was stipulated that it should be testored to the knights. The
British, however, retained possession, and the war recommenced between
the two nations: but by the treaty of Paris, in 1814, the island was guaranteed to Great Britain.
MAMELUKES. The name of a dynasty which reigned a considerable time in
Egypt. They were originally Turkish and Circassian slaves, and were established by the sultan Saladin as a kind of body-guard, A. D. 1246. They
advanced one of their own corps to the throne, and continued to do so until
Egypt became a Turkish province in 1517, when the beys took them into
pay, and filled up their ranks with renegades fiom various countries. On
the conquest of Egypt by Bonaparte, in 1798, they retreated into Nubia.
Assisted by the Arnauts, who were introduced into the country in the war,
the Mamelukes once more wrested Egypt from the Turkish government
In 1811 they were decoyed into the power of the Turkish pacha, and slain
MANNHEIM. First built in A. D. 1606; and became the court residence in.1719; but the extinction of the palatinate family in 1777 causeal the re
412 THE WORLD2S PROGRESS. [ MAR
moval of the court to Munich. Battle of Mannheim, between the armies
of the allies and the French, fought May 30, 1793. Mannheim surrendered
to the French, under command of general Pichegru, Sept. 20, 1795. On tile
25th of the same month, the Austrians under general Wurmser, defeated the French near the city. Several battles were fought with various success in the neighborhood during the late wars. Kotzebue, the
popular dramatist, was assassinated at Mannheim, by a student of Wurtzburg, named Sandt, April 2, 1819.
MANICHEANS. An ancient sect, founded by Manes, which began to infest
the East, about A. D. 277. It spread into Egypt, Arabia, and Africa, and
Particularly into Persia. A rich widow, whose servant Manes had been,
left him a store of wealth, after which he assumed the title of apostle, or
envoy of Jesus Christ, and announced that he was the paraclete or comforter that Christ had promised to send. He maintained two principles, the
one good, and the other bad; the first he called light, which did nothing
but good, and the second he called darkness, which did nothing but evil.
Several other sects sprung from the Manicheans. Manes was put to deatlby Sapor, king of Persia, in 290. His offence against this prince was, hik
having dismissed the physicians of the court, pretending he could cure one
of the royal family by his prayers, instead of which the patient died in his
arms.-Nlouv. Dict. Hist.
MANILLA. Capital of the Philippine Isfes; a great mart of Spanish commerce. 3000 persons perished here by an earthquake in 1645. Manilla was
taken by the English in 1757; and again in Oct. 1762, by storm. The captors humanely suffered the archbishop to ransom it for about a million serling; but great part of the ransom never was paid. Since the establishment of a free trade in the Spanish colonies, which took place in 1783, thc
usual Acapulco ships and other government traders have been discontinued;
and the commerce to the Manillas and other parts, is carried on in private
bottoms by free companies of merchants.-Butler.
MANTINEA, BATTLE OF, between Epaminondas, at the head of the Thebans,
and the combined forces of Lacedaemon, Achaia, Elis, Athens, and Arcadia.
The Theban general was killed in the engagement, and from that time
Thebes lost its power and consequence among the Grecian states, 363 B. c.
-Strabo.
MANTUA. Virgil was born at a village near this city. Mantua surrendered
to the French, Jan 7, 1797, after a siege of eight months; and it was attacked by the Austrian and Russian army, July 30, 1799, to which it,urrendered after a short siege. In 1800, after the battle of Marengo, the
French again obtained possession of it; but they delivered it up to the
Austrians in 1814.
MAPS AND CHARTS. They were invented by Anaximander, the Milesia,.
philosopher, a disciple of Thales, and the earliest philosophical astronomer
on record, 5"0 B. c. He was also the first who constructed spheres. A ce-,
lestial chart was, it is said, constructed in China, in the sixth century.FTreiet. And sea-charts were first brought to England, by Bartholomew
Columbus, to illustrate his brother's theory respecting a western continent:
A. D. 1489. The earliest map of England was drawn by George Lily in 1520,
Mercator's chart, in which the world was taken as a plane, was invented ir
1556. A map of the moon's surface was first drawn at Dantzic, in 16417
See Clha.rts.
MARATHON, BATTLE OF. One of the most extraordinary in ancient history
The Greeks were only 10,000 strong, and the Persians amounted to 500,006
The former were commanded by Miltiades, Aristides, and Themnistocles
who defeated the Persians, leaving 200,000 dead upon the field. Among the
MAR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 413
number of the slain was Hippias, the instigator of the war; the remainder
of the Persian army were forced to re-embark for Asia, Sept. 28, 490 B. c.
MAR:BLE. Dipmnus and Scyllis, statuaries of Crete, were the first artists who
sculptured marble, and polished their works; all statues previously to their
time being of wood, 568 a. c. —Piy. Marbile afterwards came into use for
statues, and the colimuns and ornaments of fine buildings. and the edifices
and monuments of Rome, were constructed of, or ornamented with, fine
marble. The ruins of Palmyra prove that its magnificent structures, which
were chiefly of white marble, were far more extensive and splendid than
those of even Rome itself: These latter were discovered by some English
travellers from Aleppo, A. D. 1678. See Palsy'ra..11ARCH. This was the first month of the year, until Numa added January
and February, 713 B. c. Romulus, who divided the year into months. gave
to this month the name of his supposed father Mars; though Ovid observes,
that the people of Italy had the month of March before the time of Romuinus, but that they placed it very differently in the calendar. The year formerly commenced oni the 25th day of this month. See -Year.
IVIARENGO, BATTLE OF. In this ever-memorable engagement the French army
was commanded by Bonaparte, against the Austrians, and after prodigies
of valor, his army was retreating, when the timely arrival of general Dessaix
(who was afterwards mortally wounded in this battle) turned the fortunes
of the day. The slaughter on both sides was dreadful: the Austrians lost
6000 in killed, 12,000 in prisoners, and 45 pieces of cannon; and though the
French boasted that the loss on their side did not much exceed 3000 men,
it was afterwards known to be vastly more, June 14, 1800. By a treaty between the Austrian general Melas and the conqueror, Bonaparte, signed on
the next day, twelve of the strongest fortresses in Italy were put into possession of the latter: and he became, in fact, the master of Italy.
MARESCHAL, on MARSHAL. In France, marshals were the ancient esquires
of the king; and by their first institution they had the command of the vanguard, to observe the enemy, and to choose proper places for its encampment. Till the time of Francis I., in A. D. 1515, there were but two French
marshals, who had 500 livres per anuzc??, in war, but no stipend in time of
peace. The rank afterwards became of the highest military importance,
the number was without limit, and the comlmand supreme. During the empire of Napoleon, the marslhals of France filled the world with their renown.
See Farsialsfl, Fild.
MIARIGNAN, BATTLE OP, near Milan, in Italy, one of the most furious engagements of modern times. In this sanguinary conflict, which happened between the heroic Swiss and the French under Francis the First, upwards of
twenty thousand men were slain; the former, after losing.all their bravest
troops, were compelled to retire, September 13, 1515.
-M.TARINER'S COMPASS. The Chinese ascribe the invention of the compass to
their emperor Hong-Ti, who they say was a grandson of' Noah; and some of
their historians refer the invention of it to a later date, 1115 a. C. See Coi7tftss. The honor of its discovery, though much disputed, is generally given
to Flavio de Gioja: or Giovia. a native of Amalfi, an ancient commercial city
of Naples, A. D. 1302. The variation of the needle was first discovered by
Columbus in his voyages of discovery, 1492; and it was observed in London
in 1580. The dipping-needle finis invented by Robert Norman, a compassmaker of Ratcifie, in that year.
MARQUE, LE'rTERs oF. Instruments authorizing the subjects of one prince to
make reprisals upon, and capture the ships, property, and subjects of another
prince or country. Some such instruments are said to have been first used
414 T'rE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ nAAR
by the Venetian government. The first letters of marque granted in England were in the reign of Edward I., against the Portuguese, A. D. 1295.Rymer's FPaderca.
MARQUESS. This dignity, called by the Saxons Markin-Reve, and by the
Gerlmans Maarkgrave, took its original from Mark or March, which, in the
language of the northern nations, is a limit or bound, and their office was
to guard or govern the frontiers of a province. It has the next place of
honor to a dukce, and was introduced several years after that title had been
established, in England. The first on whom it was conferred, was the great
favorite of king Richard II., Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford, who was created
marquess of Dublin, and by him placed in parliament between the dukes and
earls, A. D. 1385. Alexander Stewart, second son of James III. of Scotland,
was made marquess of that kingdom, as marquess of Ormond, in 1480.
MARRIAGE. The first institution of this union between man and woman for
life, with certain ceremonies of a binding and solemn nature, is ascribed to
Cecrops, king of Athens, 1554 B. c. —EKssebiUs Pref. to C/oan. The preval!ing ceremony in most countries was that of' a man leading home his bricd,
after a solemn contract with her friends. To render this contract the mor
sacred,. it was made the work of the priest, instead of being that of a civil
magistrate adopted by several civilized nations. The celebration of n:a rriage in churches was ordained by pope Innocent III., about A. nD. 1199.
Marriage was forbidden in Lent, A. D. 364. It was forbidden to bishops in
692, and to priests in 1015; and these latter were obliged to take the vow
of celibacy in 1073. Marriages were solemnized by justices of the peace
under an act of the Conmmlons in Oliver Cromwell's administration, 1653.; A
tax was laid on marriages, viz.: on the marriage of a duke 501., of a common person 2s. 6d.., the 8th of William III., 1695. Marriages were agair
taxed in 1784.
MARRIAGES BY SALE. Amlong the Babylonians at a certain time every year,
the marriageable fetmales were assembled, and disposed of to the best bidder, by the public crier. The richest citizens purchased such us pleased
them at a high price; and the money thus obtainecld was used to portion off
those females to wllom nature had been less liberal of personal charniu
When the beauties wiere disposed of, the crier put up the more ordinary lot
beginning with the most ill-ftavored among those that remained, announcin
a premium to the purchaser of each: the bidders were to name a sum belo.
the given premium. at which they would be wmilling to take the maid; and
he who bid lowest was declared the purchaser. By these means every female
was provided for. This custom originated with Atossa, daughter of Belochus, about 1433 B. c.
MARSEILLES. Is supposed to have been founded by the Phoceans. about
600 B. c.-U[Liv. tITst. Cicero styled it the Athens of Gaul. It was take
by Julius Cmsar after a long and terrible siege; and it was sacked bx? th,
Saracens, A. D. 473. Marseilles became a republic in 1214. It was subjected
to the counts of Provence in 1251; ancd was again united to the crown ol
France in 1482. In 1649 the plague raged with great violence in Marseilles.
and with still greater in 1720, when it carried off 50,000 of the inhabitants.
MARSHALS, FIELD, in the British army. The rank is of modern date. anc
was preceded by that of captain-general, and that also of commnalandcl-inchief. The duke of Marlborough was captain-general, 1702. The first mil.
itary chiefs bearinga the ralnky of m-arshal were those of France. Georoe T
first conferred the rank npon John, dukre of Argyler and George, earl of'Ork
ney in 1736. See M/arvesclhal.
MARSTON MOOR, BATTLE Oei. This battle was the beginning of the misfor
tunes and disgrace of the unfortunate Charles I. of England. The Scots an(
MAR ] nDICTIONARY OF DATES. 415
parliamentarian army had joined, and were besieging York, when prince Rupert, joined by the marquis of Newcastle, deterimined to raise the siege.
Both sides drew up on Marston Moor, to the number of fifty thousand, and
the victory seemed long undecided between them. Rupert, who commanded the right wing of the royalists, was opposed by Oliver Cromwell, who
now first came into notice, at the head of a body of troops whom he had
taken care to levy and discipline. Cromwell was victorious; he pushed his
opponents off the field, followed the vanquished, returned to a second engagement and a second victory. The prince's whole train of artillery was
taken, and the royalists never afterwards recovered the blow; fought July
3, 1644.
MARTINIQUE. This and the adjacent isles of St. Lucia and St. Vincent, and
the Grenadines, were taken by the British fiom the French in February
1762. They were restored to France at the peace of the following year.
They were again taken March 16, 1794; were restored at the peace of
Amiens in 1802; and were again captured February 23, 1809. A revolution
took place in this island in favor of Napoleon, but it was finally suppressed
by the British, June 1, 1815; and Martinique reverted to its French masters
at the late general peace, 1815.
Ii.ARTYRS. The Christian Church, Catholic and Protestant, has abounded in
martyrs, and history is filled with accounts of their wonderful constancy to
their faith. The festivals of the martyrs are, many of them, of very ancient
date, and took their rise about the time of Polycarp, who suffered martyrdom A. nD. 168. England has had its Christian martyrs; and the accounts of
those who suffered for their adherence to the Protestant religion would fill
volumes. The following documents in connection with the fate of' Cranier,
Latimer, and Ridley, are of melancholy interest. They are taken from a' Bool of the Joint Diet, Dintner, acned Stlpper, and the charge thereof, or Cbranmzer, Lcatimeer, cand Ridlesy," kept by the bailiffs of Oxford, while they were
in the custody of those officers, previously to their being burnt alive:IST. OCTOBER, 1554.-DINNER. Item, a post - - - ~0 1 4
Bread and ale - ~0 0 2 Item, 2 chains - 0 3 4
Oysters- 0 01 Item, 2 staples - - 0 0 6
Butter - 0 0 2 Item, laborers - 0 2 8
Eggs -0 0 2
Lyn. 0 0 8 1 5 8
A piece of fresh Salmton - 0 0 10 [They were burnt on October the 16th, 1555.]
Wine - - 0 0 3
Cheese and pears - 0 0 2 CEARGE Fon THE BURNING OF THE BODY
OF CRANMER.
The three dinners - - 0 2 6 For 100 of wood faggots for the fire 0 6 0
For 100 and-J of furze 0 3 4
TO BURN LATIMER AND RIDLEY. For the carriage of them 0 0 8
For 3 load of wood fagrots to burn For two laborers - - - 0 2 8
Latimer and Ridley - - 0 12 0
Item, I load of furze faggots - 0 3 4 ~0 12 8
Item, for the carriage of these 4 lHe was burnt on March the 21st, in 1556.1
loads - - 0 2 6
MARTYRS, ERA oF. This is also called the era of Diocletian, and was used
by the writers of ecclesiastical history until the Christian era was introduced
in the sixth century; and it still continued to be the era of some nations,
particularly the Abyssinians and Copts. It commences from the day upon
which Diocletian was proclaimed emperor, August 29, A. D. 284; and the
persecutions of the Christians in his reign caused it to be so called.
MIARYLAND. one of the middle United States, was originally included in the patent of Virginia, granted under charter to Calvert, lord Baltimore, in 1632;
namled in honor of Henrietta Maria, queen of Charles I.; first colony were
Catholics who settled at St. Mary's, on the Potomac, 1634; free toleration
of all religions and creeds granted by lord Baltimore; Constitution settled
416 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ MAS
in 1650, and again in 1776; the State bore an active part in the revolution
adopted the Federal Constitution April 28j 1788, by 63 to 12. Population
in 1790 was 319,728; in 1810, 380,546; in 1840, 469,232, including 89,4885
slaves. Maryland resumed the payment of interest on her debt, -Iarch,
1847.
MASKS. Poppsea, the wife of Nero, is said to have invented the mask to
guard her complexion from the sun. But theatrical masks were in use
among the Greeks and Romans. Horace attributes them to zEschylus; yet
Aristotle says the real inventor and time of their introduction were unknown. Modern masks and muffs, fans, and false hair for the women, were
devised by the harlots of Italy, and brought to England from France in
1572.-Stowe's Chron.
MASQUERADES. They were in fashion in the court of Edward III. 1340;
and in the reign of Charles, 1660, masquerades were frequent among the
citizens. The bishops preached against them, and made such representations as occasioned their suppression, 9 George I. 1723. [No less than six
masquerades were subscribed for in a month at this time.] They Jwere revived, and carried to shameful excess by connivance of the government,
and in direct violation of the laws, and tickets of admission to a masquerade at Ranelagh were on some occasions subscribed for at twelnty-five
guineas each, 1776.-Mortimer.
MASS. In the Romish church, mass is the office or prayers used at the celebration of the eucharist, and is in general believed to be a representation of
the passion of our Saviour. Hence every part of the service is supposed to
allude to the particular circumstances of his passion and death. The general division of masses consists in high and low: the first is that sung by
the choristers, and celebrated with the assistance of a deacon and subdeacon; low masses are those in which the prayers are barely rehearsed
without singing. Mass was first celebrated in Latin, about A. D. 394. Its
celebration was first introduced into England in the seventh century. Prostration was enjoined at the elevation of the host in 1201.
MASSACHUSETTS, one of the United States. First settled at Plymouth by a
colony of English Puritans from Holland, who landed Dec. 22, 1620. This
was called the Plymouth colony. The Massachusetts colony at Salem and
Charlestown, in 1628, and Boston, 1630. These colonies united in 1692.
The American revolution originated here, at Boston and vicinity, and this
State bore an important and honorable part in the contest. See Boston,
Bunlker Hill, Lexington, qc. Present State Constitution formed in 1780;
revised and altered in 1820; slavery abolished in 1783; Shay's rebellion in
this State in 1786; Federal Constitution adopted Feb. 6, 1788, by 187
against 168. Population in 1721, 94,000; in 1790, 388,727; in 1810, 472,040;
in 1820, 523,287; in 1840, 737,699.
MASSACRES.. Ancient and modern history abound with events which class
under this head; and perhaps the most frightful and unprovoked enormities
of this kind have been perpetrated by opposing Christian sects, one upon
another, in vindication of the Christian religion! The following are among
the most remarkable massacres recorded by various authors:BEFORE CHRIST.. A dreadful slaughter of the Teutones and
Of all the Carthagenians in Sicily, which ArAmbrones, near Aix, by Marius, the Rotook place 397 B. c. man general, 200,000 being left dead on
2000 Tyrians crucified, and 8000 put to the the spot, 102, B. c.
sword for not surrendering Tyre to Alex- The Romans, throughout Asia, women and
ander, 331 B. c. children not excepted, r.ruelly massacred
The Jews of Antioch fall upon the other in- in one day, by order of Mithridates, king
habitants, and massacre 100,000 of them, of Pontus, 88 B. c.
for refusing to surrender their arms to De- A great number of Roman senators massamnetrius Nicanor, tyrant of Syria, 154 B. c. cred by Cinna, Marius, and Sertorius.
iAS ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 417
IASSACRES, coniltueed.
Many patricians dispatch themselves to Medicis, his mother. It is styled in his.
avoid their horrid butcheries, 31i 5. C. tory, the Massacre of St. Bartholomew.
Again, under Sylla, and Cadiline, his minis- Of the Christians in Croatia, by the Turks,
ter of vengeance, 82 and 79 B. c. when 65,000 were slain, A. D. 1592.
At Prteneste, Octavianus Caesar ordered 300 Of Protestants, at Thorn, put to death under
Romana senators and other persons of dis- a pretended legal sentence of the chanceltinction, to be sacrificed to the manes of lor of Poland, flr being concerned in a
Julius Casar, 41 B. c. tumult occasioned by a Roman Catholic
procession, A. D. 1724. All the Protestant
AFTER CHRIST. powers in Europe interceded to have this
At the destruction of Jerusalem, 1,100),000 of unjust sentence revoked, but unavailingly.
Jews were put to the sword, A. D. 70. At Batavia, 12,000 Chinese were massacred
The Jews, -headed by one Andrte, put to by the natives, October 1740, under the
death 100,000 Greeks and Romans, in and pretext of an intended irsurrection.
near Cyrene, A. D. 115. At the taking of Ismrnael i y the Russians,
Cassius, a Roman general under the empe- 30,000 old and young were slain, Decemror M. Aurelius, put to death 400,000 of er, 1790.-See Ismscel.
the ilnhabitants of Seleucia, A. D. 167. In St. Domingo, where Dessalines made
At Alexandria, many thousands of citizens proclamlation fobr the massacre,f' all the
are massacred, by an order of Antoninus, whites. March 29, 1804, and many thouA. D. 213. sands perished.
The emperor Probus put to death 700,000 Insurrection at Madrid, and massacre of the
of the inhabitants upon his reduction of French, May 2, 1808.
Gaul, A. D. 277. Massacre of the Mamelukles, in the citadel
Of eighty Christian fathers, by order of the of Cairo, March 1, 1811.
emperor Gratian, at Nicomedia; they Massacre at Nismes, perpetrated by the
were put into a ship which was set on Catholics, May 1815.
fire, and then driven out to sea, A. D. 370. Massacre of vast numbers of the inhabitants
Of Thessalonica, when 7000 persons, invited of Cadiz, by the soldiery, whose ferocious
into the circus, were put to the sword, by disorders continue for some days, March
order of Theodosius, A. D. 390. 6, 1820.
Belisarius put to death above 30,000 citizens
of Constantinople for a revolt, to which MASSACRES IN BRITISH HISTORY.
they were impelled by the tyranny and exactions of two rapacious ministers set over Of 300 English nobles on Salisbury Plain,
them, A. D. 552. IMay 1, A. D. 474.
Massacre of the Latins at Constantinople, by Of the monlts of Bangor, to the number of
order of Andronicus, A. D. 1184. 1200, by Ethelfirid, king of NorthumberOf the Albigenses and Waldenses, com- land, A. D. 580.
menced of Toulouse, A. D. 1209. Tens of Of the Danes in the southern counties of
thousands perished by means of the England, in the nighit of Novemnber 13.
sword and gibbet. 1002, and the 23d Ethllelred II. At London
The Sicilians mlassacre the French tlrough- it was most bloody, the churches being nt
out the whole island of Sicily, without sanctuary. AmongsttherestwasGunir id,
distinction of sex or age, on Easter-day, sister of Sweinl kingo of Denllmark, left in
the first bell for vespers being the signal. hostage for the perlbrmance of a treaty but
This horrid afftir is known in history by newly concluded.-Bcaker's C(hroenicle.
the name of the Sicilian vespers, A. D. Of the Jews in England. Some few press1282. —Dt Fi-esnzoy. in into Westninstter Htal at Richard I.'s
A general massacre of the Jews at Verdun., coronation, were put to death by the peoby the peasants, who, firom a pretended pie; and a Ialse alarm beiing given that
prophecy, conceived the Holy I and was the king had ordered a general massacre
to be recovered from the infidels by them. of them, the people in many parts of E og500 of these Jews took shelter in a castle, land, from an aversion to them, slew all
and defended themselves to the last ex- they met. In York. 500, who had taken
tremity, when, for want of weapons, they shelter in the castle, killed themselves,
threw their children at the enemy, and rather than fall into the hands of the multhen killed each other, A. D. 1317. titude, A. D. 1189.
At Paris, of several thousand persons, at the Of the Bristol colonists, at Cullen's Wood,
instance of John, duke of Burgundy, A. D. Ireland (see Ctullen's Wood), A. D. 1209.
1418. Of the English factory at Atmboyna, in order
Of the Swedish nobility, at a feast, by order to dispossess its members of the Spice Isof Christian II., A. D. 1520. lands, A. D. 1623.
Of 1'70,000 Huguenots, or French Protestants Massacre of the Protestants in Ireland, in
throughout the kingdotl of France, attend- O'Neill's rebellion, Oct. 23, 16i41. Uped with circumstances of the most horrid wards of 30,000 British were killed in the
treachery and cruelty. It began at Paris, commencement of this rebellion. —Sir
in the night of the festival of St. Bartholo- Williamn Petty. In the first two or three
mew, Aug 21, 1572, by secret orders from days of it, forty or fifty thousand of the
Charles IX., king of France, at the insti- Protestants were destroyed.-Lord Clargation of the queen dowager, Catherine de endon. Before the rebellion was entirely
18*
418 ATHE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [MAk'
MASSACRES, contilu~eca.
suppressed, 154,000 Protestants wei'e mas- death by pikles, perpetrated by the insursacred. —,ir W. IbslJle. gent Irish, at the barn of Scullabogue, IreOf the unoffending Macdonalds of Glencoe, land, in 1798.-Sir Richard Mlhusgrave.
May 9, 1691. —See Glencoe. Massacre of 64 American prisoners at DartOf 184 men, women, and children, chiefly moor, England, (disowned by British GovProtestants, burnt, shot, or pierced to ernment.) April 6, 1815.
MASTER oF THE CEREMONIES. An officer in several of the principal
courts of Europe. Following the usage in other countries, a master of
the ceremonies was instituted in England for the more honorable reception
of the ambassadors and persons of quality at court, 1 James I. 1603.Baker.
MASTER IN CHANCERY. Owing to the extreme ignorance of Sir Christopher Hatton, lord Chancellor of England, the first reference in, cause was
made to a master, A. D. 1588; and the masters have been since chosen from
among the most learned equity members of the bar.
MASTER OF THE ROLLS IN ENGLAND. An equity judge, so called from
his having the custody of all charters, patents, commissions, deeds, and
recognizances, which being made into rolls of parchment, gave occasion for
that name.
MATHEMATICS. With the ancients they meant all sorts of learning anc,
discipline; but even then, as now, in a more particular manner, mathematics were restrained to those arts that more immediately related to numbers and quantity. They were first taught to the Jews, and by them to tht,
Egyptians, so early as 1950 B. c.-Josep/ILus de ASLtiq. JLed.
MATINS. The service or prayers first performed in the morning or beginning
of the day in the Catholic church. Emphatically, the Frestcl Mlat ins imply the massacre of St. Bartholomew, August 24, 1572. The Matins of
Moscow, the massacre of prince Demnetrius, and all the Poles his adherents
at six o'clock in the morning of May 27, 1600.
MAURITIUS. The Isle of France was discovered by the Portuguese, A, D,
1500; but the Dutch were the first settlers in 1598. They called it after
prince Maurice, their stadtholder, but on their acquisition of the Cape of
Good Hope they deserted it; and it continued unsettled until the Frencl
landed, and gave it the name of one of the finest provinces in France. This
island was taken by the British in 1810, and confirmed to them by the treaty
of Paris in 1814.
MAUSOLEUMIA. Artemisia, sister and wife of Mausolus, married her own bra —
ther, famous for his personal beauty. She was so fond of her husband, that
at his death she drank in her liquor his ashes after his body had been burned,
and erected to his memory a monument, which, for its grandeur and magnificence, was called one of the seven wonders of the world. This monument she called Macusolesrn,, a name which has been given to all monuments
of unusual splendor. She invited all the literary men of her age, and proposed rewards to him who composed the best elegiac panegyric upon her
husband. The prize was adjudged to Theopomnpus, 357 B. c.
MAY. The fifth month of the year, and the confine of spring and sumrmeg,
received its name, say some, from Romulus, who gave it this appellation in
respect to the senators and nobles of' his city, who were denominated majores; though others supposed it was so called from Maia, the mother of
Mercury, to whom they offered sacrifices on the first day of it. Numa
Pompilius, by adding January and February to the year, made this month
the fifth, wich before was the third, 713 E. c.
MAY-DAY. The ancient Romans used to go in procession to the grotto of
Egeria on May-day. May-day has also been immemorially observed in
MEC J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 419
England as a rural festival; and high poles, denominated May-poles, are in
many places profusely decorated with garlands wreathed in honor of the
day. The late benevolent Mrs. Montague gave, for many years, on Mayday, an entertainment at her house in Portman-square, to that unfortunate
class the chimney-sweepers of London. They were regaled with the good
English fare of roast-beef and plum-pudding, and a dance succeeded.
Upon their departure, each guest received the donation of a shilling from
the mistress of the feast.
MAYNOOTH COLLEGE, IRELAND. Founded by act of parliament, and endowed by a yearly grant voted for its support, and the education of students who are designed for the priesthood of the Roman Catholic church
in Ireland, 35 Geo. III., 1795. It contains 500 students. Permanent endowment of this college, at the instance of government, to which 30,0001. for
the enlargement of the buildings, and 26,0001. annually, were granted by
parliament, June, 1845. This endowment occasioned much excitement and
controversy in England.
MAYOR. The office of mayor arose out of the immunities granted to free
cities by the emperors, and in some towns they had considerable power.
Mayor of the palace was a high office in France. In this quality Charles
Martel ruled with despotic sway, A. D. D735, et seq., under the last kzings of
the Merovingian dynasty; his father had previously held this office, and
had it made hereditary in his family. Mayors are the chief magistrates of
corporate towns, before whose institution in England, towns were generally
governed by portreeves. The office of mayor may be properly said to date
from the reign of Richard I.
MEASURES AND WEIGHTS. They were invented by Phidion of Argos, 869
B. c. —Ayq'nd. Marbles. They became general in most countries soon afterwards; and were very early known in England. Standards of weights and
measures were provided for the whole kingdom by the sheriffs of London,
8 Richard I., A. D. 1197. Standards were again fixed in England, 1257.
They were equalized for the United Kingdom in 1825.
MECCA. This city is famous as being the birthplace of Mahomet, A. D. 571.
The temple is a gorgeous structure, much visited by pilgrims. On one
of the neighboring hills is a cave, where it is pretended Mahomet usually
retired to perform his devotions; and where the greatest part of the Koran
was brought to him by the angel Gabriel, A. D. 604. Two miles from
the town is the hill where they say Abraham went to offer up Isaac,
1871 B. c.
MECHANICS. The time when the simple mechanical powers were first introduced is so uncertain, and perhaps so little known, that they have been
ascribed to the Grecian and other deities of the heathen mythology —for
instance, the axe, the wedge, wimble, &c., are said to be the invention of
Dtedalus. We know nothing of the machinery by which the immense
masses of stone which are found in some of the ancient edifices were moved
and elevated.
The first writing on mechanics, was by The water-mill was probably invented
Aristotle, about - - B.. 320 in Asia; the first that was described
The Statera Romana invented - - * ~ was near one of the dwellings of
The fundamental property of the lever Mithridates - B-. C. 70
and other instruments was demon- A water-mill is said to have been erectstrated by Archimedes - - 205 ed on the river Tiber, at Rome - 50
The hand-mill, or quern, was very early Floating mills on the Tiber - A. D. 536
in use; the Romans found one in Tide-mills were, many of them, in use
Yorkshire - - - * in Venice about - - - 1078
Cattle mills, mnole j'umentaric, were Wind-mills were in very general use in
also in use by the Romans, and in the twelfth century - -.
parts of Europe * *
420 THE WORLDI'S PROGRESS. [ ME
MECHANICS, coztti~ued.
Saw-mills are said to have been in use Application of mechanics to astronomy,
at Augsburg - - A. D. 1332 parallelogism of forces, laws of mnoTheory of the inclined plane investi- tion, &c., Newton - - -1679
gated by Cardan, about - i540 Problem of the catenary with the anaWork on statics, by Stevinus - 1586 lysis, Dr. Gregory - - 1697
Theory of falling bodies, Galileo - 1638 Spirit level (and many other invenTheory of oscillation, Huygens - 1647 tions), by Dr. Hookle, fiom 1660 to - 1702
Laws of collision, W'allis, Wren - 1662 The Mechanics' Institute in London was
Epicycloidal form of the teeth of wheels, formed in - - - - 1823
Roemer - -1675 Mechanics' Institute in New York
Percussion and animal mechanics, Bo- formed - - 1833.relli; he died - - - 1679
Mechanics' institutions are now very numerous in the United States and in
England.
MEDIA. In ancient times Media was a province of the Assyrian empire. It
revolted from Arbaces 820 B. c., and afterwards became an independent
kingdom, and conquered Persia; but Cyrus having vanquished Darius the
Mede, 536 B. c., Media was from that time united to the Persian empire,
and shared its fate.-Blair; Priestley.
Revolt of the Medes-Blair - B. c. 820 Cyrus made kIing of Persia - B. c. 559
The country was subjected to the As- Astyages deposed by Cyrus - - 550
syrians.-Ide - - 766 Crcesus king of Lydia defeated, and his
Phraortes reigns; he conquers Persia, throne seized by Cyrus - - 545
Armenia, and other countries - 647 Cyrus takes Babylon; puts Belshazzar
Battle of Rages; the Assyrians defeat to death; and makes Astyages (or
the Medes.-Blair - - 625 Darius, the Mede) viceroy - 538
War with the Lydians; the hostile ar- By the death of' Astyages, Cyrus bemies meet; but an eclipse of the sun comes master of all Persia; and this
so alarms themn, they conclude peace era is properly the commencement
without striking a blow - 585 of the Persian enmpire.-Lenglet - 357
The reign of Astyages.-Blair - - 585
The Medes were a brave people, but they degenerated, and introduced luxury into Persia. They admitted polygamy, and a man was deemed infamous
who had less than seven wives, as was also a womlan who could not boast
of at least five husbands.-Aspire.
MEDICAL LITERATURE IN THE UNITED STATES. The Medical Repository, commenced at New York, 1797, was the first work of the kind. It
was conducted by Dr. S. L. Mitchill.
MEDICINE. The art of preparing simples was brought into Europe from the
East, about A. D. 1150.. In the early stages of the practice, the preparation
was principally confined to ecclesiastics in Europe generally, until the close of
the fifteenth century, or the beginning of the sixteenth. The practice of medicine is now one of the highest sciences, and in most countries is in the
hands of the most learned and distinguished mnen; and various statutes
have been enacted to discourage pretenders to the healing art.
MEDINA, IN ARABIA DESERTA, famous for the tomb'of Mahomet, contained
in a large mosque, closed with rich curtains and lighted by a vast number
of rich lamps. Medina was called the City of the Prophet, because here
Mahomet was protected when he fled firom Mecca, July 16, A. nD. 622. This
flight gave rise to the remarkable epocha in chronology called the tregir'a,
a word that, in Arabic, denotes, to flee, or qusit osce's cosentry or friends.
MEMORY. That faculty of the mind or soul whereby past things are represented to us as if they were present.-Pardon. Simonides, grandson of
Simonides the elder, of Cos, poet and historian, obtained a prize at Olympia,
for teaching artificial memory, of which he was the inventor, 477 B. c.Arsesedeliax2 MIarblcs. The science of mlnemonics was mnade known in Germany in 1807. See Mreleeonics.
MENDICANT FRIARS. The term was applied to several orders of religions
tLE S 1 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 421
who commenced their alms-begging in the thirteenth century, in the pontificate of Innocent III. Thley were confined by a general council, held by
Gregory X. at Lyons, in 1272, to the following four orders-Dominicans,
Franciscans, Carmelites, andc Augustines. The Capuchins and other orders
subsequently branched from them.
MENSURATION. The art of measuring geometrical superficies and solids is
of very early date. The various properties of conic sections were discovered by Archimedes, to whoin the chief advancement in mensuration
may be attributed. He also determined the ratio of spheres, spheroids, &c.,
about 218 B. c..MIERCATOR'S CHARTS. The true inventor of these charts is said to have
been a Mr. Wright, who made several voyages; and in his absence Mercator published the charts in his own name, 1556. —Pacrdo. They are, however, now confidently ascribed to Mercator's own ingenuity. In these
charts the meridians and parallels of latitude cut each other at right angles, and are both represented by straight lines, enlarging the degrees of
latitude as they recede from the equator.
MERCHANT-from neeccans. Tlhe name given to high commercial citizens who
trade abroad. The merchants of London and Amsterdam were accounted
the most enterprising and richest in the world. An attempt was made by
queen Anne's ministry to exclude merchants from sitting in the House of
Commons, in 1711; but it failed. The Merchant Adventurer's society (see
Advenltgiers. lUe'chea)wt) was established by the duke of Brabant, in 1296; it
extended to England in Edward III.'s reign; and was formed into an English corporation in 1564.-Haydn.
MERCURY. This substance was known to the ancients, and has been found
in vast qantities in various countries. The mines in Carniola in Germany
are the most productive in Europe, and have yielded in some years 1200
tons; they were discovered by accident in 1497. The anti-venereal virtues
of mercury were found by James Carpus, an Italian surgeon, A. D. 1512.Noev. Dict. The compound termed calomel was first mentioned by Crollius early in the seventeenth century; the first directions for its preparation
were given by Beguin, 1608. It was given to patients under inoculation
for the small-pox in 1745. Pallas congealed mercury by artificial cold in
1762. Its malleable qualities were discovered by M. Orbelin, of Vienna, 1,85.
MERRY ANDREW. The name was first given to a droll and eccentric physician, whose name was Andrew Borde, who lived in the reign of Henry
VIII., and who, on some occasions, on account of his facetious manners and
good humor, appeared at court, 1547. He used to attend markets and fairs,
and harangue the people, by whom he was called Merry Andrew. The
name is now given to a buffoon, a. zany, or jack-pudding.-L'Est'ra7ge.
Johlinson.
MESSALIANS. A sect whose religious error consisted in adhering to the letter
of the gospel, interpreting the words to justify and excuse their worst propensities and vices. Amongst other absurdities they refused to work, quoting
this passage, "Labor not for the food that perisheth;" about A. D. 310.Bacs'onis, Anznl.
MESSENIA, rPow Masl'rac-Mat'aa, a country of the Peloponnesus. This kingdom
was commenced by Policaon, 1499 B. c. It is celebrated for its long and sanguinary wars against Sparta (see next article), and once contained a hundred
cities, most of' whose names even are now unknown. Messenia joined the
Achman league 216 B. c.
MESSENIAN WARS, The celebrated wars between Lacedemon and Messenia.
The first began 743. c., and was occasioned by violence having been offered
422 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
to some Spartanl women who had assembled in a temple of devotion commoT
to both nations; the king of Sparta being killed in his efforts to defend th,
females. This drceadful war raged for nineteen years, and at one period mad.,
so great a carnage, that the Spartan army sent orders home for all the nnmarried wonzen to prostitute themselves to recruit the population. In the
end Ithome was taken, and the }M.[essenians became slaves to the conquerors.
The second war was commenced 685 a. c,. to throw off the galling Spartan
yoke, and lasted fourteen years, ending in the defeat of the IMessenians who
fled to Sicily. The thki'd took place 465 B. c., it endured ten years, when
the whole nation abandoned the Peloponnesus.
MESSINA, IN SICILY. So named by the -Messinese, who seized this city, then
called Zancle, 671 B. c. It belonged for many ages to the Roman empire,
but fell to the Saracens A. D. 829.-Priest/ley. In the eleventh century Roger
the Norman took it by surprise, and delivered it from the Mahometan oppression. Great Messinian conspiracy, 1282. The memorable revolt took
place 1672. Almost ruined by an earthquake 1693; and nearly depopulated
by a plague in 1743. In 1780 Messina suffered much by an earthquake; and
in Feb. and March, 1783, was half destroyed by the same calamity; since.
which it has been handsomely rebuilt.
METALLURGY. In the fourth chapter of Genesis, Tubal Cain is mentione-T.
as "an instructor of every artificer in brass and iron." The seven metals
are mentioned by Moses and Homer. Virgil mentions the melting of steel
in furnaces. The Phoenicians had an extraordinary skill in working metals.
METAPHYSICS. This term, literally denoting "after physics," originated
with Aristotle. What may be denoted the modern metaphysics, cannot be
traced farther back than the fifteenth century-the period when an extraordinary imp)ulse was given in Europe to the human mind, and commonly
called the revival of learning.
METEMPSYCHOSIS. A doctrine supposing the transmigration of the soul from
one body to another. The first belief in it is ascribed to the Egyptians, who
would eat no animal food, lest they shoulcd devour the body into which
the soul of a deceased fiiend had passed. They had also an idea, that so
long as the body of the deceased was kept entire, the soul would not transmigrate; which accounts for the extraordinary pains they were at in embalming the dead; a doctrine of Pythagoras,.528 B. c.
METHODISTS. A large and increasing body of religionists, whose tenets, di,
cipline, and designs, are often misunderstood, and of course misrepresented.
"Our end," says Mr. Benson, in his Apology, " is not to form a sect, or to
bring people to this or the other speculative opinion, mode of worship, or
form of church-government, but simply to make them Christians-Christians
in heart and life, in temper, word, and work-such as lived in the early days
of Christianity, and such as we conceive may still live."' The methodists
may be said to have appeared f'ormally, if not originally at Oxford A. D.
1729; the reverend John Wesley being the first who there introduced methodism. John and Charles Wesley, and Mr. Whitfield, commenced the,'.
career by teaching in 1734. The term appears to have been brought forward
in the days of Puritanism, being suggested by the Latin appellative.Methtodistee, given to a college of physicians in ancient Rome, in consequence o:
the strict regimen under which they placed their patients. The methodist
missions were commenced and superintended by Mr. Wesley and Dr. Coke
in 1769, when two missionaries were sent out to North America. But these
missions were not reduced to a system, nor were societies regularly organized for their support, until- 1817.
.ID ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 423: ~-XICO. Discovered in A. D. 1518. It was conquered by the Spaniards under
Cortes, whose name is infamous on account of his cruelties to the vanquished,
A. D. 1521. The mint of Mexico, the richest in the world, was begun in
1535. This country, like other states in the new world, has recovered its independence. Iturbide made emperor, May, 1822. Mexican constitution
proclaimed by the president Vittoria, Oct. 1823. Iturbide shot July 19,
1824. Treaty of commerce with Great Britain ratified, April 1825. Titles
suppressed, May 1826. The expulsion of the Spaniards decreed, March,
1829. Spanish expedition against Mexico surrendered, Sept. 26, same year.
Mexican revolution; the president Guerrero deposed Dec. 23, same year.
The independence of Mexico, previously recognized by the great European
powers, also recognized by the emperor of Brazil, June 1830. Civil war
between Bustamente and Santa Anna, 1832. Santa Anna elected president,
March 1834. Declaration of war against France, Nov. 30, 1838. Castle of
San Juan de Ulloa taken by the French, Nov. 27, 1838. This war terminated,
March 9, 1839. Civil war with change of leaders at various times. Santa
Anna displaced Bustamente again, Oct. 6, 1841. Insurrection of general Paredes against Santa Anna, Nov. 5, 1844, succeeds without bloodshed, and
Herrera made president, Dec., 1844. Paredes overturns Herrera, Dec. 1845.
War with the United States, 1846: Mexicans defeated at Palo Alto,
May 8, 1846; and subsequently at Matamoras. Santa Fe captured, Aug. 23,
and Monterey, Sept. 24, 1846. Mexican congress authorized their government to raise $15;000,000 for the war against the United States, upon the
mortgage or sale of church property, Jan. 8, 1847. Battle of Buena Vista,
Feb. 22, 1847. Vera Cruz surrendered to general Scott, March 29, 1847.
Battle of Cerro Gordo, April 18. General Paredes landed at Vera Cruz in
disguise, Aug. 14, 1847. Battles of Contreras and Churubusco, Aug. 20,
1847; of Chepultepec, Sept. 12. Surrender of city of Mexico to American
general Scott, Sept. 14, 1847. Treaty of peace with the United States, ratified at Queretaro, May 30, 1848. Paredes excites a revolt at Guanaxuato,
June 15. Mexico evacuated by the American troops, June 12. Herrera be"5omes president, July 6. Bustamente defeats Paredes, July 18. Vera Cruz
surrendered by the United States, Aug. 1. See War? of the United States and
Mexzico. Signor de la Rosa first Mexican minister to the United States after
the war, presented his credentials, Dec. 2, 1848.
MEZZOTINTO. A peculiar manner of engraving representing figures on copper, received its name from its resemblance to painting. The invention of it
is generally ascribed to prince Rupert, A. D. 1648; but baron Heinikin states
that colonel de Siegen engraved a large and admirable print of Amelia Elizabeth of Hesse in mezzotinto in 1643. See Eng-ra'ving.
MICHIGAN, one of the United States, first settled by the French at Detroit
in 1647. Many of the Hurons, a native tribe in this region, were converted
to the Catholic faith by the Jesuits. The territorry ceded to England by
the peace of 1763; made a separate territory of the United States, in 1805;
admitted into the Union as a State in 1836. During the war of 1812-13 the
territory was gained for a time by the British, but it was recovered by general Harrison. Population in 1810, was 4,528; in 1820, 9,048; in 1830, 31,639;
in 1840, 212,267.
MICROSCOPES. Invented nearly at the same time in Italy and Holland, A. D,
1621. Those with double glasses were made at the period when the law of refraction was discovered, about 1624. The honor of this invention is awarded
to Drebel and Torricelli. Solar microscopes were invented by Dr. Hooke. In
England, great improvements were made in the microscope by Henry Baker,
F. R. S.. who wrote two treatises upon it, about 1763.-BiBog. Diet.
)WIFERY. Women were the only practitioners of this art among the He
424 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ MII,brews and Egyptians. Hippocrates, who practised medicine in Greece, 46b
B. C.. is styled by some the father of midwifery, as well as of phyvsic.* It advanced under Celsus. who flourished A. D. 37, and of Galen, who lived A. a.
131. In England midwifery became a science about the period of the institution of the College of Physicians, 1'0 Henry VII., 1518. The 6elebrated
Dr. Harvey personally engaged in the practice of it, about 1603; and after
his example the calling in of men in all difficult cases followed. Astruc
affirms that the epoch of the employment of men-midwives goes no farthel
back than the first lying-in of MVladame de la Vallibre, mistress of Louis XIV.,
1663. She sent for Julian Clement, an eminent surgeon, who was conducted
with great secrecy to the house. The same surgeon was employed in the
subsequent labors of this lady, and he being very successful, men-midwive.t
after came into repute, the name of accoucheur being given to them.
MILAN. The capital of this celebrated dukedom. the ancient Liguria, is reputed to have been built by the Gauls about 408 B. c. It submitted to the
Romans 222 B. c.; was formed into a republic A. D. 1221; and lastly was
governed by dukes from A. D. 1395, until 1505, when it was conquered by
Louis XII. John Galeazzo was the first who took the title of duke of Milan,
about 1390. The French were expelled Liom. Milan, by Charles V. of Germany, about 1525; and this emperor gave it to his son, Philip II. Milan
was given to Austria, upon Naples and Sicily being ceded to Spain, 1748.
Seized by the French, June 30, 1796. Retaken by the Austrians in 1799;
but regained by the French May 31, the next year. This city was made the
capital of the late kingdom of Italy, and Napoleon Bonaparte was crowned
with the Iron crown at Milan, May 26, 1805. The celebrated Milan decree
of Napoleon against all Continental intercourse with England, declaring
England in a state of blockade, was issued from this city, Dec. 17, 1807.
Put under military occupation in consequence of disturbances, Sept. 8, 1847.
Collision of the Milanese with the Austrian soldiers, Jan. 1, 1848; followed
by conciliations. Martial law proclaimed in Lombardy, Feb. 1848; the govw
ernment threatens the people with the fate of the Poles. The people revolted and expelled the Austrians, and Charles Albert of Sardinia entered'
Milan in the popular cause, March 23, 1848. A vote taken in Lombardy on
proposed union with Piedlmont:-561,002 in favor of it; 681 for postponing
it till the end of the war, June 9, 1848. Vicenza surrenders to the A.ustri:
ans under Radetsky, June 10. The duke of Genoa repulses the Austrians
at Rivoli, July 1. Milan capitulates to the Austrians, Aug. 4, 1848.
MILITARY oRa MARTIAL LAW. This is a law built on no settled principle,
but entirely arbitrary, and in truth, no law; but sometimes indulged, rathei'
than allowed, as law.-Si' Mlltthewv Hale. Martial law was several times
proclaimed in Great Britain during rebellions. It was almost general throughout Ireland in 1798. The last proclamation of martial law was in that country, July 26, 1803.,. Paris was under martial law for several weeks after the
insurrection of June, 1848.
MILITIA. The standing national militia of Great Britain is traced by most
historians to king Alfred, who, by his prudent discipline, made all his subjects soldiers, A. D. 872 to 901. The feudal military tenures became involvedl
in this force. The first commission of array to raise a militia in England
was in 1422. In the United States the laws relating to the militia and the
Agnodice, an Athenian virgin, disguised her sex to learn medicine. She was taught by Hiero.
pholus, her father, the art of Midwifery, and when employed, always discovered her sex to b,
patients. This broughtt her into so much practice, that the males of her profession, who were n
out of employment, accused her, before the Areopagus, of corruption. She confessed her sex to
judges, and a law was made to empower all free-born women to learn midwifery.-Ifyg.fa. f27
1N ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 425
appointment of officers are different in the different States. See Encyclopedia Americana. The aggregate militia force of the United States, as reported in 1848, was 1,888 538, but as the returns in some instances were
for former years, the number probably reached, in 1850, at least to
2,100,000. As the regular army has always been small (in time of peace
about 8000) the republic has relied chiefly on the militia in time of war.
MILKY WAY. Ancient poets and philosophers speak of the galaxy as the
road by which heroes went to heaven. The Greeks supposed that Juno accidentally gave suck to Mercury when an infant, or to the infant Hercules,
who, while she slept, was laid by her side; but perceiving who he was, she
threw him from her, and the heavens were thus marked by the wasted milk.
Democritus was the first who taught that the via lactea was occasioned by a
confused multitude of stars, about 428 B. c.
MILLENNIUM. This doctrine supposed that the world would end at the expiration of the seven thousandth year from the creation; and that during
the last thousand years Christ and the saints would reign upon earth. It
was generally inculcated as early as the second and third centuries. It was
propagated by Papias, Justin-Martyr, and many others. The Millennium
was grounded upon a doubtful text in the Apocalypse, to the effect that our
blessed Saviour should reign with the faithful tipon earth after the resurrection, before the final completion of beatitude.-BurTe et.
MILLINER. Defined by Shakspeare and Johnson as a seller of ribands and
dresses for women, a very ancient occupation; the term is supposed to be
derived from Milan. There are men-milliners in England, and the adoption
of such a trade by the msale sex has been strongly and justly censured. In
1810, men-milliners and other classes of an epicene character were very
strongly censured in the Society of Arts. Young females are employed at
all seasons, and in all weathers, to carry bandboxes through the streets, exposed to the insolence of libertines, and the perils of vicious example, while
the perfumed coxcomb [" He was perfumed like a milliner."-Shackspeare.]
measures ribands safely at home, or folds gauzes, and lisps the while in lady
phrases to females of distinction.s-Butler.
MILLS. The earliest instrument for grinding manna and corn, was the mortar.
Moses forbade them to be taken in pawn, because that, he says, would be
like taking a man's life to pledge. The hand-mill was in use among the
Britons previously to the conquest by the Romans. The Romans introduced
the water-mill. See article Mechanics.
5UINES. Those of Great Britain are very numergus, rich, and of various kinds.
Strabo and Tacitus enumerate gold and silver as among the products of England. The earliest instance of' a claim to a mine royal being enforced,
occurs 47 Henry III., 1262.-fRi ding. It related to mines containing gold,
together with copper, in Devonshire. In the United States, iron, coal, lime,
and salt exist in great abundance, in various States: lead mines in Missouri are very productive. Gold mines have been found in Virginia, North
Carolina, and Georgia, but their supply is but moderate. See Coal, Copper, Tin, Gold,,4c.
MINNESOTA. A territory of the United States lying between 400 30' north
lat., and between 910 10' and 102~ west long., inhabited chiefly by the Sioux
Indians. First explored by the French; began to be settled by emigrants
from the United States about 1845-6.
I look upon a tnan-milliner not only as one of the most unworthy members of society, but as
of the most injurious. When I hear one of these perlsons harailuingl upon the merits of muslin,
e becoming color of a riband, anger will mingle itself with the feeling of contempt; for the
oyment that degrades this man might have preserved a woman from prostitution.-Dr.
YII./
426 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [MIS
MINORCA. This island and Majorca were called by the Greeks, Balearidc
Minorca was captured by lieutenant-general Stanhope and sir John Leake i,
August 1708, and was confirmed to the British by the treaty of Utrecht in
1713. It was retaken by the Spanish and French in June 1756. Admiral
Byng fell a victim to the exasperation of the public mind, and to the safety
of ministers, for not relieving it with a force greatly inferior to that of the
enemy. See Byng. It was restored to the British at the peace in 1763,
Besieged by the Spaniards, and taken, Feb. 5, 1782. It was again captured
by the British, without the loss of a man, Nov. 15, 1798; but was given up
at the peace of 1802.
MINSTRELS. They were originally pipers appointed by lords of manors tc.
divert their copyholders while at work. They owed their origin to the gleemen or harpers of the Saxons, and continued till about A. D. 1560. John of
Gaunt erected a court of minstrels at Tutbury in 1380. So late as the reign
of Henry VIII. they intruded without ceremony into all companies, even at
the houses of the nobility. In Elizabeth's reign they had, however, sunk
into neglect.
MINT of THE UNITED STATES established at Philadelphia, 1792. Branch at
New Orleans, 1838; at Charlotte, N. C., 1837; at Dahlonega, 1838. See Coining.
MIRRORS, In ancient times mirrors were made of metal; and from a passage
in the Mosaic writings we learn that the mirrors used by the Jewish women
were made of brass. Mirrors in silver were introduced by Praxiteles, 328
B. C. See Lookinog Glasses.
MISS. In the seventeenth century, the epithet Miss applied to females was
considered a term of reproach. Miss Cross who is particularly noticed in
Hayne's epilogue to Farquhar's Love in? a Bottle, about 1782, was the first
actress announced as Miss.- Galt's Lives of the Players.
MISSIONS. Among the Romanists, the religious orders of St. Dominick, St.
Francis, St. Augustin, &c., had missions to the Levant and to America.
The Jesuits had missions to China (whtic/h see), and to most other parts of
the world. Among the Protestants, an early undertaking of this kind was
a Danish mission, planned by Frederick IV., in 1706. But the Moraviarn
Brethren may be said to have led the way to the new Christian missions,
about 1732. The London Missionary Society held their first meeting, Nov.
4, 1794; and it has since been the parent of many benevolent institutions.
The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, formed 1810;
first mission at Bombay, 1813; at Ceylon, 1816; to Choctaws, 1817; Chcrokees, 1820. The Board has an annual income from voluntary contributions of about $200,000. The statistics of its operations in various parts
of the world are given in its annual reports. The contributions of this
Board and its missionaries to the fund of geographical and ethnographical
science, to say nothing of religion and civilization, have been very important.
The missions of the Baptists, Episcopalians, Methodists, &c., are also numerous. American Baptist Board of Missions, founded 1814. Board of
Missions of General Assembly (Presbyterian), 1818. Methodist Missionary Society, 1819. American Home Missionary Society, 1826. See Beneve-.
lent Societies.
MISSISSIPPI, one of the United States. First settled by the French at Natchez, and claimed as part of Louisiana, 1716. Colony destroyed by the
Indians. The country ceded to Great Britain by the peace of 1753. Palt
of it belonged to Georgia, and the southern part to Florida. The territory,
together with Alabama, constituted the " Mississippi Territory" until 1817,
when it was admitted into the Union as a State. Population in 1816, 45,929;
in 1830, 136,806; in 1840, 375,651, including 195,211 slaves.
VIOG ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 427
MISSOURI, one of the United States. WVas included with Louisiana in the
purchase from the French in 1803. Town of St. Louis settled by the French
in 1764, but was little more than a trading post until 1804, when the territorial government was formed. Missouri admitted into the Union as a State
in 1821, after a long debate on slavery, ending in the Missouri Compromise,
which prohibits slavery north and west of Arkansas, but tolerates it in Missouri. Population in 1810, 19,833; in 1830, 140,074; in 1840, 383,702, including 58,240 slaves.
MISSISSIPPI TRADE. This trade was begun in November, 1716. The celebrated Mississippi scheme or bubble in France, which was commenced
about that period, exploded in 1720; at which time, the nominal capital is
said to have amounted to 100,000,0001. See Law's Bubble.
MITHRIDATE. A physical preparation in the form of an electuary, supposed
to he tho oldest compound known to us at the present day. It was invented
by Mitlhridated II. the king of Pontuoa about 70,. c,. t eteya formerly'thought to be a great antidote against poison; but though it is now out
of date for that purpose, it is still used as an opiate, and is one of the
capital medicines of our shops.
MITHRIDATIC WAR. Caused by the massacre of 100,000 Romans, 86 B. c.
and remarkable for its duration, its many battles, the devastation of human
life it occasioned, and the cruelties of its commanders. Mithridates having
taken'the consul Aquilius, made him ride on an ass through a great part of
Asia, crying out as he rode, " I am Aquilius, consul of the Romans." He
ultimately dispatched him, by ordering melted gold to be poured down his
throat, which was done in derision of his avarice, 85 B. c.-Lessglet.
MITRE., The cleft cap or mitre is of very ancient use, having been worn by
the high-priest among the Jews. Among the primitive Christians, young
women who professed a state of virginity, and solemnly consecrated thereto,
wore a purple or golden mitre. The pope has four mitres, which according
to the solemnity to be performed, or festival day it is worn on, is more or less
magnificent. Anciently the cardinals wore mitres, but at the council of
Lyons, in 1245, they were appointed to wear hats, which remains to this day.
MNEMONICS. Artificial memory had its professors in the ancient world.
The art of assisting memolry, by getting by heart, was introduced by Simonides the younger, 477 a. c.-Ars'eLd. Marbles. In modern times, mnemonics
have been elaborately treated; and the Memorica TeclhAn,ica of Dr. Grey is an
esteemed work on the subject. The science of mnemonics, as we now have
it, was announced in Germany, in 1806-7; but it had been previously noticed in the London monthly periodicals.
MODENA. Erected into a duchy in 1451. The duke was expelled by the
French, 1796. By the treaty of Campo Formnio, the Modenese possessions
were incorporated with the Cisalpine republic, 1797. The archduke Frnhcis of Este was restored in 1814. Insurrection here, Feb. 5, 1831. The
archduke escaped; but the Austrian troops soon afterwards entered and
restored the deposed authorities. The people revolt and imprison the duke,
March 20, 1848. The troops of Tuscany occupy Modena, March 24; Provisional government appointed, April 9, 1848.
MOGULS. They deduce their origin from Japhet, son of Noah. His son,
Turk, they say, was the first king or khan of those nations afterwards
known as Turks, Tartars, and Moguls. The first conqueror of the Mogul
empire was Jenghis Khan, a Tartarian prince, who died A. D. 1236. Timour
Beg became Great Mogul by conquest, 1399. Khouli Khan, the famous
sophi of Persia, considerably diminished the power of the moguls, carried
away immense treasures from Delhi, and since that event many of the
nabobs have made themselves independent. See Incldia.
428 THM WORLD7S PROGRESS. L MOa
MONARCHY. The most ancientwas that of the Assyrians, founded soon
after the Deluge. See Assyria. Historians reckon four grand, or almost
universal monarchies,-the Assyrian, Persian, Grecian, and Roman. Set
tlicne respectively.
MONASTERIES. The first founded was, according to somre authorities, il A.
D. 270; and according to others, in A. D. 305. The suppression of monastic
houses has been frequent, even in Catholic countries; and many religious
communities have bowed to the variable notions of mankind regarding religion, and to the altered state of the world. Constantine IV., among
other persecutors, eommanded a vast number of friars and nuns to appear
at Ephesus: he there ordered them to change their black habits for white,
and to destroy their images. They explained that this, on account of the
vows they had taken, was impossible; whereupon he directed that their
eyes should be put out, and that they should be banished, forfeiting their
various monasteries, which he sold for the uses of the state. When St.
Austin arrived in England A. D. 596, Ethelbert of Kent gave him an idol
temple without the walls of his capital, as a burial-place for hiim and his
successors, which was converted into the first monastery. Various monastic
houses were suppressed in England in various reigns; and a vast number in
1515. But the general dissolution took place in the reign of Henry VIII.
1534-9. The abbey lands were afterwards granted to numerous courtiers,
whose descendants enjoy them to this day.
MONEY. It is mentioned as a medium of commerce in the 23d chapter of Genesis, when Abraham purchased a field as a sepulchre for Sarah, in the year
of the world 2139. In profane history, the coinage of money is ascribed to
the Lydians. Moneta was the name given to their silver by the Romans, it
having been coined in the temple of Juno-Moneta, 269 B. c. Money was
made of different ores, and even of leather and other articles, both in ancient and modern times. It was made of pasteboard by the Hollanders so
late as 1574. Silver has increased more than thirty times its value since
the Norman conquest, viz. a pound in that age was three times the quantity
that it is at present, and twelve times its value in purchasing any commodity. See articles, Coin; Gold; Silver; Copper'; Mlint, c4c.
MONK. The first is said to have been Paul of Thebais, who fled into the deserts to avoid the Decian persecution about A. D. 250. St. Anthony is supposed by other authorities to have been the first example of a regular
monastic life, A. D. 305, soon after which time monks began to associate.
St. Athanasius introduced the monastic life into Rome in 341. See Abbeys.
MONMOUTH'S REBELLION. James, duke of Monmouth, a natural son
of Charles II. was banished England for a conspiracy in 1683. He invaded
England at Lyme, June 11, 1685. He was proclaimed king at Taunton on
the 20th of the same month. Was defeated at Bridgewater, July 5; and
was beheaded on Tower-hill, July 15, 1685. The county of Monmouth,
from which he was named, was made an English county by Henry VIII.
about 1535.
MNONOPOLIES. Commercial monopolies reached to such a height in England,
that parliament petitioned against them, and they were in consequence
mostly abolished about the close of Elizabeth's reign, 1602. They were
further suppressed, as being contrary to law, 19 James I., 1622; and were,
totally abolished, and it was decreed that none should be in future created,
as was previously the custom, by royal patent, 16 Charles I., 1640.-And-er
son's History of Commerce.
MONTANISTS. A sect founded by Montanus, of Ardaba, in Mysia, an extra.
MIORt ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 429
ordinary enthusiast, about A. D. 171. He was reputed to have the gift of
prophecy, and proclaimed himself the comforter promised by Christ, condelmned second marriages as fornication, permitted the dissolution of mar.
riage, forbade to avoid martyrdom,, and ordered a severe fast of three
lents; he hanged himself with Maximilla, one of his women-scholars, before the close of the second century.-Cave's Hist. Lit.
MIiONTREAL. Surrendered to the English by the French in 1760. It was
taken by the Provincials in the American war of Independence, November
12, 1775, and was retaken by the British, June 15, 1776. The church, Jesuits' college, prison, and many buildings burnt down, June 6, 1803. Great
military affray, Sept. 29, 1833. Riot about the " Rebellion Losses " Act;
the parliament house burnt by the mob, 1849.
MOON. The full moon was held favorable for any undertaking by the Spartans, and the Greeks generally looked upon full moons, or the times of
conjunction of the sun or moon, as seasons most favorable to marriage.
Opacity of the moon, and true causes of lunar eclipses, was taught by
Thales, 640 B. c. Posidonius accounted for the tides from the motion of the
moon, 79 B. c.-Diog. Lae~t. A map of the moon was first taken at Dantzic, A. D. 1647. The strength of moon-light at the full moon is 90,000 times
less than the light of the sun.-Dr. Seitl/. It is 300,000 times less.Boeg-eter.
MOORS. They first invaded Spain, A.D. 173.-UnLiv. Hist. The Saracens in
Spain beset by the Christians, called in the assistance of the Moors, who
seized the dominions they canme to protect, and subdued the Saracens, A. D.
1091. Alphonsus I. of Navarre, defeated them in many battles, 1118, et seq.
The Moors began the kingdom of Granada, being their last refuge firom the
power of the Christians, 1238. Alphonsus XI. of Leon and Castile, slew
200,000 Moors in one battle; three leagues round the country was covered
with the dead, 1327. The power of this people was overthrown by Ferdinand V., who conquiered Granada, 1492. Philip IIT. banished them to the
number of 900,000, confiscating their property, 1610.-Priestley.
MORAL PHILOSOPHY. The knowledge of our duty and felicity, the science
of ethics, or art of being virtuous and happy. Socrates is universally regarded as the father of moral philosophy, about 430 B. c. And Grotius is
esteemed by many writers as the father of moral philosophy in modern
times, about A. D. 1623.-Bate, $c.
MORAVIANS. UNITED BRETHREN. A sect which took its rise in Moravia, in,
it is said, the fifteenth century, which some doubt; while the Brethren say
that their sect is derived from the Greek church in the ninth century. They
appeared in England about 1737, introduced by count Zinzendorf, who died
at Chelsea, in June 1760. They settled at Bethlehem, Penn., 1741. In order
to the conversion of the heathen world, these persevering brethren formed
settlements also in Greenland, the Cape, East and West Indies, and
other climes. The Moravians led the way to the Scriptural missions now
so general.
M[ORGARTEN, BATTLE or, the most memorable, as well as extraordinary and
glorious in the annals of Switzerland; 1300 Swiss engaged 20,000 Austrians,
commanded by the duke Leopold, whom they completely defeated. They
seized upon the heights of Morgarten, which overlooked the defile through
which the enemy was to enter their territory fiom Zug, and thus achieved
their victory, Nov. 15, 1315.
NMORMONS. The pretended revelation of the Mormon Scriptures to "Joe
Smith " is said to have been made in the state of New York, about 1835.
Surrender of a body of 700 Mormons under arms, with their leaders, Joe
430 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. M[iV
Smith, Rigdon, &c., to the Missouri militia, under Gen. Atchinson, Oct. 28,
1838. Joe Smith and his brother murdered in jail by a mob, June 27, 1844.
The Mormon temple at Nauvooe Illinois, sold to the Icarians, or Socialists,
and the Mormons emigrated to Desseret and California, 1848-9.
MOROCCO. Anciently M1lauritania. From its early possession by the RomanDi
it underwent various revolutions. About A. D. 1116, Abdallah, a leader
of a sect of Mahometans, founded a dynasty which ended in the lass
sovereign's defeat in Spain. About this period, 1202, Fez and other provinces
shook off their dependence; but the descendants of' Mahomlet, about 1650,
subdued them, and formed the empire of Morocco. Hostilities with France
provoked by Abdel-Kader, the heroic and indomitable ameer of Algiers:
commence May, 1844; Tangier bombarded, Aug. 6, 1844; peace concluded,
and the French forces evacuate Mogador, Sept. 16. 1844. Abdel-Kader taken
prisoner by the French and carried to France, 1846.
MORTARS, A short gun with an extraordinary large bore, and close chamber.
used for throwing bombs, first made in England in 1543. The celebrated
mortar left by Soult in Spain, was fixed in St. James's park in August, 1816.
MOSCOW. One of the largest cities in Europe. It was founded in 1156; was
taken by Tamerlane 1382; and subsequently it fell into the hands of the
Tartars, whose last attack upon it was in 1571, when they set it on fire. This
city was entered by the French, Sept, 14, 1812, and the Russian governor,
Rostochin, ordered that it should be set on fire in five hundred places at
once. In this memorable conflagration, 11,840 houses were burnt to the
ground, besides palaces and churches. The French, thus deprived of quarters, evacuated Moscow Oct 19, and it was re-entered by the Russians Oct.
22, following. This city has been since rebuilt.
MOSIKWA, BATTLE'OP, between the French anld Russians. See Borodirno.
MOSS-TROOPERS. These were a desperate sort of plunderers, secreting
themselves in the mosses on the borders of Scotland, defiling women, and
perpetrating the most savage enormities, as well as minor mischiefs, extirpated A. D. 1609.
MOST CHRISTIAN KING. The title given to Louis XI. by pope Paul II.,
1469. It has been justly remarked, that never was the title or name of
Christian given to a prince more unworthily bestowed, or less deserved.
MOTTOES, ROYAL. Die, et mzom Droit was first used by Richard I., A. D. 1193.
The Bohemian crest, viz. three ostrich feathers, and the motto Ich dienz, I'1
serve," was adopted by Edward the Black Prince, at the battle of Cressy,
the king of Bohemia being slain in the battle, 1346. Toonci soit qsi mcal yj
peirse, was made the motto of the Garter, 1349-50. Je nzcainetielnds'ai, "I will
a;inlezaie," was adopted by William III., 1688. And S'empe' eodere was ordered by queen Anne to be used as her motto.
MOURNING Fon THE DEAD. The practice of the Israelites was, neither to
wash nor anoint themselves during the time of' mourning. The exhibition
of grief for a friend lasted for seven days; and upon extraordinary occasion,
it lasted a month. The Greeks and Romans also exhibited their grief for
the dead by many public abstinences. The ordinary color for mourning in
Europe is black; in China it is white; in Turkey, violet; in Ethiopia, brown;
and it was white in Spain, until A. D. 1498.-lterrer'a.
MUNSTER, TREATY OF, between France, the Emperor, and Sweden; Spain
continuing the war against the former kingdom. By this peace, the principle
of a balance of power in Europe was first recognized. Signed at Munster,
Oct. 24, 1648.
mUS J DICTIONAIPY OF DATES. 431
MURDER. The highest offence against the law of nature. A court of Ephetw
was established by Itmophoon for the trial of murder, 1179 B. c. The Persians did not punish the first offence. In England, during a period of the
Heptarchy, nmurder was punished by fines only. So late as Henry VIII.'s
time, the crime was compounded for in Wales. Murderers were allowed
benefit of clergy in 1503. Aggravated murder, or petit treason, may happen
in three ways; by a servant killing his master; a wife her husband; and
an ecclesiastical person his superior, statute 25 Edward III., 1350. The
enactments relating to this crime are very numerous, and its wilful commission has been excepted from mercy by our sovereigns in every instance
The act whereby the murderer should be executed on the day next but one
after his conviction, was repealed 7 William IV., July 1836. —Haydn.
MUIIJSEUM. Originally a quarter of the palace of Alexandria, like the Prytaneum of Athens, where learned men of extraordinary merit were maintained
by the public, because of their considerable services to the commonwealth.
The foundation of this establishment is attributed to Ptolemy Philadelphus,
who here placed his library, about 284 B. c. See B~ritish] nIusemsa, 4c.
MUTSIC. Lucretius ascribes its invention to the whistling of the winds in
hollow reeds. Franckinus to the various sounds produced by the hammers
of Tubal Cain. Cameleon Pontique and others to the singing of birds. And
Zarlino to the sound of water. It is, however, agreed that music was first
reduced to rules by Jubal, 1800 B. c. The flute, and harmony or concord in
music was invented by Hyagnis, 1506.-Aunm'd. Mfarbles, Vocal choruses of
men are first mentioned 556 i. c.-DI Fresnoy. Pythagoras maintained that
the motions of the twelve spheres must produce delightful sounds inaudible
to mortal ears, which he called " the music of the spheres." St. Cecilia, a
Roman lady, is said to have excelled so eminently in music, that an angel
was enticed from the celestial regions by the fascinating charms of her
melody: and this hyperbolical tradition has been deemed sufficient authority to make her the patroness of music and musicians. She died in the third
century.
MUSICAL NOTES. The first six are said to have been invented by Guido Aretin,
a Benedictine monk of Arezzo, A. D. 1025.-Blair. The notes at present
used were perfected in 1338. Counterpoint was brought to perfection by
Palestrina about 1515. Gaffurius of Lodi read lectures on musical composition in the sixteenth century, and they effected great improvement in the
science. The Italian style of composition was introduced into these countries
about 1616.
MUSICAL INSTITUTIONS, ENGLAND. The Ancient Academy of Music was instituted in 1710. It originated with numerous eminent performers and gentlemen to promote the study of vocal harmony. The Madrigal Society was
established in 1741, and other musical societies followed. The Royal Society
of Music arose from the principal nobility and gentry uniting to promote the
performance of operas composed by Handel, 1785. Royal Academy of Music established 1822.
MUSKETS. They were first used at the siege of Arras in 1414. The Spanish
historians state that Spain was the first power that armed the foot-soldier
with these weapons. They were used at the siege of Rhegen in 1521. Introduced generally into the English army, and bows and arrows laid aside,
12 Henry VIII. 1521.-Carlte. It was the duke of Alva who first brought the
musket into use in the Low countries, 1569.-Breanstonee.
MUSLIN. A fine cloth, made wholly of cotton. According to some, it is so
called as not being bare, but having a downy nap on its surface resembling
moss, which the French call mouesse. According to others, it was first brought
432 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ sxy'
from Mousol, in India, whence the name. Muslins were first worn in England in 1670.-Anlderson.,They were manufactured in great perfection in
England in 1778.
MUTE. A prisoner is said to stand mute when, being arraigned for treason or
felony, he either makes no answer, or answers foreign to the purpose. Anciently, a mute was taken back to prison, placed in a dark dungeon, naked;
on his back, on the bare ground, and a great weight of iron placed upun
his body; in this situation he was fed with three morsels of bad bread one
day, and three draughts of stagnant water the next, and so on alternately
until he died. For a very memorable instance of this punishment in A. D.
1605, see article Pressing to Death. By statute 12 George III. judgment is
awarded against mutes, in the same manner as if they were convicted or
confessed. A man refusing to plead was condemned and executed at the
Old Bailey on a charge of murder, 1778. Another on a charge of burglary,
at Wells, 1792. At Shrewsbury a man tried and convicted notwithstanding,
Aug. 21, 1801.-Phzllips.
MUTINY ON BOARD U. S. BRIG SOMERS, commander A. S. Mackenzie: midshipman Spencer and two seamen hung, Dec. 1. 1842.
MUTINY Os' THE BOUNTY, April 28, 1789. For particulars see Bouenty.
MYCALE, BATTLE OF, fought September 22, 479 B. c., between the Greeks and
Persians; being the identical day on which Mardonius was defeated and
slain at Platea. The Persians consisted of about 100,000 men, who had just
returned from an unsuccessful expedition of Xerxes in Greece. They were
completely defeated, some thousands of them slaughtered, their camp burrnt,
and the Greeks triumphantly embarked their troops and sailed bick to Samos with an immense booty.
MYCENZE. A division of the kingdom of the Argives. It stood about fifty
stadia from Argos, and flourished till the invasion of the Heraclidse. Perselus
removes from Argos to Mycence, and reigns, 1313 B. c. Mycenme destroyed
by the Argives, 568 B. c.
MYSTERIES. They originated in Egypt, the land of idolatry, and were an institution of the priesthood to extend their own influence; so that all maxims in morality, tenets in theology, and dogmas in philosophy, were wrapt
up in a veil of allegory and mystery. From the Egyptian mysteries of Isis
and Osiris sprung those of Bacchus and Ceres among the Greeks. The
Eleusinian mysteries were introduced at Athens by Eumolpus, 1356 B. c.
The laws were-1. To honor parents; 2. To honor the gods with the fruits
of the earth; 3. Not to treat brutes with cruelty. Cicero makes the civilization of mankind one of the beneficial effects of the Eleusinian mysteries.
They were abolished by the emperor Theodosius, A. D. 389.
MYTHOLOGY. Fable usurped the place of historical truth as soon as the
authentic tradition concerning the Creation had been lost or adulterated;
and persons who had rendered themselves renowned as kings or leaders in
this life, and whose achievements had dazzled the benighted understanding
of men living in a state of nature, were supposed to be more than mortal,
and therefore after death the multitude were easily taught to reverence thewith divine honors. The Egyptians and Babylonians, after for getting the in
visible and true God, worshipped positive objects, as the sun and moon; and
then transferred their adoration to the operations of nature and the passions
of their own minds. which they embodied under symbolical representations,
and ultimately worshipped the symbols themselves. Thoth is supposed to
have introduced mythology among the Egyptians, 1521 B. c.; and Cadmus,
the worship of the Egyptian and Phcenician deities, among the Greeks, 1493
B. c.
NAP ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 433
N.
NABONASSER, ERA or. This era received its name froom the celebrated prince
of Babylon, and began Feb. 26, 747 B. C. To find the Julian year on which
the year of Nabonasser begins, subtlract the year, if before Christ, from 747;
if after Christ, -add to it 748.
N1'AMES. Originally every person had but one name. Plato recommended it
to parents to give happy names to their children; and the Pythagoreans
taught that the minds, actions,, and successes of men were according to their
names, genius> and fate. The popes changed their names at their exaltation to the pontificate, " a custom introduced by pope Sergius, whose name
till then was Swine-snout, A. D. 687."-Platiqna. Onuphrius refers it to John
XII., 956; and gives as a reason, that it was done in imitation of Sts. Peter
and Paul, who were first called Simon and Saul. In France it was usual to
change the name given at baptism, as was done in the case of two sons of
Henry II. of France. They were christened Alexander and Hercules; but
at their confirmation, these names were changed to Henry and Francis. It
is usual for the religious at their entrance into monasteries to assume new
names, to show they are about to lead a new life, and have renounced the
world, their family, and themselves. See Srnxames.
NAMUR. Ceded to the house of Austria by the peace of Utrecht. It was
garrisoned by the Dutch as a barrier town to the United Provinces in 1715.
Namur was taken by the French in 1746, but was restored in 1748. In 1781,
the emperor Joseph expelled the Dutch garrison. In 1792, it was again taken
by the French, who were compelled to evacuate it the following year; but
they regained possession of it in 1794. The French, however, delivered it
up to the Allies, in 1814.
NANTES, EDICT OF. See Edict.
NAPLES, The continental division of the kingdom of'the two Sicilies. Naples
was a part of the Roman territory at a very early period. In the fifth century it became a prey to the Goths, and afterwards to the Lombards; and
the Saracens, Normans, and French, also successively had possession of this
country.
The Goths having become masters of Taken from the French and annexed to
Naples and of Sicily, are expelled by Spain - 1504
Belisarius, general of the Eastern The tyranny of the Spaniards leads to
empire - - - A.. 537 an insurrection, excitedby MIaaniello,
The Lombards next get possession of a fisherman, who in fifteen days raises
Naples, and are dispossessed by Char- an army of 200,000 men - - 1647
lemagne. - - 800 This insurrection subsides, and MasaCharles of Anjou, brother of St. Louis, niet[o is murdered - - 1647
king of France, obtains the crown Attempt of the duke of Guise to possess
from the pope, to the exclusion of the the crown - - - 1647
rightful heir, Conradlin, who is be- The kingdom completely conquered by
headed, aged sixteen years - 1266 prince Eugene - - - 1707
The French becoming hated by the Si- Discovery of'the ruins of Herculaneum.
cilians, a general massacre of the in- See Ilerlculaneun - - - 1711
vaders takes place, one Frenchman Naples ceded to the emperor by the
only escaping. See Sicilian Vespers treaty of Radstadt, 1714; Sicily - 1720
Mtarch 30, 1282 Both klingdoms are recovered by the
Peter of Arragon reigns. - 1282 crown of Spain - - - 1734
The two crowns disjoined - 1303 And Charles, the son of Philip of Spain,
Charles Durazzo, becoming king of reigns - -1735
I-Iungary, is murdered there by order Reign of Ferdinand IV. - - 1759
of the queen regent, in her presence - 1356 His flight on the approach of the French
For this murder she is taken out of her republicans - an. 14, 1799
carriage, and drowned in the river Nelson appears, Naples is retaken, and
Boseth - - 1386 the king restored - - July 13, 1799
Sicily again united to Naples, and the It is again talen by the French, April 7, 1801
kings ever since called king of the Dreadful earthquake felt throughout
Two Sicilies - - 1442
19
434 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [NATl
NAPLES, continuced.
the kingdom, and thousands perish Demonstration in favor of Plus IX. and
July 26, 1805 reform, fireld upon at Naples, and arTreaty offensive and defensive between rests made - - Dec. 15, 1847
France and Naples - Oct. 8, 1805 Sanguinary disorders at Messina Jai. 4, 1848
Ferdinand is again driven from Naples, Rebellion at Palermo, &c. - Jan. 12, 1848
and Joseph Bonaparte is crowned Palermo botmbarded - Jan. 13-19, 1848
king - - - Feb. 6. 1806 The kting signed a constitution Jan. 23, 1848
Jcaeph abdicates for the crown of Spain Messina expelled thle Neapolitan garJune 1, 180 rison - - - -Feb. 22, 1848
The crown is transferred to Joacllim The parliament of Sicily declares that
Murat - - - July 1, 1808 island independent; Messina. bomNaples is surrendered to a British fleet, barded by the Neapolitan fleet Ap. 3, 1848
and Ferdinand re-enters - June 17, 1815 The national guard raises barricades at
Execution of Joachitn Murat - Oct. 15, 1815 Naples - - - May 14, 1848
Revolutionary movement, headed by The people put down by the king's
general Pepe - - July 15, 1820 troops; 1440 killed - May 15, 1843
Suppression of the Carbonari Sept 16, 1820 The Sicilian parliament elects the dulke
Reign of Francis I. - - 1826 of Genoa as king of Sicily - July 10, 1848
And of Ferdinand II. - Nov. 8, 1830 Messina bombarded and taklen by the
Commencement of the dispute relative Neapolitanr troops - Sept. 2, 1848
to the sulphur monopoly (which is New constitution conceded to Sicily
afterwards amicably adjusted) March 6, 1849
March 15, 1840 Catania bombarded and reduced Apr. 5, 1819
NARYVA, BATTLE OF, in which Peter the Great of Russia was totally defeated
by the renowned Charles XII. of Sweden, then in his nineteenth year. The
army of Peter is said to have amounted to 100,000 men, while the Swedish
army did not much exceed 20,000: fought Nov. 30, 1700.
NASEBY, BATTLE OF, between Charles I. and the parliament army under Fairfax and Cromwell. The main body of the royal army was commanded by
lord Astley; prince Rupert led the right wing, sir Marminaduke Langdale
the left, and the king himself lheaded the body of reserve. The victory
was with the parliament forces, and was decisive of the fate of the uinfortunate Charles, who was obliged to abandon the field to his enemies, losing all
his cannon and baggage, and 5000 of his army were made prisoners, June
14, 1645.
NATIONAL DEBT oF ENGLAND. The first mention of parliamentary security for a debt of the nation, occurs in the reign of Henry VI. The present
national debt commenced in the reign of William III. It had amounted, in
the year 1697, to about five millions sterling, and the debt was then thought
to be of alarming n.agnitude.
In 1702, On the accession of queen In 1802, Close of the French ReAnne, the debt amounted volutionary war, it ato - - - - 14,000,000 mounted to - ~571,000,000
In 1714, On the accession of Geo, In 1814, Close of the war against
I. it amounted to - 54,000,000 Bonaparte - - - 865,000,000
In 1749, Geo. 1I.; after the Spa. In 1817, When the Irish and Engnisl war, it amounted to 78,000,000 lish exchequers were
In 1763, George III.: end of the 7 consolidated - 848,282,477
years' war, it amounted In 1830, Total amount of the
to - - - 139,000,000 funded and unfunded
In 1786, Three years after the Ame- debt - - - - 840,1.840)22
rican war, it amounted to 268,000,000 In 1840, Total amount of ditto - 789,578,000
In 1798, The civil and foreign war, In 1845, Funded debt - - - 768,789,241
it amounted to - - 462,000,000
NATIONAL DEBT oF THE UNITED STATES. at different times.
In 1791 the debt was - - - 75,463.476 In 1830 the debt was - - 848,565,466
In 1800 " " - 82,976,294 In 1835 " - - 37,733
In 1810 " " 53,173,217 In 1839' - - 11,983,738
In 1815 -99,833,661 In 1845 "' - - 16,801,647
In 1816 " " -. - 127,334,934 In 1848 " " 65,804,450
In 1820 " " - - 91,015,566
NATURALIZATION. It is defined to be "the making a foreigner or alien a
denizen or freeman of any kingdom or city, and so becoming, as it were.
hAV ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 435
both a subject and a native of a king or country, that by nature he did not
belong to.' The first act of naturalization in England passed in 1437; and
various similar enactments were made in most of the reigns firom that time,
several of them special acts relating to individuals. An act for the naturalization of' the Jews passed in 1753, but it was repealed in the following year,
on the petition of all the cities in England. See Uniled Slates.
NATIONAL ASSEMBLY oF FRANCE. Upon the proposition of the abbe
Si6yes, the states of France constituted themselves into the National Assembly, June 16, 1789. On the 20th, the hall of this new assembly was shut by
order of the king; upon which the deputies of the TViers Etat repaired to
the JeuL de PcmI2e, or Tennis-court, and swore not to dissolve until they had
digested a constitution for France. On the 2d they met at the church of
St. Louis. This assembly dissolved itself, Sept. 21, 1792. See next article.
NATIONAL CONVENTION or FRANCE. Constituted in the hall of the
Tuileries, Sept. 17, and formally opened, Sept. 21, 1792, when M. Gregoire,
at the head of the National Assembly, repairecl thither and announced that
that assembly had ceased its functions. It was then decreed, "That the
citizens named by the French people to form the National Convention, being
met to the number of 371, after having verified their powers, declare, that
the National Convention is constituted." This convention continued until a
a new constitution was organized, and the Executive Directory was installed
at the Little Luxembourg, Nov. 1, 1795. See Directoryj.
NATIONAL GALLERY, LONDON. The foundation of this great institution
was the purchase, by the British governlent, for the public service, of the
Angerstein collection of pictures, whose number did not much exceed forty.
They were purchased of Mr. Angerstein's executors, in Jan. 1822; and the
first exhibition of them took place in Pall Mlall, in May 1824. Sir G. Beaumont, Mr. Howell Carr, and many other gentlemen, as well as the British
Institution, contributed many fine pictures; and the collection has been
augmented by numerous later gifts, and recent purchases. The present edifice in Trafalgar-square was designed by Mr. Wilkins, and was completed
and opened in 1837.
NAVAL BATTLES. The Argonautic expedition undertaken by Jason is the
first upon record, 1263. c. —Dt F.resnoy. The first sea-fight on record is
that between the Corinthians and Corcyecans, 664 a. c.-Blair. The following are among the most celebrated naval engagements to be found on the
page of history.
BEFORE CHRIST. at Cnidos; Pisander, the Athenian
First sea-fight on record, in which the adomiral, is killed; and the maritime
Corinthians conquer the Cr'cyreans 664 power of the Itacedemonians deThe Athenian fleet under Themistocles, stroyedm.-TnfeCydides - 394
with 380 sail, defeat the Persian, con- Tle Roman fleet employed in the siege
sisting of 2000, at the straits of Sa- of ilybeum, burned by the Carthalamis.480 ginians 249
The Carthaginian fleet destroyed by the
Again, at the mouth of the river Eury- The carthagiian fleet estroyedby the
mnedon; Cymon, the Athenian admi- consul Lutatus 242
ral, vanquishes the Persian fleet and The Roman tleess vanquished by I-anarmy, in one day. —Heodoteis - 470 lsbal, the Carthaginian general; 800
Tise Lacelemonian fleet talken by Alci- galleys taken, anid 16,000 prisoners,
biades, the Athenian - - 410 second Punic war - - 209
The Spartan general, Lysander, totally At Actium, between the fleets of Octadeleats the Athenian fleet under Co- viantus C sac and Marc Antony. Tlis
non; byis victohe pots as end battle decides the fate of the latter,
to the maritime power of' Athens - 407 30 of his galleys going over to C sac,
The Persians engage Conon to conm- by which he is totally del'eated 31
mand their fleet, with which he en- ANNO DOSMINI.
tirely vanquishes the Lacedemonian The emperor, Claudius II. defeats the
fleet., and talces fifty sail out of ninety 400 Goths, and sinks 2000 of their ships.The Persian fleet conquer the Spartan Do, F?'esnouy. 269
436 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS [NAV
NAVAL BATTLES, coqetitaed.
The fleets belonging to Spain, Venice, Tromp commanded the Dutch; Blake,
and Pius V. defeat the Turkish fleet Monk, and Deane, the Enlg]ish Six
in the Gull'of Lepanto. The Chris- Dutch ships were takent; 11 were
tian fleet consistedl of 206 galleys, and sunk, and the rest ran into Calais
30,000 men. The Turks, out of 250' road - - June 2, 1653
galleys, saved only 100; and lost Again, on the coast of Holland; the
30,000 men in killed and prisoners.- Dutch lost 30 men-of-war, and adVoltaire - - - -1571 miral Tromp was killed - July 31, 1653
Bay of Gibraltar; Dutch and Spani- At Cadiz, when two galleons, worth
ards. This was a bloody conflict and 2,000,000 pieces of eight, were taken
decisive victory. and settled for a time by the English - - Sept. 1656
the superiority of the Dutch, Apr. 25, 1607 The Spanish fleet vanquished, and then
burnt in the harbor of Santa Cruz, by
NAVAL ENGAGEMENTS IN BRITISH HISTORY. Blake - - - April, L657
Alfred, with 10 galleys, defeated 300 sail English and French; 130 of the Borof' Danish pirates on the Dorset and deaux fleet destroyed by the duke of
Hanlpshire coast.-Asser's Life of Yorl - - - 1Pec. 4,1664
A1ftel - - 897 The duke of Yorlc, (afterwards James
Near Sluys; Edward III. defeated the II.) defeats the Dutch fleet off HarFrench fleet of 400 sail, Which were wich; the Dutch admiral blown up
all sunk. 30,000 French were killed with all his crew; 18 capital shils
in this engagement - - 1340 taken, 14 destroyed - June 3, 1665
The English and Flemings; the latter The earl of' Sandwich took 12 men of
signally defleated - - - 1371 war and 2 India ships Sept. 4, 1665
English and French, in which the latter A contest between the Dutch and Enpower loses 80 ships - - - 1389 glish fleets for victory, maintained
Near Milf'ord Haven; the English take for four days. The English lose 9,
14, and destroy 15 French ships - 1405 and the Dutch 15 ships, June L to 4, 1666
OffBarfleur; the duke of B-edl'od takes Decisive engagement at the mouth of
500 French ships - - - 1416 the Thames, when the English gain
In the Downs; the French fleet cap- a glorious victory, the Dutch lose 24
tured by the earl of Warwick - 1459 men-of-war, 4 admirals killed,. and
Bay of Biscay; English and French, 4000 officers and seamen. Fought
the latter defeated - - - 1512 July 26, 1666
Sir Edward Howard defeats the French The English fleet of 16 sail, defeat the
under Prejeant - - - 1513 French of 30, near Martinico - - 1667
In the Channel; the British defeat the Coast of HIolland; by Prince Rupert,
French fleet with great loss - - 1545 May 28, June 4, and Aug. 1 1, D'Etrees
The Spanish Armada driven frdm the and Ruyter defeated - - -1673
English Channel to the road of Calais, Several actions to the disadvantage of
by a running fight, the Spaniards los- the Dutch. They agree to strike to
ing 15 ships and 5000 men; they are the English colors in the British seas,
again defeated, and obliged to bear 25 Charles II. - - - - 1673
away fobr Scotland and Ireland, when Off Tangiers, battle between the Entheir fleet is dispersed in a storm, and glish and Moors, which lasted 11
they lose 17 more ships, and 5000 days -1679
more men. See Armada - July 19, 1588 Off Beachy-head; the English and
Dover Straits; between the Dutch ad- Dutch are defeated by the French,
miral, Van Tronmp, and admiral June 30, 1690
Blake. The Dutcfli surprise the Eng- The English and Dutch combined fleets
lish in the Downs, 80 sail engaging gain a signal victory over the French
40 English, six of which are taken or fleet, near Cape La Hogue; 21 of their
destroyed; and the Dutch admiral largest men-of warwere destroyed.sails in triumph through the channel, See La Ilog-ue - May 19, 1609
with a broom at his mast-head, to de- Off St. Vincent; the English and Dutch
note that he had swept the Englishi scluadrons, under admiral Rooke, defrom the seas - - June 29, 1652 feated by the French -,June 16, 1692
In the Downs; same admirals, and Off Carthagena, between admiral Besnnearly same loss bow and the French fleet, commanndSept. 28, Oct. 2S, and Nov. 29, 1652 ed by admiral Du Casse, iought
The English gain a victory over the Aug. 1,
Dutch fleet off Portsmouth, talcing The English and Dutch fleets, under
ansd destroying 11 men of war and 30 sir George Rookce, defeat the French
merchantmen. Van Tromp was the fleet (having the Spanish galleons in
Dutch, and Blake tie English admiral convoy) in the port of'Vigo. They
Feb. 10, 1653 take 9 out of' 13 galleons, laden chielf
Again, near Portland, between the Eng- ly with silver, and six men-of-war;
lish and Dutch; the latter deleated the other 4 galleons, and 14 men-ofFeb. 18, 1653 war, destroyed, ftbught Oct. 12, 1702
Again, off the NThftb Foreland. The Off the Lizard, when the English fleet
Dutch and English:ieets consisted of was defeated Oct. 9, 1707
-near 100 mnen-of- yaw. each. Van
Ax AV] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 437
NAVAL BATTLES, coltizmed.
In the Mediterranean, admiral Leake the line taken, 2 burnt, 2 escaped,
took sixty French vessels laden with Aug. 1, 1798
provisions Ma- - y 22, 1708 Gibraltar bay; engagement between
The Spanish fleet of 27 sail totally de- the French and British fleets; the
fea ed by sir George Byng, in the Faro lmisnzeibal of 74 guns lost Julv 6. 1801
of Messina - Au,. 11, 1718 Of'Cadiz; sir Jas-es Saumarez obtains
Bloody battle off Toulon; Matthews a victory over tile French and Spanand Lestock against the fleets of ish fleets; 1 ship captu.:ed, ioLbght
France and Spain. Here the brave July 12, 1801
captain Cornwall fell; and the vic- Sir Robert Calder with 15 sail. takes 2
tory was lost by a misunderstanding ships (both Spanish) out of 20 sail of
between the En-lish admirals.-Na- the l'rench and Spanish combined
val Ii'st. - -1744 fleets. off Ferrol July 22, 1805
OiF Cape Finistere, the French fleet Oit' Trafalgar; memorable battle, in
taken by admiral Anson May 3, 1747 which lord Nelson defeated the fleets
In the East Inlies; the French retired of France and Spain, and in which
to Pondicherry - - - 1747 he received his mortal wound.-(See
Off Ushant, when admiral HIawke took "'9ircfalgaor) - Oct. 21, 1805
seven men-of-war of the French Sir R. Strachan, with 4 sail of British,
Oct. 14, 1747 captures 4 French ships of the line,
Admiral Hawke defeats the French off Cape Ortesal - Nov. 4, 1805
fleet commanded by Conflans, in In the West Indies; the French defeatQuiberon Bay; and thus prevents a ed by sir T. Duckworth; 3 sail of
projected invasion of England, fbught the line taken, 2 driven on shore
Nov. 20, 1759. Feb. 6, 1806
Reppel toolsk 3 French frigates, and a Sir John Borlase Warren captures the
fleet of merchantmen - - Oct. 9, 1762 French fleet under conmmand of adNear Cape St. Vincent, between admi- miral Linois - - March 13, 1806
ral Rodney and admlairal Don Lan- Admiral Duckworth effects the passage
gara, tl-e latter delfeated anti taken of the Dardanelles. See Dctardanelles,
prisoner, losing 8 ships Jan. 8, 1780 Feb. 19, 1807
At St. Jago; Mons. Sufi'ein defeated by Copenhagen fleet of 18 ships of the line%
colmmodore Johnston April 16, 1781 15 frigates, and 31 other vessels, surAdmiral Rodney defeated the French renders to lord Cathcart and admiral
going to attack Jamaica, took 10ships Gambier. (See Copelnhage?z) Sept 7, 1807
of the line, (1 sunk, and 3 blown up) The Rtusian fleet of several sail, in the
and sent the French admiral, count Tagus, surrenders to the British,
de Grasse, prisoner to England Sept. 3, 1808
April 12, 1782 Algiers bombarded by lord Exmouth.
The British totally defeated the fleets See Algiers - - Aug. 27 1816
of France and Spain, in the bay of Navarino; the British, French, and
Gibraltar.-See CGibral/ar Sept. 13, 1782 Russian squadrons, defeat and anniCape St. Vincent; the Spanish fleet de- hilate the Turtkish navy. See NAavafeated by Sir J. Jervis, and 4 line of'rino - - Oct. 20, 1827
battle ships taken - Feb. 14, 1797 Action between the British ships VolUnsuccessful attempt on Santa Cruz; age and itlycivth, and 29 Chinese
admiral Nelson loses his ri ght arm; war junks, which were defeated
July 24, 1797 Nov. 3, 1839
Camperdown; the Dutch signally de- Bombardment and fall of Acre. The
feated by admiral I)uncan, and 15 British squadron under admiral Stopships of war, with the admiral (De ford achieved this triumph with triVslnter), taken - Oct. 11, 1797 fling loss, while the Egyptians lost
Nile; Toulon fleet defeated by sir Ho- 2000 killed and wounded, and 3000
ratio Nelson, at Aboukir; 9 ships of prisoners. See Sy7ria - Nov. 3, 1840
NAVAL BATTLES oF THE UNITED STATES.
Paul Jones, in the Providence priva- Constituti.oh captures British frigate
teer, takes 16 prizes - 17;56 Guerrriere Aug. 13, 18i2
IIis descent on Whitehaven - April 1778 Captain Elliott captures two British
IIe captures the British frigate Serapis fititates on lake Erie - Oct. 8, 1812
Sept. 23, 1779 Sloop Wasp captures British sloop Ftro
Frigate Philadelphia taken by thie Tri- lic, Oct. 18; both vessels captured by
politans - - - - 1803 British 74, Pictiers Oct. 20, 1812
-recaptured by Decatur - F- eb. 1. 1804 Frigate United States, captain Decatur,
Tripoli bombarded by commodore PI e- captures BRitish fiigate Macedonian 1912
ble -A:og. 1lS04 Constitution captain Bainbridge, capFrigate Chesapeake fired upon by the | tures British fiigate.Java Oct. 29, 1812
lr'itish ship Leopard7 for reflssing to Itornet, captain Lawtrence, captures
be searched - 1- - 807 British ship Peacock. captain Peake,
Frigate President, vs. British sloop Feb,. 23, 1813
Iittle Belt May 1i, 1811
438 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ NSA
NAVAL BATTLES, U. S. contbi'uted.
[Delaware and Chesapeake bays block- Sloop Peacock, captain Warringlon,
aded by British.] captures British brig Epervier
Frigate Chesapeake surrendered to the April 29, 1814
Britiih frigate Shannon June 1, 1813 Sloop Wasp, captain IBlakeley, capSloop A rgus, captured by British sloop tures British bri Reindtleer, Jlune 8s, 181.4
Pelican - - Aug. 14, 1813 Flotilla, coulmoodore Iacdonoutl. vicBril E. terprise captures the British torious over the British on lake Chllainbrig Boxer - Au 1813 plain Sept II, 1l14
Fleet on lake Erie, commodore Perry, Frigate President, surrendered to the
captures the British fleet Sept. 10, 1813 British frigate Endymion Jan. 15, 1s81t
Flotilla, commodore Chauncey, cap- Frigate Constitution captures British
tules British flotilla on lake Ontario, brigs Cyane and Levant. oftf Iaderia
Oct. 5, 1813 Feibs 15
Frigate Essex, commodore Porter, cap- Sloop Hornet, commodore Biddle, cap- e
tured by fiigate Pe ebe ad sloop tures British brig Penuuin, off Brazil,
Cherub - - - March 28, 1814 Feb. 93, 1815
Sloop Frolic, commodore Bainbridge, U. S. naval force under commodore
surrendered to British fiig-ate Or- Conner bombards Vera Csrz (jointly
pheus - - April 21, 1814 with the land lorce under general
Scott).- 1s14-7
NAVARINO, BATrTLE Or, between the comlbined fleets of England, Francn,, and
Russia, under commluandc of admiral Codrington. and tihe Turkish navy, in
which the latter was almost wholly annihilated. More than tllirty ships,
many of them four-deckers, were blown up or buLrnt, chiefly by the Tiu ss
themselves, to plrevent their falling into the hands of their enemies, Oct. 20,
1827. The species of policy which led to this attack upon Tur-key, was that
of Mr. Canning's administtration. This destruction of the Tslrkiish nasval
power was characteriized, by the illustrious cluke of Welliington, as being an
" untoward event," a memorable phrase, applied to it to this day.
NAVIGATION. It owes its origin to the Phmnicians, about 1500 B. c. The
first laws of navigation originated with the Rhodians, 916 B. c. The first
account we have of any considerable voyage is that of the Phoenicians sailing
round Aftica 604 B. c. —Blair. Onl the destruction of Thlebes by Alexander
the Great, 335 B. c., its commerce passed to Alexandria, and subseqlently
the Romans became the chief masters of commerce. It passed successively
from the Venetians, Genoese, and Hanse Towns, to the Portugnuese antd Spaniards; and froom these to thle English anc.Dutch.
Plane charts and msariner's compass Logarithmic tables applied to navi'aused about - - -. 1420 tion by Gunter A. D. 1620
Variation of the compass discovered Middle latitudle sailing introducerl - 1623
by ColumbIs - - 149;821 Iesuration of a degree, Norwood - 1631
That the obliqsue rhumb lines are spi- Iiadley's quadrant -1 - -31
rals, discovered by Nonius - - 115371 Harrison's time-keeper used - 178i4
First treatise on navigation - - 14453 Nautical almanac first published - 176j7
The log first mentioned by Bourne - 1577 Barlow's theory of the deviation of the
Mercator's chart - 15991 compass - - 182U'Davis's quadrant, or backstaf,'bfor See Constass, Latitude, Lozs'sizsude, 4ec.
measuring angles, about - - 1600
NAVIGATION, INLAND, or THE UNITEDr STATrS. An official report of U. S.
Engineers in 1842 states the number of miles of the rivers west of' the Alleghlianies. navigable for steamrboats, 16 674 miles; entire length of alhZe cores.i,
of which 2000 belong to British possessions, 5000 miles. The steanlm i.l
tonnage of the western rivers in 1846 was 249 055 tonls. Aggregate vall,'rf'
commerce on the western rivers, $1883 609,725. Estimated amount of lakoe
tonnage, $61,914,910. [For tonnage of ocean shipping at diffelent periods,;
see S/eippisg.]
NAVIGATION, INLAND. or GC:rET BaRITAIN. IMr. Nimmo. in his evidence before the Colmmittee onl the state of Ireland, in 1824, said, "we have molre
inland navigation in Britain than in all the rest of the world put together.;"
The total length of the inlaind navigation of England, including as well ic,'te
xAv ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 439
navigable rivers as canals, is 5300 miles. See Caials.-HatJyd'n. This statement scarcely agrees with the preceding.
NAVIGATION LAWS. The laws of Oleron were decreed, 6 Richard I., 1194.
See Olerob. The first navigation act was passed. in 1381. Another and more
extensive act was passed in 1541. Act relating to the tracle of' the colonies
passed in 1646; and several acts follow ed relating to navigation. The act
regulating the navigation of the river Thlamies was passed inl 1786. Navigation Act, f'or the encouragement of British ships and seamlen, passed 4 William IV., August 1833. British and Amlericaun navigation laws repealed; 184'9.
NAVY oF THE'UNITED STATES. The first ship of war of the United States
was built under the superintendence of the celebrated John Paul Jones, at
Portsmouth, N. H., 1781; but the regular navy was commenced by Act of
Congress, authorizing the building of six frigates, MiVarch 30, 1794. The
Constitution launched at Boston. Constellation at Baltimore, 1797. [See
Naval Battles.]
NAVIES oF EUROPE AND AMERICA.
COMPARATIVE VIEV OF TI-HE NAVAL FORCES OF THE POWErZS OF EUROPE
AND AsERIncA, 1846.
]ncomnmisinorn IBuilding, ordina- Total.
Relative naval In comisi Total.' ry, &c. I
power of each nation. o
Vessels. Guns. Vessels.i Guns. Vessels. Genes. Z
Great Britain, - 332 4,583 304 13,098 ~636 17.681 40,000 141
France, - - - 215 4,293 131. 4,635 346 8,928 27,554 68
Russia,- 179 5,896 -- -- 179 5,896 59,000 32
Turlcey, - - - 62 2,636 4 24 66 2,660 26,820 9
United States, - 47 1,155 30 1.190 77 2,345 8,724 5
Egypt, 35 1,148 3'312 33 1,760 1
Hiolland,'' 48 302 86 1,344 134 1,646 4
Sweden, 330 660 50 1.196 380,856 2
Denmark, 96 344 32 732 108 1,076
Austria, 74 686. 74 686
Brazil,- 31 450 11 325 42 775 8
Sardinia, - - 11 226 4 220 15 446 2
Spain, -. 21 348 21 348 4
Two Sicilies, - 17 338 17 338
Portugal, 59
Mexico -23 42 -- I 23 42.
COMPARATIVE VIEW OF THE COIMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE OF DIFFERENT NATIONS.
No. of vessels No. of gunus o1
Nations, in the order of their commercial io. of vessel To each 100,000
imtportance. n fsee tons of com-
d fisheies. erce.
United Kingdom of Great Britain, - 23,898 3,007,58 588
United States 19,666 2,416,999 97
France, 13,782 839,608 i 1.063
Norway and Sweden 5,450 471,772 22
Iolland - - 1,528 241,676 683
Russia, Not known. 239,000 2,466
Two Sicilies, -9,174 213,198 158
Austria, 6,199 208,551 321
Turkey, 2,220 182,000 1,461
Sa-rdinia..3,502 167,360 265
Denomarkr, —.... 3,.036 153,408 709
Portual, - 798 80,525
Spain, 2,700 80,000
Brazil, Unknown. Unknown...
Mexico. - Jlknown. Unknown.
440 THE WORLD7S PROGIRESS. [ NEm
NAVY OF ENGLAND. The first fleet of galleys, like those of the Danes,
was built by Alfred, A. D. 897. The numbler of galleys had increased under
Edgair to 350, about A. D. 965. A formidable fleet was equipped by the pub-:
lie contribution of every town in. England, in the reign of' Ethelred II., 1007,
et seq., when it rendezvoused at Sandlvich to be ready to oppose the Danes.
From this period fleets were occasionally furnlished by the maritilme towns,
and the Cinque ports, and were usually comlmanded by the king, or an admiral under him: such was the fleet of Edward III. at the siege of Calais in
1347; it consisted of 40 ships, badly equipped, under no public fixed regulations. The date of the commencemlent of the Royal or British navy, mllay
therefore be placed 4 Henry VIII. 1512, when the first Navy-office was appointed, with commissioners to manage naval affairs, and a number of stout
ships of war began to be permanently kept on foot by the crown.-G-ibsov's
Cacmden. In the time of Henry VIII. the navy consisted of 1 ship of 1200
tons, 2 of 800 tons, and six or seven smaller; the largest was called the
Great tHarry. Elizabeth's fleet at the time of the Spanish Armada, in 1588,
consisted of only 28 vessels, none larger than frigates. James I. added 10
ships of 1400 tons each, and 64 guns, the largest then ever bu i;. — Gibsoi's
Contination of Camden.
ACCOUNT OF THE PROGRESSIVE INCREASE O' THIE ROYAL NAVY OF EINGLAND, FROM IIENPY
VIII'S REIGN TO THE CLOSE OF THE LAST WARl ]S14.
Yr. S'hips.] Tons. Almen voted Gavy estini.. Y Shis. I'os..len voted Acav estlne
1521 16 7,260 - no account. 1 1760 412 321,134 70.000 ~3,227143
1578 24 10,506 6,700 no account. 1793 49S 433,226 45. 000 5.52')331
ie03 42 17,055 8,346l no account. 1800 767 663,744 135,000 112422.1837
1658 157 57,000 21,910 no account. 1808 869 892,800 143,800 17.496,047
1638 173 101,892 42,00 no account. 1814 01 9G6,i000 146,0100 183786C;09
1702 272 159,020| 40,000 ~1,056.95
In 1814, Great Britain had 901 ships, of which 177 were of the line; and in
1830, she had 621 ships, sonme of 14 0 guns each. and clown to surveying veysels of 2 guns only. Of these 148 sail w1ere employed on foreig'n and home
service. On Jan. 1, 1841, the total number of ships of all sizes in comlllission was 183.
NAVY or FRANCE. It is first mentioned in history A. D. 728, when, like that
of England at an early period, it consisted of Galleys; in this year the
French defeated the Frison fleet. It was considerably improved under
Louis XIV. at the instance of his minister Colbert, about 1697. The French
navy was in perhaps its highest splendor about 1781; but it became gr,.atly
reduced in the late wars against England.
NEBRASKA. A territory of the United States as yet (1850) unorganized, occupying 400,000 square miles, the entire space between the Missouri and
White Earth Rivers on the east, the Rocky Mountains on the west, the 49th
parallel lat. on the north, and the Kansas and Arkansas rivers on the south.
First traversed by Lewis and Clarke's expedition, in 1805, and partly explored by Fremont, on his way to Oregon, in 1842.
NEEDLES. They make a considerable article of commerce, as well as of home
trade in England, German and Hungarian steel is of most repute for nee
dles. The first that were made in England were fabricated in Chealiside,
London, in the time of the sanguinary Mary, by a negro from Spain; bet,
as he would not impart the secret, it was lost at his death, and not recovered
again till 1566, in the reign of Elizabeth, when Elias Growse, a German,
taught the art to the English, who have since brought it to the highest
degree of perfection.-Stowe. The family of the Greenings, ancestors of
lord Dorchester, established a needle manufactory in Bucks, about this
time.-Anderson.
NEMEAN GAMES. So called from Nemmla, where they were celebrateet
I-EW ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 441
They were originally instituted by the Argives in honor of Archemorus
who died by the bite of a serpent, and Hercules some tinme after renewed
them. They were one of' the four great and solemn games which were
observed in Greece. The Argives, Corinthians, and the inhabitants of Cleonte, generally presided by turns at the celebration, in which were exhibited
foot and horse-races, chariot-races, boxing, wrestling, and contests of every
kind, both gymnical and equestrian. The conqueror was rewarded with a
crown of olives, afterwards of green parsley, in memory of the adventure
of Archemorus. whom his nurse laid down on a sprig of that plant. They
were celebrated every third, or according to others, every fifth year, or
more properly on the first and third year of every Olympiad, 1226 B. c.Hetrodotns.
NEPTUNE. The new planet predicted by Le Verrier; discovered by Dr. Galle
of Berlin, Sept. 23, 1846.
NESTO3RIANS. A sect of Christians, the followers of Nestorius, some time
bishop of Constantinople, who, by the general strain of church historians,
is represented as a heretic, for maintaining that though the Virgin Mary was
the mother of Jesus Christ as man. yet she was not the mether of God, for
that no human creature could participate that to another, which she had not
herself; that God was united to Christ under one person, but remained as
distinct in nature and essence as though he had never been united at all;
that such union made no alteration in the human nature, but that he was
subject to the same passions of love and hatred, pleasure and pain, &c., as
other men have, only that they were better regulated, and more properly
applied than in ordinary men. The generality of Christians in the Levant
go under this name; they administer the sacrament with leavened bread,
and in both kinds, permit their priests to marry, and use neither confirmation nor auricular confession, &c. Nestorius died A. D. 439.-Dh/ Pin.
NETHERLANDS. They were attached to the Roman Empire under the name
of Belgia, until its decline in the fifth century. For several ages this country formed part of the kingdom of Ahstrasia. In the twelfth century it was
governed by its own counts and earls; and afterwards fell to the dukes of
Burgundy, and next to the house of Austria. The seventeen provinces were
united into one state, in 1549. For the late history of the Netherlands see
Holland and Belgium.
NEVIS. An English colony, first planted by the English in 1628. This island
was taken by the French, Feb. 14, 1782, but was restored to the English at
the general peace in the next year. The capital of this island (one of the
Caribbees) is Charleston. See Colonies.
NEW ENGLAND. The confederation of the northeastern colonies of America
under this name, for mutual defence, 1643. Sir E. Andros, the tyrannical governor of New England, 1686. The New England States are Maine, New
Hampshire, Massachusetts, Vermont, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. See
these respectively.
NEW HAMZPSHIRE. One of the United States; was first granted to Ferdinando Gorges in 1662; first settled at Dover and Portsmouth in 1623. It
came voluntarily under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts in 1641; but was
made a separate province by an act of Charles I. in 1679. It was several
times afterwards connected with Massachusetts until 1741, since which it
has remained a separate State. Constitution formed in 1784, and amended,
1792. Population in 1790 was 141,885; in 1800, 138,858; in 1830, 269,328;
in 1840. 284 574.
NEW HOLLAND. The largest known land that does not bear the name of a
continent. When this vast island was first discovered is uncertain. In the
beginning of the seventeenth century the north and west coasts were traced
19*
442 THE WVORLD'S PROGRESS. r.EW:
by the Dutch; and what was deemed, till lately, the south extremity, was
discovered by Tasman, in 1642. Captain Cook, in 1770, explored the east
and north-east from 38~ south, and ascertained its separation from Neiwi
Guinea; and, in 1773, captain Furneaux, by connecting Tasman's discoveries with Cook's, completed the circuit. But the supposed south extremity,
which Tasman distinguished by the name of Van Diemen's Land, was found,
in 1798, to be an island, separated from New Holland by a channel forty'leagues wide, named from the discoverer, Bass Strait. Different parts of
the coast have been called by the names of the discoverers, &c. The eastern coast, called New South Wales, was taken possession of in the name of
George III. of England, by captain Cook, and now forms a part of the British dominions. See New Soul/t Wales.
NEW JERSEY. One of the United States; first settled by the Dutch from
New York, at Bergen, 1614-20. A colony of' Swedes and Finns on the Delaware, 1627. The province included with New York in the grant by
Charles II. to the duke of York in 1664; granted by the duke to lord Berkley
and sir George Cartaret, who established a government in 1695. Subdued
by the Dutch in 1672, but surrendered by them, 1674; purchased by a
company of English emigrants, who formed the first English settlement at
Salem, 1674; government surrendered to the crown (in consequence of difficulty about titles, &c.) and accepted by queen Anne, 1702; continued under
royal instead of proprietary government until 1776. This State suffered
much in the revolution, and acted an important part. Adopted the Federal
Constitution by unanimous vote in 1787. Population in 1732, 47,000; in
1790, 1841,189; in 1830, 320,779; in 1840, 373,306.
NEW MEXICO, according to Spanish and Mexican authorities, extends from
about 320 to 42~, N. latitude. and from 230 to about 3830 long. W. of Washington-an area of about 200.000 square miles. The country taken possession of for Spain, by Juan de Onate, sent by count de Monterey, viceroy of
Mexico, in 1594. A great massacre of the Spaniards in their pueblos or
fort, by the Indians, 1680, when the governor retreated from Santa Fe, and
founded Paso del Norte. The whole country reconqueLred by the Spaniards
after a war of ten years; but a deadly hatred has since continued between
the races. New Mexico ceded to the United States by the treaty with
Mexico, 1848. A large part of it is claimed by Texas, and the boundary is
yet (July 1850) undecided.
NEW SOUTH WALES. See Nrcw iMollaend. The eastern coast of New Holland was explored and taken possession of by captain Cook, for England,
in 1770. It was at the recommendation of this illustrious navigator that
the design of a convict colony here was first formed. Governor Phillips, the
first governor, arrived at Botany Bay with 800 convicts. January 20, 1788:
but he subsequently preferred Sydney, about seven miles distant from the
head of Port Jackson, as a more eligible situation for the capital.
NEW STYLE. Ordered to be used in England in 1751; and the next year
eleven days were left out of the calendar-the third of September, 1752,
being reckoned as the fourteenth-so as to make it agree with the Gregorian Calendar, w~hich see, and also article Calendacr. In the year A. D. 20.0,
there was no difference of styles; but there had arisen a difference of eleven days between the old and the new style, the latter being so much beforehand with the former; so that when a person using the old style dates
the 1st of May, those who employ the new, reckon the 12th. From this
variation in the computation of time, we may easily account for the difference of many dates concerning historical facts and biographical notices.
NEW YEAR'S DAY. Its institution as a feast, or day of rejoicing, is the
oldest on authentic record transmitted down to our times, and still observed.
1'iLWV ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 443
The feast was instituted by Numa, and was dedicated to Janus (who presided over the new year), January 1, 713 B. c. On this day, the Romans
sacrificed to Janus a cake of new sifted nmeal, with salt, incense, and wine;
and all the mechanics began something of their art or trade; the men of
letters did the same as to books, poems, &c.; and the consuls, though chosen before, took the chair and entered upon their office this day. After the
government was in the hands of the emperors, the consuls marched on
New-year's day to the capitol, attended by a croxvd, all in new clothes, when
two white bulls never yoked were sacrificed to Jupiter Capitolinus. A great
deal of incense and other perfumes were spent in the temple; the flamens,
together with the consuls, during this religious solemnity uffered their vows
for the prosperity of the empire and the emperor, after having taken an
oath of allegiance, and confirmed all public acts done by him the preceding
year. On this day the Romans laid aside all old grudges and ill humor,
and took care not to speak so imuch as one ominous or untoward word.
The first of January. is more observed as a feast-day in Scotland than it is
in England. In many parts of the United States, but chiefly in New York,
this is observed as a holiday, the ladies receiving complimentary visits from
the other sex. This custom is derived from the Dutch; but is also observed
in Paris.
NEW-YEAR'S GIFTS. Nonius Marcellus refers the origin of New-Year's gifts
among the Romans to Titus Tatius, king of the Sabines. who having considered as a good omen a present of some branches cut in a wood consecrated
to Strenia, the goddess of strength, which he received on the first day of
the new year, authorized the custom afterwards, and gave these gifts the
name of Strene, 747 B. c. In the reign of Augustus, the populace, gentry,
and senators used to send him new-year's gifts, and if he was not ill town,
they carried them to the capitol. From the Romans this custom went to
the Greeks, and frino the heathens to the Christians, who very early came
into the practice of making presents to the magistrates. Some of the fathers wrote very strenuously against the practice, upon account of the immoralities committed under that cover and protection; but since the governments of the several nations in Europe became Christian, the custom is
still retained as a token of friendship, love, and respect. It is well observed
in the United States.
NEW YORK. One of the United States. The river Hudson and the island of
Manhattan, where New York city now stands, were discovered by Henry
Hudson, an Einglishman, in the service of the Dutch, 1609. First permanently
settled on Manhattan island by the Dutch in 1621; surrendered to the English, under Richard Nichols, for the duke of York, in 1664; confirmed to
England by the peace of Breda, 1667; retaken by a Dutch expedition in
1673; restored to the duke of York with a new patent, 1674; first legislative assembly, 1683; Jacob Leisler's revolution, 1689; episcopacy established by law, 1693; negro conspiracy, 1741; colony took an active part in
French war, 1756, and the war of Independence; city captured by English,
1776; who evacuated it Nov. 25, 1783; State adopted the Federal Constitution
by 30 to 35, 1.788; adopted new State Constitution, 1846. Population in
1732, 65,000; in 1790, 340,820; in 1810, 959,049; in 1820, 1,372;812; in 1840,
2,428,921.
r:EW YORK, CITY OF. Founded by the Dutch, 1614; fort built by them at
S. point of the island, 1623; surrendered to the English, 1664; assessed
value of all the property in the town in 1668, was ~78,231; city taken by
the British, 1776; evacuated, Nov. 25, 1783; meeting of first United States
Congress here, 1785; Washington inaugurated President of the United
States, at the City Hall in Wall-street, April 30, 1789; yellow fever prevailed here in 1795 and 1805; cholera in 1832, 1834, and 1849. Great fire in
444 THE WORLD'S PRORE.SS. [ NBwt
the business part of the city, swept over 40 acres, and destroyed property
valued at about $20,000,000, Dec. 16, 1835; another in same neighborhood,
1845; the whole district rebuilt and improved shortly after; celebratiaL.
of the completion of Croton Aqueduct, Oct. 14, 1842. Population in 1790,
83,131; in 1810, 96,373; in 1830, 202,589; in 1840, 312,710.
NEW ORLEANS, CITY Os,. Founded by the French in 1717; conveyed to
the Spanish, 1762; recovered by the French,' 1800; purchased by the
United States in the purchase of Louisiana, 1803. The battle of, between
the Americans under Gen. Jackson, and the British under Packenham, in
which the latter were defeated with loss of 3;000 killed and wounded, the
Americans losing only 7 killed and 6 wounded, Jan. 8, 1815. Population
in 1810, was 17,242; in 1830, 46,310; in 1840, 102,193, including 23,4K-;
slaves.
NEWCASTLE, ENGLAND. The first coal port in the world. The coal-mines
were discovered here about A. D. 1234. The first charter which was granted
to the townsmen for digging coal was by Henry III. in 1239; but in 1306,
the use of coal for -fuel was prohibited in London, by royal proclamation,
chiefly because it injured the sale of wood for fuel, great quantities of which
were then growing about that city; but this interdiction did not long continue, and we may consider coal as having been dug and exported from this
place for more than 500 years.
NEWFOUNDLAND, discovered by Sebastian Cabot, who called it Primnl Vista.
June 24, A. D. 1494. It was formally taken possession of by sir Henry Gilbert,
1583. In the reign of Elizabeth, other nations had the advantage of the
English in the fishery. There were 100 fishing vessels from Spain, 50 fronm
Portugal, 150 from France, and only 15, but of larger size, from England, in
1577.-Hacklchjt. But the English fishery in some years afterwards had increased so much that the ports of Devonshire alone employed 150 ships, a:td
sold their fish in Spain, Portugal, and Italy, 1625. Nearly 1000 English f —
milies reside here all the year; and in the fishing season, beginning in Mlay
and ending in September, more than 15,000 persons resort to Newfoundland,
which may be esteemed as one of our finest nurseries for seamen. Newfoundland has recently obtained the privilege of a colonial legislation. A
bishopric was established here in 1839. Appalling fire at St. John's; a greal
portion of the town destroyed; the loss estimated at ~1,000,000 sterling,
June 9, 1846.
NEWS. The origin of this word has been variously defined. News is a fresh
account of any thing.-Sidney. It is something not heard before.-L'TFtrangge. News is an account of the transactions of the present times.-Addlison. The word "news" is not, as many imagine, derived from the adjective
new. In former times (between the years 1595 and 1730) it was a prevalent
practice to put over th6 periodical publications of the day the initial letters
of the cardinal points of the compass, thus
N
e- -W
importing that these papers contained intelligence firom the four quarters
of the globe; and from this practice is derived the term Newspaper.
NEWSPAPERS. The first published in England, which might truly be cons;dered as a vehicle of GENERAL INFORMATION, was established by sir Roger
L'Estrange, in 1663; it wras entitled the Putblic Ietclligenscer, and continued
nearly three years, when it ceased on the appearance of the Gaczette. A
publication, with few claims however to the character of a newspaper, had
.EW J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 445
previously appeared; it was called the English Mercuy,* and came out un.
der the authority of queen Elizabeth. so early as 1588, the period of the
Spanlish armada. An early copy of this paper is dated Jnly 23, in that year.
In the reign of James I., 1622, appeared the LonLdon Weel/uly CoJ'ant, and
in the year 1643 (the period of' the civil war) were printed a variety of publications, certainly in no respect entitled to the name of newspapers, of which
the following were the titles:Eng-land's Memzorable Accidents. The _Parliament's Scout's Discovery, or
The Kingidosn's Intelligencer. Certain jbrorialion.
The Diurnal of Certain Passages in Par- The lMercurius Civicus, or London's Inliam7ent. telligencer.
The 31ercurilus Aulicus. The (Country's Complaint, 4bc.'he Scotch intelligencer. The T'Veekloy Accozent.
The Parliamnent's Scout. _ Mercurious Britannicus.
A paper called the Londone Gctzette was published August 22, 1642. Thlle
Lotedone Gazette of the existing series, was published first at Oxford, the
court being there on account of the plague, Nov. 7. 1665, and afterwardo at
London, Feb. 5, 1666. See Gazette. The printing of' newspapers and
pamphlets was prohibited 31 Charles I., 1680. —/Seto'j's Chtron. Newspapers were first stamped in 1713. No. of the stamps issued:d
In 1753 - - - 7,411,757 In11 0 - - - 20,172,837 In IS5. -32,874,652
In 1760 - - 9,404,790 In 1820- - - 24,862,186 In 1840 49,033,384
In 1774 - - 12,300,000 In 1825 - - - 26,950,693 In 1843 -56.443,977
In 1790 - - 14,035,639 In 1830- - 30,158741 In 1849 - -76 569 235
In 1800 - - 16,08-1,905
The total number of newspapers published in the United Kingdom in 1849
was 603, viz: 160 in Londclon, 232 in the English province, 117 in Ireland,
and 94 in Scotland. The nunber of advertiseements inserted in the London
newspapers in 1849 was 886,108. paying a gross duty of ~66,458 2s.; in the
English provincial newspapers, 834 729, yielding to the crown a revenue of
~62 604 13s. 6d.; in the Irish papers, 220 524, paying ~11,026 4s., and in the
Scotch papers, 2,40911, paying in duty ~18,075 16s. 6d.
NEWSPAPERS, &c. IN T'OEI UNI'ED STATES. The first wras the " Boston News
Letter," in 1704, which was continued till 1774; the second was the Boston
Gazette, 1719; the third the Amee ticavn WIeel?/ 3ftMcc??ury, at Philadelphia,
sta;ted one day after the last. First lNew YoWhc Gazeite, in 1725; first
newspaper in the Carolinas. at Charleston, 1731-2; first Rhode Islased Gazette, at Newport, 1732; first Piv'isnia Gazette, at Williamsburgh, in 1736.
In 1775. there were in all the colonies 37 newspapers; in 1810, in the United
States, 358; in 1828, 802; in 1839, 1o55. See Periodical Lit.
\TEWSPAPERS IN FRANCE. The first was the Gazette dte 1Ireence, established
by Renandot, ill 1631, and continuted with few interruptions till 1827. when
it ceased and another paper assumed its name. The Meonitese', commenced
1789, has been since 1800 the official journal of the Government. The Constitqntionelle and the Jonusnal des Debuts have lont had the largest circulation. There were 374 newspapers published in France in 1832. See Periodical Lit.
NEWSPAPERS, IRISH. The first Irish newspaper was Puee's Occqreences, published in 1700: Fanelkner's Jouernal was established by George Faulkner, " a
man celebrated for the goodness of his hseart, and the. weakness of his head,"
1728. —Supplemetle to Swift. The oldest of the existing Dublin newspapers,
* The full title is, " No. 50, The English A-Mercurie, published by authoritie, for the preventicn
Af false repolts, imprinted by Christopher Barkler, her highness's printer, No. 50." It describes
the armament called the Spanish Armada. giving " A journall of what passed since the 21st of this
month, between her Majestie's fleet and that of Spayne, transmitted by the Lord Highe Admirall to
the Lordes of council."
lit is said by Mr. Watts of the British Museum (1850), that this paper was a forgery, and that:.e first English paper was the Weekley Newes, published by Nathaniel Butler in 1622.]
446 THiE WVVOItLD)S PROGRESS. L NICK
is the Frescmat's Jourinal, founded by the patriot. Dr. Lucas, about the veal
1755. —Westmin.ster Rcview, Jan. 1830. The Lisme-icc C/r'onicle, the oldest
of theg provincial prints, was established in 1768. —Idecs.
~NEY, TMARSHAL, aIs EXECUTION. Ney was the duke of Elchingen, and prince
of the Moskwa, and one of the most valiant and skilful of the marshals of
France. After the abdication o' Napoleon., 5th April, 1814, he took the oath
of allegiance to the king, Louis XVIII. On Napoleon's return to France
fiom Elba, he marched against him; but his troops deserting, he regarded
the cause of the Bourbons as lost, and opened the invader's way to Paris.
March 13, 1815. Ney led the attack of the French at Waterloo, where he
fought in the midst of the slain, his clothes filled with bullet-holes, and five
horses having been shot under hinm, unt.l night and defeat obliged him to
fly. But though he was included in the decree of July 24,1815, which guaranteed the safety of all Frenchmen, he was afterwards sought out, and taken
in the castle of a friend at Urillac, where he lay concealed, and brought to
trial before the Chanmber of Peers. The 12th article of the capitulation of
Paris, fixing a general amnesty, was quoted in his favor, yet he was sentenced
to death, and met his fate with the fortitude which such a hero could hardly
fail to evince, Aug. 16, 1815.
NICENE CREED. A sumnmary of the Christian faith, composed at Nice by,
the first general councii held there in the palace of Constantine the Great(.
In this celebiated council, which assembled A. D. 325, the Arians were condemnied. It was attended by 318 bishops fiom divers parts, who both settled the doctrine of the Trinity, and the timle for observing Easter.
NILE, BATTLE CW THE. One of the greatest in British naval history, betweehi
the Toulon and British fleets, the latter comnianded by lord, then sir Horatio Nelson. This engagement took place near Rosetta, at the mouth of the
celebrated river Nile; nine of the French line-of-battle ships were taken,
two were burnt, and two escaped, August 1, 1798. This is sometimes calles
the battle of Aboukir; it obtained the conqueror a peerage, by the title of
baron Nelson of the Nile; his exclamation upon comniencing the battle was,
" Victory or Westminster-abbey!"
NILE, SOURCE OF THE. This great river rises in the Mountains of the Moon,
in about ten degrees of N. lat., and in a known course of 1250 miles receives
no tributary streams. The travels of BruLce were undertaken to discover the
source of the Nile; he set out fiom England in June, 1768; on the 14th of
Nov. 1770, he obtained the great object of his wishes, and returned home in
1773. This river overflows regularly every year, from the 15th of' June t-'
the 17th of September, when it begins to decrease, having given fertility to
the land; and it must rise 16 cubits to insure that fertility. In 1829, the
inundation of the Nile rose to 26 instead of 22, by which 30,000 people were
drowned, and immlense property lost.
NIMEGUEN, TREATY OF. This was the celebrated treaty of peace between
France and the United Provinces, 1678. Nimeguen is distinguished in history for other treaties of peace. The French were successful against the
British- under the duke of York, before Nimeguen, Oct. 28, 1794: but were
defeated by the British, with the loss of 500 killed, Nov, 8, following.
NITRIC ACID, formerly called aqta. foortis, first obtained in a separate state by
Raymond Lully, an alchemist, about A. D. 1287; but we are indebted to Cavendish, Priestley, and Lavoisier, for our present knowledge of its properties.
Mr. Cavendish demonstrated the nature of this acid, in 1785. Nitrous acid;
nearly similar to nitric, was discovered by Scheele, in 1771. Nitrous gas
was accidentally discovered by Dr. Hales. Nitrous Oxide Gas was discovered by Dr. Priestley, in 1776.
NOiR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 447
NOBILITY. The origin of nobility is referred to the Goths, who, after they
had seized a part of Europe, rewarded their heroes with titles of honor, to
distinguish them from the common people. The right of peerage seems to
have been at first territorial. Patents to persons having no estates were first
granted to Philip the Fair of France, A. D. 1095. George Neville, duke of
Bedford (son of John, marquess of Montague), ennobled in 1470, was degraded from the peerage by parliament, on account of' his utter want of
property, 19 Edward IV. 1478. Noblemen's privileges were restrained in
June 1773. See the various orders of nobility through the volume; see also
Peerage.
NOBILITY or FRANCE. The French nobility preceded that of England, and
continued through a long line, and various races of' kings, until the period
of the memorable revolution. The National Assembly decreed that hereditary nobility could not exist in a free state; that the titles of dukes, counts,
marquisses, knights, barons, excellencies, abbots, and others, be abolished,
that all citizens take their family names; liveries, and armorial bearings,
shall also be abolished, June 18, 1790. The records of the nobility, 600 volumes, were burned at the foot of the statue of Louis XIV., June 25, 1792. A
new nobility was created by the emperor Napoleon, 1808. The hereditary
peerage was abolished in that kingdom, December 27, 1831. See Flranzce,
NON-CONFORMISTS. The Protestants in England are divided into conforraists and non-conformists; or, as they are commonly denominated, churchmen
and dissenters. The former are those who conform to that mode of worship
and form of church-governmlent which are established and supported by the
state; the latter are those who meet for divine worship in places of their
own. The first place of meeting of the latter, in England, sWas established
at Wandsworth, near London, November 20, 1572. The name of non-conformists was taken by the Puritans, after the Act of Uniformity had passed,
August 24, A. D. 1662, when 2000 ministers of the established religion resigned, not choosing to conform to the Thirty-nine Articles.
NON-JURORS, IN ENGLAND. Persons who suppose that James II. was unjustly deposed, and who, upon that account, refused to swear allegiance to
the family that succeeded him. Among this class of persons were several
of the bishops, who were deprived in 1690. Non-jurors were subjected to a
double taxation, and were obliged to register their estates,'May 1723.
NOOTKA SOUND. Discovered by captain Cook in 1778. It was settled by
the British in 1786, when a few British merchants in the East Indies formed
a settlement to supply the Chinese market with furs; but the Spaniards, in
1789, captured two English vessels, and took possession of the settlement.
The British ministry made their demand for reparation, and the affair was
amicably terminated by a convention, and a free commerce was confirmed to
England in 1790.
NORFOLK ISLAND. A penal colony of England. It was discovered in 1774,
by captain Cook, who found it uninhabited, except by birds. The settlement was made by a detachment from Port Jackson, in 17 88, in Sydney bhay,
on the south side of the island. This has latterly been made the severest
penal colony of Great Britain.
NORMANDY. Anciently Neustria. From the beginning of the ninth century this country was continually devastated by the Scandinavians, called
Northmen or Normans, to purchase repose from whose irruptions Charles
the Simple of France ceded the dulchy to their leader Rollo, A. D. 905 to 912,
and from its conquerors it received its present name. Rollo was the first
duke, and held it as a fief of the crown of France, and several of his successors after him, till William, the seventh duke, conquered England, in
448 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [NOi
1066, from which time it became a province of England, till it was lost in
the reign of king John, 1204, and reunited to the crown of France. The
English, however, still keep possession of the islands on the coast, of which
Jersey and Guernsey are the principal.
NORITH-WEST PASSAGE. The attempt to discover a northwest passage was
made by a Portuguese named Cortereal, about A. D. 1500. - It was attempted
by the English in 1553; and the project was greatly encouraged by que an
Elizabeth, in 1585, in which year a company was associated in London, and
was called the " Fellowship olr the Discovery of the Northwest Passage."
The following voyages with this design, were undertaken, under British
navigators, in the years respectively stated:Sir Hugh Willoughby's expedition to Captain Parry, again in the IRec7a,
find a north-west passage to China, sails fiom Deptford - March 25, 1827
sailed from the Thameso May 20, 1553 And returns -Oct. 6, 187
Sir Martin Frobisher's attempt to find Capt. Ross arrived at HIull, on his rea north-west passage to China - 1576 turn from his arctic expeditl n, after
Captain Davis's expedition to find a an absence of follr years, ai.d when
north-west passage - - 1585 all hope of llle return had been nearBarentz's expedition - 1594 ly abandoned - Oct. 18, 1833
Weymouth and Knight's 1602 Capt. Back and his companions arrived
Hudson's voyages; the last undertalken at Liverpool fi-om their perilous Arc(See Hudson's Bay.) — 1610 tic land Expedition, alter having
Sir Thomas Button's - 1612 visited the Great Fish River, and exBaffin's.-See Bagfin's Bay - 1616 amined its course to the Polar Seas
Foxe's expedition - - - 1631 Sept. 8, 1835
[A number of enterprises undertaken Captain Back sailed from Chatham in
by various countries, followed.] comtmand of His Majesty's ship TerMiddleton's expedition - - 1742 rsor, on an exploring adverltltre to
Moore's and Smith's- - - 1746 Wager River. [Captain Back, in
Hearne's land expedition - -1769 the month of' Dec. 1835, was awardCaptain Phipps, afterwards lord Mul- ed, by the Geographical Society. the
grave, his expedition - - - 1773 king's annual premium for his polar
Captain Cook in the Resolsztions and discoveries and enterprise June 21, 18-'6
Discovery - - - July 1776 Dease and Simpson traverse the interMackenzie's expedition - - 1789 vening space between the discover-'
Captain Duncan's voyage - - 1790 ies of Ross and Parry, and establish
The Discovery, captain Vancouver, re- that there is a north-west passage
turned from a voyage of survey and Oct. 1839
discovery on the north-west coast of Sir John Franklin and capt. Crozier in
America - - Sept. 24, 1795 the Erebus and'Terror leave EngLieut. Kotzebue's expedition - Oct. 1815 land - - - May 24, 1-45
Captain Buchan's and lieut.. Franklin's Capt. Ross returned from an unsuccessexpedition in the Dor-othea and T7rent 1818 ful expedition in search of Franklin 1849
Captain Ross and lieut. Parry, in the Another expedition (one sent out by
Isabella and Alexander - - 1818 lady Franklin) in search of sir John
Lieuts. Parry and Liddon in the Hecla Franlin, consisting of two vessels,
and Griper - May 4, 1819 sailed from England, April-May 185C
They return to Leith - - Nov. 3, 1820 Still another, consisting of two vessels,
Capts. Parry and Lyon, in the sLary' the Advansce and Rescute, liberally
and IHecla - - - May 8. 1821 purchased for the purpose by Henry
Capt. Parry's third expedition with the Grinnell, a New York merchant, and
Hecla - - - May 8, 1824 manned at Government cost from the
Capts. Franklin and Lyon, after having U. S. navy, under command of lieut.
attempted a land expedition, again de Haven, sailed from New York
sail from Liverpool - Feb. 16, 1825 May 1850
NORTH CAROLINA, ONE OF THE, UNITED STATES. First permanent settlement at Albemarle, by emigrants from Virginia, who fled from religious pIlrThe gallant sir IHugh Willoughby tools his departure from Radcliffe, on his fatal voyage for
discovering the north-east passage to China. He sailed with great pomup by Greenwich, where.the
court then resided. Mutual honors were paid on both sides. The council and courtiers appeared
at. the windows, anct the people covered the shores. The young king, Edward VI., alone lost the
noble and novel sight. for he then lay on his death-bed; so that the principal object of the parade
was disappointed. Sir Hugh Willoughby was unfortunately entangled in the ice, and frozen to
death, on the coast of Lapland.-Tiackhlyt.
NUL ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 449
secution, about 1660. The district granted to lord Clarendon, who induced
the celebrated John Locke to prepare a constitution for it 1663. The chief
magistrate was called the palatine, and there was an hereditary nobility.
This constitution abolished, as defective, 1693. The two Carolinas purchased by the crown for ~17,500, and divided into North and South, in 1720.
NORWAY. Until the ninth century, Norway was divided into petty principalities, and was little known to the rest of Europe except by the piratical excursions of its natives. It was converted to Christianity in A. D. 1000. The
city of Bergen was founded in 1069. The kingdom was united to Denmark
in 1378; and the three kingdoms of Norway, Denmark and Sweden were
united, in 1439. Pomerania and Rugen were annexed to Denmark in exchange for Norway, in 1814, and on Nov. 4, in that year, Charles XIII. was
proclaimed king by the National Diet assembled at Christiapa. The two
countries of Sweden and Norway have since then been termed the Scandinavian Peninsula, of which Bernadotte was crowned king by the title of
Charles XIV., Feb. 5, 1818. See Sweden.
NOTABLES OF FRANCE. An assembly of the notables of France was convened by Calonne, the minister of Louis XVI., in 1788. The deranged state
of the king's finances induced him to convoke the notables, who assembled
Nov. 6, when Calonne opened his plan, but any reform militated too much
against private interest to be adopted. Calonne not being able to do any
good, was dismissed, and soon after retired to England: and Louis. having
lost his confidential minister, Mons. de Vergennes, by death, called Mons.
de Brienne, an ecclesiastic, to his councils. In the end, the States General
were called, and firom this assembly sprang the National Assembly, wi/ic/s
see. The notables were dismissed by the king, Dec. 12, 1788. The Spanish
notables assembled and met Napoleon (conformably with a decree issued by
him commanding their attendance,) at Bayonne, May 25, 1808. See Sprain.
ITOTARIES PUBLIC. They were first appointed by the primitive fathers of the
Christian church, to collect the acts or memoirs of the lives of the martyrs,
in the first century.-Dn Fresnoy. This office was afterwards changed to a
commercial employment, to attest deeds and writings, so as to establish their
authenticity in any other country.
NOVA SCOTIA. Settled in A. D. 1622, by the Scotch, under sir William Alexander, in the reign of James I. of' England, from whom it received the name
of Nova Scotia. Since its first settlement it has more than once changed
rulers and proprietors, nor was it confirmed to England till the peace of
Utrecht, in 1713. It was taken in 1745, and 1758; but was again confirmed
to England in 1760. Nova Scotia was divided into two provinces, in 1784;
and was erected into a bishopric in August, 1787. See Baroonets.
NOVEMBER. This was ancienly the ninth month of the year (whence its
name), but when Numa added the months of January and February, 713
B. c., the Romans had it for the eleventh, as it is now. The Roman senators
(for whose mean servilities even Tiberius, it is said, often blushed) wished
to call this month in which he was born, by his name, in imitation of Julius
Cmesar, and Augustus; but this the emperor absolutely refused, saying,
"What will you do, conscript fathers, if you have tk/irteen Cmesars 2"'
NOVI, BATTLE OF, in which the French army commanded by Joubert was defeated by the Russians under Suwarrow, with immense loss, Aug. 15, 1799.
Amonz 10,000 of the French slain was their leader, Joubert, and several
other distinguished officers. A second battle fought here between the Austrian and French armies, when the latter were signally defeated, January 8,
1800.
NULLIFICATION OF THE LAWS OF THE UNITED STATES. The right
450 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ OAT —
claimed by South Carolina, and various threats held out by the legislature
of that State, in 1832. Proclamation of president Jackson against the
Nullifiers, 1)ec. 10. A "State Rights" convention at Columbia, S. C..
same day. Calhoun resigned the office of vice-president of the United
States, Dec. 28, 1832. Nullification nullified by South Carolina convention in
consequence of' Mr. Clay's compromise tariff, March 11, 1834.
NUMANTINE WAR, AND SIEGE. The celebrated war of Numlantia with the
Romans was commenced solely on account of the latter having given refuge
to the Sigidians, their own allies, who had been defeated by the Romans,
141 B. c.-Livy. It continued for fourteen years; and though Numantia
was unprotected by walls or towers, it bravely withstood the siege. The,
inhabitants obtained some advantages over the Roman forces till Scipio Africanus was empowered to finish the war, and to see the destruction of' Numantia. He began the siege with an army of 60 000 men, and was bravely
opposed by the besieged, who were not more than 4000 men able to bear
arms. Both armies behaved with uncommon valor, and the courage of the
Numantines was soon changed into despair and fury. Their provisions began to fail, and they fed upon the flesh of their horses, and afterwards on
that of their dead companions, and at last were obliged to draw lots to kill
and devour one another; and at length'they set fire to their houses, and all
destroyed themselves, B. c. 133, so that not even one remained to adorn the
triumph of the conqueror.
NUNCIO. A spiritual envoy from the pope of Rome to Catholic states. In
early times they and legates ruled the courts of several of the sovereigns of'
Germany, France, and even England. The pope deputed a nuncio to the
Irish rebels in 1645. The arrival in London of a nuncio, and his admission
to an audience by James II., 1687, is stated to have hastened the Revolution.
NUNNERY. The first founded is said to have been that to which the sister of
St. Anthony retired at the close of the third century. The first founded in
France, near Poitiers, by St. BMarcellina, sister to St. Martin, A. n. 360. —Db
Fresnoy. The first in England was at Folkstone, in Kent, by Earclbald,
king of Kent, 630.-DeLgdale's LJMonasticon A'liCZicaqzt. See articles Abbeys
and Monasteries. The nuns were expelled from their convents in Germany;
in July, 1785. They were driven out of their convents in France, in Jan.,
1790.
0..
OATES TITUS, HIs PLOT. This Oates was a wicked man, at one time chaplain of a ship of war. Being dismissed the service for his immoral conduct,
he became a lecturer in London; and, in conjunction with Dr. Tongue, invented a pretended plot to assassinate Charles II., of which several persons,
Catholics, were accused, and upon false testimony, convicted and executed,
A. D. 1678. Oates was afterwards tried for perjury, (in the reign of James
II.) and being found guilty, he was fined, put in the pillory, publicly whipped from Newgate to Tyburn, and sentenced to imprisonment for life, 1685;
but was pardoned, and a pension granted him, 1689.
OATHS. The administration of an oath in judicial proceeclings was introduced
by the Saxons into England, A. D. 600.-Rapiz,. That administered to a
judge was settled 1344. Of supremacy, first administered to British subjects, and ratified by parliament, 26 Henry VIII., 1535. Of allegiance, first
framed and administered 3 James'I., 1605.-Slowe's Chi'ona. Of abjiuration,
being an obligation to maintain the government of king, lords, and commons, the Church of England, and toleration of Protestant dissenters, and
OGY 1 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 451
abljuring all Roman Catholic pretenders to the crown, 13 William III. 1701.
Oaths were taken on the Gospels so early as A. D. 528; and the words " So
help me God and all saints," concluded an oath until 1550.
OATHS, ANCIENT. The Greeks and Romans looked upon the infiingement of
an oath with still greater abhorrence than Christians; they permitted oaths
to be taken upon every object in which the person who swore had a
decided and sincere belief, upon all kinds of animals, fruits, and vegetables,
the stars, the sun, the moon, and other things, without rendering the oaths
less binding than if they had been sworn by Jupiter. Jaques Lydius has
left us a long catalogue of the numerous objects by which the ancients
swore. It was usual with them to swear by what they held most dear; as,
for instance, by their own heads, by that of their fiiend, or by those persons whom they loved most tenderly. The most sacred oath far above
any other was by the eyes of their mistress, by her kisses, by her hair.Ovid, 4ic.
OBELISK. The first mentioned in history was that of Rameses, king of
Egypt, about 1485 B. c. The Arabians call them Pharaoh's needles, and
the Egyptian priests the fingers of the sun; they differed very much as to
their costliness, magnitude and magnificence. Several were erected at Rome;
one was erected by the emperor Augustus in the Campus Martius, on the
pavement of which was a horizontal dial, that marked the hour, about
14 B.c.
OBSERVATORIES. The first is supposed to have been on the top of the
temple of Belus at Babylon. On the tomb of Osymandias, in Egypt, was
another, and it contained a golden circle 200 feet in diameter: that at
Benares was at least as ancient as these. The first in authentic history was
at Alexandria, about 300 a. c. The first in modern tinles was at Cassel,
1561. The Royal Observatory at Greenwich was founded by Charles II. A. D.
1675; and from the meridian of Greenwich all English astronomers make
their calculations.
First modern meridional instrument, Berlin, erected under Leibnitz's direcby Copernicus- - - D. 1540 tion - - - 1711
First observatory at Cassel -. - 1561 At Boloona - - 1714
Tycho 1Brahe's, at UJraniboturg - 1576 At Petersburg -- - 1725
Astronomlical tower at Copenlhagen 1657 Oxford, Dr. lcldclife - 1772
Itoyal (French) - - - 1667 Dublin, Dr. AndrcrerLs - 1783
Royal Observatory at Greenwich - - 1675 Cambridge, Egiland - 1824
Ob1servatory at Nuremberg - 1678 Camabridge, Mass.
At Uecht - - 1690 New Haven -
Cincinnati
OCTOBER. The eighth month in the year of Romulus, as its name imports,
and the tenth in the year of Numa, 713 B. c. From this time October has
still retained its first name, in spite of hll the different appellations which
the senate and Roman emperors would have given it. The senate ordered
it to be called Ptcatsti?s1s, in honor of Pcerusti'na, wife of Antoninus the
emperor; Cominmodus would have had it called I7eviCtss; and Donlitian
Dosssiteianus. October was sacred to Mars.
OI)ES are nearly as old as the lyre; they were at first extempore compositions
accompanying this instrument, and sung in honor of the gods. Perhaps
the most beautiful and sublime odes ever written, as well as the oldest, alre
those of the royal prophet Isaiah, on the fall of Babylon, composed about
757 B. c. The celebrated odes of Anacreon were composed about 532 B. c.;
and from his time this species of writing became usual. Anciently odcs
were divided into Strophe, Antistrophe, and Epode. This species of writing
is that of our court poets at this clay.,
OGYGES, DELUGE or. The Deluge so called, from which Attica lay waste
-200 years, occurred 1764 B. c. Many authorities suppose this to be no other
452 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ omI
than the universal deluge; but according to some writers, if it at all oecurred, it arose in the overflowing of one of the great rivers of the country.
See Deluge.
OHIO. One of the United States. First permnanently settled at Marietta,
April 1788; second settlement was Symmes's purchase, 6 miles below Cincinnati, 1789; third by French emigrants at Gallipolis, 1791; fourth by New
Englanders, at Cleveland and Comeant, 1796. First territorial legislature
met at Cincinnati, 1799. The Western Reserve, under jurisdiction of Connecticut, was sold by that State for the benefit of her " School fund" in
1800. Ohio formed her State Constitution and was admitted into the Union,
1802. Population in 1790, was 3,000; in 1800, 45,365; in 1810, 230,760; in
1830, 937,637; in 1840, 1,519,467.
OIL. It was used for burning in lamps as early as the epoch of Abraham,
about 1921 B. c. It was the staple commodity of Attica, and a jar full was
the prize at the Panathenmean games. It was the custom of the Jews to
anoint with oil persons appointed to high offices, as the priests and kings,
Psalm cxxxiii. 2; 1 Sam. x. 1; xvi. 13. The anointing with this liquid
seems also to have been reckoned a necessary ingredient in a festival dress.
RJtth iii. 3. The fact that oil, if passed through red-hot iron pipes, will be
resolved into a combustible gas, was long known to chemists; and after the
process of' lighting by coal-gas was made apparent, Messrs. Taylor and Martineau contrived apparatus for producing oil-gas on a large scale.
OLBERS. The asteroid of this name was discovered by M. Olbers, in 1802.
OLYMPIADS. The Greeks computed time by the celebrated era of the Olympiads, which date from the year 776 B. c., being the year in which Corcebus
was successful at the Olympic games. This era differed from all others in
being reckoned by periods of four years instead of single years. Each period of four years was called an Olympiad, and in marking a date, the year
and Olympiad were both mentioned. The second Olympiad began in
772; the third, in 768; the fourth, in 764; the fifth, in 760; the 10th in
740, &c.
OLYMPIC GAMES. These games, so famous among the Greeks, were instituted in honor of Jupiter. They were holden at the beginning of every
-fifth year, on the banks of the Alpheus, near Olympia, in the Peloponnesus,
now the Morea, to exercise their youth in five kinds of combats. Those
who were conquerors in these games were highly honored by their countrymen. The prize contended for was a crown imade of a peculiar kind cf
wild olive, appropriated to this use. The games were instituted by Pelops,
1307 B. c. They are also ascribed to an ancient Hercules; and were revived
by Iphytus among the Greeks, 884 B. c.-Dnfresnoy.
OMENS. See Aw'gury. Amphictyon was the first who is recorded as having
drawn prognostications from omens, 1497 B. c. Alexander the Great is said
to have had these superstitions; and also Mithridates the Great, celebrated for his wars with the Romans, his victories, his conquest of twentyfour nations, and his misfortunes. At the birth of this latter there were
seen, for seventy days together, two large comets, whose splendor eclipsed
that of the noonday sun, occupying so vast a space as the fourth part of
the heavens; and this omen, we are told, directed all the actions of Mithridates throughout his life, so much had superstition combined with nature
to render him great, 135 B. c. —JLstin.
OMINIBUSES. These vehicles, of which there are nearly 4000 in the Londoul
circuit, were introduced there by tn enterprisi6ig coach proprietor named
Shillibeer, and first licensed at Somerset house in July, 1829. They probably originated in Paris, where they are now also very numerous. In Neow
OPT ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 453
York, Boston, &c., they were common as early as 1830. There were 465
licensed in New York in 1849.
OPERA. Octavio Rinuccini, of Florence, was the inventor of operas, or of
-the custom of giving musical representations of comedy, tragedy, and other
dramatic pieces. Emrelio de Cavalero, however, disputed this honor with
him, A. D. 1590.-Nol v. Di. D Hii. is. Among the Venetians, opera was the
chief glory of their carnival. About the year 1669, the abbot Perrin obtained a grant from Louis XIV. to set up an opera at Paris, where, in 1672,
was acted Pomona. Sir William Davenant introdluced a species of opera in
London, in 1684. The first regularly performed opera was at York-buildings, in 1692. The first at Drury-lane was in 1705. The operas of Handel
were performed in 1735, and they became general in several of the theatres
a few years after. Among the favorite performances of this kind was Gay's
Beggar's Opera, first performed in'1727. It ran for sixty-three successive
nights, but so often offended the persons in power, that the lord-chamberlain
refused to license for performance a second part of it, entitled "Polly."
This resentment induced Gay's friends to come forward on its publication
with so handsome a subscription, that his profits amounted to 12001.,
whereas the Beggare's Opera had gained him only 4001.-Life of Gay.
OPORTO. By nature one of the most impregnable cities in Europe; the great
mart of Portuguese wine known as "Port." A chartered company for the
regulation of the Port-wine trade was established here in A. D. 1756. See
article Wines. The French under marshal Soult were surprised here by
lord Wellington, and defeated in an action fought May 11, 1809. The Miguelites attacked Oporto, and were repulsed by the Pedroites, with considerable loss, Sept. 19, 1832. See Portugal.
OPTICS. As a science, optics date their origin a little prior to the time of
Alhazen, an Arabian philosopher, who flourished early in the twelfth centnry. It has advanced rapidly since the time of Halley, and is now one of
our most flourishing as well as useful sciences.
Burning lenses known at Athens at [Jansen and Galileo have also been
least -.. a. c. 424 stated to be the inventors.]
Two of the leading principles known Cassegrainian reflector - - 1621
to the Platonists - 300 Law of refraction discovered by SnelltFirst treatise on, by Euclid, about 280 ins, about - - - A. ). 1624
The magnifying power of convex glass- Reflecting telescope, James Gregory - 1663
es and concave mirrors, and the pris- Newton - - 1666
matic colors produced by annular Motion and velocity of light discovered
glass, mentioned bySeneca, aboutA.D. 50 by Roemer, and after him by Cassini 1667
Treatise on Optics, by Ptolemy -. 120 [Its velocity demonstrated to be 190
Greatly imlproved by Alhazen - -1100 millions of miles in sixteen minutes.]
Hints for spectacles and telescopes giv- Double refraction explained by Barthoen by Roger Bacon about - - 1280 inus 1669
Spectacles (said to have been) invented Newton's discoveries - - 674
by Salvinus Armatus, of Pisa, before 1300 Telescopes with a single lens, by
Camera obscure said to have been in- Tschirnhausen, about - 1690
vented by Baptista Porta - - 1560 Polarization of light, Huygens, about. - 1692
Telescopes invented byLeonard Digges, Structure of the eye explained by Petit,
about -1571 about.1700
Telescope made by Jansen (who is said Achromatic telescope constructed by
also to have invented the micro- Mr. HIall (but not made public) in - 1733
scope), about - -1609 Constructed by Dollond, most likely
[The same instrument constructed by without any knowledge of Hall's - 1717
Galileo, without using the produc- Herschel's great reflecting telescope,
tion of Jansen] erected at Slouh - - - 1789
Astronomical telescope suggested by Camera lucida (Dr. Wollaston) - 1807
Kepler 1611 Ramase's reflecting telescope erected
Microscope, according to Huygens, in- at Greenwich - - 1820
vented by Drebbel, about -.1621
6P1TIC NERVES. The discoverer of the optic nerves is reputed to have been
N. Varole, a surgeon and physician of Bologna, about A. D. 1538. —NoTv.
Dict.
454 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. l Ri>
ORACLES. The most ancient oracle was that of Dodona; but the most famous was the oracle of Delphi, 1263 B. c. See Delphi. The heathen oracles
were always delivered in such dubious expressions or terms, -that let what
would happen to the inquirer, it might be accommodated or explained to
mean the event that caune to pass. Anmong the Jews there were several
sorts of oracles; as first, those that were delivered vivcv voce, as when God
spoke to Moses; secondly, prophetical dreams, as those of Joseph; thirdly,
visions, as when a prophet in an ecstasy, being properly neither asleep nor
awake, had supernatural revelations; fourthly, when they were accompanied
with the ephod or the pectoral worn by the high priest, who was indued
with the gift of foretelling future things, upon extraordinary occasions',
fifthly, by consulting the prophets or messengers sent by God. At the beginning of Christianity, prophecy appears to have been very common; but
it immediately afterwards ceased.-Lemipriere; Pardon.
ORANGE, HousE OF. This illustrious house is as ancient as any in Europe,
and makes a most distinguished figure in history. Otho I., count of Nassau, received the provinces of Guelderland and Zutphen with his two wives,
and they continued several hundred years in the family. Otho II. count of
Nassau Dilemnbourg, who died in 1369, got a great accession of territories
in the Low Countries by his wife Abelais, daughter and heiress of Godfrey
count of Vianden; and his grandson Gilbert, having married Jane, daughter
and heiress of Philip, baron of Leck and Breda, added these to his other
domains in 1404. The title of prince of Orange came first into the Nassau
family by the marriage of Claude de Chalons with the count of Nassau
in 1530. William prince of Orange, afterwards William III. of England,
landed at Torbay, with an army, Nov. 5, 1688, and was crowned with his
queen, the princess Mary, daughter of James II., April 11, 1689.
ORATORIOS. Their origin is ascribed to St. Philip Neri. The first oratorio
in London was performed in Lincoln's-Inn theatre, in Portugal-street,'iri
1732.
ORCHARDS. As objects of farming or field culture, orchards do not appear
to have been adopted until about the beginning of the seventeenth century,
although they had doubtlessly existed in Great Britain for many ages previously, as appendages to wealthy religious establishments.-Loudon.
ORDEAL. The ordeal was known among the Greeks. With us it is a term
signifying the judiciary determination of accusations for criminal offences
by fire and water. It was introduced into England with other superstiticnJ
taken from the codes of the Germans. That by fire was confined to the
upper classes of the people, that of water, to bondsmen and rustics. Hence
the expression of going through fire and water to serve another. Women
accused of incontinency formerly underwent the ordeal, to prove their innocence. A prisoner who pleaded not guilty, might choose whether he would
put himself for trial upon God and his country, by twelve men, as at this
day, or upon God only; and then it was called the judgment of God, presuming he would deliver the innocent. The accused were to pass barefooted and blindfold over nine red-hot ploughshares, or were to carrtl
burning-irons in their hands; and accordingly as they escaped, they were
judlged innocent or guilty, acquitted or condemned.* The ordeal was used
from Edward the Confessor's time to that of Henvy III. It was abol-' The water ordeal was performed in either hot or cold: in cold water, the parties suspected
were adjudged innocent, if their bodies were borne up by the water, contrary to the course of
nature; in hot water, they were to put their bare arms or legs into scalding water. which if they
brought out without hurt, they were taken to be innocent of the crime.
oR R] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 455
ished by a royal proclamation, 45 Henry III., 1261. —Lalw Dict. Rymenr's
ORDINATION. In the ancient church there was no such thing as a vague and
absolute ordination; but every one ordained had a church whereof' he was
to be clerk or priest. In the twelfth century, they grew more remiss, and
ordained without any title or benefice. The church of Rome is episcopal;
and the Church of England so far acknowledges the validity of the ordlination of that church, that a Catholic priest is only required to abjure its peculiar distinctions, and he can officiate without re-ordination.
OREGON. Territory of the United States, on the N. W. coast of America.
First visited by the Spaniards under Juan de Fuca, 1592; by sir Francis
Drake, 1578; by Vancouver, 1792. The Columbia river discovered and entered by Capt. Gray, of merchant ship Columbia, of Boston, United States,
May 7, 1792; overland expedition of Lewis and Clarke, sent out by Jefferson,
1804-5-6. Missouri Fur Company established at St. Louis, 1808; Pacific Fur
Company (J. J. Astor) at New York, 1810; Astoria founded it the mouth of
the Columbia, by Astor's colony, 1811: sold to the N. W. Company, 1813:
occupied by the British until restored by treaty of Ghent, 1815; operations of
the Hudson's Bay Company (English) commenced 1821; the territory divided at the 49th parrallel of lat., leaving all north of that line, with the whole
of Vancouver's island to Great Britain, remainder to the United States, by Mr.
lMcLane's treaty, signed at London, ratified by the Senate, 41 to 14, June 18,
1846. Population at that time about 20,000. Territorial government established by the U. S. Congress, Aug. 2-13, 1848.
ORGANS. The invention of the organ *is attributed to Archimedes, about
220 a. c.; but the fact does not rest on sufficient authority. It is also attributed to one Ctesibius, a barber of Alexandria, about 100 B. c. The
organ was brought to Europe from the Greek empire, and was first applied
to religious devotions, in churches, in A. D. 658.-Bellar'mine. Organs were
used in the Western churches by pope Vitalianus, in 658.-Ammoxiquhs. It
is affirmed that the organ was known in France in the time of Louis I., 815,
when one was constructed by an Italian priest. St. Jetrome mentions an
organ with twelve pairs of bellows, which might have been heard a mile
off; and another at Jerusalem which might have been heard on the Mount
of Olives. The organ at Haerlem is one of the largest in Europe; it has 60
stops, and 8000 pipes. At Seville is one with 100 stops, and 5300 pipes.
The organ at Alnsterdam has a set of pipes that imitate a chorus of human'voices.
ORGANS IN ENGLAND. That at York-minster is the largest; and the organ in the
Music-hall, Birmingham, the next; both equal, perhaps, to that at Harlaem.
ORKNEY AND SHETLAND ISLES. These islalnds were ceded by Denmark
to Scotland in A. D. 839, and were confirmed to James III., for a sum of
money, in 1468. The Orkneys were the ancient Orcades; and united with
Shetland, they now form one of the Scotch counties. The bishopric of
Orkney was founded by St. Servanus early in the fifth century, some affirm
by St. Colm. It ended with the abolition of episcopacy in Scotland, about
1689.
ORLEANS, SIEGE OF, by the English, under John Talbot, earl of Salisbury,
Oct. 12, 1428. The city was bravely defended by Gaucour, the more so as
its fall would have ruined the cause of Charles VI., king of France; and it
was relieved and the siege raised, by the intrepidity and heroism of Joan
of Are, afterwards surnamed the Maid of Orleans, April 29, 1429. Siege
of Orleans, when the duke of' Guise was killed, 1563.
9RRERY. The employment of planetary machines to illustrate and explain
~56 THE WOCRLD)S PROGRESS. [ovl-.the motions of the heavenly bodies, appears to have been coeval with the
construction of the clepsydrT and other horological automata. Ptolemy
devised the circles and epicycles that distinguish his system about A. n. 13.
The planetary clock of Fin6e, was begun A. nD. 1553. The planetarium of
De Rheita was formed about 1650. The Orrery, so called, awas invented by
Charles, earl of Orrery; but perhaps with more justice it is ascribed to Mr.
Rowley of Lichfield, whom his lordship patronized, 1670. This Orrery has
been greatly improved of late years.
OSTEND. This town is famous for the long siege it sustained against the Spaniards, from July 1601 to September 1604, when it surrendered by an honorable capitulation. On the death of Charles II. of Spain the French seized
Ostend; but, in 1706, after the battle of Ramilies, it was retaken by-thie
allies. It was again taken by the French in 1745, but restored in 1748. In
the war of 1756, the French garrisoned this town for the empress-queen
Maria Theresa. In, 1792, the French once more took Ostend, which they
evacuated in 1793, and repossessed in 1794.
OSTRACISM. From the Greek word Osl'acov, an oyster; a mode of proscription at Athens, where a plurality of ten voices condemned to ten years'
banishment those who were either too rich, or had too much authority, for
fear they might set, up for tyrants over their native country, but without
any confiscation of their goods or estate. This custom is said to have been
first introduced by the tyrant Hippias; by others it is ascribed to Clysthenes, about 510 B. c. The people wrote the names of those whom they
most suspected upon small shells; these they put into an urn or box, and
presented it to the senate. Upon a scrutiny, he whose name was oftenest
written was sentenced by the council to be banished, ab aris etfocis. But
this law at last was abused, and they who deserved best of the commonwealth fell under the popular resentment, as Aristides noted for his justice,
Miltiades for his victories, &c. It was abolished by ironically proscribino
Hyperbolus, a mean person.
OTAHEITE, OR TAHITI. Discovered in 1767, byWallis, who called it George th
Third Island. Captain Cook came hither in 1768, to observe the transit oi
Venus; sailed round the whole island in a boat, and staid three months: it
was visited twice afterward by that celebrated.l navigator. See Cook. Omai,
a native of this island, was brought over to England by captain Cook, and
carried back by him, in his last voyage. In 1799, king Pomare ceded the
district of Mataivai to some English missionaries. Queen Polmare conmpelled to place herself under the protection of France, Sept. 9, 18-13. She
retracts, and Otaheite and the neighboring island are taken possession of Dy
admiral Dupetit-Thouars in the name of the French king, Nov. 1843. Seizure of Mr. Pritchard, the English consul, March 5, 1844.
OTTERBURN, BATTLE OF, fought in 1388, between the English under the earl
of Northumberland and his two sons, and the Scots under sir William Douglas, who was slain by Henry Percy, surnamed Hotspur; but the Scots obtained the victory, and the two'Percies were made prisoners. On this battle
the ballad of Chevy Chease is founded. — Walsinghtczm.
OTTOMAN EMPIRE. The sovereignty of the Turks, founded by Othma.r 1.
on the ruin of the empire of the eastern Greeks, A. D. 1293. See Tor1:ej.
OVATION. An inferior triumph which the Romans allowed the generals of
their army whose victories'were not considerable. He ewho was thus rewarded, entered the city with a nlyrtle crown upon his head. that tree being
consecrated to Venus; wherefore when Marcus Crassus was decreed the
honor of an ovation, he particularly desired it as a favor of the senate to be
allowed a laurel crown instead of a myrtle one. This triumph was called
ovation, because the general offered a sheep when he came to the capitfc1
CA.5l ] DICTIONARY O DATES. 457
whereas in thfe great triumph he offered a bull. Publius Posthumius
Tubertus was the first who was decreed ail ovation, 503 r. c.
OWHYHEE oit HAWAII, ONE OF rl'E SANDWICH ISLANDS. Discovered by
captain Cook in 1778. Here this illustrious seaman fell a victim to a sudden
resentment of the natives. A boat havine been stolen by one of the islanders, the captain went on shore to seize the king, and keep him as a hostage
till the boat was restored. The people, ho-wever, were not disposed to submit to this insult; their resistance brought on hostilities, and captain Cook
and some of his companions were killed, Feb. 14, 1779.
OXFORD UNIVERSITY. This university is supposed by some to have, been
a seminary for learning before the time of Alfied, and that it owed its revival and consequence to his liberal patronage. Others state that though
the university is ascribed to Alfred, yet that no regular institution deserving
the name existed even at the period of the Norman conquest.
COLLEGES. bishop of Winchester; first called St.
All Souls' College, founded by Henry Mary of Winchester - - 1375
Chichely, abp. of Canterbury A. D. 1437 Oriel College. King Edward II.
Baliol. John Baliol, lint., and Deborah Adam de Brom; archdeacon of Stow 1334
his wife; he was father to Baliol icing Pembroke. Thos. Teesdale, and R.
of the Scots -1263 Whitwick, clerk - 1620
Brazen-nose. William Smith, bishop Queen's College. Robert Eglesfield,
of Lincoln, and Sir Richard Sutton - 1509 clerk, confessor to queen Philippa,
Christ Church. Cardinal Wolsey, 1525; consort of Edward III. -. - 1340
and afterwards by Henry VIII. - - 1532 St. John's. Sir Thomas White - 1557
Corpus Christi. Richard Fox, bishop Trinity. Sir Thomas Pope - -1554
of Winchester - - - 1516 University. Said to have been founded
Exeter. Walter Stapleton, earl of Ex- by king Alfred, 872; founded by Wileter - - 1314 liam of Durham - 1172
Ilertford College - - 1312 Wadham. Nicholas Wadham, and
Jesus College. Dr. Hugh Price; queen Dorothy his wife.. -1612
Elizabeth - - - 1571 Worcester. Sir-Thomas Coke of BentLincoln College. Richard Fleming, ley in Worcestershire; it was orlg1427; finished by Rotheram, bishop inally called Gloucester College -1714
of Lincoln - - 1475 HALLS.
Magdalen. Waynfilete, bishop of Win- St. Albans - - 1547
chester -1458 St. Edmund's - - 1269
Merton (College. Walter de Merton, St. Mary's - - - -1616
bishop of Rochester - - 1274 St. Mary Magdalen - - - 1602
New College. William of Wykeham, New Inn I-all - - - 1392
QXYGEN AIR oa GAS. One of the most important agents in the chemical
phenomena of nature, and the processes of art, discovered by Dr. Priestley,
Aug. 1774.
P.
PADLOCKS. This species of lock was invented by Bechar at Nuremberg in
A. D. 1540.
PAGANISM. Pagans, in the Scriptures called the heathen, idolaters and gentiles, are worshippers of idols, not agreeing in any set form or points of belief, except in that of one God supreme, in which point all travellers assure
us they concur, and their having gods is a demonstrative proof of that belief. Constantine ordered the Pagan temples to be destroyed throughout
the Roman empire, A. D. 331; and Paganism was finally overthrown in the
reign of Theodosius the Younger, about 390. — Tillemoset.
PAINTING. An art, according to Plato, of the highest antiquity in Egypt.'asymantdyas (See,gFypt) causes his exploits to be represented in painting;
210 B. c.- Usher?. Pausias of' Sicyon was the inventor of the encaustic, a
method of burning the colors into wood or ivory, 335 B. c. The ancients
considered Sicyon the nursery of painters. Antiphiles, an Egyptian, is said
to have been the inventor of the grotesque, 332 B. c.-Pliny. The art was
20
458 THE WORILD'S PROGRESS. [ "aL
introduced at Rome from Etruria. by Quintus Fabius, who on that account
was styled Pictor, 291 B. c.-Liry.* The first excellent pictures. were
brought from Corinth by Mulmmius, 146 B. c. After the death of Augustus,
not a single painter of eminence appeared for several ages; Ludius, who
was very celebrated, is supposed to have been the last, about A. D. 14. Painting on canvas seems to have been known at Rome in A. D. 66. Bede, the
Saxon historian, who died in 735, knew something of the art. It rev ved
about the close of the 13th century, and Giovanni Cimabue, of Florence, is
awarded the honor of its restoration. It was at once encouraged and generously patronized in Italy. John Van Eyck, of Bruges, and his brother
Hubert, are regarded as the founders of the Flemish school of paintinl ir
oil, 1415. —Di F'esy(7Jy. Pauld Uccello was the first who studied perss)ective. The earliest mention of the art in England, is A. D. 1523,.about whicI
time Henry VIII patronized Holbein, and invited Titian to his court.
PAINTING IN THE UNITED STATES. The first practising artist of celebrity
was John Watson (born in Scotland, 1685), who commenced painting portraits in New Jersey, 1715. Nathaniel Stmybert, of Edinburgh, began in
Boston, 1728. Benjamin West was the first native American artist; born in
Chester County, Pennsylvania, 1708: painted his first portrait in Lancaster,
Pa., 1753. John Singleton Copley, born in Boston, 1738; first painted in
1760: he was the father of lord Lyndhnrst, lord chancellor of' Great Britain.
Chas. W. Peale (born in Maryland, 1741), Gilbert Charles Stuart (Rhode
Island, 1754), John Trumbull (Connecticut, 1756), William Dunlap (Neowi
Jersey, 1766), E. G. Malbone (Rhode Island, 1777), were the next artists
in succession in the United States. See Dunlcap's Arts of Desigw, &ec.
PALATINE. A German dignity. William the Conqueror made his nephew
Hugh D'Abrincis, count palatine of Chester, with the title of earl, 10T7.
Edward III. created the' palatine of Lancaster, 1376. See Lanccaster, DuIc/i
of, The bishoprics of Ely and Durham were also made county palatines.
PALATINES AND SUABIANS. About 7000 of these poor Protestants, fron
the banks of the Rhine, driven from their habitations by the French, arrive(l
in England,'and were encamped on Blackheath and Camberwell common; a
brief was granted to collect alms for them. 500 families went under the
protection of the government to Ireland, and settled chiefly about Limericlk
where parliament granted them 24 0001. for their support. 3000 were sen.
to New York and Hudson's Bay, but not having been received kindly by the
inhabitants, they ewent to Pennsylvania, and being there greatly encourliged
by the Quakers, they invited over some thousands of German and Swis
Prote ttants, who soon made this colony more flourishing than any other,'
Anne, 1709. —A?der1son.,
PALLADIUM. The statue of Pallas, concerning which ancient authors dis:
gree. Some say it fell from heaven, near the tent of Ilus. as he was bbild
ing Ilium; but oh its preservation depended the safety of Troy; which th.
oracle of' Apollo declared should never be taken so long as the palladiunl
was found within its walls. This fatality being made known to the Greeks
they contrived to steal it away (luring the Trojan war, 1184 B. c., thougl:
some maintain, that it was only a statue of similar size and shape. and tha;
the real palladium was conveyed from Troy to Italy by Eneas, 1183 a. c.
*Parrhasius of Ephesus and Zeuxis were cotemporary painters. These artists once cont.ende'
for pre-eminence in their profiession. and when they exhibited their respective pieces, the birc6
came to peck the grapes which Zeuxis had painted. Parrhasius then produced hlis piece, an,
Zeuxis said.'IRemove the curtain, that we may see the painting."' The curtain itself was t.i.
painting, and Zeuxis aclknowleed ci himself to be conquered, exclaiming,' Zeuxis has deceive,
the birds; but Parrhasius has deceived Zeuxis!" Parrhasius dressed io a purple robe, and wor
a crown of gold, calling himself king of painters, 415 a. c.-Plhtfarccr.
PAP ] DICTIONARY OF DATEIS. 459
and preserved by the Romans with the greatest secrecy in the temple of
Vesta, and esteemed the destiny of' Rome.
PALMAI SUNDAY. When Christ made his triumphal entry into JurusalMm,
multitudes of' the people who were come to the ibast of' the Passover, took
branches of the palll-tree, and went forth to meet him, with ac;lamations
and hosannas, A. D. 33. In memory of this circumstance it is usual, in popish
countries, to carry palms on the Sunday before Easter; hence called Palmn
Sunday. Conquerors were not only accustomed to carry palm-trees in their
hands; but the Romans, moreover. ini their triumphs, sometimes wore togffa
pacllLtca, in which the figures of the palm-trees were interwoven.
PALMYRA, RuINs oF, in the deserts of Syria, discovered by some English
travellers from Aleppo, A. D. 1678. The ruins of Palnyra, which are chiefly
of' white marble, prove it to have been more extensive and splendid than
even Rome itself. It is supposed to have been the Tadmor in the wilder-.ness built by Solomon. Zenobia, the queen of Palmyra, resisted the Roman
power in the timne of Aurelian, who having made himself master of the
place, caused all the inhabitants to be destroyed, and gave the pillage of the
city to the soldiers. The stupenduous ruins of this city were visited, in
17 51, by Mr. Wood, who published an account of them in 1753. Mlr. Bruce,
on ascending a neighboring mount, was struck with the most magnificent
sight which, he believes, ever mortal saw: the immense plains below were
so covered with the grandest buildings (palaces and temples), they seemed
to touch one another.
PALO-ALTO, BATTLE OF. See Battles.
PANDECTS. A digest of the civil lan' made by order of Justinian, about A. D.
50-4. These pandects were accidentally discovered at Amalfi, A. D. 1137;
they were removed from Pisa in 1416; and are now preserved in the library
of Medici at Florence, as the PacdectCe Floreetbilce.
PANORAMA. This ingenious and useful species of exhibition is the invention
of Robert Barker. Panoramas are bird's-eye views painted in distemper
round the wall of a circular building, with a striking resemblance to reality.
In 1788, Mr. Barker exhibited at Edinburgh a view of that city, being the
first picture of' the kind. He then commenced similar exhibitions in London, having adopted the name of' PcaLorebcac,' to attract notice, and was
ultimately enabled to build commodious premises in Leicester-square for
-that purpose. He died 1806. The panorama of the Mississippi, by Banvard,
a self-taught Ainmerican artist, was a gigantic undertaking, without precedent
in dimensions, coimpleted about 1846; silce which numerous similar works
have been achieved.
PANTHEON AT ROME. A temple built by Augustus Csesar, some say by
Agrippa. his son-in-law, 25 a. c. It was in a round form, having niches in
the wall, w'vere the particular image or representation of a particular god
was set up; the gates were of brass, and bealms covered Iwith gilt brass, and
the roof covered with silver plate. Pope Boniface III. dedicated it to the
Virgin Maly, and all the saints, by the name of St. Mary de la Rotunda.
PAINsTOMIMES. They vwere representations by gestures and attitudes among
the ancients. They were introduced on the Roman stage by Pylades and
Bathyllus. 202. c.; and were then considered as the most expressive part of
stage performances.- Us/he. Pantomime dances were introduced about the
samc time.-Idelm. Representation by gestulre and action only, is contemporaneous with our stage.
PAPER. See PrFpsylps. Paper is said to have been invented in China. 170
B. C. It was first made of cotton, about A. D. 1000; and of rags in 1319.
White coarse paper was made by sir John Spelilman, a German, at Dartford,
460 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ AII
in England, 33 Eliz., 1590; and here the first paper-mills were erected.Stowe. Paper for writing and printing, manufactured in England, and an
act passed to encourage it, 2 William III., 1690; before this time we paid
for these articles to France and Holland 100.0001. annually. The French
refugees taught our people, who had made coarse brown paper almost exclusively, until they camle among us. White paper was first made by us in
1690.-Andersoel. Paper-making by a machine was first suggested by Louis
Robert, who sold his model to the celebrated M. Didot, the great printer.
The latter brought it to England, andchere, conjointly with MI. Fourdrinier,
he perfected the machinery. MN. Fourdrinier obtained a patent for nianufacturing paper of an indefinite length, in 1807; it had previously been made
tediously by the hand. A sheet of' paper was made 13,800 feet long, and
four feet wide, at Whitehall-mills, Derbyshire, in 1830.
PAPER-HANGINGS. Stamped paper for this purpose was first made in Spain
and Holland, about A. D. 1555. Made of Velvet and floss for hanging apartments, about 1620. The manufacture of this kind of paper rapidly imprrved
in this country from early in the eighteenth century; and it has now been
brought to such perfection that rich stained paper is made at twelve shJllings for one yard, and the common kinds a dozen yards for one shilling.
PAPYRUS, the reed from which was made the celebrated paper of Egypt r.nd
India, used for writings until the discovery of parchment about 190 B. ci
Ptolemy prohibited the exportation of it from Egypt, lest Eumenes of Pergamus should make a library equal to that of Alexandria. A manuscript.
of the Antiqtities of Josephns on papyrus of inestimable value was aimong
the treasures seized by Bonaparte in Italy, and sent to the National Libiary
at Paris; but it was restored in 1815.
PARCHMENT. Invented for writing books by Eumenes (some say by Attalusof Pergamus, the founder of the celebrated library at Pergamus, formed on
the model of the Alexandrian, about 190 a. c. Parchment-books from lhis
time became those most used, and the most valuable as well as oldest in the
world are written on the skins of goats. It should be mentioned that the
Persians, and others, are said to have written all their records on skins long
before Eumenes's time.
PARDONS. General pardons were proclaimed at coronations; first by Edward
III., in 1327. The king's power of pardoning is said to be derived a lege
sucn diznitatis; and no other person has power to remit treason or felonies.
stat. 27 Henry VIII., 1535. In democracies there is no power of pardoning;
hence Blackstone mentions this prerogative to be one of the greatest ad,-antages of a monarchy above any other form of government. But the king
cannot pardon a nuisance to prevent its being abated; or pardon where private justice is concerned.-Blacckstoqne. A pardon cannot follow an impeacl
ment of the House of Commons.-Haydb?. In the United States, the.,pa.
doning power is vested in the governors of the several states-a pracztic
which upsets Blackstone's theory.
PARIAN MARBLES. The chronology of the Parian Marbles was composerc
264 B. c. The Parian Marbles were discovered in the Isle of Paros, 4. n.
1610. They were brought to England, and were presented to the universitr
of Oxford, by Thomas Howard, lord Arundel, whence they are called thi
Arundelian Marbles, wlticl see.
PARIS. At the time of the Roman invasion, Paris was only a miserable town
ship. It began to be called the city of the Parisii, A. D. 380. Clovis aixe(
upon it as the capital of his states in 507. This city was several times ra
vagecl by the Normans; and in 1420 was taken by the English, who held i
fifteen years. More than 50,000 persons died of famine and plague in 1438
when th.e hun gry wolves entered the city and committed, we are told, i're
PAri ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 461
devastation. The events in connection with this great city wvill be found
under their respective heads.
St. Denis founded A.. 613 The Luxembourg, by Mary ofMedicis - 1594
Rebuilt - - -Hospital of Invalids - - -1595
Clhurch of Notre Dame built - - 170'l'he Hjtel Dieu Iounded - 1601
The Louvre built (see Lozvse) -1522 Tlhe Palsis-ltoyal built - - 1610
Iotel de Ville - - - 15:31 The Val-de-Grace - - 1645
The Boulevards commenced - 1536 Arch fSt. Denis erected - -1672
Fountain of the Innocents - - 1 51 The Palace ol' the Deputies - 1722
The Tluileries built (see Tuileries) - 1564 The MAilitary Schlol - - 1751
The Pont MNeuf begun - - 1578 The Pantheon; St. Genevieve - -1764
Fortifications of Paris, a continuous wall embracing both banks of the Seine,
-,nd detached forts, with an evceintte of 154 leagues, were commenced in Dec.
1840, and completed March. 1846, at an expense exceeding ~5,000,000 sterling. See Francce.
PARK, MUNGO, Ins TRAVELS. This enterprising traveller set sail on his first
voyage to Africa, under the patronage of the African Society, to trace the
source of the river Niger, May 22, 1795; and returned Dec. 22, 1797, after
having encountered great dangers, without his journey through intertrouical regions having enabled him to achieve the glreat olbject of his ambition.
He again sailed from Portsmouth on his second voyage, Jan. 30, 1804, appointetl to a new expedition by government; but never returned. The accounts of his murder on th.z Niger were a long time discredited; unhappily
however, they were at length too well authenticated by later intelligence.
It appears that Park and his party were attacked by the natives at Boussa,
and all killed, with the exception of one slave.
PARKIS. The Romans attached parks to their villas. Fulvius Lupinus, Pompey, and Hortensius, among others, had large parks. In England, the first
great park of whllich particular mention is made, was that of Woodstock,
fbrmed by Henry I., 1125. The parks of London are in a high degree essential to the health of its immense population, St. James's Park was drained
by Henry VIII., 1537. It was imnproved, prlanted. and made a thoroughfare
for public, use 1668. The Green Park forms a ipart of the ground inclosed by
Henry VIIi. In Hyde Pa-rk, the sheet of water called the Serpentine River,
although in the form of a parallelogram, was made between 1730 and 1733,
by order of queen Caroline, consort of George II. This queen once inquired
of the first Mr. Pitt (afterwards the earl of Chatham), how much it would
cost to shut up the parks as private grounds. He replied, "Three crowns,
your majesty." She took the hint, and the design was never afterwards entertained.
PARLIAMENT, IMPERIAL, oF GREAT BRITAIN. It derives its origin
from the Saxon general assemblies, called Witlenacenieots; but their constitution totally differed, as well as the title, which is more modern, and is taken
fnom parile la meet, which in the Norman law-style signifies to speak one's
msicd. This at once denotes the etssence of British parliaments. The name
was applied to the general assemblies of the state under L.ouis VII. of France,
about the middle of the twt lfth century, but it is said not to have appeared
Mn our law till its mention itl the statute of Westminster I., 3 Eclward I., A. D.
1272; and yet Coke declaretl in his Institutes, and spoke to the same effect,
when speaker (A. D. 1592): tliat this name was used even in the time of
Edward the Confessor, 1041. The first summons by writ on record was directed to the bishop of Salisbury,. John, 1205. The first clear account we
Lave of the representtatives of tioe people formting a house of commoiins, was
in the 43rd Henry III., 1258, when it was settled, by the statutes at Oxford,
that twelve persons should be chosen to represent tihe conmmons in the three
parliamlents, whichl by the sixth statute, were to be held yearly. —Bertoe?'s
-Avlnals. The general representation by knights, citizens, and burgesses, took
462 THE WORLD;S PROGRESS. [ cAS
place 49 Henry III., 1265.-Dlqgdale's SzLmnaonses to Partiaze't, edrt. 1685.
Tht power and juriscliction of parliament are so transcendlent and absolute,
that it cannot be confined, either for causes or persons, wsithin any bouls.
It hath sovereign and uncontrollable authority in making and repealing
laws. It can regulate or new-monoel the succession to tle crown. as was done
in the reigns of Henry VIII. and William III. It can alter and establish the
religion of the country, as was done in the reigns of:Henry VIII., Edward
VI.. Mary, and Elizabeth.-Sir Edlvard Coke.
PARMA. Formed by the ancient Etrurians. It was made a duchy (with Placentia) A. D. 1545. It fell to Spain by Phillip V.'s marriage with Elizabeth
Farnese, 1714. The duke of Parma was raised to the throne of Tuscany,
with the title of king of' Etruria, in Feb. 1801. Parma was afterwards tunited to France (with Placentia and Guastalla), and on the fall of Napoleowas conferred on Maria Louisa, the ex-empress, by the treaty of Fontaine —
bleau, April 5, 1814. Battle of Parmlla: the confederates Enlllancd, France,
and Spain, against the emperor; indecisive, both armies claiming the vict')ry,
June 29, 1734. Great battle of Parma, in which the French, under Mlacdonalcl, were defeated by Suwarrow, with the loss of 10.000 men, and four
generals, July 12 1799. Maria Louisa died Dec. 17, 1847, and the duke of
Lucca succeeds by previous comnpact. The new duke refulses petitions for
reforms; Parma occupied by Austri an soldiers, Dec. 21, 1847. The pebp'le
revolt; barricades, and slaughter, March 20. The duke'appoints a regency;
flees; is brought back; the dcnchy proclailmed to be annexed to Piedmont,
M.iarch 20. 1848. The duke promises to join the leagne against Austria and
is then liberated, April 1; 18-8, but is deposed, April 9.
PARRICIDE. There was no law against it in ancient Rome, such a crimle not
being supposed possible. About 500 years after Nunma's reign, L. Ostir
having killed his fatherl the Roomans first scourged the parricide; theL sewed
him up in a leathern sack made air-tight. with a live dog. a cockl, a vitperx., a'i-d
an ape, and thus cast him into the sea. The old Egyptians used to run shlarp
reeds into every part of the bodies of parricides; and after having tlllus
wounded them, threw them upon a heapl of thorns. and set fire to them. In1
France, before the execution of the ciimninal, the hand was cut ofE
PARTHIA. The Parthians were originally a tribe of Scythians. who, beingo
exiled as their name implies, from their own country, settled near Hyrcania.
Arsases laid the foundation of' an empire which ultimately extended over
all Asia, 250 B. C.; and at one time the Parthians disputed the empire of the
world with the Romans, and could never be wholly subdued by that naion,
who had seen no other people upon earth unconquered by their alrms. The
last king was Artabanus V.. who being, killed A. D. 2'29. his territories werec
annexed to the new kingdonm of Persia, under Artaxerxes.
PARTITION TREATIES. The first treaty between England and Hollsanu
for regulating the Spanish succession. was signed Oct. 11, 1698; and the
second (between France, England, and Holland, declaring the arlchdulke
Charles pressumptive heir of the Spanish monarchy, Joseph FerdinaLncd haLving died in 1699), March 13, 1700. Treaty for the partition of Poland: thle'
first was a secret convention between Russia and Prussia, Feb, 17, 1772''thl-i
second, between the same powers and Austria, Aug. 5. same year; thle,it?.,
was between Russia. Austria. and Prussia, Nov. 25. 1795. There were otheli
similar treaties relating to Poland, but not under this name.
PASQUIN-ADES. This naime. which is given to humorounslibels, oliginatc- iru
this way:-At the stall of a cobbler named Pasquin, at Roml. a number O.
idle persons used to assemble to listen to the pleasant sallies of Pasquin. and
to relate little anecdotes in their turn, and indulge themselves in raillery a',
the expense of the passers-by. After the cobbler's death in the sixteen"c
-itv ] DICTIONARlY OF DATES. 463
century, the statue of' a gladiator was found near his stall, to which the people gave his name, and on which the wits of the time affixed their lampoons
upon the state, and their satirical effusions on their neighbors, secretly at
night. Small poems, and writings of a similar kind, from this obtained the
name of Pasquinades, about A. D. 1533.
PASSOVER. A solemn festival of the Jews, instituted 1491 B. C., in commemnloration of their coming' out of Eg'ypt; because the night before their departure, the destroying angel, who put to death the first-born of the Egyptians, passedl over the houses of thle Hebrews without entering them: they
being marked with the blood of the lamb that was killed the evening before,
and which for this ecason is called the Paschal Lamb. It was celebrcated in
the new Temple, April 18, 515 a. c. —Us/er'.
PATAY, BATTLE OF, in which the renowned and ill-fated Joan of' Are (the
Maid of Orleans) signally defeated the English, June 10, 1429. Talbot was
taken prisoner, and the valiant Fastolfe w as foceed to fly. In consequence
of this victory, Charles of France enteredc Rheims in triurnph, and was
crowned July 17, same year, Joan of Are assisting in the ceremony in full
armor, and holding the sword of state. See Joac of A'c.'PATENTS. Licenses and authorities granted by the king. Patents granted
for titles of nobility, were first nmnde A. D. 134, by Edward III. They were
first granted for the exclusive privileg'e of printing books, in 1591, about
which time the property and right of' inventors in arts aLnd manufactures
were secured by letters patent.
PATRIARCHS. Socrates gives this title to the chiefs of dioceses. The dignity
among the Jews is referred to the time of Nerva, A. D. 97. In tile Christian
church it was first conferred on the five grand sees of Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. The Latin church had no patriarchs till the 7th century.
PAUL'S, ST., CATHEDRAL, LONDON. The noblest Protestant church in the
world. The best authority that exists illustrative of the origin of this church
is its great restorer, sirl Christopher Wren. Hiis opinion, that there had been
a church on this spot, built by the Christians in the time of' the Romans,
was confirmed when he searched for the foundations for his own design. I-Ie
explodes the notion of there having been a temple of Diana. The first church
is supposed to hbave been destroyed durilng the Dlioclesian persecution, and
to have been rebuilt in the reign of Constantine. This was demolished by
the pagan Saxons, and restored by Sebert in 603. It was destroyed by the
great conflagration in 1086, after which Mauritius, then bishop of London,
commenced the magnificent edifice which immediately preceded the present.
cathedral. St. Paul's vwas totally destroyed by the memorable fire of 1666;
and the first stone of the present edifice was laid June 21, 1675, and the
whole was completed in 1710-11, under the illustrious architect sir Christopher Wren.
Length of St. Paul's, within - 500 feet. Length of St. Peter's, Rome - 669 feet.
Its greatest breadthl - 223 Its'reatest breadth within - 442
Ileight from the ground - 340 Height fiom the ground - 432
PAVEMENT. The Carthaginians are said to have been the first w'ho paved
their towns with stones. The Romans in the time of Augustus had pavement in many of their streets; but the Appian Way was a paved road, (and
was constructed 312 a. c. In England there were few paved streets before
Henry Vl[.'s reign. London was first paved about the year 1533. Wood
pavement commenced in 1839; but was generally disused in 1847.
PAVIA, BATTIE OF, between the French and Imperialists, when the former
were defeated, and their king, Francis I., after fighting with heroic valor,
464 THE WORLD 7S PROGRESS. PmL
and killing seven men with his own hand, was at last obliged to surrender
himself prisoner. Francis wrote to his mother, Louisa of Savoy, regent of
the kingdom in his absence, the melancholy news of his captivity, conceived
in these dignified and expressive terms:-Toult est perd'l, nmadcame. fo's
t'ho~ne6w'; Feb. 24, 1525. Collision between the students and the Austrian
soldiers, 10 killed and 40 wounded, Jan. 8, 1848.
PAWNBROKERS. The origin of borrowing money by means of pledges deposited with lenders is referred, as a regular trade, to Perousa, in Italy, about
A. D. 1458; and soon afterwards in England. The business of pawnbrokers
was regulated 30 George II., 1756. Licenses were issued 24 George III.,
1783. In London there are 334 pawnbrokers; and in England, exclusively
of London, 1127.
PEARLS. The formation of the pearl has embarrassed both ancient and modern naturalists to explain, and has given occasion to a number of vain and
absurd hypotheses. M. Reaumur, in 1717, alleged that pearls are formed
like other stones in animals. An ancient pearl was valued by Pliny at
80,0001. sterling. One which was brought, in 1574, to Philip II. of the size
of a pigeon's egg, was valued at 14,400 ducats, equal to 13 9961. A pearl
spoken of by Boetius, named the Licomrlcparble, weighed thirty carats; equal
to five pennyweights, and was about the size of a muscadine pear. Thle
pearl mentioned by Tavernier as being in possession of the emperor of
Persia was purchased of an Arab in 1683, and is valued at a sum equal to
110,4001.
PEERS. The first of the present order created in England was W~illiam Fitz
Osborn, as earl of Hereford, by William the Conqueror, in 1066. The first
peer who was created by patent was lord Beauchamp of Holt Casatle, by
Richard II., in 1387. In Scotland, Gilchrist was created earl of Angus by
Malcolm III., 1037. In Ireland, sir John de Courcy was created baron of
Kinsale, &c., in 1181; the first peer after the obtaining of that kingdom by
Henry II. The house of lords consisted of, viz:At the death of Charless II. - 176 peers. At the death of George IlI. 339 peers.
At the death of William III. - 192 At the death of George 1V. 396
At the death of Anne - - 209 At the death of William I. - 456
At the death of George I. 216 In 10th Victoria, 1847 - 454
At the death of George II. - 229
PELAGIANS. A sect founded by Pelagius, a native of Britain. The sect
maintained, 1. That Adam was by nature mortal, and whether he had
sinned or not, would certainly have died. 2. That the consequences of'
Adam's sin were confined to his own person. 3. That new-born infants are
in the same condition with Adam before the faIl. 4. That the law qualified
men for the kingdom of heaven, and was founded upon equal promises with
the gospel. 5. That the general resurrection of the dead does not follow in
virtue of our Saviour's resurrection, &c. This sect appeared A. D. 400 at
Rome, and in Carthage about 412.
PELEW ISLANDS. Discovered by the Spaniards in the seventeenth century.
The wreck here of the East India Company's packet Antelope, captain Wilson, 1783. The king, Abba Thule, allowed captain Wilson to bring prince
Lee Boo, his son, to England, where he arrived in 1784, and died soon after
of the small-pox; and the East India Company erected a monument over
his grave in the Rotherhithe churchyard.
PELOPONNESIAN WAR. The celebrated war which continued for twentyseven years between the Athenians and the inhabitants of Peloponnesus,
with their respective allies. It is tihe most famous and the most interesting
of all the wars which happened between the inhabitants of Greece. It
began 431 B. c., and ended 404 B. c.
PPER ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 465
PENAL LAWS, AFFECTING ROMAN CATHOLICS. The laws enacted against
Roman Catholics in Great Britain were very severe; and even up to the
period of passing the Emancipation Bill many of them remained unrepealed. All the laws there against Roman Catholics were repealed by the
Relief Bill, passed April 13, 1829.
PENANCE. Called by the Jews Thejouvtha. Penance, they said, consisted
in the love of God attended with good works. They made a confession
upon the day of expiation, or some time before; and had stated degrees of
penance in proportion to the crimes committed. Penance was introduced
into the Romish church A. nD. 157. In our canon law, penance is chiefly adjudged to the sin of fornication.
PENDULUMS FOR CLOCKS. Affirmed to have been adapted by Galileo the
younger, about A. D. 1641. Christian Huygens contested the priority of this
discovery: the latter brought clocks with pendulums to perfection, 1656.Dltfresawoy.
PENITENTS. There are various orders of penitents, Magdalens, Magdalenettes, &c. The order of Penitents of St. Magdalen was founded at Marseilles, about A. D. 1272. The Penitents of the Name of Jesus was a congregation of religious in Spain who had led a licentious life, formed about
1550. The Penitents of Orvieto were formed into an order of nuns about
1662.
PENNSYLVANIA, one of the United States. Granted by James II. to William
Penn. of the Society of Friends, in 1681. (Previously settled by Sqwedes
and Fins, and conquered by the Dutch in 1654.) A tract of 20,000 acres
sold by Penn for ~400 to a colony which formed a settlement at Philadelphia.
The colony governed by proprietors until the revolution of 1776, when the
legislature purchased it, paying the proprietors ~130,000 in lieu of quitrents. Battles of Brandywine and Germantown, and other important actions in this State in the war of independence. See PhiladelpAia. Federal
Constitution adopted in convention, Dec. 13, 1787, by 46 to 23. Continental
Congress at Philadelphia. in 1774. United States Congress, 1790 to 1800,
when it was removed to Washington. Population of State in 1732. 30,000;
1790, 434 373; in 1800, 602,545; in 1820, 1,049,13; in 1840, 1:724 033.
PENNY-POST. First set up in London and its suburbs by a Mr. Murray, upholsterer A. D. 1681. Mr. Murray afterwards assigned his interest in the
undertaking to Mr. Dockwra, a merchant, 1683; but on a trial at the King's
Bench bar in the reign of Charles II., was adjudged to belong to the duke
of York as a branch of the general post, and was thereupon annexed to
the revenue of the crown.-Delauewae. 1690. This institution was considerably improved in and rourl London, July 1794, et seq., and was made a twopenny-post. A penny post was first set up in Dublin in 1774. See Postoffice.
PENTECOST. It literally signifies the ordinal number called the fiftieth; and
in the solemn festival of the Jews, so.called because it was celebrated fifty
days after the feast of the Passover, Lev. xxiii. 15, It is called the feast
of weeks, Exod. xxxiv. 22, because it was kept seven weeks after the
Passover.
PERFUMERY. Many of the wares coming under this name were known to
the ancients, and the Scriptures abound with instances of the use of incenses
and perfumes. No such trade as a perfumer was known in Scotland in 1763.
-Creech. A stamp tax was laid.on various articles of perfumery in Enggland and the vendor was obliged to take out a license, in 1786. At the corner of Beaufort Buildings, in the Strand, resided Lilly the perfumer, mentioned in the Spectator.-LeigAh.
20*
466 THI WORLD S PROGRESS. [PEa
PERIODICAL LITERATURE. See Reviews and Magaczines.
PERIPATETIC PHILOSOPHY. The philosophy taught by Aristotle, about
342 B. c. Like Plato, who taught in a shady grove called Academia, Aristotle chose a spot of a similar character at Athens, adjacent to the same
river, where there were trees and shades: this spot was denominated the
Lyceum; and as he usually walked while he instructed his pulpils, his philosophy was called Peripatetic.
PERJURY. In some countries this crime was punished with death. The early
ERmans at first punished it by throwing the offender headlong from the
Tarpeian precipice; but that penalty was afterwards altered, upon a supposition that the gods would vindicate their own honor by some remarkable
judgment upon the offender. The Greeks set a mark of infamy upon
them. After the empire became Christian, and if any one swore falsely
upon the gospels, he was to have his tongue cut out. The canons of the
primitive church enjoined eleven years' penance; and in some states the
false-swearer became liable to the punishment he charged upon the innocent.
In England, peijulry was punished with the pillory, 1563.
PERONNE, TREATY OF. Louis XI. of France having placed himself in the
power of the duke of B urgundy, was forced to sign a treaty at Peronne, confirming those of Ar'as and Conflains, with some other stipulations of a restlictive and humiliating character, A. D. 1468.
PERSECUTIONS, GENERAL, OP THE CHRISTIANS. Histolians usually reckon
ten. The first under Nero, who having set fire to Rome, threw the odium
of the act upon the Christians. Multitudes of them were, in consequence,
massacred. Some were wrapped up in the skins of wild beasts, and torn
and devoured by dogs; others were crucified, and numbers burned alive,
A. D. 64. The 2nd, under Domitian, A. D. 95. The 3rd, in the reign of Trajan, A. D. 100. The 4th, under Adrian, 118. The 5th, under the emperor
Severus, 197. The 6th, under Maximinus, 235. The 7th, under Deci.s,
more bloody than any preceding. They were in all places driven from their
habitations, plundered and put to death by torments, the rack, and fire. The
8th. under Valerian, 2-57. The 9th, under Aurelian, 272. The 10th, under
Dioclesian. In this persecution, which lasted ten years, houses filled with
Christians were set on fire, and droves of them were bound together with
ropes and cast into the sea. See lVMassacres.
PERSECUTIONS oF THE JEWS. See articles Jews and lIacssacres.
PERSECUTION or THE PROTESTANTS. In Franconia, where a multitude
of Luther's followers were massacred by William de Furstemberg, 1525.D) Fresno?/. In England when Cranmler, archbishop of Canterbury, and Latimer and Ridley, prelates, and 300 Protestants. were burned alive. and great
numbers perished in prison, 3 Mary, 1556.- W~arnaer's Eccles. Ilist. Of the
Protestants in France, when numbers perished; their assemblies were prohibited, their places of worship pulled down, and sentence to the galleys
proclaimed against all who harbored them, 1723. Executions of the Protestants at Thorn, when great numbers were put to death under pretence of'
their having been concerned in a tumult occasioned by a procession, 1721.
See Mcassacr es and Bartholomcw.
PERSIAN EMPIRE. The country which gave name to this celebrated empire
was originally called Elam, and received the appellation of Persia from Eerseus, the son of Perseus and Andromeda, who settled here, and perhaps
established a petty sovereignty. But long before his time, it was subject
to independent princes. Persia was at length included in the first Assyrian
monarchy; and when that empire was dismembered by Arbaces, &c., it
appertained to the kingdom of Media. Persia was partly conquered from
the Greeks, and was tributary to the Parthians for nearly 500 years, whea
.-ET I DICTIONARY OF DATES. 467
Artaxerxes, a common soldier, became the founder of the second Persian
monarchy, A. D. 229.
Zoroaster, king of Bactria, founder of Tile sea-fi'ht near CnidUs - - 394
the Magi. —Justin B. C. 2115 The Sidonians being besieged by the
Zoroaster II., Persian philosopher, ge- Persials, set fire to their city, and pe.rish
nerally confooundled with the ling of in the flames - 351
Bactrla.-Zatllnts - - -10S2 Alexander the Great enters Asia; first
battle in Phrygia, near the river GraCyrus, Iing of Persia - 60 nicus -. - 334
Lydia conquered by the Persians 548 [For the exploits of Alexander in PerCyrus becomes master of all Asia - 536 sia, see the article olslcedon.]
Canmbyses conquers Egypt (ethich see) 525 Murder of Darius by Bessus, who is
Darius made king of Persia 522 torn in pieces - - 331
Revolt of the Babylonians - 512 Alexander bounds the third or Grecian
Conquest of lonia; Miletus destroyed - 498 monarchy - - 331
Darius equips a fleet of 600 -sail, with Alexander, in a moment of intoxication,
an army of 300,000 soldiers, to invade at the instance of his mistlress Thais,
the Peloponnesus - - - 490 sets fire to the palace of Persepolis - 330
The troops advance towards Athens, but [The riches of this town, whose ruins,
are met in the plains of iMtaratlion, by even as they exist at this day, are of
Miltiades, at the head of 10,000 Athe- isndescribable magnificence, were so
nians.-See Marlathon, - 490 immense that 20,00 i mules and 5000
Xerxes enters Greece in the spring of horses were laden with the spoils.]
this year, at the head of an immense Persia was partly reconquered fiiom the
force. The battle of Thermopyle - 480 Greeks, and remained tributary to
Xerxes enters Athens, after having lost Parthia for near five hundred years,
200,000 of his troops, and is defeated till about - - - A.. 250
in a naval engagemlent off Salamis - 480 Artaxerxes I. of this new empire, a
Cymon, son of Miltiades, with a fleet of common soldier, restores to Persia its
250 vessels, talkes several cities froln ancient title - - 229
the Persians, and destroys their navy, Reign of Sapor, conqueror anid tyrant - 238
consisting of 340 sail, near the island I-e is assassinated - - - 273
of Cyprus - - - 470 I-Iorlisdas reigns - - - 273
Xerxes is murdered in his bed by Mill- Reign of Sapor II. (of 70 years), a cruel
ridates, the eunuch - B.C. 465 and successful tyrant - - - 310
The assassin is put to death in a horrible Persia was conquered by the Saracens 651
mannel - - 465 It fell under the dominion of TamlerReign of Artaxerxes - - 464 lane, by the defeat of Bajazet - 1402
Cyprus taken from the Persians - 449 Reiwn of Thamas Kouli Khan - - 1732
Memorable retreat of the Greeks. See lie carried the Persian arms into India,
article R1etecat - - 401 which he ravaged. See India - 1738
In 1747, Ahmed Abdalla founded the kingdom of Candahar. Ill 1779, conpetitors for the throne of Persia sprung up and icaused a period of slaughter
and desolation till 1794, when Mahomed Khan became sole monarch.
PERU. First visited in A. D. 1513, and soon afterwards conquered by the Spaniards, whose avarice led to the most frightful crimes. The easy conquest
of this country has not its parallel in history. Pizarro, in 1530, and others,
with one vessel, 112 men, and four horses, set out to invade South America,
which, however, not succeeding, he again in 1531, embarked with three
small vessels, 140 infantry, and thirty-six horses; with these, and two reinforcements of thirty men each, hle conquered the empire of Peru, and laid
the foundation of that vast power which the Spaniards enjoy in the New
World. Pizarro's expedition, 1524. Peru remained in subjection to the
Spaniards (who murdered the Incas and all their descendants) without any
attempt being made to throw off the oppressive yoke till 1782; but the independence of the country was completely achieved in 1826. The new
Peruvian constitution was signed by the president of the Republic, March
21, 1828.
PETER-PENCE. Presented by Ina, king of the West Saxons, to the pope at
Rome, for the endowment of an English college there, A. D. 725. So called,
because agreed to be paid on the feast of St. Peter. The tax was levied on
all families possessed of thirty pence yearly rent in land, out of which they
paid one penny. It was confirmed by Offa, 777, and was afterwards claimed
468 TrHE WORLD7S PROGcI':SS. L PHAi
by the popes, as a tribute from England, and regularly collected, till suppressed by Henry VIII. —Cnmdei,.
PETER, THE WILD BOY. A savage creature found in the forest of Hertswold, electorate of Hanover, when George I. and his friends were hunting.
He was found walking on his hands and feet, climbing trees like a squirrel,
and feeding on grass and moss, November 1725. At this time he was supposed to be thirteen years old. The king caused him to taste of all the
dishes at the royal table; but he preferred wild plants, leaves, and the bark
of trees, which he had lived on from his infancy. No human efforts of the
many philosophic persons about the court could entirely vary his savage
habits, or cause him to utter one distinct syllable. He died in Feb. 1785.
at the age of 72. Lord Monboddo presented him as an instance of the hypothesis that " man in a state of nature is a mere animal."
PETER'S CHURCH, ST., AT ROME. Originally erected by Constantine. About
the middle of the 15th century, Nicholas VI. commenced the present magnificent pile, which was not completed under numerous succeeding popes,
until A. D. 1629. The front is 400 feet broad, rising to a height of 180 feet,
and the majestic dome ascends from the centre of the church to a height of
324 feet: the length of the interior is 600 feet, forming the most spacious
hall ever constructed by human hands. See Paul's, St.
PETERSBURGH. The inew capital of Russia. Peter the Great first began
this city, in 1703. He built a small hut for himself, and some wretched
wooden hovels. In 1710, the count Golovkin built the first house of brick;
and the next year, the emperor, with his own hand. laid the foundation of a(
house of the same materials. From these small beginnings rose the imperial
city of Petersburgh; and in less than nine years after the wooden hovels
were erected, the seat of empire was transferred from Moscow to this place.
Here, in 1736, a fire consumed 2000 houses; and in 1780, another fire consumed 11,000 houses; this last fire was occasioned by lightning. Again, in
June 1796, a large magazine of naval stores and 100 vessels were destroyed.
The winter palace was burnt to the ground, Dec. 29, 1837. See Rulssica.
PETERSBURGH, PEACE oP, between Russia and Prussia, the former restoriig
all her conquests to the latter, signed May 5, 1762. TaREATY OF PETERSBURGcI,
for the partition of Poland, (see article Pci'titiom? Treaties,) Ang. 5, 1772.
TREATY OF PETERSBURGH, for a coalition against France, Sept. 8, 1805.
Treaty of alliance, signed at St. Petersburgh, between Bernadotte, prince
royal of Sweden, and the emperor Alexander; the former agreeing to join
in the campaign against France, in return for which Sweden was to receive
Norway, MiTarch 24, 1812.
PETRARCH AND LAURA. T'wo of the most eminent persons of the fourteenth century, celebrated for the exquisite and refined passion of the former for the latter, and the great genius and virtue of both. The chief subject
of Petrarch's enchanting sonnets was the beautiful Laura. He was crowned
with laurel, as a poet and writer', on Easter-cday, April 8, 1341; and died at
Arqua, near Padua, July 18, 1374. Laura died April 6, 1348.
PHALANX. A troop of men closely embodied -M3filton. The Greek phalanx
consisted of 8000 men in a square battalion, with shields joined, and spears
crossing each other. The battalion formed by Philip of Macedon was called
the Macedonian phalanx, and was instituted by him 360 B. c.
PHARISEES. They were a famous sect among the Jews; so called from a Hebrew word which signifies to separate or set apart, because they pretended
to a greater degree of holiness and piety than the rest of the Jews. The
admirable parable of the Pharisee and Publicanl is levelled against spiritual pride, and to recommend the virtue of humility.-Litz/e xviii. 9.
'PHI ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 469
PHAROS AT ALEXANDRIA, called the Pharos of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and
esteemed as one of the wonders of the world. It was a tower built of white
marble, and could be seen at the distance of 100 miles. On the top, fires
were constantly kept, to direct sailors in the bay. The building of this
-ower cost 800 talents, which are equivalent to above 165,1001. English, if
Attic; or if Alexandrian, double that sum. There was this inscription upon
it-" King Ptolemy to the gods, the saviours, for the benefit of sailors;" but
Sostratus the architect, wishing to claim all the glory, engraved his own
name upon the stones, and afterwards filled the hollow with mortar. and wrote
the above inscription. When the mortar had decayed by time, Ptolemy's
name disappeared, and the following inscription then became visible
" Sostratus the Cnidian, son of Dexiphanes, to the gods, the saviours, for
the benefit of sailors." About 280 B. c.
PHARSALIA, BATTLE OF, between Julius Cmsar and Pompey, in which the former obtained a great and memorable victory, glorious to Cwesar in all its
consequences. Casar lost about 200 men, or, according to others, 1200.
Pompey's loss was 15,000, or 25.000 according to others, and 24.000 of his
army were made prisoners of war by the conqueror, May 12, 48 B. c. After
this defeat, Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was treacherously slain, by order of Ptolemy the younger, then a minor, and his body thrown nakied on
the strand, exposed to the view of all those whose curiosity led them that
way, till it was burnt by his faithful freedman Philip.
PHILADELPHIA, CITY OF. First surveyed and regulated by the English colony under Penn's grant, in 1682. ['rhe Swedes had settled on Delaware bay
in 1627.] Named after a city in Asia-Minor and first laid out with a view
-to rival ancient Babylon in extent; but the plan w'as restricted to its present limits by the charter of J701. First or " Continental" Congress at
Philadelphia, Sept. 5. 1774. The Declaration of Independence adopted, July
4, 1776, in the State House, still standing in Chesnut-street. The city taken
by the British, Sept. 26, 1777; evacuated by them, June 18, 177 8. Convention met here, May 17, 1787, and on 17th of Sept. following, agreed on a
constitution for the United States. Yellow feiver raged, 1793 and 1798.
Congress removed to Philadelphia. 1800. United States Bank established
here, 1816. United States Mint, in 1792. Girard College opened, 1846.
Population in 1732, 12 000; in 17O0, 42,000; in 1810, 96,664; in 1830,
167.811; in 1840, 220,423.
PHILIPPI, BATTLE OF, between Octavius Cmsar and Marc Antony on one side,
and the republican forces under Brutus and Cassius, in which the former
obtained the victory. Two battles were fbught: in the first, Brutus, who
commanded the right wing, defeated the enemy; but Cassius, who had care
of the left, was overpowered, and he ordered his freedman to run him
through the body. In the second battle, the wing which Brutus commanded obtained a victory; but the other was defeated, and he found himself
surrounded by the soldiers of' Antony. He however made his escape, and
soon after fell on his sword. Both battles were fought in October, 42 B. c.
-Bossueet.
PITILIPPICS. This species of satire derives its name from the orations of Demosthenes against Philip II. of Macedon, and from Cicero's Orations (the
second of which was called divine by Juvenal) against Marc Antony, which
latter cost Cicero his life, 43 B. C.
PHILIPPINE ISLES. Discovered by the Spaniards A. D. 1519. In this archipelago the illustrious circumnavigator Magellan, like the still more illustrious Cook in the Sandwich Islands, lost his life in a skirmish, in 1521.
PHILOSOPHY. The knowledge of the reason of things, in opposition to history, which is only the Knowledge of facts; or to mathematics, which is the
470 T'-iE'\ W0ILD'S PROGRESS. [ PH':
knowledge of the quantity of things; —the hypothesis or system upon which
natural effects ale explained.-Loc/ie. Pythagoras first adopted the name of
philosopher (such men having previously been called sages), about 528 B. c
See Moral l/Philosophy. Philosophers were expelled firom Rome, and their
schools suppressed, by Domitian, A.D. 83. —Univ. Hist. Philosophy has
undergone four great changes:-1. A total subserviency to priestcraft and
superstition, by the Chaldeans and Egyptians. 2. A commixture of reason
and poetry, by the Greeks. 3. A mechanical system, introduced by Copernicus and Galileo; and, 4. A system of poetical, verbal, and imaginary callsation, taught dy Newton, Lavoisier, &c. The world, at present, are divided
between the two last.
PHILOSOPHER'S STONE. By this name is usually meant a powder, whicr
some wise heads among the chemists imagined hald the virtue of turning all
imperfect metals into silver and gold-all metals but these being so considered. Kircher observes, with truth, that the quadrature of the circle, perpetual motion, the inextinguishable lamp, and the philosopher's stone, have
cracked the brains of philosophers and mathematicians for a loig time,
without any useful result. For a remarkable case of folly and imposition in
relation to this subject, see Alchemy.
PHOSPHORUS. It was discovered in the year 1667, by Brant, who procured
it from urine; and Scheele soon after found a method of preparing it fromn
bones. The discovery was prosecuted by John Kunckell, a Saxon chemist,
1670, and by the hon. IMr. Boyle; about the same time.-Nonv. Dict. Ph'osphoric acid is first mentioned in 1743, but is said to have been known earlier; the distinction was first pointed out by Lavoisier, in 1777. Canton's
phosphorus is so called from its discoverer, 1768. Protophosphurated hydrogen was discovered by sir Humphrey Davy in 1812.
PHRENOLOGY-. The science of the mind, and of aninal propensities, a modern doctrine, started by Dr. Gall, in 1803. See Crai'1ology. Dr. Spurzheim
improved the science in 1815, and it has now many professors; and a Phrenological Society has been established in London.
PHYSIC. Reason and chance led early to the knowledge and virtues of' certain herbs. The sea-horse drawing blood from his body by means of a reed
to relieve himself from plethora, taught men the art of artificial blood-letting.-Pli2ey. In fabulous history it is mentioned that Polydius having seen
a serpent approach the wounded body of another with an herb, with which
he covered it, restored the inanimate body of Glaucns in the same manner.
-Iiygines. Egypt appears to have been the cradle of the healing art; " anthe priests," says Cabanus, "soon seized upon the province of medicine,
and combined it with their other instruments of power." From the hands
of the priests, medicine fell into those of the philosophers, who freed it
from its superstitious character. Pythagoras endeavored to explain the
formation of diseases, the order of their symptoms, and the action of medicine, about 529 B. c. Hippocrates, justly regarded as the father of medicine
and the founder of the science, flourished about 422 B. c. Galen, born A. D.
1.1, was the oracle of medical science for nearly 1500 years. The discovery
of the circulation of the blood, by Dr. Harvey, furnished an entirely neaw
system of physiological and pathological speculation, 1628.
PHYSICS. Well described as a science of unbounded extent, and as reaching
from an atom to God himself. It is made to embrace the entire doctrine of
the bodies and existences of the universe; their phenomena, causes, and
effects. Mr. Locke would include God, angels, and spirits, under this term.
The origin of physics is referred to the Brachlrans, magi, and Hebrew and
Egyptian priests. From these it was derived to the Greek sages, particularly Thales, who first professed the study of nature in Greece, about 595.
:'.IG 3 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 471
B. C. Hence, it descended to the Pythagoric, Platonic, and Peripatetic
schools; and from these to Italy and the rest of Europe.
PHYSIOLOGY. In connection with natural philosophy, and that part of physics which teaches the constitution of the body, so far as it is in its healthy
or natural state, and to that purpose endeavors to account for the reason of
the several functions and operations of the several members. Sometimes it
is limited to that part of medicine which particularly considers the structure and constitution of human bodies, with regard to the cure of diseases.
Its date is referred to the same time with physics, zw/tich see.
PHYSIOGNOMY. This is a science by which the dispositions of mankind are
discovered, chiefly from the features of the face. The origin of the term is
referred to Aristotle; Cicero was attached to the science. It became a
fashionable study from the beginning of the sixteenth century; and in the
last century, the essays of Le Cat and Pernethy led to the modern system.
Lavateli's researches in this pursuit arose fiom his having been struck
with the singular countenance of a soldier who passed under a window at
which he and Zimmerman were standing; published 1776.
PIANO-FORTE, Invented by J. C. Schroder, of Dresden, in 1717; he presented a model of his invention to the court of Saxony; and some time after,
G. Silverman, a musical-instrunment maker, began to manufacture pialo-fortes
with consideralble success. The invention has also been ascribed to an instrument-maker of Florence. The square piano-forte was first made by
Freiderica, an organ-builder of Saxony, about 1758. Piano-fortes were
made in London by Mi1. Znmpie, a German, 1766; and have been since
greatly improvel by others here.
PICHEGRU'S, MOREAU'S, AND GEORGES' CONSPIRACY. The memorable
conspiracy against Napoleon Bonaparte detected, and Georges and Moreau
arrested at Paris, February 23, 1804. Pichegru, when captured, was confined in the Temple, where he was found strangled on the morning of the
6th April following. For the particulars relating to this conspiracy, see article Georges, &c.
PICQUET, THE GAME oi', the first known game upon. the cards, invented by
Joquemin, and afterwards other games, for the amusement of Charles VI.
of France, who was at the time in feeble health, 1390.-M-3Jzeci. See article Cards.,
2ICTS. A Scythian or German colony, who landed in Scotland much about
the time that the Scots began to seize upon the Ebude, or Western Isles.
They afterwards lived as two distinct nations, the Scots in the highlands
and the isles, and the Picts in that now called the lowlands. About A. D.
838 to 843, the Scots under Kenneth II. totally subdued the Picts. and seized
all their kingdom, and extended the limits as fiar as Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
PICTURES. Bularchus was the first who introduced, at least among the
Greeks, the use of many colors in one picture. One of his pictures was
purchase l by the king of Lydia for its weight in gold; he flourished 740 B. C.
See Pci;seting.?IGEON, TiEi CARRIER. The courier pigeons are of very ancient use. The
ancients being destitute of the convenience of posts, were accustomed when
they took a long journey, and were desirous of sending back any news with
uncommon expedition, to take some pigeons with them. When they thought
proper to urite to their friends, they let one of these birds loose, with letters fastened to its neck: the bird, once released, would never cease its
flight till it arrived at its nest and young ones. Taurosthenes announced to
his father his victory at the Olympic games by sending -to him at 2Egina a
472 THE WORLD S P'iOGRESS. [ P'
pigeon stained with purple.-Ovid. Hirtius and Brutus corresponded by
means of pigeons at the siege of Modena. In modern times, the most noted
were the pigeons of' Aleppo, which servedl as couriers at Alexandretta and
Bagdad. Thirty-two pigeons sent from Antwerp were liberated from London at 7 o'clock in the morning; and on the same day at noon, one of them
arrived at Antwerp; a quarter of an hour afterwards a second arrived; the
remainder on the following day, Nov. 23, 1819. —Ptillips.
PILGRIMAGES. They began to be made about the middle ages of the church,
but they were most in vogue after the close of the 11th century. Many
ticenses were granted to captains of English ships to carry pilgrims abroad,
7 Henry VI., 1428.
PILLORY. A scaffold for persons to stand on, in order to render them infamous, and make them a public spectacle, for every one to see and know,
that they miglht avoid and refuse to have any commerce or dealings with
them for the future. This punishment was awarded against persons convicted of forgery, perjury, libelling, &c. In some cases the head was put
through a hole, the hands through two others, the nose slit, the face hbran ded
with one or more letters, and one or both ears cut off. It was in use in England in the reign of Henry III., 1256. Many persons died in the pillory,
by being struck with stones by the mob, and pelted with rotten eggs and
putrid otfal. It was abolished as a punishment in all cases except perjury,
in 1815-16. The pillory was totally abolished by act 1 Victoria, June
1837.
PINS. As an article of foreign commerce, pins are first mentioned in the statutes A. D. 1483. Those made of brass wire were brought fiom France
in 1540, and were first used in England, it is said, by Catherine Howard,
queen of Henry VIII. Before the invention of pins, both sexes used ribands, loop-holes, laces with points and tags, clasps, hooks and eyes, and
skewers of brass, silver, and gold. They were made in England in 1543.Stowe.
PISA, LEANING TOWER OF. This celebrated tower, likewise called Ccalmpaile,
on account of its having been erected for the purpose of containing bells,
stands in a square close to the, cathedral of Pisa. It is built entirely of
white marble, and is a beautiful cylinder of eight stories, each adorned with
a round of columns, rising one above another. It inclines so far on one side
from the perpendicular, that in dropping a plummet friom the top, which is
188 feet in height, it falls sixteen feet from the base. Much pains havT
been taken by connoisseurs to prove that this was done purposely by the
architect; but it is evident that the inclination has proceeded from another
cause, namely, fromn an accidental subsidence of the foundation on that
side.
PISTOLS. These are the smallest sort of fire-arms, carried sometimes on the
saddle-bow, sometimes in a girdle round the waist, sometimes in the pocket,
&c.-Pcardon. The pistol was first used by the cavalry of England, in
1544.
PITCAIRN'S ISLAND. A small solitary island in the Pacific Ocean, seen by
Cook in 1773, and noted for being colonized by ten mutineers from the
ship Bounty, captain Bligh, in 1789, from which time, till 1814, they (or
rather their descendants) remained here unknown. See Mluitiny of tthe
Bosunt y.
PITT'S ADMINISTRATION. The first administration of this illustrious statesman was formed on the dismissal of the Coalition ministry (4wGhich see), Dec.
27, 1783. His second administration was formed May 12, 1804. The right
honorable William Pitt was son of the great earl of Chatham. He died
PLA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 473
Jan. 23, 1806. Mr. Pitt was a minister of commanding powers, and still
loftier pretensions: and he departed life in possession of the esteem of a
large portion of his countrymen. A public filneral was decreed to his honor by parliament, and a grant of ~40,000 to pay his debts.
PIUS. This name was first given to the emperor Antoninus Titus, thence called
Antoninus Pius, on account of his piety and virtue. A. a. 138. This name
was also given to a son of Metellus, because he interested himself so warimly to have his father recalled fiom banishment. The name of Pius has also
been taken by nine of the popes of Rome, the first of whom assumed it in
A. D. 142.'IAGUE. "The offspring of inclement skies, and of legions of putrifying
locusts." —Thomson. The first recorded general plague in all parts of the
world occurred 767 B. c. Petcavinss, At Carthage the plague was so terrible
that the people sacrificed their children to appease the gods, 534 B. c. —3a-?'oniuts. At Rome prevailed a desolating plague, carrying off a hundred
thousand persons in and round the city, 461 B. c. At Athens, whence it
spread into Egypt and Ethiopia, and caused an awful devastation, 430 B. c.
Another which raged in the Greek islands, Egypt, and Syria, and destroyed
2000 persons every cday, 188 a. c. Pliny.
At Rome, a most awful plague; 10,000 per- An awful pestilence at Oxford, 1471; and
sons perish daily, A. D. 78. throughout England a plague which deThe same fatal disease again ravaged the stroyed snore people than the continual
Roman emtpire, A. D. 167. wars for the fifteen preceding years, 1478.
In Britain, a plague raged so formidably, — Rapin; Salmon.
and swept away such multitudes, that the The awful Suedoer An.glicus, or sweating
living were scarcely sufficient to bury the sickness, very fatal at Lonzdon, 1485. —
dead, A. D. 430. Delaune.
A dreadftll one began in Europe in 558, ex- The plague at London so dreadful that Hentended all over Asia and Afiica, and it is ry VII. and his court removed to Calais,
said did not cease fornlany years. Univ. 1500.-Stowoe.
[yist. Again, the sweating sickness (mortal in
At Constantinople, when 200,000 of its in- three hours). In most of the capital
habitants perished, A. D. 746. towns in England half the inhabitants
[This plague raged for three years, and was died, and Oxfbrd was depopulated, 9 1i.
equally fatal in Calabria, Sicily, and VIII., 1517.-,Slowe.
Greece.] Limerick was visited by a plague, when
At Chichester in England, an epidemical many thousands perished, 1522.
disease carried off 34,000 persons, 772.- A pestilence throughout Ireland, 1525; and
Will. Malns. the English Sweat, 1528; and a pestilence
In Scotland, 40,000 persons perished of a in Dublin, 1575.
pestilence, A. D. 954. 30,578 persons perished of the plague in
In London, a great mortality, A. D. 1094; London alone, 1603-1604. It was also
and in Ireland, 1095. fatal in Ireland.
Again in London: it extended to cattle, 200,000 perished of a pestilence at Constan.
fowls, and other domestic animals, 1111. tinople, inl 1611.
-Lsloings. In London, a great mortality prevailed, and
In Ireland: after Christmas this year, Henry 35,417 persons perished, 1625.
II. was forced to quit the country, 1172. In France, a general mortality; at Lyons
Again in Ireland, when a prodigious number 60,000 persons died, 1632.
perished, 1204. The plague, brought from Sardinia to NaA general plague raged throughout Europe, ples (being introduced by a transport with
causing a most extensive mortality. Bri- sotdiers on board), raged with such viotain and Ireland suffered grievously. In lence as to carry off 400,000 of the inhabitLontlon alone, 200 persons were buried ants in six months, 1656.
daily in the Charterhouse yard. Memorable plague which carried off 68,596
In Paris and London a dreadlul mortality persons in London, 1665.
prevailed in 1362 and 1367; and in Ire- IFilres were kept uap night and day to purify
land, in 1370. the air for three days; and it is thought
A great pestilence in Ireland, called the the infection was not totally destroyed till
fJborth. destroyed a great number of the the great conflagration of 1666.1
people, 1383. 60,000 persons persons perished of the
30,1100 persons perished of a dreadful pesti- plague at Marseilles and neighlborlhod,
lence in Iondon, 1407. brought in a ship from the Levant, 1720.
Again in Ireland, superinduced by a fam- One of the most awful plagues that ever
ine e; great numbers died, 1466; and Dub- raged, prevailed in Syria, 1760.-Abbi
lin was wasted by a plague, 1470. Mariliti.
474 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [PLA
PLAGUE, continuted.
In Persia, a fatal pestilence, which carried bers were carried off by a pestilent dis.
off 80,000 of the inhabitants of Bassorab, ease in 1804 and 1805.
1773. Again, at Gibraltar', an epidemic fever, much
In Egypt, more than 800,000 persons died resembling the plague, caused great morof plague, 1792. tality, 1828.
In Barbary, 3000 died daily; and at Fez The Asiatic cholera (see Cholera) 1832,
247,000 perished, 1799. 1834. 1849.
In Spain, and at Gibraltar, immense numPLAGUES OF EGYPT. The refusal of the king to hearken to Moses, although
he had performed many miracles to prove his divine mission, brings a display
of wrath upon the land, in ten awfiul instances, which are denominated the
plagues of Egypt, 1492 B. c. In this year the king, named by some Amen-'
ophis, by others Cherres, is, with his whole army, overwhelmed in the Red
Sea.- Usher, Blair, Leegrlet.
PLANTAGENET, HousE OF. A race of fourteen English kings, from Henry
II. to Richard III., killed at the battle of Bosworth (?hi/c?, see), 1485. Antiquaries are at a loss to account for the origin of' this appellation; and the
best derivation they can find for it is, that Fulk, the first earl of Anjou, of
that name, being stung with remorse for some wicked action, went on a pilgrimlage to Jerusalem, as a work of atonement; where being scourged with
broom twigs, growing on the spot, he took the surname of Plantagenet, or
Broom-stalk, which was retained by his posterity.
PLASTER of PARIS, for moulds, figures, statuary, &c. The method of taking likenesses by its use was first discovered by Andrea Verrochio, about
A. D. 1466. This gypsum was first found at Montmartre, a village near Paris,
whence it obtained its name.
PLATZEA, BATTLE OF, between Mardonius the commander of Xerxes king of
Persia, and Pausanias the Lacedsemonian. and the Athenians. The Persian
army consisted of 300.000 men, 3000 of whlich scarce escaped with their
lives by flight. The Grecian army, which was greatly inferior, lost but few
men; and among these, ninety-one Spartans, fifty-two Athenians, and sixteen
Tegeans, were the only soldiers found in the number of the slain. The
plunder which the Greeks obtained in the Persian camu was immense. Pausanias received a tenth of all the spoils, on account of his uncommon valor
during the engagement, and the rest were rewarded each according to their
respective merit. This battle was fought on the 22d September, the same
day as the battle of Mycale, 479 B. c.; and by it Greece was totally delivered for ever fiom the continual alarms to which she was exposed on account
of the Persian invasions, and from that time none of the princes of Persia
dared to appear with a hostile force beyond the Hellespont.
PLATE. The earliest use of plate as an article of luxury cannot be precisely
traced. In England, plate, with the exception of spoons, was prohibited in
public houses by statute 8 William III., 1696. The celebrated Plate Act
passed in May 1756. This act was repealed in 1780. The act laying a duty
upon plate passed in 1784.
PLATINA. This is the heaviest of all the metals, and harder than silver and
gold. The name which is given to it originated with the Spaniards. fromn
the word Plata, signifying silver, it would seem on account of its silvery
color. It was unknown in Europe until A. D. 1748, when Don Antonio
Ulloa announced its existence in the narrative of his voyage to Peru.Greig.
PLATTSBURGH, ON LAKE CHAMPLAIN, NEW YoRm, BATTLE OF; 14,000 British
troops under sir George Prevost repulsed, Sept. 11, 1814. The British fleet
on the lake captured by Macdonough, at same time.
POE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 475
PLAYS. Tragedy, comedy, satire, and pantomime were performed in Greece
and Romne. Plays became a general and favorite pastime about 165 n. c.;
but they were performed on occasions of festivity some ages before. The
Trojan plays consisted of horse-races and exercises of the youth, under a
proper head or captain, wherein the utmost dexterity was practised. The
plays of Ceres were instituted to please the ladies, who from the 12th to the
20th.of April were clad in white, and, in imitation of that goddess, went
with a torch in their hands as if in search of her daughter Proserpine. The
plays of Flora were so offensive, that they were forced to be put down.
lThe funeral plays were plays in honor of the dead, and to satisfy their
ghosts. There were numerous institutions under the name of plays. Plays
were first acted in England at Clerkenwell, A. D. 1397. The first company
of players that received the sanction of a patent was that of James Burbage,
and others, the servaonts of the earl of Leicester, from queen Elizabeth, in
1574. In England plays were subjected to a censorship in 1737. See
D-?Racb.
PLEADINGS. In the early courts of judicature in England, pleadings were
made in the Saxon language in A. D. 786. They were made in Norman-French from the period of the Conquest in 1066; and they so continued until the 36th of Edward III. 1362. Cromwell ordered all law proceedings to
ne taken in English in 1650. The Latin was used in conveyancing in the
courts of law till 1731.
POET LAUREAT. Selden could not trace the precise origin of this office.
The first record we have of poet-laureat in England is in the 35th Henry III.
1251. The laureat was then styled the king's versifier, and a hundred shillings were his annual stipend.- Waretos; Macddox, Hist. Exc/. Chaucer, on
his return firom abroad, assumed the title poet-latleat; and in the twelfth
year of Richard II., 1389, he obtained a grant of an annual allowance of
wine. James I.. in 1615, granted to his laureat a yearly pension of 100
marks; and in 1630, this stipend was augmented by letters patent of Charles
I. to 1001. per annum, with an additional grant of one tierce of Canary
Spanish wine, to be taken out of the king's store of wine yearly.
NAMES OF PERSONS WHO FILLED THE OFFICE FROMI THE REIGN OF QUEEN ELIZABETH.
Elizabeth appointed Edmund Spenser, Nahum Tate, died - - A. D. 1716
who died - A.D. 1598 The rev. Laurence Eusden, died - 1730
Samuel Daniel, died -1619 Colley Cibber, died - - 1757
Benl Jonson, died - - 1637 William Whitehead, died - 1785
Sir William Davenant, died - - 668 Rev. Dr. Thomas Warton, died - - 1790
John Dryden; he was deposed at the Henry James Pye, died - - 1813
revoltlion - 1688 Dr. Robert Southey, died - March 21, 1843
Thomas Shadwell, died - - -1692 William Wordsworth, died - 1850
POETRY. The oldest, rarest, and most excellent of the fine arts, and highest
species of' refined literature. It was the first fixed form of language, and
the earliest perpetuation of thought. It existed before nmusic in melody,
and before painting in description.-ilazlitt. The exact period of the invention of poetry is uncertain. In Scriptural history, the song of Moses on
the signal deliverance of the Israelites, and their passage through the Red Sea,
is said to be the most ancient piece of poetry in the world, and is very sublime.-E.xodus xv. Orpheus of Thlrace is the earliest author, and is deemed
the inventor of poetry (at least in the western part of the world), about 1249
B. c. Homer, the oldest poet whose works have descended to ius, flourished
about 907 a. c. —Pcsriaqb Mewb. Iarmbic verse (;/AicA see) was introduced by
Archilochus, 700 B. c.-Dat Fresnoy. For odes, see article Odes. We are
told that poetry (or more properly the rules of poetry) was first brought to
England by Aldhelme, or Adelmus, abbot of Malmsbury, about the close of
the seventh century.
476 TIIE WORPLD S PROGRESS. [POL
POISONING. A number of Roman ladies formed a conspiracy for poisoning
their husbands, which they too fatally carried into effect. A femiale slave
denounced 170 of them to Fabius Maximus, who ordered them to be publicly executed, 331 B. c. It is said that this was the first public knowledge
they had of poisoning at Rome. Poisoning was made petty treason in England, and was punished by boiling to death (of which there were some remarkable instances) 23 Henry VIII. 1532. See article Boiliveg to Dealft.
POITIERS, BATTLE OF, in France, between Edward the Black Prince and John
king of France, in which the English arms triumphed. The standard of
France was overthrown, and many of her distinguished nobility were slain.
The French king was taken prisoner, and brought to London, through
which he was led amidst an amazing concourse of spectators. Two kings,
prisoners in the same court and at the same time, were considered as glorious achievements; but all that England gained by them,was only glory,
Sept. 19, 1356. —Caqrte.
POLAND. Anciently, the country of the Vandals, who emigrated from it to
invade the Roman empire. It became a duchy under Lechus I. A. D. 550;
and a kingdom under Boleslaus A. D. 999. Poland was dismembered by the
emperor of Germany, the empress of Russia, and king of Prussia, who seized the most valuable territories in 1772. It was finally partitioned, and its
political existence annihilated, by the above powers, in 1795.* The king
formally resigned his crown at Grodno, and was afterwards removed to Petersburgh, where he remained a kind of state prisoner till his death in
1798. With him ended the kingdom of Poland.
Piastus, a peasant, is elected to the du- Abdication of John Casimir - - 1669
cal dignity - - - A. D. 842 Massacre of the Protestants at Thorn - 1724
[Piastus lived to the age of 120, and his Stanislaus' unhappy reign begins - 1763
reign was so prosperous that every He abolishes torture - - 1770
succeeding native sovereign was call- An awful pestilence sweeps away
ed a Piast.] 250,000 of the people - - - 1770
Introduction of Christianity - 992 The evils of civil war so weaken the
Red Russia added to Poland - - 1059 kingdom, it falls an easy prey to the
Boleslaus II, murders the bishop of royal plunderers, the empress of
Cracow with his own hands; his Russia, emperor of Austria, and Icing
kingdom laid under an interdict by of Prussia -1772
the pope, and his subjects absolved The first partition treaty Feb. 17, 1772
of their allegiance - - - 1080 The public partition treaty Aug. 5, 1772
lie flies to HIungary for shelter; but is A new constitution is formed by the
refused it by order of Gregory VII., virtuous Stanislaus - May 3, 1791
and he at length kills himself -1081 [The royal and imperial spoliators, on
Uladislaus deposed - - 1102 various pretexts, pour their armies
Premislaus assassinated - - -1295 into Poland, 1792, et seq.]
Louis of Hungary elected king- - 1370 The brave Poles, under Poniatowski
War against the Teutonic knights - 1447 and Kosciusko, several times contend
The Wallachians treacherously carry successfully against superior armies,
off 100,000 Poles, and sell thetm to but in the end are defeated. Koscithe Turks as slaves - - - 1498 usko, wounded and taken, is carried
Splendid reign of Sigismund II. - 1548 prisoner to Russia - - 1794
Stephen forms a militia composed of Suwarrow's victories and massacres - 1794
Cossacks, a barbarous race, on whom Battle of Warsaw - Oct. 12, 1794
he bestows the Ukraine - 1575 tLIere Suwarrow subsequently butch* An act of spoliation more unprincipled never dishonored crowned heads. For a century previously, the balance of power had engaged the attention of the politicians of Europe; but in permitting this odious crime, such an object appeals to have been totally lost sight of. Austria and
Prussia had long been deadly enemies, and both hated Russia; yet they now conspired against a
country they were each pledged to protect, and with unexampled profligacy became leagued in a
scheme of plunder consummated by the destruction of 500,000 lives! Russia seized Lithuania,
and all that. part to the eastward that suited her. Austria took Gallicia, the most fertile of the
provinces, lying contiguous to her own dominions; and Prussia secutred the muarilime districts.
The most extraordinary circumstance attending this affatir was the total inaction of the two great
powers, England and France, whose supineness in a more recent instance also is rebuked by policy
as well as justice, and cdeplored by the good and brave among mnankind.-Haydan.
POL J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 477
POLAND, conotiss~scd.
erma 30,000 Poles of all ages and condl- Russians lose 7000 men; the Poles,
tions in cold blood.] who keep the field, 2000 Feb. 20, 1831
Courland is annexed to Russia- - 1795 Battle of' Ostrolenka; signal defeat of
Stanislaus resigns his crown; final par- the Russians - - May 26, 1831
ition of his klindor - Nov. 25, 1795 The Russian, Diebitsch, dies June 10, 1831
Kosciusko set at liberty Dec. 25, 1796 Grand Duke Constantine dies. June 27, 1831
Stanislaus dies at St. Petersburgh, Battle of' Winsk (sne Whisss/) July 14, 183L
Febl. 12. 17983 Waraw taken (see T4?arsaev) Sept. 8, 183i
Treaty of Tilsit (tohiclh see) - July 7, 1807 [Trhis last tiltal event terminated the
[The central provinces form thle duchy: nemorable and glorious, but unforof Warsaw, between 1807 and 1813.] tunate struggle of the Poles.]
General Diet at Warsaw - June, 1812 Ukase issued by the emperor Nicholas.
New constitution - Nov. 1815 decreeing that the kingdom of Polanci
Polish Diet opened - - Sept. 1820 shall henceforth fbrm an integral part
Revolution commenced at Warsaw; of the Russian empire Feb. 26, 1832
the army declare in favor of the peo- A powerful insurrection; 40,000 march
pie - - - Nov. 29, 1830 on Cracow, but are defeated, Feb. 23, 1846
The Diet declares the throne of Poland Cracow occupied by the Austrians, and
vacant - - - Jan. 25, 1831 the treaty which had made it indeBattle of Growchow, near Praga: the pendent, declared abrogated, Nov. 16, 1846
Unsuccessful revolt at Cracow, Apr. 25, 1848
DUKES AND KINGS OF POLAND.
Li.D. 550 Lechus I. His posterity held the 1295 Premislaus, great duke of Poland, asdukedom for about 150 years. sassinated.
700 Cracus I. 1296 Uladislaus IV., surnamed Loeticus;
G * Cracus II., assassinated by his brother. he refused the title of king; deposed.
L * l,echus II., deposed. 1300 Winceslaus.
750 Venda, drowned herself. 1306 Uladislaus IV., again.
760 Premislaus. who on being elected was 1333 Casimir the Great, killed by a fall
named Lescus or Less, fiom his horse, while hunting.
804 I,escus II., killed by the French. 1370 Lewis, king of Hungary, succeeded by
810 Lescus III. his daughter
815 Popiel I. 1383 Hedwigis, who married, in
830 Popiel II. 1385 Jagellon, duke of Lithuania, who em842 Piastus, a country peasant. braced the Christian religion, and
861 Zemovitus, took the name of
892 Lescus IV. Uladislaus V.; united Lithuania to
913 Zemomislaus. Poland.
964 Miecislaus, suronamed the Blind, 1434 Uladislaus VI., killed in battle.
999 Boleslaus I., surnamed the Intrepid. 1444 Boleslaus, duke of Massovia.
1025 Miecislaus II., went mad. 1447 Casimir IV.
1041 Cssimir the Pacific. 1492 John Albert.
1058 Boleslaus II., killed himself. 1502 Alexander, prince of Livonia.'_082 Uladislaus, surnamed Hulmanus. 1507 Sigismund I.
1102 Boleslaus III., surnamed Wry-mouth. 1548 Sigismund II., Augustus, chose
1-40 Uladislaus II., fled. 1573 llenry of Valois, duke of Anjou, sue
1148 Boleslaus IV., tile Curled. ceedling to the French throne.
1173 Miecislaus III., deposed. 1576 Stephen Battory, prince of Transyl1178 Casimir II., surnamed the Just. vania.
1194 Lescus V., relinquished. 1587 Sigismund III., son to the king of
1200 Miecislaus IV., whose tyranny in a Sweden.
few months restored Lescus V.; but 1632 Uladislaus VII.
for bad conduct he was again forced 1648 John Casimir, abdicated,
to relinquish the government. 1669 Michael Koribert Wiesnown.
1203 Uladislaus III.; he voluntarily retired. 1674 John Sobieski, died in 1697. An inter.
1206 Lescus V., a third time, being chosen regnuam for a year.
by the nobles, assassinated; suc- 1698 Fre4derick Augustus II., forced to receeded by his son, an infant. sign.
1228 Boleslaus V., the Chaste. 1704 Stanislaus I., Leczinsky, forced to re1279 Lescus VI., surnamed the Blacl. son tire in 1710.
of Conrad, brother of Lescus V., 1710 Frederick Augustus II., agrain.
died 1289. An interregnum of five 1733 Stanislaus I., again.
years, when the Poles chose 1733 Frederick Augustus III.
1764 StanislausAugustus resigns the crown.
So late as the 13th century, the Poles retained the custom of killing old men
when past labor, and such children as were born imperfect.
POLAR REGIONS. For voyages of discovery to the, see North-west Passage
478 THE WVORLD7S PROGRiESS. [ POM
POLE STAR. A star of the second magnitude, the last in the tail of the constellation called the Little Bear; its nearness to the North Pole causes it never to set to those in the northern hemisphere, and therefore it is called the
seaman's guide. The discovery of the Pole Star is ascribed by the Chinese
to their emperor Hong Ti, the grandson (they say) of Noah, who reigned
and flourished 1970 B. c.-l-ULiv. -list.
POLICE. That of London has been extended and and regulatecld at various periods. Its jurisdiction was extended 27 Elizabeth 1585, and 16 Charles I.
1640; and the system improved by various acts in subsequent reiglls. The
London police grew out of the London watch, instituted about 1253. The
London police was remodelled by Mr. (afterwardls sir Robert) Peel, by statute,
June 19, 1829. Some advance has been made since 1840, in introducing a
suitable police in New York and other large cities of the United States; but
we are yet very far behind London in this matter. Probably no city in the
world, large or small, is so 4ell provided as London with an efficient and
useful police force; a force which not only detects and prevents crime, but
preserves order, quiet, and public convenience, in an admirable manner.
POLITICAL ECONOMY, or improvement of the condition of mankind. A
science justly viewed as the great high-road to publicand private happiness.
Its history may be dated from the publication of Dr. Adam Smith's Weallth
of Nations, 1776.
POLITICIANS. A politician is described as a mlan well versed in policy, or
the well regulating and governing of a state or kingdom; a wise and cunning man.-Pardoa. The term was first used in France about A. D. 1569.lHenadt.
POLL-TAX. The tax so called was first levied in England A. n. 1378. The rebellion of Wat Tyler sprung from this impost (see Tyler'), 1381. It. was
again levied in 1513. By the 18th Charles II. every subject was assessed
by the head, viz.-a duke 1001., a marquis 80/., a baronet 301., a knight 201.,
an esquire 101., and every single private person 12d., 1667. This grievous
impost was abolished by William III. at the period of the Revolution.
POLYGAMY. Most of the early nations of the world admitted polygamy.
It was general among the ancient Jews, and is still so among the Turks and
Persians. In Medea it was a reproach to a man to have less than seven
wives. Among the Romans, Marc Antony is mentioned as the first who
took two wives; and the practice became frequent until forbidden by Arcadius A. D. 393. The emperor Charles V. punished this offence with death.
In England, by statute 1 James 1. 1603, it was made felony, but with benefit of clergy. This offence is now punished with transportation. See
Marriages.
POLYGLOT. The term is derived from two Greek words denoting " many lang-uages," and it is chiefly used for the Bible so printed. The Polyglot Bible
termed the Comptutensian Polyglot, in 6 vols. folio, was printed A. D. 1514-17;
the first edition at the expense of the celebrated cardinal Xinmenes. Three copies of it were printed on vellum. Count MacCarthy, of Toulouse, paid 48l1.
for one of these copies at the Pinelli sale. The second Polyglot was printed
at Antwerp, by Montanus, 8 vols. folio, in 1569. The third was printed at Paris, by Le Jay, in 10 vols. folio, 1628-45. The fourth in London, printed by
Bryan Walton, in 6 vols. folio, 1657.-B-rnet.
POMPEII, RuINs oP. This ancient city of' Campania was partly demolished
by an earthquake in A. D. 63. It was afterwards rebuilt, and was swallowed
up by an n awful eruption of Vesuyius, accompanied by an earthquake, on the
night of the 24th of August, A. D. 79. Many of the principal citizens happenecd at the time to be assembled at a theatre where public spectacles were
POP ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 479
exhibited. The ashes buried the whole city, and covered the surrounding
country. After a lapse of fifteen centuries. a countryman, as he was turning
up the ground, accidentally found a bronze figure; and this discovery attracting the attention of the learned, further search brought numerous productions to light, and at length the city was once more shone on by the sun.
Different monarchs have contributed their aid in uncovering the buried
city; the part first cleared was supposed to be the main street, A. D. 1750.'PONDICHERRY. Formerly the capital of French India, and first settled by
the French in 1674. It was taken from them by the Dutch in 1693, and
was beseiged by the English in 1748. It was taken by the English forces in
January 1761, and was restored in 1763. Pondicherry was once more captured by the British, August 23, 1793; and finally in 1803.
PONTUS. The early history of this country (which seems to have been but a
portion of Cappadocia, and received its name from its vicinity tc the Pontus Euxinsus) is very obscure. Artabazes was made king of Pontus by Darius
Hystaspes. His successors were little more than satraps or lieutenants of
the kings ok Persia, and are scarcely known even by name.
Artabazes made king of Pontus by Da- Tigranes ravages Cappaclocia B. c. 86
rius Hystaspes - - - B. C. 487 MIithridates enters Bithynia, and makes
Reign of Mithridates I. - - - 383 himself master of many Roman proAriobarzanes invades Pontus - - 363 vinces, and puts 80,000 Romans to
Mithridates II. recovers it - - 336 death 86
MIithridates III. reigns - - 301 Archelaus defeated by Sylla, at ChaeroAriobarzanes II. reigns - - i 266 nea; 100,000 Cappadocians slain - 86
Mithridates IV. is besieged in his capi- Victories and conquests of Mithridates
tal by the Gauls, &c. - - - 252 up to this time - - - 74
Mithridates makes an unsuccessful at- The fleet of Mithridates defeats that untack upon the free city of Sinope, and der Lucullus, in two battles - 73
is obliged to raise the siege by the IAithridates defeated by Lucullus 69
Rhodians - 219 Mithridates defeats Fabius - - - 68
Reign of Pharnaces; he takes Sinope, But is defeated by Pompey - - 66
and makes it the capital of his liing- Mithridates stabs himself, and dies 63
dom 183 Reign of Pharnaces - - 63
Reign of Mithridates V. - - - 157 Battie of Zela (see Zela); Pharnaces
He is murdered in the midst of his court 123 defeated by Caesar - 47
Mithridates VI., surnamed the Great, or Darius reigns - - - - 39
Eupator, receives the diadem at 12 Polemon, son of Zeno, reigns - 36
years of age - - 123 Polemon II. succeeds his father - A. D. 33
Marries Laodice, his own sister 115 Mithridates VII. reigns - - - 40
She attempts to poison him; he puts Pontus afterwards became a Roman
her and her accomplices to death - 112 province, under the emperors.
Mithridates makes a glorious campaign; Alexis Comnenus founded a new empire
conquers Scythia, Bosphorus, Col- of the Greeks at Trebisond, in this
chis, and other countries - - 111 country, A. 0. 1204, which continued
He enters Cappadocia - - 97 till the Turks destroyed it in 1459.
His war with Rome - 89
POOR LAWS. The poor of England till the time of Henry VIII. subsisted as
the poor of Ireland do to this day, entirely upon private benevolence. By
an ancient statute, 23 Edward III. 1348, it was enacted that none should
give alms to a beggar able to work. By the common law. the poor were to
be sustained by' parsons, rectors of the church, and parishioners, so that
none should die for default of sustenance;" and by statute 15 Richard IT.
impropriators were obliged to distribute a yearly sum to the poor. But no
compulsory law was enacted till the 27th Henry VIII., 1535. The origin of
the present system of poor laws is referred to the 43d of Elizabeth, 1600.
In 1580, the Poor Rates were ~t88,811 In 1815, the Poor Rates were - ~5,418.845
1680, they amounted to 665,562 1820, they amounted to 7,329,594
1698, they amounted to - - 819,000 1830, they amounted to.8,111,422
1760, they amounted to - 1,556,804 1835, they amounted to 6,356,345
1785, they amounted to 2,184,950 1840, they amounted to 5,468.699
1802, they amounted to 4,952,421 1845, they amounted to - 5,543,650
POPE. This title was originally given to all bishops. It was first adopted by Hygenus, A. D. 138; and pope Boniface III. procured Phocas, emperor of the
480 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ POP
East, to confine it to the prelates of Rome, 606. By the connivance of Phocas also, the pope's supremacy over the Christian church was established. The
custom of kissing the pope's toe was introduced in 708. The first sovereign
act of the popes of Rome was by Adrian I., who caused money to be coined
with his name, 780. Sergius II. was the first pope who changed his name,
on his election in 844. Some contend that it was Sergius I. and others John
XIT. or XIII. See NVames. John XVIII., a layman, was made pope 1024. The
first pope who kept an army was Leo IX. 1054. Gregory VII. obliged Henry
IV., emperor of Germany, to stand three days in the depth of winter, barefooted, at his castle gate, to implore his pardon, 1077. The pope's authority
was firmly fixed in England 1079. Appeals from English tribunals to the
pope were introduced 19 Stephen, 1154.- Vines's Statutes. Henry II. of England held the stirrup of pope Alexander III. to mount his horse, 1161; and
also for Becket, 1170.* Celestine III. kicked the emperor Henry VI.'s crown
off his head while kneeling, to show his prerogative of making and unmaking kings, 1191. The pope collected the tenths of the whole kingdom of
England, 1226. The papal seat was removed to Avignon, in France, in 1308,
for seventy years. The Holy See's demands on England were refused by
parliament, 1363. Appeals to Rome from England were abolished 1533.Vineer. The words "Lord Pope" were struck out of all English'books, 1541.
The papal authority declined about 1600. Kissing the pope's toe and othelceremonies, were abolished by Clement XIV. 1773. The pope became destitute of all political influence in Europe, 1787; Pius VI. was burnt in effigy
at Paris 1791. He made submission to the French republic, 1796. Was
expelled from Rome, and deposed, February 22, 1798, and died at Valence,
August 19, 1799. Pius VII. was elected in exile, March 13, 1800. Was
dethroned May 13, 1809. Remained a prisoner at Fontainebleau till Napoleon's overthrow; and was restored May 24, 1814. Pope Pius IX. elected
June 1846, decrees a senate of 100, Oct. 2, 1847. Riot at Rome, new ministry,
May 1, 1848. Count Rossi, the pope's prime minister, assassinated Nov.
16, 1848. Attack of the people on the Quirinale; the pope yields and
grants a liberal ministry, Nov. 16. After being a prisoner in his palace
for a week, the pope escapes in disguise of a servant to Mola-di-Gaeta, Nov.
24, and thence goes to Portici, near Naples. Roman republic proclaimed.
Feb. 9, 1849. See Rome. The pope returned to Rome, April 1850. See
Itcaly; Rome; ReJbszmatione, icfc.
POPES SINCE THE REFORMIATION.
A.D. 1513 Leo X.; his grant of indulgences for 1591 Innocent IX.; died in 2 months.
crime led to the reformation. 1592 Clement VIII.; learned and just.
1522 Adrian VI. 1605 Leo XI.; died same month.
1523 Clement VII.; denounced IIenry VIII. 1605 Paul V.
of England. 1621 Gregory XV.; beneficent.
1534 Paul III. 1623 Urban VIII.
1550.lJulius III. 1644 Innocent X.; violent and cruel.
1555 Marcellus II.; (ldied in 21 days. 1655 Alexander VII.; liberal and learned.
1555 Paul IV.; fiery and haughty. 1667 Clement IX.; died of grief.
1559 Pins IV. 1670 Clement X.
1566 Plus V. 1676 Innocent XI.; reformed abuses.
1572 Gregory XIII.; learned canon; re- 1689 Alexander VIII.
formed the Calendar, (which see). 1691 Innocent XII.; abolished nepotism.
1585 Sixtus V.; supposed poisoned. 1700 Clement XI.
1590 Urban VII.; died 12 days after. 1721 Innocent XIII.; the eighth pontiff of
1.590 Gregory XIV. his family.
"' When Louis, king of France, and Henry II. of England, met pope Alexander III. at the castle
of Torci, on the Loire, they both dismounted to receive him, and holding each of them one of the
reins of his bridle, walled on foot by his side, and conducted him in that submissive nianner into
the castle." —eunze. Pope Adrian IV. was the only Englishman that ever obtained the tiara. His
arrogance was such, that he obliged Frederick I. to prostrate himself before him, kiss his foot. hold
his stirrup, and lead the white palfrey on which he rode. His name was Nicholas Brekespeare.
lie was elected to the popedom in 1154.
OP ]O DICTIONARY OF DATES. 481
POPES, continucd.
1724 Benedict XII. 1800 Oardirial Chiaramonte, elected at Ven
1730 Clement XII.; reformed abuses. ice, as Pius VII., March 13.
1740 Benedict XIV.; wise and pious. 1823 Annibal delta Genga,Leo XII., Sept.28.
1758 Cleulent XIII. 1831 Mauro Capellari, Gregory XVY.,Feb.2.
1769 Clement XIV. Ganganelli. 1846 Mastei Ferretti, Pius IX., inaugurated
1775 Pius VI., February 14. June 21, aged 54. - - Jule 16.
For Sueccessiono of Popes to the Reformation, see'cTabulau' Views, from page
50 to page 115.
POPE JOAN. It is fabulously asserted that in the ninth century, a female,
named Joan, conceived a violent passion for a young monk named Felda,
and in order to be admitted into his monastery assumed the male habit.
On the death of her lover, she entered on the duties of professor, and being
very learned, was elected pope when Adrian II. died in 872. Other scandalous particulars follow; " yet until the Reformation the tale was repeated
and believed without offence."- Gibboz.
POPISH PLOT. This plot is said to have been contrived by the Catholics to
assassinate Charles II.; concerning which, even modern historians have
affirmed, that some circumstances were true, though some were added, and
others much magnified. The popish plot united in one conspiracy three
particular designs: to kill the king, to subvert the government, and extirpate the Protestant religion; Lord Stafford was convicted of high treason
as a conspirator in the Popish plot, and was beheaded, making on the
scaffold the most earnest protestations of his innocence, Dec. 29, 1680.eRapin.
POPULATION. The population of the world may now, according to the best
and latest authorities, Balbi, Hanneman, the Almcaacae de Gotlla, &c., be
stated in round numbers at 1050 millions. Of these, Europe is supposed to
contain 270 millions; Asia, 565 millions; Africa, 115 millions; America, 75
millions; and Australasia, 25 millions. The population of England in A. D.
1877 was 2,092,978 souls. In a little more than a hundred years, 1483, it
had increased to 4;689,000. The following tables of the population of the
United Kingdom are from official returns:POPULATION OF ENGLAND AND WALES DECENNIALLY FOR ONE HUNDRED YEARS.
Year 1700 Population 5,475,000 Year 1770 Population 7,428,000
1710 - - ditto 5,240,000 1780 ditto 7,953,000
1720 -. ditto 5,565,000 1790 - - ditto 8,675,000
1730 - - ditto 5,796,000 1801 - - ditto 1.0,942,646
1740 - - ditto 6,064,000 1821 - - - ditto 14,391,631
1750 - - ditto 6,467,000 1841 - - - ditto 18,844,434
1760 ditto 6,736,000
POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES.
Year 1790. Population 3,929,827 Year 1830 Population 12.866,920
1800 - - - ditto 5,305,925 1840 - - - ditto 17;063,353
1810 - ditto 7,239,814 [See the several States.]
1820 - - ditto 9,638,131
PRESENT POPULATION OF THE CHIEF KINGDOMS AND CITIES OF THIE WORLD.
Chinese empire Pruss. monarchy 16,550,000 Holland - - - 5,100,000
(Balbi) - -180,000,000 United States of Dutch monarchy
Russia - - 58,500,000 America* 17,063,000 (total) - 14,750,000
Russian empire- 72,000,000 Turkey - - 12,000,000 Bavaria - - - 4,600,000
France - - 36,500,000 Ottoman empire Sweden and NorAustria 34,599,000 (total) - 24,500,000 way- - 4,550,000
Great Britain and Persia - - - 11,800,000 Belgium-. - 4,500,000
Ireiand - - 27,000,000 Mexico - 9,500,000 Poland - 4,250,000
British empire -158,000,000 Kingdom of the Portuaal - 3,950,000
Japan - - 27,000,000 two Sicilies- - 8,750,000 Republic of CoSpain - - 17,500,000 Brazil - 6,250,000 lumbia - - 3,350,000
Spanish empire Sardinia - - 5,800,000 Eccles. States- - 2,970,000
(total) - - - 19,500,000 Morocco. 5,200,000 British America- 2,950,000
* In 1840. In 1850, estimated at 22,000,000.
21
482 THIIE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ Po.
POPULATION, contignted.
Switzerland 2,450,000 St. Petersburgh 405,0001 Hamburgh - - 172,000
DI)enark 2,400.000 Vienna - 395,000 lI,yons - - 168Y
Hanover 1,780,000 New Yorlc (1845) 371.000 1 Paleirmo - - l7. u
Wirtemberg - - 1,680,000 Moscow - 3551000 i arseilles - - 1L6,000
Saxony 1.650,000 Grand Cairo 335,00 I Copenhagen - - li145,OU
Tuscany- I 550.000 lisbon 298.000 Turin- - - 143,000
Badcn 1,400;000 Aleppo - 280;000 Seville - - - 142,000
CITIES, Berlin - 280:000 ViWarsaw 141.00t0
Cities. nlshab. Amsterdam - - 274,000 Tunis - 13,000
London (Parlit - lIadlrid 2 - 70,000 Baltimore (184s) 134,000
sanentary Ret.) 1.776,556 Philadelphia (148) 258.000 j Prague 133,00:
Jeddo (euzcted) - l,680,000 Bordeaux - - 27.000 Smyrna - - - 132, 0
Pekin (reatuted) 1,600,000 Bagdad 245,000 Brussels - - 30,0(;
Paris - 1000,000 MAexico - - - 5,000 Florence -
Nanlin- - - 850,000 Rome — 224,000 Stockholm - 151, l00
Constantinople S00,000 Rio Janeiro 200.000 Munich - - - 113,000
CalcLtta - - 710,000 Milan - 193,000 ])resden - 114.000
Madras - - - 435,000 Barcelona 183,000 Boston (.1841) - 114,000
Nsaples 410,000 Frankfort - - 110,000
PORCELAIN. Poecelccain7e. Said to be derived fiom Po0t' cebt Candes, it being
formerly believed that the materials of porcelain were fmatured urdler
ground 100 years. It is not known who first discovered the art of makin,
porcelain, nor is the date recorded; but the manufacture has been carrie
on in China at King-te-ching, at least since A. D. 442, ancd here still the fine
porcelain is made. It is filst mentioned in Europe in 1531, shortly a'tbewhich time it was known in England. See China Porcelain, and Dresdel.
Cinca.
PORTLAND, the largest town in Mlaine, formerly part of Falmouth; burnt by
the British, Oct. 1775. Population in 1800, 3;677; in 1820, 8,581; in 1840:
15,082.
PORTO BELLO. Discovered by Columbus, November 2, 1502. It was taken
from the Spaniards by the British under admiral Vernon, November 22,
1739. It was again taken by admiral Vernon, who destroyed the fortitfid
tions, in 1742. Before the abolition of the trade by the galleons, in 1748,
and the introduction of register ships, this place was the great mart for the
rich commerce of Peru and Chili.
PORTO FERRAJO. Capital of Elba; built and- fortified by Cosmo I. durke
of Florence, in 1548; but the fortifications were not finished till 1628, when
CosImo II. completed them with a magnificence equal to that displayed by
the old Romans in their public undertakings. Here was the resicldnce of
Napoleon in 1814-15. See BaLnzaparcte, Elba, and Flcnce.
PORTSMOUTH. The most considerable haven for men-of-war, and the m
strongly fortified place in England. The dock, arsenal, and storehouswere established in the reign of Henry VIII.
PORTUGAL. The ancient Lusitania. The name is derived friom Porto Ca'
the original appellation of the city of Oporto. It submitted to the Ronj..
arms about 250 a. c., and underwent the same changes as Spain on the fall
of the Roman empire. Conquered by the loors. A. D. 713. They kep
possession till they were conquered by Alphonsus VI. the Valiant of Castil
assisted by many other princes and volunteers. Among those who shr'
most in this celebrated expedition was Henry of Lorraine, grandson oc
Robert, king of France. Alphonsus bestowed upon him Theresa, his natural daughter, and, as her marriage portion, the kingcldom of Portugal,
which he was to hold of him, A. D. 1093.
Settlement of the Alains and Visigotls Alphonsus Henriquez defeats 5 Moorish
here.. D. 472 lings, and is proclaimed king by his
Invasion by the Saracens 713 army -t
The kings of Asturias subdue some Assisted by a fleet of Crusaders in their
Saracen chiefs, and Alphonsos III. way to the Holy Land, he takes Lisestablisheb episcopal peas - 900 bon from the Moors
1-'OtR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 483
PORTUGAL, cot-;i.,L.4teld.
The kinldom of Ala rve takiel lIfrom the Death of John VI. Feb. 18, 1826
Moors by Salncho I. - 1189 Don Pedro graents a charter, and conReitgn of Dionysius I. or Denis, father firms the regency - April 26, 1826
ci' his counter, who builds 44 cities Ile relinquishes the throne in favor of'
or towns in Potnlu'al - - 1279 his dausllter Donnra Maria May 2, 1826
M31iliary orders ol Ch'isi. and St. James Marquess of Chaves' insurrection at
instituted, - 1279 to 1325 Lisbon - - - -Oct. 6, 1826
John I., surnamed the Great, carries Don Miguel and Donna Maria betrothhis arms into Africa 1415 ed Oct. 29, 1826
Madel-a and the Canaries seized 1420 Porltutal solicits the assistance of Great
Passage to the East Indies, by the Cape Britain - - - Dec. 3, 1826
of Good Hope, discovered 1- 493 Departure of the first British auxiliary
Discovery of the Brazils -150U troops for Poltlgatl - Dec. 17, 1826
The Incluisition established - 1526 Don Miguel formally assumes the title
The kinlgdom seized by Philip II. of of kin - - - July 4, 1828
Spain - 1580 He dissolves the three estates July 12, 1828
The Portuguese throw off the yoke, and Revolution at Brazil - April 7, 1831
place John, duke of Braganza, on the Don Pedro arrives in England June 16, 1831
throne. His posterity still possess Insurrection in favor of the queen, in
the crown - -1640 which 300 lives are lost Aug. 21, 1831
The great earthquake which destroys Don Pedro's expedition sails from
Lisbon. See larthlquat/ke - - 1755 Belle-isle - - - Feb. 9, 1832
Joseph I. is attacked by assassins, and At Terceira Don Pedro proclaims himnarrowly escapes death - - 1758 self regent of Portugal, on behalf of
[This affair causes soume of the first his daughter - - April2, 18J2
families of the kinadom to be tortutred He taltes Oporto - - July 8, 1832
to death, their very names being for- After various conflicts, Don Miguel cabidden to be mentiotned; yet many pitulates to the Pedroites May 26, 1834
were unjustly condenmnetl, and their Don Miguel is permitted to leave the
innocence was soon afterwards made country unmolested - May 31, 1834
manifest. The Jesuits were also ex- Massacres at Iisbon - June 9, 1834
pelled on this occasion.] The queen declared by the Cortes to be
Joseph, having no son, obtains a dis- ofae - Sept. 15, 1834
sensation fiom the pope to enable Don Pedro dies - Sept. 21, 1834
his daughter and brother to intermar- Prince Augustus of Portugal (dulte of
ry. See Incest. - - 1760 Leuchtenberg), just married to the
The Spaniards and Fl ench invade Port- queen, dies - - Marc 28, 1835
ugal, which is saved by the valor of The queen marries prince Ferdinand of
the English - - 1762 and 1763 Saxe ( obutg - -Jan. 1, 1836
Regency of John (afterwards lking) A sudden change of ministry leads to a
owing to the queen's lunacy - - 1792 fornmidable revolution Oct. 9, 1846
The Court, on the French invasion, Action at Evora; the insurgents defeatemigrates to the Brazils Nov. 2, 1807 ed by the queen's troops Oct. 23, 1846
Marshal Junot enters Lisbon, Nov. 29, 1807 [Oporto, where a revolutionary junta
Convention of Cintra (see article under I is established, atLd other large towns,
that name) - Aug. 30, 1808! are seized by the insurgent army.]
Portugal cedes Guiana to France - 1814 Actions are fought at Viana, Valpassos,
Revolution in Portugal - Aug. 29, 1820 Braga, Torres-Vedras, &c., favorable
Constitutional Junta - - Oct. 1, 1820 I to the queen. Battle of St. Ubes; the
Return of' the Court J- uly 4, 1821 Insurgents defeated, losing 861 men
Independence of Brazil, the prince re- in killed and wounded -May 1, 1847
gent made emperor - Oct. 12 1822 Intervention of England, France, and
The kIing of Portugal suppresses the Spain, signed in London May 21, 1847
conrstitution - June 5, 1823 Claim of the United States on Portugal
Disturbances at Lisbon; Don Miguel for damages in the war of 1812, redeparts, &c. - May 1-9, 1824 sisted, and U. S. minister leaves LisTreaty with Brazil Aug. 29, 1825 bon - - July, 1850
KINGS OF PORTUGAL.
J.D. 1093 King of Lorraine, count or earl of Port- 1385 John I., the Bastard, natural son to
ugal. Peter the Severe.
1112 Alphonso I.; proclaimed king - 1139 1433 Edward.
1185 Sancho I. 1438 Alphonsus V.
1212 Alphonso II., surnanmed Crassus, -or 1481 John 1I.
the Fat. 1495 Emanuel.
1224 Sancho II., the Idle, deposed. 1521 John III.
1247 Alphonsus III. 1557 Sebastian, killed in Afifta.
1279 Dennis. 1578 Henry. the Cardinal.
1325 Alphonsus IV. 1580 Anthony, prior of Crato, son of Eman
1357 Peter the Severe. uel, deposed by Philp II. of Spain,
1367 Ferdinand I., died 1383; an interreg- who united Portugal to his other donum for 18 months. t minions, till 1640.
484 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ rS
PORTUGAL, continiued.
1640 John IV., dulke of Braganza, dispos- 1!750 Joseph.
sessed the Spaniards, and was pro- 1777 Mary Frances Isabella.
claimed king, Dec. 1. 1799 John VI.
1656 Alphonsus VI. 1826 Don Pedro; he abdicates May 2, mn
1668 Peter II. favor of his daughter.
1707 John V. 1826 Maria de Gloria.
POSTS. Posts originated in the regular couriers established by Cyrus, who
erected post-houses throughout the kingdom of Persia. Augustus was the
first who introduced this institution among the Romans, and who employed
post-chaises. This plan was imitated by Charlemagne about A. D. 800.As/Le. Louis XI. first established post-houses in France dwing to his eager
ness for news, and they were the first institution of this nature in Europ
1470.-Helnarlt. In England the plan commenced in the reign of Edwar(
IV., 1481, when riders on post-horses went stages of the distance of twenty
miles from each other in order to procure the king the earliest intelligence
of the events that passed in the course of the war that had arisen with the
Scots.-Gale. Richard III. improved the system of couriers in 1483. In
1543 similar arrangements existed in England.-Sadler's Letters. Post communications between London and most towns of England, Scotland, and
Ireland, existed in 1635.- Strype.
POST-OFFICE, TIE GENERAL, OF ENGLAND. See pr'eceding article. The fir
chief postmaster of England was Mr. Thomas Randolph, appointed I
queen Elizabeth in 1581.*
THE REVENUE OF THE POST-OFFIOE OF ENGLAND AT TIHE FOLLOWING PERIODS, VIZ.
I1n 643 It yielded - - - ~5,000 In 1805 Great Britain - - 1,424,994
1653 Farmed to John Manley, 1815 Ditto - - 1,755,898.Esq., for - 10,000 1820 UnIited Kingdom' - 2,402,697
1663 Farmed to Daniel O'Neale, 1825 Ditto - - 2,255,239
Esq., for - 21,500 1835 Ditto - 2,353,340
1674 Farmed for - - - 43.000 1839 Last year of the heavy
1685 It yielded - - - 65,000 postage - - - 2,522,495
1707 Ditto - - - - 111,461 1840 First year of the low rate,
1764 Ditto - 432.048 1 penny for all distances 471, -
1800 Ditto - - - 745;313
POST-OFFICE IN TaE UNITED STATES. The first post-office in the colonies was established in 1710, by act of Parliament for establishing a general
post-office for all her Majesty's dominions. During the revolution this department was, of course, controlled by Congress, and the Constitution of
the United States, 1789, provided for the continuance of this control-the
Postmaster-General being appointed by the President and Senate, as one of
the cabinet. For successive Postmaster-Generals see Administrations. The
following table gives the statistics of the post-offices in the United Sta'
at different times since 1790.
Year. No. of Post Amount of Net Revenue..Extent in mil..
Offices. Postzg of Post Raclds
1790 - 75 $37,93 - - $5,79 - - 1,875
1800 - - 903 - - 280,804 - - 66,810 - - - 20.817
1810 - - 2,300 - 551,684 - - -55,715 - - - 36,406
1820 - - - 4,500 - - - 1,111,927 - - 72,492
1830 - 8,000 - - 1,850,583 - - -- t - - 115,000
1840 - 13.468 - -4,539,265 - - - - - - 155,739
1845 - 14,183 - - -4,289,842 - - - t - - 143,940
1846 - - 14,601 - - -3,487,1995. - - - 152,865
1847 - - 15,146 -3.9355,8935. - - 153,818
1848 - - 16,159 - 4,371,077 $ - - 44,227 - - - 163.208
The number of dead letters returned quarterly is estimated at 450 000.
~ Even so late as between 1730 and 1740, the post was only transmitted three days a weekl be.
tween Edinburgh and London; and the metropolis, on one occasion, onzly sent a single letter, which
was for an Edinburgh banker, named Ramsay.
t In all these years the receipts fell short of the expenditures.; The returns for 1846, 7, and 8, are for the first three years of the new law passed March 3, 18&
reducing the letter postage to 5 cents under 300 miles, and 10 cents for all greater distances.
PltA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 485
POTATOES. The potato is a native of Chili and Peru. Potatoes were orib
ginall3 carried to England from Santa Fe. ill America, by sir John Hawkills, A. D. 1563. Others ascribe this introduction to sir Francis Drake, in
1586; while their general introduction is mentioned by muany writers as
occurring in 1592. Their first culture in Ireland is referred to sir Walter.
Raleigh, who had large estates in that country. about Youghal. in the
county of Cork. It is said that potatoes were not known in Flanders until
1620. A fine kind of potato was first brought from America, by that
"patriot of every clime," the late Mr. Howard, who cultivated it at Cardinton, near Bedford, 1765; and its culture became general soon after. It is
affirmed that the Neapolitans once refused to eat potatoes during a famine.
-Buztler. Potatoe disease first appeared in Ireland, &c., causing great
alarm and distress, Oct. 1845.
POTOSI, MINEs OF. These mines were discovered by the Spaniards in 1545,
and produce the best silver in America. They are in a mountain in the
form of a sugar-loaf. Silver was as common in this place as iron is in
Europe; but the mines are now much exhausted, or at least little is got in
comparison of what was formerly obtained.
)UND. From the Latin Pondies. The pound sterling was in Saxon times,
about A. D. 671. a pound troy of silver, and a shilling was its twentieth part,
consequently the latter was three times as lalge as it is at present.-.-Peac/ham.
The value of the Roman pondo is not precisely known, though some suppose it was equivalent to an Attic minaes, or 31. 4s. 7d. Our avoirdupois
weight (cvoir due poids) came fi'om the French. and contains sixteen ounces;
it is in proportion to our troy weight as seventeen to fourteen.-Chambers.
POWDERING THE HAIR. This custom took its rise from some of the balladsingers at the fair of' St. Germain whitening their heads to make themselves ridiculous. Unlike other habits it was adopted from the low by the
high, and became very general about A. D. 1614. In England the powderedhair tax took place in May 1795, at which time the preposterous practice
of using powder was at its height; this tax was one guinea for each person.
The hair-powder tax is still continued, though it yields in England under
70001. per year, and in Scotland about 2501. It was abolished in Ireland.
PR=ETORS. Magistrates of Rome. The office was instituted 365 a. c., when
one pr,-etor only was appointed; but a second was appointed in 252 B. c.
One administered justice to the citizens, and the other appointed judges
in all causes which related to foreigners. In the year of Rome 520,
two more prators were created to assist the consul in the government
of' the provinces of Sicily and Sardinia, which had been lately conquered,
and two more when Spain was reduced into the form of a Roman province,
A. a. c. 551. Sylla the dictator added two more, and Julius Ciasar increased the number to 10, and afterwards to 16, and the second triumvirate to
64. After this their numbers fluctuated, being sometimes 18, 16, or 12, till,
in the decline of the empire, their dignity decreased, and their numbers
were reduced to three.
AGA, BATTLE OF, in which 30,000 Poles were butchered by the merciless
Russian general Suwarrow.' fought Oct. 10, 1794. Battle of Praga, in which
the Poles commanded by Skrzneclki defeated the Russian army commanded
by general Giesmar, who loses 4000 killed and wounded, 6000 prisoners. and
12 pieces of cannon; fought between Grothoff and Wawer, March 31, 1831.
PRAGMATIC SANCTION. An ordinance relating to the church and sometimes state affairs; and at one time particularly the ordinances of the kings
of France, wherein the rights of the Gallican church were asserted against
the usurpation of the pope in the choice of bishops. Also the emperor's
letter by advice of his council, in answer to high personages in particular
486 TIE WORLD'S PROG-RESS. L pI.E
contingencies. The Pragmatic Sanction for settling the empire of Germany
in the house of Austria, A. D. 1489. The emperor Charles VI. publisihed ti
Prangmatic Sanction, whereby, in default of male issue, his daughters shouli
succeed in preference to the sons of his brother Joseph I., April 17, 1713.
ald he settled his dominions on his daughter -Maria Theresa in conformity
thereto, 1722. She succeeded in Oct. 1740; but it gave rise to a war, in
which most of the powers of Europe were engaged.
PRAGUE, BATTLE OF, between the Imperialists and Bohemians. The latter,
who had chosen Frederick V. of the Palatine (son-in-law to our James I.) for
their king, were totally defeated. The unfortunate king was forced to fle
with his queen and children into Holland, leaving all his baggage and mon
behind him. He was afterwards deprived of' his hereditary dominions, ani.
the Protestant interest was ruined in Bohemia; all owing to the pusills,nimity and inactivity of James, Nov. 7, 1620. Prague was taken by th,
Saxons in 1631; and by the Swvedes in 1648. It was taken by storml by tlhe
French, in 1741; but they were obliged to leave it in 1742. In 1744, it was
taken by the king of Prussia; but he was obliged to abandon it the samen
year. The great and memorable battle of Prague Sw-as fought iM\ay 6, 175"
In this engagement the Austrians were defeated by prince Henry of Prussi;and their whole camp taken; their illustrious commander, general Browj
was mortally wounded; and the brave Prussian, marshal Schwerin, wra
killed. After this victory, Prague was besiegecd by the king of Prussia, buL
he was soon afterwards obliged to raise the siege.
PRAISE-GOD-BAREBONES' PARLIAMENT. A celebrated parliament, so
called firom one of' the members (who had thus fantastically styled hilmself'
according' to the fashion of the times), met July 4, 1653. This parliament
consisted of 144 members, summoned by the protector Cromwell; they were
to sit for fifteen months, and then they were to chose a fiesh parliament
themselves.
PRATIQUE. The writing or license of this name was originally addressed by
the Southern nations to the Iports of Italy to which vessels were bound. and
siginified that the ship so licensed came from a place or country in a healthy
state, and no way infected with the plague or other contagious disease.
The pratique is now called a bill of health, and is still of the samle intent
and import.-As/re.
PRAYERS FOR THE DEAD, &c. They were first introduced into the Chritian church about A. D. 190.-EtsebCzss. Prayers addressed to the V.:s-'
Mary arnd to the saints were introduced by pope Gregory, A. D. 59'3. T
mode of praying with the face to the east was instituted by pope BonifaII., A. D. D. 532.
PRECEDENI'E. Precedence was established in very early ages; and in ml
of the countries of the East and of Europe, and was amongst the laws o,
Justinian. In England, owing to the disputes that prevailed among cour
tiers respecting priority of rank and office, the order of precedency 1w1a
regulated chiefly by two statutes, namely, one passed 31 Henry VIII., 15o3"
and the other, 1 George I., 1714.
TABLE OP PRECEDENCY.
THE QUEEN. I Princess Alice; and other Archbishop of Canterbury.
Prince of Wales. princesses. Lord Clhancellor.
Prince Albert. Duchess of Kent. Archbishop of York.
Queen Dowager. Queen's uncles.'Lord higih treasurer.
Queen's other sons. Queen's aunts. lI,ord presiflent.
Princess royal. Queen's cousins. *Lord privy seal.' If of the rank of barons.
PIlE] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 487
~RECEDDENCE, co'toeiiccd..Lord high constable. cotiTONEaIS. Knights ofth l Garter's eldest
iLord great chamberlain of The $Speaker. SOlnS.
Enlarnd.'iTreasurer, comptroller. ald Barneterts' eldest sons.'Earl imarshal. vice-chamberlain of" the Knighls of the bath's eldest'Lord high admiral. household. sons.
Lord steward of the house- SecretariesofState, ifthey be Knitihts' eldest sons.
hold. under the degree of baron. Baronets' younger sons.
Lord Chamberlain. Viscounts' eldest sons. Flag and field oflicers.
Dukes, according to patent. Earls' younger sons. Sergeants-at-law.
i\larqluesses, according to Barons' eldest solns. Doctors, Deans, and chlan
their patents. Knights ofl the Garter. cellors.
Dukes' eldest sons. Privy councillors. Masters in chancery.
Earls, according to their pa- Chancellor ofthe Exchequer. Conlpanions of the bath.
tents. Chancellor of the duchy of Gentlemnen of the privy
Marquesses' eldest sons. Lancaster. chamber.
Duktes' younger sons. Lord chief justice of the Esquires of ti,e knights of the
Viscounts, according to their queen's bench. Bath.
patents. Master of the rolls. Esquires by creation.
Earls' eldest sons. Vice-chancelior. Esquires by office or cornMarquesses' younger sons. Lord chief justice of the coilr- mission.
Bishop of London. inon pleas. Younger so B of knights of
Bishop of Durhanm. Lord chielf baron. the garter.
Bishop of Winchester. Judges and barons, according Sons of bannerets.
All other bishops, according to seniority. Younger sons of Ikliglhts of
to their seniority of conse- HIereditary bannerets. tihe bathl.
cration. Viscounts' younger sons. Younger sons of knights baSecretary of State, being a Barons' younger sons. chelors.
baron. lBaroinets. Gentlemen entitled to bear
Cotmmissioners of thle great Bannerets for life only. arms.
seal. Knights of the bath. Clergymen, not dignitaries.
Barons, according to their Grand Crosses. Barristers at law.
patents. Knights comnlianders. Officers of the army and
[All the above, except the Knilghts bachelors. navy, not esquires by comroyal fatmily, holod their Eldest sons ofc the younger mission.
precedence of rank by act sons of peers. Citizens, burgesses, &c.
31 Hetnry VIII.] Baronets' eldest sons.
PR.EDESTINATION. The belief that God hath from all eternity unchangeablly
appointed whatever comes to pass. This doctrine is the subject of one of
the msost perplexing controversies that have occurred among lmankind. It
was taught by the ancient Stoics and early Chlristians; and Mahonset introduced the doctrine of an absolute predestination into his Koran in the
strongest light. The controversy respecting it in the Christian church arose
in the fifth century, when it was mnaintained by St. Ausgustin; and Lucidus.
a priest of Gaul, taught it A. D. 470.'RESBURG, PEACE OF, between France and Austria, by which the ancient
states of Venice were ceded to Italy; the principality of Eichstett, part of
the bishopric of Passau, the city of' Augsburg, the Tyrol, all the possessions
of Austria in Suabia, in Brisgau, and Ortenau, were transferred to the elector of Bavaria and the duke of Wirtemberg, who, as well as the duke of
Baden, were then created kings by Napoleon; the independence of the Helvetic republic was also stipulated, Dec. 26, 1805.
5'RESBYTERIANS. A numerous and increasing sect of Christians, so called
from their maintaining that the government of the church appointed in the
New Testament was by Presbyteries, or associations of ministers and ruling
elders, equal in power, office, and in order. The first Presbyteriatn meetinghouse in England was established by the Puritans at Wandsworth, Surrey,
Nov. 20, 1572. Presbyteriansism is the religion of Scotland. Its distinguishing tenets seem to have been -first embodied in the formulary of faith attri* Above all of their own rank only, by 31 Henry VIII.
T When in actual office only, by I George I.
N. B. The; priority of signing any treaty or public instrument by ministers of state is takeon ~i
_,k of office, and nert tite.
488 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.' [ PI.
buted to John Knox, and compiled by that reformer in 1560. It was
approved by the parliament, and ratified, 1567, and finally settled by an act
of the Scottish senate, 1696, afterwards secured by the treaty of union wit-L
England in 1707.
PRESIDENTS or THE UNITED STATES. Washington, unanimonsly electedi
president of the federal convention, which sat at Philadelphia from May 25
to Sept. 17, 1787; and was unanimously elected first president of the United
States, April 6, 1789. See United States and Administration~s.
PRESS, THE PRINTING. This great engine was of rude construction from
the period of the discovery of the art of printing, up to the close of the
eighteenth century, when many improvements were made. William Caxtor
a mercer of London, had a press set up at Westminster, 1471.-Stlowe's
CA'iro. The earl of Stanhope's iron presses were in general use in 1806.
The printing-machine was invented by Koenig in.811. and Applegath's followed. The Columbian press of Clymer was produced in 1814 and the
Albion press, an improvement on this last, came into use a few years after.
Printing by means of steam machinery was first executed in Englandcl at
The Times office, London, on Monday, November 28, 1814. Cow per's and
Applegath's rollers for distributing the ink upon the types were brought irn o
use in 1817. Vast improvements have been made in the United States withir,
a few years, both in hand and steam-presses. The most celebrated mianufactnrers, probably, are R. Hoe & Co., of New-York. Their largest presses
for newspapers are capable of throwing off' 10,000 sheets per hourn which is
so much in advance of any presses in Europe that they have supplied orders
from Paris. The presses of Seth Adamls & Co., of Boston, are perhaps thll
best in the world for book printing. See article Prin;ting.
PRESS, LIBERTY OF TIHE. The imprimcatr, " let it be printed," was much used
on the title-pages of books printed in the 16th and 17th centuries. The
liberty of the press -was restrained, and the number of master printers in
London and Westminster limited, by the star-chamber, 14 Charles I., 1638.
And again by act of parliament, 6 William III., 1693. The celebrated toast,
"The liberty of the press-it is like the air we breathe-if we have it not
we die," was first given at the Crown and Anchor tavern, London, at a Whig
dinner in 1795. Presses were licensed, and the printer's name required
to be placed on both the first and last pages of a book, July 1799. In France
and Germany the liberty of the press has been occasionally granted, but/
again restricted by the reactionary governments. In the United States it
was fully guaranteed by the constitution.
PRESSING TO DEATH. A punishment in England, referred to the reign oi
Henry III. or of Edward I., and on the statute book until the latter part of
the last century. A remarkable instance of this death, in England, is the
following: —Hugh Calverly, of Calverly in Yorkshire, esq., having murdered
two of his children. and stabbed his wife in a fit of jealousy, being arraigned for his crime at York assizes, stood mute, and was thereupon pressed to
death in the castle, a large iron weight being placed upon his breast, 3 James
I. 1605.-S-towe's Chrn-o.
PRESTONPANS, BATTLE OF, between the Young Pretender, prince Charles
Stuart, heading his Scotch adherents, and the royal army under sir John
Cope. The latter was defeated with the loss of 500 men, and was forced to
fly at the very first onset. Sir John Cope precipitately galloped from the
field of battle to Berwick-upon-Tweed, where he was the first to announce
his own discomfiture. His disgrace is perpetuated in a favorite Scottish
ballad, called, from the doughty hero, "Johnie Cope." Fought Sept. 21,
1745.
PRETENDER. The person known in English history by the title of the Pretender'
1~ ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 489
or Chevalier de St. George, was the son of James II., born in 1688, and acknowledged by Louis XIV. as James III. of England, in 1701. He was proclaimed, and his standard set up, at Braemar and Castletown in Scotland,
Sept. 6, 1715; and he landed at Peterhead, in Aberdeenshire, from France,
to encourage the rebellion that the earl of Mar and his other adherents had
promoted, Dec. 26, same year. This rebellion having been soon suppressed,
the Pretender escaped to Montrose (from whence he arrived at Gravelines),
Feb. 4, 1716; and died at Rome, Dec. 30, 1765.
PRETENDER, THE YOUNG. The son of the preceding, called prince Charles,
born in 1720. He landed in Scotland, and proclaimed his father king, June
1745. He gained the battle of Prestonpans, Sept. 21, 1745, and of Falkirk,
January 18, 1746; but was defeated at Culloden, April 16, same year, and
ought safety by flight. He continued wandering among the fiightful wilds
of Scotland for nearly six rnonths, and as 30,000/. was offered for taking him,
he was constantly pursued by the British troops, often hemmed round by
his enemies, but still rescued by some lucky accident, and he at length escaped from the isle of Uist to Morlaix. He died March 3. 1788. His natural daughter assumed the title of Duchess of Albany; she died;n 1789. His
brother, the cardinal York, calling himself Henry IX. of England, born
March 1725, died at Rome in August 1807.
PRIDE'S PURGE. In the civil war against Charles I. colonel Pride, at the
head of'two regiments, surrounded the house of parliament, and seizing
in the passage 41 members of the Presbyterian party, sent them to a low
room, then called hell. Above 160 other members were excluded, and none
admitted but the most furious of the independents. This atrocious invasion
of parliamentary rights was called Pride's Ptrge, and the privileged members were named the Rumnp, to whom nothing remained to complete their
wickedness, but to murder the king, 24 Charles I., 1648. —Goldsmnit/.
PRIESTS. Anciently elders, but the name is now given to the clergy only.
In the Old Testament the age of priests was fixed at thirty years. Among
the Jews, the dignity of high or chief priest was annexed to Aaron's family, 1491 B. C. After the captivity of Babylon, the civil government and
the crown were superadded to the high priesthood; it was the peculiar
privilege of the high priest, that he could be prosecuted in no court but
that of the great Sanhedrim. The heathens had their arch-flamnen or
high-priest, and so have the Christians, excepting among some particular
sects.
PRIMER. A book so named from the Romish book of devotions, and formerly set forth or published by authority, as the first book children should
publicly learn or read in schools, containing prayers and portions of the
Scripture. Copies of' primers are preserved of so early a date as 1539.Ashe.
PRIMOGENITURE, RIGHT O0f, an usage brought down from the earliest times.
The first born in the patriarchal ages had a superiority over his brethren,
and in the absence of his father was priest to the family. In England, by
the ancient, custom of gavel-kind, primogeniture was of no account. It
canme in with the feudal law, 3 William I., 1068.
PRINTING. The greatest of all.the arts. The honor of its invention has
been appropriated to Mentz, Strasburg, Haerlem, Venice, Rome, Florence,
Basle and Augsburg; but the claims of the three first only are entitled to
attention. Adrian Junius awards the honor of the invention to Laurenzes
John Coster of Haerlem, " who printed with blocks, a book of images and
lettern. Speculum IiuLmnance Salvatonis, and compounded an ink more viscous
and tenacious than common ink, which blotted, about A. D. 1438." The
leaves of this book being printed on one side only, were afterwards pasted to21'
490 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ P3t
gether. John Faust established a printing office at Mentz, and printed the
Tractatus Peteri Hispansi, in 1442. John Guttenberg invented cut meta'
types, and used them in printing the earliest edition of the Bible, which wao
commenced in 1444, and finished in 1460. See Book. Peter Schmffer cast
the first metal types in matrices, and was therefore the inventor of COMPLETE
PRINTING, 1452.-Adr'ian JuqLios; Db FresnLoy.
Book of Psalns printed -? A. D. 1457 The Pentateuch, in Hebrew - A. D. 1412
The Durandi h'ationale, first work Homer, infoblio, beautifihlly done at Floprinted with cast metal types - 1459 rence, eclipsing all former printing,
[Printing was introduced into Oxford, by Desnetritz s -..iss
about this time.-Collier. But this Printing used in Scotland - -.- 09
statement is discredited by Dibdin.] The first edition of the whole Bible was,
A Livy printed.-Dutfiesoy - - 1460 strictly speaking, the Conmplutensian
The first Bible comntpeted.-Idemns -1460 Polyglot of cardinal Ximenes (see
[Mentz taken and ptlundered, and the art Polyglot
of printing, in the general ruin, is The Litsurgy, the first book printed in
spread to other towns] - - 1462 Ireland, by Humphrey Powell - - 1550
The types were uniformly Gothic, or The ficst Newspaper printed in England
old German (whence our English, or (see Newosplpers) - - - -158
Black Letter) until - 1465 First patent granted for printing - 159
Greek characters (quotations only) first First printing-press impreved by Wilused, same year - - - - 1465 liam Blaeu, at Anmsterdam - -16
Cicero de Officiis printed (Blair) - 1466 First printing in America at Cambridge,
Roman characters, first at Rome - 1.467 Mass., when the Freemanols's Oath and
A Chronicle, said to have been found an Almanac were printed - 163,
in the archbishop of Canterbury's pa- First Bible printed in Ireland was at
lace (the fact disputed), bearing the Belfast.-ardrly's Tour. - - -1704
date O.fbsrd, anno - - 1468 First types cast in England by Caslon.William Caxton, a mercer of London, Phillips. - - - - - - 1720
set up the first press at Westminster* 1471 Stereotype printing suggested by WilHe printed WTZillyam Caxton's hecuyel liam Ged, of Edinburgh.-Nichols. 1736
of the HIistolryes of Tr'i-oy, by Elaoul The present mode of stereotype invenle Fezare. —PuILLm P - - - 1471 ted by Mr. Colden, of New York - 1779
ilis first pieces were, A Treatise on the Stereotype printing was in use in HolGalze of Chess, and Tally's qtgices land in the last century.-lPhillips.]
(see belzow).-DIBDN - - - 1474 See Stereotype.
/Psop's F'ables, prinlted by Caxton, is The printing-machine was first suggestsupposed Io be the first book with its ed by Nicholson - - - 1790
leaves numbered - - - 1484 The Stanhope press was in general use
Aldus cast the Greek alphabet, and a in -1806
Greek book printedl (op Aldi) - - 1476 Machine printing (see Press). - 1811
He introduces the Italic - 1496 Steaml machinery (see Press) - 1814
TITLES OF THE EARLIEST BOOKS OF CAXTON AND WYNKYN DE WORDE.
The GarLes and Playe of the Chesse. Trans- tay, lt Wocrds which in these.Days be neylated tout of the _'reneche andl e71rystynted tiher vsycl?ze underlstanrdess. Ended the
by nse Witia m Caxton F:yulysshid the last second day of Jutyll at Westtzestlre the
day of larche) the pyer of' our Lord God a xxij yere of the Rea ne of Kynzge Edwlar
thoisszandtarfue htondrted sand lxxiiij. thefjourlth, and oj' the Incarntacion of ou?
TULLY. Lord a Thlousanzd tfor' Hotndred four
The Boke of Tulle of Olde age Enimprynted Score and tweyne [1482.]1-DIBDIN's TYP.
by sme sinmple persone William Caxton itn ANTIR,.
to Englysshle as the: raysir solace and re- THE CHORONICLES.'cerence o'stzen growyng in to old age the The Cronicles of Esgllonsd Enpnted by me
xij day of Augulst the yere of our lotrd Wyllyam Caxton thacbbey of 14Zestzynstre
MI. cceC.lCXX.-EIERBERT. by London the v day of Jtuyns the yere
THE POLYCItONYCON. of' thincarnacion of our lord god
The Polycrosnycn cosnteyniong the Berynsges Mi ccoc.Lxxx.
and Dedes of mrrany'yes ins eyglt.Bokes. POLYCRONICON.
_inprinted by William Caxtosn rdfer hav- Polyceonycon. Ended the thyrtenth days
ing sosezohat chaunsged the rude and of Aprytl the tenth yere oj' the regne of
olde Englysshe, that is to zoete (to wit) cer- listg'e Harry the seuenth and of the Jn.'To the west of the Sanctuary, in Westminster Abbey, stood the Eleemosynary or Almonry,
where the first printing-press in England was erected in 1471, by William Caxton, encouraged by
the learned Thomas Mi/ilina, then abbot. lI-e prodtuced"''The Gases and Play of the Chesse," tte
first bookt ever printed in these kingdoms. There is a slight difference about the place in which it
was printed, but all agree that it was within the precincts of this religious house.-Leigh.
-aI ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 491
PRINTING, contintecd.
carnacyon of our lord MCCCCLXXXXV i plrynted at lontdoe iln Fletestrete at ye synce
Elivprynied by WVynkyn Theworde at of ye Sonne by wynkyn de worde. In the
T'Vesltesi're. yere of our lord M.ccccc.vIII. And ended
HILL OF PERFECTION. the xi daye rf ilcaye. —AMEs..The lytlle of Peifection emlprynted at the T1I1' LORD'S PRAYER.
instanice of the revereezd relygyozes fatder As printed by Caxton in 1483.
Tho. Prior of the hoies of' t. An. the or- caether our thiat art inz heavens, hacllowed be
de? of the charterouse Accomplyshe[Cd] thy ame: Ithy kylg-dome coeze to us; thy'
anzdJynyssheLd] att Westcmynlster the uiii will be cone i earct/ as is in? heaven: oure
day oJ'janeur the yere of our lord T'hou- every days br ed give aos to day; andjfrsande CCCC.LXXXXVII. And in the xczz ee give uts oeure tIesspaasses, as we jfogive
of lkyoge Henry the vii by cne wynlkyn de themn that tr essass scagaist us; aned lead
worde.-AMES, HERBEtrT, DIBDIN. ges not into temptation6, bhLt del2iver Usfron17
ENGLAND. all evil sin, aCeltn. —LEWIS'S LIFE OF
The Descrypcyon f i'Englonde TTValys Scot- CAXTON.
land and ireland sopeaking of the Noblesse A PLACARD.
a.nd T47orthynesse of the scame lynlysshed As printed by William Caxton.
and enprynted in lPlete strete in the synze.I it plese onry nlan spirituzel or tecmporel to
of the ornne by me Wynkyn de Worde bye onzypies of twzo or thre comemoracids of
the yere of oUr lotrd a M.eCcce and ij. Inenz- S'alisbturi ise* erlpryntid after thefor-Le
sis AMayiis [mense Maiil.-DIBD1N's TYP. of this pr'eslt lettre whiche benz wel and
ANT. truly correct, late himn come to westenonTHE FESTIVAL. ester in to the atolonestye at the reed Ipale
The Festyvall or iSer'ntons on sondays and [ired pale] anctd he shalla have thenm good
holidais taken out of thegollen legenZd en- the2e. —D1BDIN'S TYP. ANTIQ.
Among the early printers, the only points used were the comma, parenthesis,
irterrogation, and full stop. To these succeeded the colon; afterwards the
semicolon; and last the note of admiration. The sentences were full of
abbreviations and contractions; and there were no running-titles, numbered
leaves or catch-words. Our punctuation appears to have been introduced
with the art of printing.
PRINTED GOODS. The art of calico-printing is of considerable antiquity,
and there exist specimens of Egyptian cotton dyed by figured blocks many
hundred years old. A similar process' has been resolrted to even in the
Sandwich Islands, where they use a large leaf as a substitute for the block.
See article Cottoen. The copyright of designs secured in England by 2 Victoria, 1839.
PRIORIES. They were of early foundation, and aren mentioned in A. D. 722 in
England. See Abbeys and Monasteries. The priories of aliens were first
seized upon by Edward I. in 1285, on the breaking out of a war between
England and France. They were seized in several succeeding reigns on
the like occasions, but were usually restored on the conclusion of peace.
These priories were dissolved, and their estates vested in the crown, 3
Henry V. 1414.-Rymer's Fadera.
PRISONERS o' WAR. Among the ancient nations, prisoners of war when
spared by the sword were usually enslaved, and this custom more or less
continued until about the thirteenth century, when civilized nations, instead
of enslaving, commonly exchanged their prisoners. The Spanish, French,
and American prisoners of war in England were 12,000 in number, Sept. 30,
1779. The number exchanged by cartel with France from the commencement of the then war, was 44,000, June 1781.-PPhillips. The English prisoners in France estimated at 6000, and the French in England, 27,000,
Sept. 1798.-Idcm. The English in France amounted to 10,300, and the
French, &c., in England to 47,600, in 1811.-Ideimt. This was the greatest
Romish Service books, used at Salisbury by the devout, called Pies (Pica, Latin), as is sup.
posed from the different color of the text and rubric. Our Pica is called Cicero by foreign printers.-Wheatley.
492 THE WVORLD'S PROGRESS. [PPRO
number, owing to the occasional exchanges made, up to the period of the
last war.
PRISON DISCIPLINE SOCIETY, in England, owes its existence to the philanthropic labors of Sir T. F. Buxton, M. P. Ift was instituted in 1815, and held
its first public meeting in 1820. Its objects are, the amelioration of' jails, by
the diffusion of information respecting their construction and management,
the classification and employment of the prisoners, and the prevention of
crime, by inspiring a dread of punishment, and by inducing the criminal,
on his discharge from confinement, to abandon his vicious pursuits.Haydn. In the United States a Prison Discipline Society for the same object
was established in Boston in 1825. The Rev. Louis Dwight was its active
promoter and secretary. Great efforts have been made in several States for
the amelioration and improvement of prisoners; and the various system
adqpted and practised at Wethersfield, Conn., at Auburn, N. Y., Philadelphia, &c., have attracted the attention of statesmen and travellers from
Europe. Among those who have labored effectively in this matter is a lady
-Miss Dix, of New York-who has accomplished more than any other person, for the welfare of prisoners and of the insane, and may deserve even a
higher name than the American Mrs. Fry.
PRIVY COUNCIL, ENGLAND. This assembly is of great antiquity. Instituted
by Alfred, A. D. 895. In ancient times the number was twelve; but it was
afterwards so increased, that it was found inconvenient for secrecy and
despatch, and Charles II. limited it to thirty, whereof fifteen were the
principal officers of state (councillors en ojficio), and ten lords and five commoners of the king's choice, A. D. 1679. The number is now indefinite. To
attempt the life of a privy-councillor in the execution of his office made
capital, occasioned by Guiscard's stabbing Mr. Harley while the latter was
examining him on a charge of high treason, 10 Anne, 1711.
PRIZE MONEY. In the English navy the money arising from captures
made upon the enemy, is divided into eight equal parts, and thus distributed by order of government:-Captain to- have three-eighths, unless
under the direction of a flag-officer, who in that case is to have one of the
said three-eighths; captains of marines and land forces, sea lieutenants,
&c., one-eighth: lieutenants of marines, gunners, admiral's secretaries, &c.
one-eighth; midshipmen, captain's clerks, &c., one-eighth; ordinary and
able seamen, marines, &c., two-eighths,
PROFILES. The first profile taken, as recorded, was that of Antigonus, who.
having but one eye, his likeness was so taken, 330 B. c.-Ashe. " Until the
end of the third century, I have not seen a Roman emperor with a full face -
they were always painted or appeared in profile, which gives us the view of
a head in a very majestic manner."-Addison.
PROMISSORY NOTES. They were regulated and allowed to be made assignable in 1705. First taxed by a stamp in 1782; the tax was increased in
1804, and again in 1808, and subsequently. See Bills of Exchatnge.
PROPAGANDA FIDE. The celebrated congregation or college in the Romish,
Church, Congrergletio de Propanlganda Fide, was constituted at Rome by pope
Gregory XV. in 1622. Its constitution was altered by several of the succeeding pontiffs.
PROPERTY TAX IN ENGLAND. Parliament granted to Henry VIII. a subsidy
of two-fifteenths from the commons and two-tenths firom the clergy to aid
the king in a war with France, 1512.-Rapin. Cardinal Wolsey proposed a tenth of the property of the laity and a fourth of the clergy
to the same king, 1522. The London merchants strenuously opposed this
tax: they were required to declare on oath the real value of their effects
but they firmly refused, alleging that it was not possible for them to give
pRu DICTIONARY OF DATES. 493
an exact account of their effects, part whereof was in the hands of correspondents in foreign countries. At length, by agreement, the king was
pleased to accept of a sum according to their own calculation of themselves.
-Butler. This tax was levied at various periods, and was of great amount
in the last years of the late war. The assessments on real property, under
the property-tax of 1815, were 51,898,4231.
PROPHECY. The word prophet, in proper language, means one of the sacred
writers empowered by God to display futurity. We have in the Old Testament the writings of sixteen prophets; i. e. of four greater, and twelve
lesser. The former are Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel; the latter
are Hosea. Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Micah, Jonah, Nahulm, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. Prophecy is instanced in the
earliest times. The prophetic denunciations upon Babylon were executed
by Cyrus, 538 B. c. God's judgment upon Jerusalem (Isaiaeh, xxix. 1-8)
executed by Titus, A. D. 70. Many other instances of prophecy occur in
Scriptare.
PROTESTANTS. The emperor Charles V. called a diet at Spires in 1529, to
request aid from the German princes against the Turks, and to devise means
for allaying the religious disputes which then raged, owing to Luther's opposition to the Roman Catholic religion. Against a decree of this diet, to
support the doctrines of the church of Rome, six Lutheran princes, with
the deputies of thirteen imperial towns, formally and solemnly protested,
April 17, 1530. Hence the term protestants was given to the followers of'
Luther, and it afterwards included Calvinists, and all other sects separated
from the see of Rome. The six protesting princes were John and George,
the electors of Saxony and Brandenburg; Ernest and Francis, the two
dukes of Lunenburg; the landgrave of Hesse; and the prince of Anhalt
these were joined by the inhabitants of Strasburg, Nuremberg, Ulm, Constance, Hailbron and seven other cities. See Letl/ieracisma, Calvinisms, 4pc.
PROVISIONS-REMARIABLE FACTS CONCERNING THEM. Wheat for food for 100
men for one day worth only one shilling, and a sheep for fourpence, Henry
I., about 1130. The price of wine raised to sixpence per quart for red, and
eightpence for white, that the sellers might be enabled to live by-it, 2 John,
1200. —Barton's Annals. When wheat was at 6s. per quarter, the farthing
loaf was to be equal in weight to twenty-four ounces (made of thle whole
grain), and to sixteen the white. When wheat was at Is. 6d. per quarter,
the farthing loaf white was to weigh sixty-four ounces, and the whole grain
(the same as standard now) ninety-six, by the first assize, A. D. 1202.-Maet.
Paris. A remarkable plenty in all Europe, 1280. —Duefresnoy. Wheat Is.
per quarter, 14 Edward I. 1286.-Stoae. The price of provisions fixed by
the common-council of London as follows: two pullets, three-halfpence;
a partridge, or two woodcoclks, three-half-pence; a fat lamb sixpence from
Christmas to Shrovetide, the rest of the year fourpence. 29 Edward T. 1299.
Stlowe. Price of provisions fixed by parliament: at the rate of 21. 8s. of
our money for a fat ox, if fed with corn 31. 12s.; a shorn sheep, 5s.; two
dozen of' eggs, 3d.; other articles nearly the same as fixed by the commoncouncil above recited, 7 Edward II. 1313.-Rot. Parl. Wine, the best sold
for 20s. per tun, 10 Richard II. 1387. Wheat being at Is. Id. the bushel in
1390. this was deemed so high a price that it is called a dearth of corn by
the historians of that era. Beef and pork settled at a halfpenny the pound,
and veal three farthings, by act of parliament, 24 Henry VIII. 1533.-Anderson's Orig'in of Comnmerce. Milk was sold, three pints, ale-measure, for
one halfpenny, 2 Eliz. 1560. —S.owe's Chr/onicle.
PRUSSIA. This country was anciently possessed by the Venedi, about 320
B. O. The Venedi were conquered by a people called the Borussi, who in
494 TVHE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ PRUThahited the Ripliean mounntains; and fitom these the country was called
Burussia. Somle historians, however, derive the name fiom Po, signifying near, and Rlssia —Po-Russia, easily modified into Prussia. The
Porussi afterwards intermixed with the followers of' the Teutonic knights,
and latterly, with the Poles. This people and country were little known
until about A. D. 1007.
St. Adalbert arrives in-Prussia to preach which the Prussian monarchy is
Christianity, but is murdered by the made to rank among the first powers
pagans -A. D. 1010 in Europe - - A-.D. 1740
Boleslaus of Poland revenges his death Breslau ceded to Prussia - 1741
by dreadful ravages - * Silesia, Glatz, &c., ceded - 1742
Berlin built by a colony from the Nether- Frederick the Great visits England - 1744
lands, in the reign of Albert the Bear - 1163 General Lacy with 15,000 Austrians,
The Teutonic knights, returning from and a Russian army, march to Berlin.
the holy wars, undertake the conquest The city laid under contribution; and
of Prussla, and the conversion of the pays 800,000 guilders, and 1.900,000
people - - -21225 crowns, the magazines, arsenals, and
Konigsberg, lately built, made the capi- foundries destroyed - - 1760
tal of Prussia - - - 1286 Frederick the Great dies - Au. 17, 1786
The Teutonic knights, by their barba- The Prussians take possession of Hanorities, almost depopulate Prussia. It ver - - - Jan. 30, 1806
is repeopled by German colonists in Prussia ijns the allies of Eng:land
the 13th century - - - against France - Oct. 6, 1806
Frederick IV. of Nuremberg obtains by Fatal battle of Jena - Oct. 14, 18o6
purchase from Sigistoond, emperor [Htere followed the loss of almost every
of Germany, the margraviate of Bran- corps inl succession of the Prussian
denbur - - 1415 army, tlhe loss of Berlin, and of every
[This Frederick is the head of the pre- province of the monarchy except
sent reigning fam ily. ] Prussia proper.]
Casimir IV. of Poland assists the na- Berlin decree promulgated - Nov. 20, 1806
tives against the oppression of the Peace of Tilsit (whici see) - July 7, 1807
Teutonic knights - - - 1446 Convention of Berlin - Nov. 5, 1808
Albert of Brandenlburg, grand-master Prussia joins the allies - March 17, 1813
of the Teutonic order, renounces the Treaty of Paris - April 11, 1814
Roman Catholic religion, embraces The king promised liberty of the press
Lutheranism, and is acknowledged March, 1847
dculke of East Prussia, to be held as a Outbreal at Berlin: the kintg resists
fief of Poland - - 125 urgent demands folr liberal mleasures,
University of Konigsberg founded by March 14, 1847
duke Albert - - - - 114 Barricades and fights between troops
The dukedom ofPrussia is joined to the and students - - March 15, 1847
electorate of Brandenburg, and so The king goes to Potsdamn - March 18, 1847
continues to this day - - - 1594 -issues lecree demanding a federal
John Sigismund created elector of Bran- union of Germany, and granting lidenburg and duke of Prussia - 1603 berty of the press - March 18, 1847
The principality of Halberstadt and thle Another bloody collision, 274 killed
bishopric of Minden transferred to the March 18, 1847
house of Brandenbur - 1648 New ministry formed - March 18, 1917
Poland obliged to acknowledge Prussia The king grants general amnesty
as an independent state, under Frede- March 20, 1847
rick William - - - - 1657 Agitations general throughout Prussia
Order of Concord institutedby Christian A free constitution granted, in a solemn
Ernest, duke of Prussia, to distinguish convocation, by the king - April 11, 18147
the part he had taken in restorin- The duchy of Posen reorganized by the
peace to Europe - - -1660 kin - - - March 26, 1848
The foundation of the PrLussian tnonar- Prussian diet meets at Berlin - April 3, 1848
chy was established between the years Constitutional assembly of Prussia
1640 and -1680 meets - - - May 22, 184,
Frederic III., in an assembly of the The arsenal at Berlin captured by the
states, puts a crown upon his own mob - - - June 16, 1848
head, and upon the head of his cont- The king prorogues the assembly at
sort, and is proclaimed kin of Prus- Berlin, and appoints its meeting at
sia, by the title of Frederick 1. - 1701 Brandenburg - - Nov. 9, 118
Guelders taken friom the Dutch - - 1702 The Burgher Gluard refuses to obey the
Frederick I. seizes Neufchatel or Neun- order of the king to disband. Berlin
burgh, and Valengia, and purchases in a state of siege - Nov. 12, 1848
the principality of Teckllenburgh - 1707 The assembly dissolved, and a new conReign of Frederick the Great, during sitution promulgated - Dec. 6,1845
sIiARGRAVES AND ELECTORS OF BURANDENBURG, ETC.
D. o. 923 Sifroi, margrave of Brandenburg. succession of time, passed into the
G eron, margrav-e of Lusatia, which, in fanilies of Staden, Ascanis, Bellen.
UIfR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 495
PRUSSIA, continued.
stadt, and that of Bavaria; till the 1535 Joachim II.; he was poisoned by a Jew.
emperor Sigismond, with the consent 1571 John George.
of the states of the empire, gave per- 1598 Joachim Frederick.
petaal investiture to 1608 John Sigismund.
1416 Frederick IV. of Nuremberg, made 1619 George William.
elector of Brandenburgh, 1417. 1640 Frederick William the Great.
1440 Frederick II., surnamed Ferreus, or 1688 Fredericl, who, in 1701, was made king
Ironside; resigned. of Prussia.
1470 Albert I., surnamed the German Achilles. He confirmed the deed made by KINGS OF PRUSSIA.
his predecessor, of mutual succession 1701 Frederick I.
with the families of Saxony and 1713 Frederick WVilliam I.
Hesse; resigned. 1740 Frederick II., surnamed the Great.
1476 John, surnamed the Cicero of Germany, 1786 Frederick William II.
his son. 1797 Frederick William IlI.
1499 Joachirn I., his son. 1840 Frederick William IV., June 7.
PUBLICHOUSES IN ENGLAND. A power of licensing them was first granted
to sir Giles Mompesson and sir Francis Mitchel for their own emolument,
A. D. 1620-1. The number of public houses in England at this period was
about 13 000. In 1700 the number was 32 600; and in 1790, the number in
Great Britain was 76,000. It is supposed thalt there were about 50.000
public houses, and 30.000 beer-shops in England and Wales in 1830. The
number on Jan. 5, 1840, was 95,820.
PULLEY. The pulley, together with the vice and other mechanical instruments, are said to have been invented by Archytas of Tarentum, a disciple
of Pythagoras, about 516 B. c.- U'riv. Hist. It has been ascertained that in
a single movable pulley the power gained is doubled. In a continued combination the power is twice the number of pullies, less 1.-Phillips.
PULTOWA, BATTLE OF. In this memorable engagement Charles XII. of
Sweden was entirely defeated by Peter the Great of Russia, and obliged to
take refnige at Bender, in the Tulrkish dominions. The vanquished monarch
would have fallen into the hands of the czar after the engagement, had he
not been saved by the personal exertions of the brave count Poniatowski, a
Polish nobleman, whom Voltaire has commemorated and immortalized.
This battle was lost chiefly owing to a want of concert in the generals, and to
the circumstance of Charles having been dangerously wounded, just before,
which obliged him to issue his commands from a litter, without being able
to encourage his soldiers by his presence. Fought July 8, 1709.
PUMPS. Ctesibius of Alexandria, architect and mechanic, is said to have invented the pump (with other hydraulic instruments) about 224 B. C., although
the invention is ascribed to IDanaus, at Lindus, 1485 B. c. They were in
general use in England, A. D. 1425. The air-pump was invented by Otto
Guericke in 1654, and was improved by Boyle in 1657. An inscription on
the pump in front of the Royal Exchange, London, states that the well
beneath was first sunk in A. D. 1282.
PUNIC WARS. The first Punic war was undertaken by the Romans against
Carthage 264 B. c. The ambition of Rome was the origin of this war; it
lasted twenty-three years, and ended 241 B. c. The second Punic war began 218 B. c., in which year Hannibal marched a numerous army of 90,000
foot and 12.000 horse towards Italy, resolved to carry on the war to the
gates of' Rome. He crossed the Rhone, the Alps, and the Apennines, with
uncommon celerity; and the Roman consuls who were stationed to stop his
progress were severally defeated. The battles of Trebia, of Ticinus, and
of the lake of Thrasymenus, followed. This war lasted seventeen years, and
ended in 201 B. c. The third Punic war began 149 B. c., and was terminated
by the fall of Carthage, 146 B. c. See Cac'thccgre.
PURGATORY. The middle place between the grave, or heaven, and hell,
496 THE WORELD'S PROGRESS. PY'r
where, it is believed by the Roman Catholics, the soul passes through the
fire of purification before it enters the kingdom of God. The doctrine of
purgatory was known about A. D. 250; and was introduced into the Roman
church in 593. —Platina. It was introduced early in the sixth century. —
Dupi7nb.
PURIFICATION. The act of cleansing, especially considered, as relating to
the religious performance among the Jewish women. It was ordained by the
Jewish law that a woman should keep within her house forty days after the
birth of a son, and eighty days after the birth of a daughter, when she was
to go to the temple and offer a lamb, pigeon, or turtle, A. D. 214. Among
the Christians, the feast of purification was instituted, A. D. 542, in honor of
the Virgin Mary's going to the temple, where, according to custom, she
presented her son Jesus Christ, and offered two turtles for him. Pope Sergins I. ordered the procession with wax tapers, from whence it is called
Candlemas-day.
PURITANS. The name given to such persons as in the reigns of queen Elizabeth, king James, and king Charles I., pretended to greater holiness of
living and stricter discipline than any other people. They at first were
members of the established church, but afterwards became separatists upon
account of several ceremonies that were by the rigidness of those times severely insisted upon. —Bish/op Sander'son.
PYRAMIDS OF EGYPT. The pyramids, according to Dr. Pococke and Sonnini, " so celebrated fiom remote antiquity, are the most illustrious monuments of art. It is singular that such superb piles are nowhere to be ~ound
but in Egypt; for in every other country, pyramids are rather puerile and
diminutive imitations of those in Egypt, than attempts at appropriate magnificence. The pyramids are situated on a rock at the foot of' some high
mountains which bound the Nile." The first building of them commenced,
it is supposed, about 1500 B. c. They were formerly accounted one of the
seven wonders of the world. The largest, near Gizeh, is 461 feet in perpendicular height, with a platform on the top 32 feet square, and the length of
the base is 746 feet. It occupies eleven acres of ground, and is constructed
of such stupendous blocks of stone, that a more marvellous result of human labor has not been found on the earth.
" Virtue alone outbuilds the pyramids,
" Her monuments shall stand when Egypt's fall." —YouNG.
PYRENEES, BATTLE OF THE, between the British army, commanded by lord
Wellington, and the French, under the command of marshal Soult. The
latter army was defeated with great slaughter, July 28, 1813. After the
battle of' Vittoria (fought June 21), Napoleon sent Soult to supersede Jourdan, with instructions to drive the allies across the Ebro, a duty to which
his abilities were inferior; for Soult retreated into France with a loss of
more than 20,00 men, having been defeated in a series of engagements from
July 25 to August 2.
PYRENEES, PEACE oF THE. A peace concluded between France and Spain;
by the treaty of the Pyrenees, Spain yielding Roussillon, Artois, and her
rights to Alsace; and France ceding her conquests in Catalonia, Italy, &c.,
and engaging not to assist Portugal, Nov. 7, 1659.
PYTHAGOREAN PHILOSOPHY. Founded by Pythagoras, of Samos, head
of the Italic sect. He first taught the doctrine of metenmpsychosis or
transmigration of the soul from one body to another. He forbade his disciples to eat flesh, as also beans, because he supposed them to have been
produced from the same putrified matter from which at the creation of the
world man was formed. In his theological system, Pythagoras supported
that the universe was created fiom a shapeless heap of passive matter by
QUA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 497
the hands of a powerful being, who himself was the mover and soul of the
world. He was the inventor of the multiplication-table, and a great irmprover of geometry, while in astronomy he taught the system adopted at
this day, 539 B. C.
PYTHIAN GAMES. Games celebrated in honor of Apollo, near the temple
of Delphi. They were first instituted, according to the more received
opinion, by Apollo himself, in commemoration of the victory which he had
obtained over the serpent Python, fiom which they received their name;
though others maintain that they were first established by Agamemnon,
or Diomedes, or by Amphictyon, or, lastly, by the council of the Amphictyons, B. C. 1263.-Amrcxdelia? iMVar'bles.
Q.
QUACKERY AND QUACK MEDICINES. At the first appearance that a
French quack made in Paris, a boy walked before him, publishing, with a
shrill voice, " My father cures all sorts of distempers;" to which the doctor
added in a grave manner, " What the child says is true."-Addison. Qc.acks
sprung up with the art of medicine; and several countries, particularly
England and France; abound with them. In London, some of their,stablishments are called colleges. Quack medicines were taxed in England in
1783 et seq. An inquest was held on the body of a young lady, Miss
Cashin, whose physician, St. John Long, was afterwards tried for manslaughter; he was found guilty, and sentenced to pay a fine of 2501., Oct.
30, 1830.
QUADRANT. The mathematical instrument in the form of a quarter circle.
The solar quadrant was introduced about 290 B. c. The Arabian astrononomers under the Caliphs, in A. D. 995, had a quadrant of 21 feet 8 inches
radius, and a sextant 57 feet 9 inches radius. Davis's quadrant for measuring angles was produced about 1600. Hadley's quadrant, in 1731. See
Navigatioib.
QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE. The celebrated treaty of Alliance between Great
Britain, France, and the Emperor, signed at London. This alliance, on the
accession of the states of Holland, obtained the name of the Quadruple
Alliance, and was for the purpose of guaranteeing the succession of the
reigning families in Great Britain and France, and settling the partition of
the Spanish monarchy. Aug. 2, 1718.
QUEUSTOR, in Roman antiquity, was an officer who had the management of
the public treasure, instituted 484 B. c. The questorship was the first office
any person could bear in the commonwealth, and gave a right to sit in the
senate. At first there were only two; but afterwards the number was
greatly increased.
QUAKERS or FRIENDS. Originally called Seekers, from their seeking the
truth; and afterwards Friends-a beautiful appellation, and characteristic
of the relation which man, under the Christian dispensation, ought to bear
towards man.-Clearksov. Justice Bennet, of Derby, gave the society the
name of Quakers in 1650, because Fox (the founder) admonished him and
those present with him, to tremlble at the word of the Lord. This respectable sect, excelling in morals, prudence, and industry, was commenced in
England about A. D. 1650, by George Fox, who was soon joined by a number of learned, ingenious. and pious men —among others, by George Keith,
Wm. Penn, and Robert Barclay of Ury.* The thee and thoe used by the
* The Quakers early suffered grievous persecutions in England and America. At Boston, where
the, first Friends who arrived were females, they, even females, were cruelly scourged, and their
498 THIE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ QUl
Quakers originated with their founder, who published a book of instructions for teachers and professors. The solemn affirmation of Quakers was
enacted to be taken in all cases, in the courts below, wherein oaths are required from other subjects, 8 William III. 1696.
QUARANTINE. The custom first observed at Venice, A. D. 1127, whereby all
merchants and others coming from the Levant were obliged to remain in
the house of St. Lazarus, or the Lazaretto, 40 days before they were adlmittedc into the city. Various southern cities have now lazarettos; that of
Venice is built in the water. In the times of plague, England and all other
nations oblige those that come fiom the infected places to perform quarantine with their ships, &c., a longer or shorter time, as may be judged
most safe.
QUATRE-BRAS, BATTLE OF, between the British and allied armny under the
duke of Brunswick. the prince of Orange, and sir Thllomas Picton, and the
French under marshal Ney, fought two days before the battle of Waterloo.
In this engagemlent the gallant duke of Brunswick fell, June 16, 1815.
QUEBEC. Founded by the French in 1605. It was reduced by the English,
with all Canada, in 1626, but was restored in 1632. Quebec was besieged
by the English, but without success, in 1711; but was conquered by them,
after a battle memorable for the death of general Wolfe in the moment of
victory, Sept. 13, 1759. This battle was fought on the Plains of Abraham.
Quebec was besieged by the Americans under Gen. Montgomery, who was
slain, December 31, 1775; and the siege was raised the next year. The
public and private stores, and several wharfs, were destroyed by fire in
1815; the loss being estimated at upwards of 260,0001. Awful fire, 1650
houses, the dwellings of 12,000 persons, burnt to the ground, May 28,
1845. Another great fire, one month afterwards; 1365 houses burnt, June
28, 1845. Disastrous fire at' the theatre, 50 lives lost, Jan. 12, 1846.
QUEEN. The first queen invested with authority as a ruling sovereign, was
Semiramis, queen and empress of Assyria, 2017 B. c. She embellished the
city of Babylon, made it her capital, and by her means it became the most
magnificent and superb city in the world. The title of queen is coeval with
that of king. The Hungarians had such an aversion to the name of queen,
that whenever a queen ascended the throne, she reigned with the title of
king. See note to article Ha-ngcary.
QUEEN CAROLINE'S TRIAL. Caroline. the consort of George IV. of England, was subjected, when princess of Wales, to the ordeal of the Delicate
Investigation, May 29, 1806. Her trial commenced Aug. 19, 1820. Illuminations on her acquittal, Nov. 10-12. Her death Aug. 7, 1821. Riot at her
funeral, Aug. 14.
QUEENS OF ENGLAND. There have been, since the conquest, besides the
present sovereign, four queens of England who have reigned in their own
right, not counting the empress Maude, daughter of Henry I., or the lady
Jane Grey, whose quasi reign lasted only ten days. There have been thirtyfour queens, the consorts of kings, exclusively of four wives of kings who
ears cut off, yet they were unshaken in their constancy. In 1659, they stated in parliament that
2,000 Friends had endured sufferings and imprisonment in Newgate; and 164 Friends offered themselves at this time, by name, to government, to be imprisoned il lieu of an equal number in dlanger
(from confinement) of death. Fifty-five (out of 120 sentenced) were transported to America, by tn
order of council, 1664. The masters of vessels refusing to carry them for some months, an emia
bargo was laid on West India ships, when a mercenary wretch was at length found for the service.
But the Friends would not walk on board, nor would the sailors hoist them into the vessel, and soldiers from the Tower were employed. In 1665, the vessel sailed; but it was immediately captured
by the Dutch, who liberated 23 of the prisoners in Holland. the rest having died of the plague in that
year. See Plaguee. Of the 120 few reached America.
QUE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 499
died previously to their husbands ascending the throne. Of thirty-five ac.
tual sovereigns of England, four died unmarried, three kings and one queen.
The following list includes all these royal personages:Of WVTILLIAM I. was married September 12, 1299. Survived
Matildca, daughter of Baldwin, earl of the king.
Flanders; she was married in 1051; and Of EDWARD II.
died 1084. Isabella, dasughter of the Iking of France;
WILLIAsI II. she was nmarried in 1308. On tile death. by
Thlis soverei-n died unmarried. the gibbet, of her favorite, Mortimer, she was,his sovereign die0 unmarried. conlined for the rest of her life in her own
Of HENRY I. house at Risings, near London.-Iltuse.
Mlatilda, daughter of Malcolm III. Icing of Of EDWARD II[.
Scotland; she was married November 11, Philippa, daughter of the count of Ioliand
1100; anti died May 1, 1119. and ainault; se was married January 2,
Adelais, daughter of Godfiey, earl of Iou- a nd Hainault; she was married January 24,
vaine; she was married January 29, 1129.
Survived the lcing. Of RIcHARD II.
MAnUD or MATILnA. Anne, of Bohenmia, sister of thle emperor
W'inceslaus of Germany; she was marrieo
Dc nghiter of Henry I., and rightful heir to in January 1382; and died August 3, 1395.
the throne; she was born I 101; was betroth- Isabella, dauighterof Charles VI.of France;
ed in 1109, at eifht years of age, to Henry she was married Nov. 1, 1396. On tile msu2V., emperor of Germany, who died 1125. der of her husband she returned to her faShe married, secondly. Geoffiey Plantagoenet, ther.
earl of Anjou. 1130. Was set aside ftiom the
English succession by Stephen,. 1135; landed
in England and claimed the crown, 1139. lIary, daughter of the earl of Hr eford;
Crowned, but was soon after defeated at she died, before Henry obtained the crown,
Winchester. 1141. Concluded a peace with in 1394.
Stephen, which secured the succession to Joan of Navarre, widowv of the duke of
her son, Henry, 1153; died 1167. Bretagne; she was married in 1403. SurOf S7TE;PHEN, vived the king, and died in 1437.
Of' HENRY V.
Matilida, daughter of Eustace, count of
Boulogne; she was married in 1128; and Catherine, dau-hter of the king of rance;
died May 3, 1151. she was married May 30, 1420. She outlived Henry, and was married to Owen Tudor,
Of IIENRY II. grandiiather of tenry VII.
Eleanzor, the repudiated queen of Louis Of HENRY VI.
VII. Icing of France, and heiress of Guienne la1rgarret, daugihter of the dukie of Aenjou;
and Poitou; she was married to Ienry 1152; she was married April 22, 1445. She survivand died 1204. ed thle unforttuate lking, her husband, and
[The Fair Rosamsond was the mistress of died in 1482.
this prince. See article Rosamond.
Of ED'WAD IV.
Of RICHARD I. Lacdy Elizabheth Grey, daughter of sir
Bereng'eia, daughter of the iking of Na- Richard Woodeville, and widow of sir John
varre; slte was married May 12, 1191. Sur- Grey, of Groby; she was married March 1,
vived the king. 1464. Suspected of favoring thle insurrection
of Lambert Simnel; and closed her life in
Of JOHN. confinement.
Avisa, daughter of the earl of Gloucester; EDWARD V.
shle was married in 1189. Divorced.
Isabella, daughter of thle ount of Anrou- This prince perished in the Tower, in
lime: she was tlse youne and virsin wile of the 13th year of his age; and died unmarthe count de la Marche; narried to.Tohn in ied.
1'200. Survived the kinl, on whose death Of RIcHARD III.
she was remarried to the count de la MAarche. Annze, diaughter of the earl of Warwick,
and widow of Edward, prince of Wales.
Of HENRY Il11 whom Richard had muLrdered, 1471. She is
Eleaano?, daughter o thle count de Pro- supposed to have been poisoned by Richard
vence; she was married January 14, 1236. (having died suddenly MIarch 6, 1485), to
Survived the king; and died in 199~, in a mo- mnalke way for lis intended marriage with
nastery, whither shie had retired. the princess Elizabeth of Yorlc.
Of Edward I. Of IHENRy VII.
Eleanor of Castile; she was married in Elizableth of Yorlt, princess of England
1253; died of a fever, on her journey to Scot- daughter of Edward IV.; she was iarried
land, at Horneby, in Lincolnshire, 1296. January 18, 1486; and died February 11
Margaret, sister of the king of France; she 1503.
500 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ QUE
QUEENS, continued.
Of HENRY VIII. Of CHARLES II.
Catlherine of Arragon, widow of Henry's CATHERINE, infanta of Portugal, daughter
elder brother, Arthur, prince of Wales. She of John 1V. and sister of Alfonso VI.; she
was married June 3, 1509; was the mother was married May 21, 1662. Survived the
of queen Mary; was repudiated, and after- king, returned to Portugal, and died Dec.
wards formally divorced, May 23, 1533; died 21, 1705.
January 6, 1536.
Anna Boleyn, daughter of sir Thomas Bo- Of JABES II.
leyn, and maid of honor to Catherine. She Anne Hyde, daughter of Edward Hyde,
was privately married, before Catherine was earl of Clarendon; she was married in Sepdivorced, Nov. 14, 1532; was the mother of tember 1660; and died before James ascendqueen Elizabeth; was beheaded atthe Tow- ed the throne, in 1671.
er, May 19, 1536. Mary Beatrice, princess of Modena, daughJane Seymour, daughter of sir John Sey- ter of Alphonzo d'Este, duke; she was marmour, and maid of honor to Anna Boleyn. ried November 21, 1673. At the revolution
She was married May 20, 1536, the day after in 1688, she retired with James to France;
Anna's'execution; was the mother of Ed- and died at St. Germains in 1718, having surward VI., of whom she died in childbirth, vived her consort seventeen yea-s.
Oct. 13, 1537.
Anne of Cleves, sister of William, duke WIttLIAM and MARY.
of Cleves. She was married January 6, MARY, the princess of Orange, daughter of
1540; was divorced July 10, 1540; and died James II.; married to William, Nov. 4,16. 7;
in 1557. ascended the throne Feb. 13, 1689; died DeCatherine Howard, niece of the duke of cember 28, 1694..
Norfolk; she was married August 8, 1540;
and was beheaded on Tower hill February ANNE.
12, 1542. Daughter ofJames II. She married George
Catherine Parr, daughter of sir Thomas prince of Denmark, July 28, 1683; succeedParr, and widow of Nevill, lord Latimer. ed to the throne March 8, 1702; had thirteen
She was married July 12, 1543. Survived children, all of whom died young; lost her
the king, after whose death she married sir husband, October 28,1708; and died August
Thomas Seymour, created lord Sudley; and 1, 1714.
died September 5, 1548. Of G
Of GEORGE I.
EDWARD VI. Sophia Dorothea, daughter of the duke of
This prince, who ascended the throne in his Zell. She died a few weeks previously to
tenth year, reigned six years and five months, the accession of George to the crown, June
and died unmarried. 8, 1714.
LADY JANE GREY. Of GEORGE II.
Daughter of the duke of Suffolk, and wife WZilhelnina Caroline Dorothea, of Branof lord Guildford Dudley. Proclaimed queen denburgh-Anspach; married in 1704: and
on the death of Edward. In ten days after- died November 20, 1737.
wards returned to private life; was tried
Nov. 13, 1553; and beheaded February 12, Of GEORGE Ill.
1554, when but seventeen years of age. Cfharlotte Sophia, daughter of the duke of
0 Mecklenburgh-Strelitz; married September
MARY. 8, 1761; and died November 17, 1818.
Daughter of Henry VIII. She ascended
the throne July 6, 1553; married Philip II. Of GEORGE IV.
of Spain, July 25, 1554; and died Novern- Caroline Amelia Augetsta, daughter of the
ber 17, 1558. The king her husband died in duke of Brunswick; shle was married April
1598. 8, 1795,; was mother of the lamented princess Charlotte; and died August7, 1821. See
2ELZmABETH. article Queen Carolinze.
Daughter of Heiry VIII. Succeeded to
the crown Nov. 17, 1558; reigned 44 years, Of WILLIAM IV.
4 months, and 7 days; and died unmarried. Adelaide Amelia Louisa Teresa Caroline,
Of JAMES I. sister of the duke of Saxe-Meinengen; she
was married July 11, 1818; and survived the
Anne, princess of Denmark, dlaughter of king.
Frederick II.; she was married August 20,
1589; and died March 1619. VICTORIA.
Alexandrina Victoria, the reigning queen,
Of CHARLES I. daughter of the duke of Kent; born May 24,
Ilenrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV. 1819; succeeded to the crown June 20, 1837;
king of France; she was married June 13, crowned June 28, 1838. Married her cousin
1625. Survived the unfortunate king; and prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Febdied in France, August 10, 1669. ruarsty 10, 1840.
QUEENSTOWN, CANADA. Taken by the troops of the United States of Ameri
rAc ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 501
ca, October 13, 1812; but retaken by the British forces, who defeated the
Americans with considerable loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners, the
same day.
QUICKSILVER. In its liquid state, it is commonly called virgin mercury. It
is endowed with very extraordinary properties, and used to show the weight
of the atmosphere, and its continual variations, &c. Its use in refining silver was discovered A. D. 1540. There are mines of it in various parts, the
chief of which are at Almeida in Spain, and at Udria in Carniola in Germany, discovered by accident in 1497. A mine was discovered at Ceylon in
1797. Quicksilver was congealed in winter at St. Petersburgh in 175o9. It
was congealed in England by a chemical process, without snow or ice, by
Mr. Walker, in 1787.
QUIETISTS. The doctrines and religious opinions of Molinus, the Spaniard,
whose work, the Spiritual Guide, was the f.undation of the sect of Quietists
in France. His principal tenet was, that thc. purity of religion colsisted in
an internal silent meditation and recollection of the merits of Christ, and
the mercies of God. His doctrine was also called quietism friom a kind of
absolute rest and inaction in which the sect supposed the soul to be, when
arrived at that state of perfection called by them unitive life. They then
imagined the soul to be wholly employed in contemplating its;od. Madame de la Mothe-Guyon, who was imprisoned in the Bastile for her visions
and prophecies, but released through the interest of Fe6nlon, the celebrated
archbishop of Cambray, between whom and Bossuet, bishop of Meaux, she
occasioned the famous controversy concerning Quietism, 1697. The sect
sprang up about 1678.-Noeuv. Diet.
QUILLS. They are said to have been first used for pens in A. D. 553; but some
say not before 635. Quills are for the most part plucked with great cruelty
from living geese; and all persons, from convenience, economy, and feeling
ought to prefer metallic pens, which came into use in 1830.-Phillips.
QUITO. A presidency of Colombia (wohich see) celebrated as having been the
scene of the measurement of a degree of the meridian, by the French and
Spanish mathemnaticians, in the reign of Louis XV. Forty thousand souls
were hurried into eternity by a dreadful earthquake at Quito, which almost
overwhelmed the city, Feb. 4, 1797.
R.
RACES. One of the exercises among the ancient games of Greece (see Chariots). Horse-races were known in England in very early times. Fitz-Stephen,
who wrote in the days of Henry II., mentions the delight taken by the citizens of London in the diversion. In James's reign, Croydon in the south,
and Garterly in the north, were celebrated courses. Near York there were
races, and the prize was a little golden bell, 1607. —Camden. In the end of
Charles I.'s reign, races were performed at Hyde-park, and also Newmarket,
although first used as a place for hunting. Charles II. patronized them,
and instead of bells, gave a silver bowl, or cup, value 100 guineas.
RACKS. This engine of death, as well as of torture, for extracting a confession from criminals, was early known in the southern countries of Europe.
The early Christians suffered by the rack, which was in later times an instrument of the Inquisition. The duke of Exeter, in the reign of Henry VI.,
erected a rack of torture (then called the duke of Exeter's daughter), now;een in the Tower, 1423. In the case of Felton, who murdered the duke of
Buckingham, the judges of England nobly protested against the punishment proposed in the privy council of putting the assassin to the rack, as
being contrary to the laws, 1628. See Ravillac.
5:02 THE \WORLD7S PROGRESS. L i
RADCLIFFE LIBRARY, OXFORD. Founded under the will of Dr. John Radcliffe, the most eminent physician of his time. He left 40.0001. to the University of Oxford for this purpose, dying Nov. 1. 1714. The first stone.f
the library was laid May 17., 1737; the edifice was completely finished in
1749, and was opened April 13, same year.
RADSTADT, PEACE OF, between France and the emperor, March 6, 1714. CONGRESS of-commenced to treat of a general peace with the Germanic power.J,
Dec. 9,1797. Negotiations were carried on throughout the year 1798. Atrocious massacre of the French plenipotentiaries at Radstadt by the Austrian
regiment of Szeltzler, April 28, 1798.
RAFTS. The Greeks knew no other way of crossing the narrow seas but;,-: i
rafts or beams tied to one another, until the use of shipping was brought
among them by Danaus of Egypt, when he fled from his brother Rameses,
1485 B. c. —ieylil.
RAILROADS. There were short roads called tram-ways in and about Nevwcastle so early as the middle of the 17th century; but they were made of
wood, and were used for transporting coals a moderate distance fiom the
pits to the place of shipping. They are thus mentioned in 1676:-" The
manner of the carriage is by laying rails of timber from the colliery to the
river, exactly straight and parallel.; and bulky carts are made with four rol.l
ers fitting those rails, whereby the carriage is so easy that one horse will
draw down four or five chaldrons of coals, and is an immense benefit to the
coal-merchants,"-Li/fe of Lord-Keeper IVorth. They were made of iron, at
Whitehaven, in 1738. The first considerable iron railroad was laid down at
Colebrook Dale in 1786. The first iron railroad sanctioned by parliament
(with the exception of a few undertaken by canal companies as' small
branches to mines) was the Surrey iron railway (by horses), from the Thames
at Wandsworth to Croydon, for which the act was obtained in 1801. The first
great and extensive enterprise of this kind is the Liverpool and Mancheste;
railway (by engines), commenced in October 1826, and opened Sept. 15, 1830.
EXTENT OF RAILWAYS OPENED THROUGHOUT THE WORLD, IN 1847.
Miltes. MY1~iles.
Great Britain and Ireland - 3,375 Italy - - lsi
United States (in 1849, 6,117) - - 3,800 Denmark - 106
Germany (in 1849, 3,100) - 1,570 Cuba 8 - 800
Holland - - 200 Russia... 52
Belgium - 1,095 British Colonies - - 1,000
France -. - 2,200 East India - - 500
Total length of railways opened throughout the world: —in 1847, 21,761 miles.
In 1824, the first locomotive constructed travelled at the rate of 6 miles
per hour; in 1829, the Rocket travelled at the rate of fifteen miles per hour;
in 1834, the Fire Fly attained a speed of 20 miles per hour; in 1839, the
North- Star moved with a velocity of 37 miles per hour; and at the present
moment locomotives have attained a speed of 70 miles per hour. During
the same period the quantity of fuel required for generating steam has been
diminished five-sixths, that is, six tons of coal were formerly consumed for
one at the present moment, and other expenses are diminished in a correvponding ratio. — T1cck's Railways, 1847.
RAILROADS IN TtIE UNITED STATES. In January 1849, the lines completed reached an aggregate of
In New England - -1,219 miles.
In New York 840 do.
In other parts of the United States- - - - 4,05 do.
Total - 6,117 do.
[See Anerican Almanac, 1850, page 211, for complete list.1
,A AV DICTIONARY OF DATES. 503
A considerable number of miles have since been completed, including a
portion of the New York and Erie; Hudson River Railroad &c., &-c. The
first railwaty in the United States, was the Quincy and Boston. to convey
granite foir Bunker Hill monument, 1827. Boston and Providence Railroatd,
opened June 2, 1835. Boston and Lowell, Jnne 27, and Boston and W01orcester, July6. same year. Utica and Schenectady, opened Ang. 1, 1836. Baltimore to Wilmington, July 19, 1837. Providence and Stonington, Nov. 10,
1837. Worcester and Springfield, Mass., Oct. 1, 1839. Housatonic, Feb.
12, 1840.
IIAILROADS IN FRANCE. There was a small one at mount Cenis as early as
1783; the first of any extent was the St. Etienne and Andrezieux 22 miles,
con-mmenced in 1825. Paris and Versailles commenced 1827. Horrible accident
on that from Paris to Versailles, 70 persons killed by collision and fire. including the celebratednavigator D'Urville, May 8, 1842. Another on the Paris and
Brnssels Railway, train ran off a bridge, 14 killed and 20 wounded, July
8, 1846.
RAILWAYS, BELGIUM. That between Brussels and Antwerp, the first in
Belgium, opened May 3, 1836.
-RA.MIJLIES, BATTLE OF, between the English under the duke of Marlborough
and the allies on the one side, and the French on the other; fought on
Whitsunday, May 23, 1706. The duke achieved one of' his most glorious
victories, which accelerated the fall of Louvain, Brussels, and other important places, and parliament rewarded the victor by settling the honors which
bacd been conferred on himself, upon the male and female issue of his
daughters.
RATISBON, PEACE OF, concluded between France and the emperor of Germany, and by which was terminated the war for the MIantuan succession,
October 13, 1630. It was at Ratisbon, in a diet held there, that the German
princes seceded from the Germanic empire, and placed themselves under
the protection of the emperor Napoleon, August 1, 1806.
RATS. The brown rat, very improperly called the Norway rat, the great pest
of our dwellings, originally came to us firom Persia and the Southern regions
of Asia. This fact is rendered evident from the testimony of Pallas and F.
Cuvier. Pallas describes the migratory nature of rats, and states that in
the autumn of 1729 they arrived at Astrachan in such incredible numbers,
that nothing could be done to oppose them; they came from the western
deserts, nor did the waves of the Volga arrest their progress. They only advanced to the vicinity of Paris in the middle of the sixteenth century, and.
in some parts of France are still unknown.
PAVENNA, BATTLE OF, between the French under the great Gaston de Foix
(duke of Nemours and nephew of Louis XII.) and the Spanish and papal
armies. De Foix gained the memorable battle, but perished in the moment
of victory, and his death closed the fortunes of the French in Italy, April
11, 1512.
RAVILLAC'S MURDER OF HENRY IV. OF FRANCE. The death of Ravillac is one of the most dreadful upon record. He assassinated the k]ing, May
14, 1610; and when put to the torture, he broke out into horrid execrations.
He was carried to the Grbve, and tied to the rack, a wooden engine in the
shape of St. Andrew's cross. His right hand, within which was fastened
the knife with which he did the murder, was first burnt at a slow fire.
Then the-fleshy and most delicate parts of his body were torn with red hot
pincers, and into the gaping wounds melted lead, oil, pitch, and rosin were
poured. His body was so robust, that he endured this exquisite pain; and
his strength resisted that of the four horses by which his limbs welre to be
504 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. Il" E:l"
pulled to pieces. The executioner in consequence cut him into quarters,
and the spectators, who refused to pray for him, dragged them through the
streets.
REFORMT IN PARLIAMENT. This subject was a chief source of agitation
for many years, and during several administrations. Mr. Pitt's motion for
a reform in parliament was lost by a majority of 20, in 1782. The discussion on this motion was the most remarkable up to the period at which reform was conceded. The first ministerial measure of reform was in earl
Grey's administration, when it was proposed in the house of commons by
lord John Russell, March 1, 1831. His bill defeated in the house of lords
by 41 majority, Oct. 8. The bill of 1832 defeated by 35 majority, May 7.
New peers were created May 18, and the bill was finally passed by peels
(106 to 22) June 4, 1832.
REFORMATION, THE. The early efforts for the reformation of the church
may be traced to the reign of Charlemagne, when Paulinun, bishop of Aquileia, employed his voice and pen to accomplish this object. The principal
reformers were Wickliiffe, Huss, Luther, Zuinglius, Tyndal, Calvin, Petri,
Melancthon, Erasmus, Jerome of Prague, Zisca, Browne, and Knox. The
eras of the Refoirmation are as follows:In England (Wickliffe) - A. D. 1360 In Sweden (Peti) - - A. D5. 1530
In Bohemia (iHuss) - 1405 In England (Henry VIII.) -..1534
In Germany (Lather) - - - -1517 In Ireland (Brozwne) - - -1535
In Switzerland (Zuzinglius) - 1519 In England, completed (Cruanmer, 1, uIn Denmark - 1521 cer, Fagiaus, 4'c.) - 1547
In France (Calvin) - - - - 1529 In Scotland (Knox).... 1560
Protestants first so called - 1529 In the Netherlands - - - 1562
The reformed religion was established by queen Elizabeth on her accession
to the throne, 1558. George Browne, archbishop of Dublin, was the first
prelate who embraced the Protestant religion in Ireland, 1535. See Lth/eer,
Protestants, 4-c.
RELIGION. Properly, that awful reverence and pure worship that is due to
God, the supreme Author of all beings, tlhongh it is very often abused, and
applied to superstitious adorations among Christians, and to idols and false
gods among the, heathens.-Pacrdobn. Religion had its origin in most tribes
and nations in their ignorance of the causes of natural phenomena. benefits
being ascribed to a good spirit, and evils to a bad one.-Phtillips. Religious
ceremonies in the worship of the Supreme Being are said to have been introduced by Enos, 2832 a. c..-Le7kgtlet. See the different sects as described
throughout the volume. The Established religion of England commenced
with the Reformation (wv/hich see), 1534. The Six Articles of Religion, fOr
the non-observance of which many Protestants as well as Catholics suffered
death, passed 1539. The Thirty-nine Articles were established first in 1552;
they were reduced from forty-two to thirty-nine in January 1563, and received the sanction of parliament in 1571.
REPEAL OF TiHE UNION OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. An Irish association was formed with this object under the auspices of Mr. O'Connell, in
1829. A new and more resolved association afterwards sprung up, and in
1841, 1842, and 1843 became more violent, each successive year, in its deliberations. Assemblies of the people were held, in the last-named year, is,
various parts of Ireland. some of them amounting to 150,000 persons, and
called " monster meetings." A meeting to be held at Clontarf, on Oct. 8,
was suppressed by government; O'Connell and his chief associates were
brought to trial, Jan. 15, 1844.
RETREAT OF THE GREEKS. Memorable retreat of 10,000 Greeks who had
joined the army of the younger Cyrus in his revolt against his brother Artaxerxes. Xenophon was selected by his brother officers to superintend the
retreat of his countrymen. He rose superior to danger, and though under
['EV j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 505
continual alarms from the sudden attacks of the Persians, he was enabled
to cross rapid rivers, penetrate through vast deserts, gain the tops of mountains, till he could rest secure for awhile, and refiesh his tired companions.
This celebrated retreat was at last happily effected; the Greeks returned
home after a march of 1155 parasangs, or leagues, which was performed in
215 days, after an absence of fifteen months. The whole perhaps might
now be forgotten, or at least but obscurely known, if the great philosopher
who planned it had not employed his pen in describing the dangers which
he escaped, and the difficulties which he surmounted. 401 B. c.- Vossins.
REVENUE, PUBLIC, os' ENGLAND. The revenue collected for the civil list
and for all the other charges of government, as well ordinary as extraordinary, ~1,200,000 per annum, in 1660, the first after the restoration of Charles
II. Raised to ~6,000,000, and every branch of the revenue anticipated,
which was the origin of the funds and the national debt, William and Mary,
1690.-Salmon's Ch'oeon. Hxist..
GENERAL VIEW OF THE PUBLIC REVENUE SINCE THE CONQUEST, BY SIR JOHN SINCLAIR.
William the Conqueror. - ~400,000 Henry VIII. -- - 800,000
William Rufus - 350,000 Edward VI. - - - 400,000
Henry 1. - 300,000 Mary 450,000
Stephen - 250,000 Elizabeth.. * 500,000
Henry II. - 200,000 James I. 600,000
Richard I. 150,000 Charles I. 895,819
John - a 100,000 Commonwealth 1,517,247
Henry III. - - 80,000 Charles II. 1,800,000
Edward I. - - 150,900 James II. - - - 2,001,855
Edward II. - 100,000 William III. - - 3,892,205
Edward lIf. - 154,000 Anne (at the Union) - - - 5,691,803
Richard II. - - 130,000 George I. - - - 6,762,643
Henry IV. - 100,000 George II. - 8,522,540
Henry V. 76,643 George III., 1788 - - - 15,572.971
Henry VI. 64,976 Ditto, 1820, United Kingdom 65.599,570
Edward IV. George IV., 1825, ditto - 62,871,300
Edward V.. - - - 100,000 William IV., 1830, ditto - - 55,431,317
Richard III. - 130,000 Ditto, 1835, ditto - - 50,494,732
Henry VII. - 400,000 Victoria, 1845, ditto - - 51,067,856
REVENUE OF THE UNITED STATES, THE, is derived chiefly from customs and
sales of public lands. The aggregate revenue was, in
1790 $4,399,473 1825 - $ 21,842,906 1840 - - $16,993,858
1795 -. - 5,926.216 1830 - - 24,280,888 1844 - 28,504.519
1800 - - 10,624,997 1835- - 34,163,635 1845 29,769.134
1805 - - 13,520.312 1836 - 48,288,219 1846 - - 29,499,247
1810 9,299,737 1837 -. 18,032,846 1847 - 26,346,790
18'15 - - - 15,411.634 1838 - 19,372,984 1848 - - 35,436,750
1820 - - 16,779,331 1839 - - 30,399,043
REVIEWS AND MAGAZINES. The first publication of the character of a r'eview was the "Jouri'al des Savants," established at Paris, in 1665, by Denis
de Sallo. It was at first published weekly, and contained analyses and critiques of new works, which were so severe as to give much offence. De
Sallo died in 1669. and the journal was afterwards edited by Gallois, De la
Roque, and Cousin. From 1715 to 1792, it was conducted by a society of
learned men, and appeared in monthly numbers; and the collection froum'
1665 to 1792 forms 111 volumes 4to. In 1792, it was discontinued; but in
1816, it was revived, and has had a number of eminent men among its contributors, as De Sacy, Langles, R6musat, Bliot, Cuvier, &c. Numerous other
literary and scientific journals have been established at Paris within a few
years.
The Gentlenman's lfcagaczine, which first appeared in 1731, and the AiMontdly
Reziew, in 1749, were the first works of the kind published in London, that
obtained any great degree of permanency or celebrity. Of the journals
which preceded the Gentleman's Magazine, the following are enumerated
by Nichols; viz. "Weekly Memorials, or an Account of Books lately set forth,"
506 THE W\ORLD'S PROGRESS. [ FI-~V
1688-9;'" fIemnoirs of Literature," 8 vols., 8vo., 1722; "New Memoirs of
Literature," 6 vols., 1725 to 1727; "Present State of the Republic of Letters,"
18 vols., 1728 to 1736; " Historia Literaria," 4 vols., 1730 to 1732.
The Gentlenalcn's lI-cag'czit.e was established in 1731, by Edward Cave, the
first editor, who died in 1754. leaving the work in the hands of' his associate,
David Henry, who received as coadjutor John Nichols, in 1778, and died in
1792, having been connected with the management of the mag-azine more
than fifty years. Mr. Nichols. who was an eminent antiquary, and author
of " Literary Anecdotes," 9 Yols., died in 1827, having been joint or sole
ediitor nearly half a century. These editors were all printers by profession:
and the appellation assumed a.ad retained by the conductor of the work
from its comrmencemnent to the present time, is Sylvanus Urban. This MAIagazine is celebrated for the early connection of Dr. Johnson with the first editor, and in a notice of the life of Cave, revised in 1781, Dr. Johnson says of
this magazine, that its " scheme is known wherever the English language is
spoken,-that it is one of the most successfull and lucrative pamphlets which
literary history has upon record." A new series of this work wvas begun
January, 1834; the first series having been completed in 103 volum-es
The It/?dy Review, the earliest regular work of the kind in England, was
established in 1749, by Ralph Gri-fiths, LL. D., who continued to onlduct it
54 years, assisted by his son in the latter years of his life. This work was
continued until 1844, and had many able contributors. The first series,
from 1749 to 1789 inclusive, comprises 81 volumes; Second Series, ending in
1825, 108 volumes.
The Critical Reviewz [London] was established in 1756, by Archibald Hamilton, with the assistance of Dr. Simollett and other fiiends. From 1764 to
1785, the Rev. Joseph Robertson was a liberal contributor, having furnlished
upwards of 2;620 articles. This work was discontinued several years since.
First Series, from 1756 to 1790, inclusive, 70 volumes; 2d Series, fiom 1791
to 1803, inclusive, 39 volumes; 3d Series, from 1804 to 1811, inclusive,'4
volumes; 4th Series, from 1812 to 1814, inclusive, 6 volumes. A 5th Series
was begun in 1815.
The British Critic [London] was established in 1793; and its first editors were
the Rev. Messrs. Robert Nares and William Beloe: the latter of whom died
in 1817; and the former in 1829, having retained his connection with the
work till the completion of the 42cl volume. It was at first published in
monthly numbers; but from 1827, it appeared quarterly, under the title of
"The British Critic and Theological Review," until 1843, when a new work,
called the English? Revicw, took its place. It was conducted by the members of the ecclesiastical establishment; and maintained Tory and High
Church principles.
The establishment of the Edinbqturgh Review, in 1802, formed an era in periodical criticism; as this work from its commencement took a wider range
and assumed a higher tone, both in literature and politics, than any preceding publication of' the kind. It has uniformly been a strenuous asserter of
Whig or reformling principles. Its editors have been the Rev. Sidney Smith
(the first year), Francis Jeffrey, and (now) Macvey Napier. Among its
principal writers, besides Sidney Smith and Jeffrey, are the distinguished
names of Playfair, Dugalcl Stewart, Mackintosh, Brown, Leslie, Brougham,
and Macaulay. This work soon gained a wide cilculation; and at one time,
upwards of 20,000 copies were published; but in 1832, the nurmber was somrrewhat less than 9000.
The Qarteterlpy Review [London] was established in 1809, and, as early as
1812, it is said to have obtained a circulation little short of 6000 copies. It
may be regarded as a rival publication to the Edinburgh Review, maintain
LEV ] DICTIONARPY OF DATES. 507
ing, in a manner equally uncompromising, opposite or High Tory principles.
It 7was edited fiomn it's commliencemlint till 1825 by William G iford; then by
H. N. Coleridcge; and now by J. G. Lockhart. Among its writers are numbered sir Walter Scott. Southey, and Croker. It has had many able and
learned contsributors, some of whomn are understood to have been connected
with the government.
LThe bEclc/ic Revicw [London], a monthly Journal, was commenced in 1805.
It is conducted by Protestant Dissenters, and maintains evangelical principles in religion, and liberal or reforming principles in politics. It has llad
mlany able contributors, among whom are numbered Adam Clarke, Robert
Hall, and John Foster.-Present ed[tor, Josiah Conder.-First Series. from
1805 to 1813, inclusive, 10 volumes; 2d Series, from 1814 to 1828, inclusive,
30 volumes. The 3d Series was begun in 1829.
The C~lristicab Obser'ver [London], a monthly journal,.conducted by members
of the established church, was commenced. in 1802. and mlaintains what are
commonly styled evangelical principles. It has had a number of able contributors. The first editor, Zachary Macaulay; the present, the Rev. Samuel
Charles Wilks.-Most of the volumnes of this work have be,.L republished
in this country.
Blclklwoowd's Edfh'i'tn)olc-, 71C b MaoCzinle, a monthly journal, was commenced in 1817.
It is edited by Professor John Wilson, and maintains High Tory politics.
The number of copies published, in 1832, was stated at upwards of 9000.
The Westlimster Rev;iew, established, in 1824, by the disciples of Jeremy Bentham, is a strenuous advocate for radical reform in church, state, and legislation. First editor, John Bowring, LL.D; tl;hen succeeded by Mr. Mill,
and by W. E Hickson. The Foreign Quarterly was united with it in 1845.
The floreigon, Qzrc?'ter'ly Review [London], established in 1827, devoted to
foreign literature, and conducted iwith ability, until 1845, when it was united
to the Westminster Review. —Aner. Almsnac, ec.
REVOLUTION, ERA Of THE. This memorable revolution took place in England in 1688, and is styled by Voltaire as the era of English liberty. Janes
II. had rendered himself hateful to his subjects by his tyranny and oppression; and soon after the landing of the prince of Orange at Torbay, Nov. 5,
1688, tihe throne was abdicated by James, who fled. The revolution was
consummated by William III. and his queen (Mary, daughter of James)
being proclaimed, Feb. 13, and crowned April 11, 1689.
lIEVOLUTIONS, REMMARKABLE IN ANCIENT HISTORY. The Assyrian empire destroyed, and that of the Medes and Persians foulndlel by Cyrus the Great,
536 B. c. The Macedonian empire founded on the destruction of the Persian, on the defeat of Darius Codonlanus, by Alexander the Great, 331
B. c. The Roman empire established on the ruins of tile Macedonian, or
Greek mlonarchy, by Julius Cresar, 47 B. c. The Eastern empire, founded
by Constantine the Great, on the final overthlow of the Roman, A. D. 306.
The empire of the Western Franks began under Charlemagne, A. D. 802.
This empire underwent a new revolution, and became the German empire
unlder Rodolph of Hapsburgbh, the head of the house of Austria, a. D. 1273,
from whom it is also called the Monarchy of the Austrians. Thle Eastern
empire passed into the hands of the Turks, about A. D. 1293. See also the
Revolutions of particular countries under their proper heads, as Rome,
Frcmce. Porbtel.at, &c.
PREVOLUTTIONTS. THE MOST CELEBRATED IN MODERN IISTORY. In Portugal, A. D.
1610. In England, 1688. In Poland, I 70-1, 1795, and 1830. In Russia, 1730
and 1762. In Sweden, 1772 and 1809. Fn America, 1775. In France, 1789,
183,0, and 1848. In Holland, 1795. In Venice, 1797. In Rome, 1798. In
the Netherlands, 1830. In Brunswick, 1830. In Brazil, 1831. In Bonme,
5,08 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ e
Tuscany, Lombardy, Hungary, &c., 1848-9. These last were temporary only
-the former governments were restored, 1849. See these countries respectively.
REVIEWS AND MAGAZINES IN THE UNITED STATES. Before the American Revolution various attempts were made to establish religious and literary journals in several places in this country, particularly Boston, New
York, and Philadelphia; but no one of them obtained a liberal support or
had a long duration. The following are some of the leading literary and
religious reviews and magazines:
BOSTON. Founded. NEW YORK. PHILADELPHIA.
American Monthly lVla- N. Y. Magazine and Aitkin's Pennsylvania
gazine, (the first) es- Literary Rep)ository, Magazine was the
tablished by Jeremy (to 1792) - 1787 most popular before
Gridley, continued 3 Literary Reviesv, R. C. the Revolution; Thos.
years, about - - 1745 Sands, &c. (to 1823) - 1822 Paine and Francis
Massachusetts Maga- Atlantic SMag., Sands, Ilopkinson, editors
zine, (lasted to 1795) 1784 afterwards New Yorlk Amnzer. Museumr, pub. by
Monthlly Anthology, Prf. Monthly Revies, - 1824 Matthew Carey, (to
Ticknor, A. H. Eve- Knickerbocker Mag., C. 1792) - - -1787
rett, Buckminster, &c. F. Hoffman, succeeded Literary Magazine and
(to 1811) - - - 1803 by Flint, and now L. Aenericarn Register, C.
General Repertory and G. Clark - 1832 Brockden Brown, (to
1Reviewz, (Ist Amer. Democratic Review (un- 1810) - - - 1805
quarterly,) edited at tilt 1841 at Washington) 1837 Portfolio, pub. monthly "
Cambridge byAndrews Ameerican Monthty.Ma- from 1809 by Jos. DenNorton - - 1812-13 gazine, N. Y.,(to 1838) - nie; edited by NichoNorth Asmeerican Re- Herbert,IHoffman,B3en- las Biddle,1812-16, and
viezo, commenced by jamtin - - 1835't816-21 by J. E. Hall - 1801
W. Tudor* -- 1815 N. Y. Review, (quar- Analectic Slklag., Moses
Curzistiane Exaeziner, terly) J. G. Cogswell, Thomas, (to 1820) - i813
(quarterly) Channing, (to 1842) - - 1837 Anmer. QuaLr. Review,
Dewey, Ware, &c. - 1818 Amnerican Revieze, G. Robt. Walsh, (to 1837) 1827
Asneerican Biblic. Repo- 11. Colton - - 1844 Grahae7's Magazine -
sitory, founded by E. Iuent's AMerchant's lIa- Ladlys Book, Mrs. Hale
Robinson, D.D., at An- gazine - - - 1839 S'tryker's Asmerican Redover - - -1831 gister, (quarterly) - i847
Christian Reviewo,(Bap- NEW HAVEN.
tist) quarterly - - 1835 Christian Observer - 182- Soutthesrn QuarleslyReBoston Quearterly Re- Aszerican Journal of viesw, at Charleston,
view, (Brownson) - 1837 Science Ar'ts, (Silli- (to 1833, recommenced
NVew EEngland fMaga- man's) quarterly - 1818 1842) - - 1828
zine, Buctkinghlam - I833 New Esglander, Theol. Soutllern Lit. MessensAseeri can CQeaerlely Re- (qeu arlerly) - -1843 ger, at Richmond, by
gister, Eclwards - 18-is ~ -chls Reviess (qual. We - T. -ite 1834
The Dial, (quarterly) ) tIey) eve 1848 Biblical Repertory and
Emerson, to 1843 - 1841 e Teological Review,
Massachusetts Quarter- Princeton N. J. -8ly, Theo. Parker, &c. 1846
R.HEIMS. The principal church here was built before A. D. 406; it was rebuilt
in the twelfth century, and is now very beautiful. The corpse of St. Remy
the archbishop, is preserved behind the high altar, in a magnificent shrine
The kings of France have been successively crowned at Rheimns; probably,
becouse Clovis, the founder of the French monarchy, when converted from
paganism, was baptized in the cathedral here, in the year 496. This city
was taken and retaken several times in the last months of the wTr of 1814.
RHETORIC. Rhetorical points and accents were invented by Aristophlane- of
Byzantium, 200 B. c.-AbbE Lenglet. Rhetoric was first taught in Latin at
Rome by Photius Gallus, 87 B. c.-Idem. " We are first to consider what is
to be said; secondly, how: thirdly, in whlat words; and lastly, how it is to
be ornamented."- Cicero. A regius professor of rhetoric was appointed ill
Edinburgh, April 20, 1762, when Dr. Blair became first professor.
* Subsequent editors:-V. Phillips, 1817; E. T. Channing, Dana, and Sparcs, 1817; Edward
Everett, 1819; Jared Sparks, 1823; A. H1. Everett, 1830; J. G. Palfrey, 1835; F. Bowen, 1842.
ROM ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 505
RHINE, CONFEDERATION o' THE. See article Cosfedera-tiont of ite Reioee.
RETODE ISLAND, one of the United States; first settled by Roger Williams
and his associates, who left Massachusetts to escape religious persecution,
and founllded the town of Providence, in 1686. Williams obtained a patent
firom Plymouth Co. in 1644, including Providence Plantations and Rhode
Island. which had been settled 1638. New charter by Charles II., in 1663,
which has continued in force till recently, unchanged by the Revolution.
I)orr's attempt to change or overturn this constitution by armed force, in
June, 1842, defeated by the military force of the government. New constitution adopted in convention, September 1842. Constitution of the United
States adopted May 29, 1790; this State being the last to accede to it. Population in 1790, 58,825; in 1810,,76,931; in 1830, 97,212; in 1840, 108,130.
RHODES. This city was peopled from Crete, as early as 916 a. c. The Rhoclians were famous navigators, masters of the sea, and institutors of a maritime code, which was afterwards adopted by the Romlans. The republic not
completed till 480 B. c. The city built 432 a.c. Its famous Colossus
(which see) thrown down by an earthquake, 224 a. c., and finally destroyed
by the Saracen admiral Moavia, A. D. 672 —Priestley.
RiTALTO, AT VENICE. This renowned bridge is mentioned by Shakspeare in
his " Merchant of Venice." It was built in 1570, and consists of a single
arch, but a very noble one, of marble, built across the Grand Canal, near
the middle, where it is the narrowest: this celebrated arch is ninety feet
wide on the level of the canal, and twenty-four feet high.
RIGHTS, BILL of. The declaration made by the lords and commons of England to the prince and princess of Orange, Feb. 13, 1689. See Bill of
Rigtts,
RIOTS. Some of the most noted in the United States:
At Baltilnore, office of a Newspaper oppos- At Cincinnati, chiefly of Irishmen against
ed to the war, demolished, July, 1812. abolitionists and negroes, Sept. 4,1841.
At Providence, 4 persons killed by the mili- Disgracelul affray in Pennsylvania legislatary, Sept. 24, 1831. ture; a member stabbed by another, April
At Baltimore, about the bank of Md., several 8, 1843.
killed and wounded. Aug. 8, 1335. Another in House of Representatives of U.
At New York,' abolition riots," caused by S.; rencontre between Weller and Shriver,
discussions on slavery, and supposed in- Jan. 25, 1844.
tentions of abolitionists to promote " amal- Riot at Philadelphia, between "' native Amegamation" between whites and blacks, ricans" antd the Irish, 30 houses and 3
July 10-12, 1834. churches burned, fourteen persons killed,
At Charlestown, Mass., a Catholic seminary forty wounded; finally put down by the
or nunnery burnt, Aug. 11, 1834. military, May 6-8, 1844.
At Philadelphia, further "L abolition" riots, The same renewed, and 40 to 50 killed and
40 houses destroyed. Aug. 12, 1834. wounded by the nilitary: 5000 troops callAt Utica, Boston, &c., same cause. 1835-6. ed out, July 7,1844.
At Cincinnati, printing-press of Mr. Bur- Outrages of "Anti-Renters," in Rensselaer
ney's "abolition" paper destroyed, July County. N. Y. Commenced August 21,
30.1836. 1844: renewed in December.
At New York, caused by the high price ot Delaware Co., N. Y., declared by governor
flour; several hundred barrels of flour des- Wright to be in a state of insurrection.
troyed, Feb. 13, 1837. Col lection of rents being resisted by rioters
At Alton, Ill., Rev. E. P. Lovejoy's anti-sla- disguised as Indians, and an under sheriff
very newspaper destroyed, and he was murdered, Aug. 27, 1845.
killed, Nov. 7. 1837. Anti-Rent riot in Columbia Co. N. Y. March
At Philadelphia, mob opposed to the anti- 25,1847.
slavery discussions, destroyed Pennsylva- Riots at the Astor Place Opera House, N. Y,
nia Hall, &c., May 17, 1838. against Mr. Macready, the English actor
Int the Pennsylvania legislature, two,Jifferent 21 klilled; May t0, 1849.
legislatures organized, the Senate expel led Disgraceful rencontre between Foote of Mis
from their Chamber by a mob. Militia sissippi and Benton of Missouri, in the
called out and the contest settled after 4 Senate of the U. S., the first gross insult to
days, Dec. 8,1838. that assembly, May, 1850.
RIVER AND HARBOR CONVENTION, for promoting improvements, &c.; as
510 TIHE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ ROM
senrbled at Chicago, Ill., July 5, 1847. House of Representatives votes
(112 to 53) that it is expedient and constitutional for the general governmnent to promote such improvements, July 1848.
ROB tSPIERRE'S REIGN oF TERROR. Maximilian Robespierre headed the
populace in the Champ de Mars, in Paris, demanding' the dethronement of
the king, July 17, 1791. He was triumphant in 1793, and great numbers of
eminent men and citizens were sacrificed during his sanguinary admlinist ation. Billand Varennes denounced the tyranny of Robespierre in the tribune, July 28, 1794. Cries of " Down with the tyrant!" resounded through
the hall; and so great was the abhorrence of the Convention of this wicked
minister, that he was immediately ordered to the place of execution and
suffered death, no man deeming himself safe while Robespierre lived.
ROBIN HOOD. The celebrated captain of a notorious band of robbers, who
infested the forest of' Sherwood in Nottinghamshire, and from thence made
excursions to many parts of England, in search of booty. Some historians
assert ti.at this was only a name assumed by'the then earl of Huntingdon,
who was disgraced and banished the court by Richard I. at his accession.
Robin Hood, Little John his friend and second in command, with their lnamerous followers, continued their depredations fiom about 1189 to 1247,
when he died. —Stowe's Ch/ron.
ROCKETS, CONGREVE'S. War implements of very destructive power, were
invented by sir William Congreve. about 1803. The carcase rockets wvere
first u-id at Boulogne, their powers having been previously demonstrated
in the presence of Mr. Pitt and several of the cabinet ministers, 1806. See
article Boesldoo',e Flotila/.
ROMAN CATHOLICS. The progress of Christianity during the life-time of
its divine founder was confined within narrow bounds: the Holy Land was
alone the scene of his labors, and of his life and death. The period of the
rise of the Roman Catholic religion may be dated from the establishment of
Christianity by Constantine, A. n. 323. See Roabe. The foundation of the
papal power dates from A. D. 606, when Boniface III. assumed the title of
Universal Bishop. See Pope. Pepin, king of France, invested pope Stephen II. with the temporal dominions of' Iome and its territories, A. D. 706.
The tremendous power of the Roman pontiffs was weakened by the Reformation. and has since been gradually yielding to the influence of the reformed
doctrines. and the general diff'Lsion of knowledge among the nations of the
earth. Of 225 millions of Christians, about 160 millions are, or pass unler
the denomination of, Roman Catholics. —Al. b'lbi.
ROMAN CATHOLICS IN ENGLAND. Laws were enacted against them in
1539. They were forbidden the Britishli court in 1673; but restored to favor
there in 1685. Disabled -from holding offices of trust 1689; and excluded
from the British throne same year. Obliged to register their names and
estates 1717. Indulgences were granted to Roman Catholics by parliament
in 1778. They were permitted to purchase landc, and take it by dlescent,
1780. The "no-popery" riots (Gordon's) 1780. Catholic Elmancipation
Bill passed:April 13, 1829, D. O'Connell being the first M. P. who took iis
seat under the act.
ROMANCES. " Stories of love and arms, wherein abundance of enthusiastic
flights of the imagination are introduced, giving false imnages of life."Pcardonm. As Heliodorus, a bishop of Tricea, in Thessaly, was the author
of Elh.io/ics, in Greek. the first work in this species of writing. he is hence
styled the: Father of Romances." His work lhas a moral tendency, and
particularly inculcates the virtue of chastity. He flourished A. D. 398.Hl-et de Origine F'abzd. RomEa.
EOS ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 511
ROME. Once the Ilistress of the world, and subsequently the seat of the
most extensive ecclesiastical jurisdiction ever acknowledged by mankind.
Romulus is universally supposed to have laid the foundations of this celebratecd city, on the 20th of April, according to Varro, in the year 8961 of
the Julian period, 3251 years after the creation of the world, 753 before the
birth of Christ, 481 years after the Trojan war, ancd in tle fourth year of
the sixth Olympiad. In its ori'inal state. Rome was but a small castle on
the summit of Mount Palaftine;, and the founder, to give his followers the
appearance of a nation or a barbarian horde, was obliged to erect a standa'rd
a. a common asylum for every criminal, debtor, or murderer, who lec ftiom
their native country to avoid the punishment which attended thenm. From
such an assemblage a numerous body was soon collected, and before the
death of the founder, the Ronmans had covered with their habitations, the
Palatine, Capitoline, Aventine, Esquiline hills, with Mount Ccelius, and
Quirinalis. Their numerous and successful wars led, in the course of' ages,
to their mastery over all mankind, and to their conquest of neanri tle
whole of the then known world. The Romlans and the Albans, contesting
for superiority, agreed to choose three champions on each part to decide it.
The three Ior'atlii, Roman knights, and the three CLcriaceii, Albans, having
been elected by their respective countries, engaged in the celebrated combat, which by the victory of the l0oratii, united Alba to Rome, 667 c. c.Livy. See Tcbularc- Vziews, p. 15 to p. 63.
Foundation of the city commenced by I &c. The pope refuses; the people
Romulus - -. c. 753 attack the palace, and at 7 P. M. the
Odoacer, chief of the IHeruli, enters pope yields, and grants a liberal miItaly, takes Rome, and assumes the nistry - - - Nov. 16, 1848
title of king of Italy, which ends the The pope, after being a prisoner in his
Western empire - A. D. 476 palace for seven days, escapes from
Rome is recovered for Justinian, by Romne to Mola di Gaeta, in the disBelisarius - 537 guise of a servant - Nov. 24, 1848
Retaken by the Goths - - 5.17 Roman chambers dissolved, and a conNarses, Justinian's general, again re- stituent assembly convened - Dec. 29, 1848
conquers Rome - 553 The Roman republic proclaimed; MazPapal power established - 606 zini and two others triulllvirs Feb. 9, 1849
Rome revolts fiom the Greek emperors, French armament against the republic
and becomes free - - 726 reaches Civita Vecchia - April 25, 1819
Pope Stelphen II. invested with the tem- French repulsed under the walls of
poral dominion of Rome - 756 Rome, with the loss of 600 - April 29, 1849
Charlemagne acknowledged as etnperor Rome surrenders after an attack of 29
of the West 800 days, and false promises on the part
s* * e *_ * of the French - - July 2, 1849
Rienzi, the last of the tribunes, rules at Rome entered by the French under OnuRome -1347 dinot. and evacuated by Garibaldi
[The popes continued in possession of and li-is force of 3,000 men - July 3, 1849
the city and territories. See article Garibaldi escapes to the Adriatic, Aug.2, 1849
Pogpes and Italy.] Ouadinot surrenders the government
The recent struggles of Rome for free- inlto the hands of three coml missioners
dom commenced in - - -1848 of the pope, who begin the worl of
Mazzini's first proclamation - Oct. 29, 1848 reaction- - - - Au. 3, 318-19
Letter of the Frerich president, dictatCount Rossi, the pope's prime minis- ing the basis of the restoration of the
1er, assassinated at the senate-house. pope's tempo-ral power, viz.: general
The populace march to the Quirinal, amnesty, secularization of the admiiand present their demands to the nistration, code Napoleon, and a libepope, viz.: Italian nationality, con- ral covernment - Aug. 18, 1849
stituent assembly, a new ministry, Pope Pius IX. returned to Rome - Apr. 1850
ROSARY. " We owe to Dominic de Guzman, a canon of the order of St. Augustin, two most important blessings," says a Spanish writer, the Rosary
and the Holy Office," A. D. 1202. Other authors mnention the Rosary as
being said in 1093.
ROSES, THIE WHITE AND RsED. The intestine wars which so long devastated
England, were carriecd on under the symbols of the TW/cIite and the Red Rose,
and were called the wars of' the Roses. The partisans of the house of Lan
512 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. L R-'M
caster chose the red roses as their mark of distinction, and those of York
were denominated from the whit-e. These wars originated with the descendants of Edward III. That monarch was succeeded by his grandson, Rlchard II., who being deposed, the duke of Lancaster was proclaimed king,
by the title of Henry IV. in prejudice to the duke of York, the right heir
to the crown; he being descended from Lionel, the second son of Edward
III., whereas the duke of Lancaster was the son of John of Gaunt, the ttiu'rd
son of king Edward. The accession of Henry occasioned several conspiracies during his reign; and the animosities which subsisted between his descendants and those of the duke of York afterwards filled the kingdom
with civil commotions, and deluged its plains with blood, parTcularly in
the reigns of Henry VI. and Edward IV. First battle fought, May 22,
1455. See Albans, St. Union of the Roses in the marriage of Henry VII.
with the princess Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., 1486
ROSICRUSIANS. A sect of hermetical philosophers, first alpeared in Germany in 1802, and again early in the 17th century, They swore fidelity,
promised secrecy, and wrote hieroglyphically; and affirmed that the ancient philosophers of Egypt, the Chaldeans, Magi of Persia, and Gy-mnosophists of the Inclies, taught the same doctrine with themselves.
ROUND-HEADS. During the unhappy war which brought Charles I. of England to the scaffold, the adherents of that monarch were first called Cavalikrs, and the friends of the parliament were called Round-heads. This
latter term arose from those persons who thus distinguished themselves
putting a round bowl or wooden dish upon their heads, and cutting their
hair by the edges or brims of the bowl. See Cacvaliers.
ROYAL ACADEMY or ARTS IN ENGLAND. Instituted 1768, under the patronage of George III.; and sir Joshua Reynolds, knighted on the occasion, was
appointed its first president. —eigh.
ROYAL HUMANE SOCIETY, LONDON. This institution, for the recovery of
persons apparently drowned, was founded in 1774, by Drs. Goldsmith, Heberden, Towers, Lettsom, Hawes and Cogan, but principally by the exertions
of the last three gentlemen. The society has eighteen receiving-houses in the
metropolis, all of which are supplied with perfect and excellent apparatus,
and designated by conspicuous boards, announcing their object.
ROYAL INSTITUTION, LONDON. This institution was formed in 1800, under the patronage of George III., and incorporated by royal charter as
" The Royal Institution of Great Britain," for diffusing the knowledge, and
facilitating the general introduction, of useful mechanical inventions and
improvements, and for teaching, by courses of philosophical lectures and
experiments, the application of science to the common purposes of life.
The investigations and the important discoveries of sir H. Davy, who lectured on chemistry here, conferred no small degree of celebrity on this
establishment. A new professorship was created in 1833.
ROYAL SOCIETY. The origin of this learned body is ascribed to the hon.
Robert Boyle and sir Win. Petty, who, together with the several doctors of
divinity and physic, Matthew Wren and Mr. Rook, frequently met in the
apartments of Dr. Wilkins, in Wadham College, Oxford; where the society
continued till 1658. Charles II., April 22, 1663, constituted them a body
politic and corporate, by the appellation of the "President, Council and
Fellows of the Royal Society of London, for improving Natural Knowledge."
RUMP PARLIAMENT. The parliament so designated at the period of the
civil war in England. Colonel Pride at the head of two regiments blockaded the house of commons, and seized in the passage 41 members of the
Presbyterian party, whom he confined; above 160 more were excluded;
and none but the most determined of the Independents, about 60, were
LdS ] ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 513
perimitted to enter the house. This invasion of parliamentary rights was
called Pride's Purge, and the admitted members were called the Rump,
1649.-Goldsmnit/h.
RUSSIA. Anciently Sarmatia. It is conjectured that the aborigines of this
vast tract of country were the immediate progeny of Magog, second son
of Japhet; and that they settled here very shortly after the dispersion
from Babel, where they were gradually divided into tribes, each distinguished by a particular name, but still retaining their ancient general appellation, until it was changed by the Romans into that of Scythians.
Rurick was grand-duke of Novogorod, A. D. 882, which is the earliest authentic account of this country. In 981, Wolacdiiler was the first CLristian
king. Audrey I. began his reign in 1156, and laid the foundation of Moscow. About 1200, the Mongol Tartars conquered Russia, and held it in
subjection till 1540, when John Basilowitz restored it to independence. In
tile middle of the sixteenth century the Russians discovered and conquered
Siberia.
The foundation of the present monarchy The young prince, the rightful heir, till
laid A. D. 1474 now immured, put to death A. n. 1763
Basil IV. carries his victorious arms in- The dismemberment of Poland comto the East, 1509 to - - - -1534 renced by Catherine. (See Poland) 177'Ivan Basitowitz takes the title of czar, This perfidious robbery completed - 1795
signifying great king, and drives the Catherine gives her subjects a new code
Tartars clear out of his dominions, of laws; abolishes torture in punish1534 to - - - - - -1550 inl crim-ninals; and dies - 1796
The navigation from England first dis- Murder of the emperor Paul, who is
covered by Robert Chancellor - 1554 found dead in his chamber, March 23, 1801
The Tartars surprise Moscow, and slay Great defeat of Alexander, at Austerlitz,
30,000 of the people - - - - 1571 by Napoleo - - DIec. 2, 105
The Novogorodians having intrigued Alexander visits England - June 6, 1814
with the Poles, Ivan orders the chief The grand-duke Constantine renounces
inhabitants to be hewn into small pie- the right of succession - Jan. 26, 1822
ces before his eyes - - - 1581 The emperor Nicholas is crowned at
The race of Rurick, who had governed Mos-cow - - - Sept. 3, 1826
Russia for 700 years, becomes extinct 159S Russian war against Persia - Sept. 28, 1826
The imposition practised by Demetrius Nicholas invested with the order of the
See Izmpostors. - - 1606 Garter - - - July 9, 1827
The Poles place Ladislaus, son of their Peace concluded between Russia and
own king, Sigismund II., upon the the Persians - - Feb- 22, 1828
throne of Russia - 1610 War between Russia and the Ottoman
Michael Fedorowitz, of the house of Porte declared - - April 26, 1828
Romanzov, ascends the throne - - 1613 [For the disastrous consequences to
Revolt from Polish tyranny - - 1613 Turkey of this war, see Turkey and
Finland ceded to Sweden - - 1617 Battles.]
Reign of Peter I. or the Great - -1682 The war for the independence of Poland,
He visited En-land, and worked in the against Russia - - Nov. 28), 1830
dock-yard at Deptford - - - 1697 This war closed with the capture of
Orders of St. Andrew, and of St. Alex- Warsaw, and the total overthrow of
ander iNevskoi, instituted about - 1698 the Poles. See 1C4carsaw - Sept. 8,1831
The Russians begin their new year [For the events of this last war, see arfrom January I - - -1700 tide Polandl.]
Peter builds St. Petersburg - - 1703 Cracow, which had been erected into a
Peter II. deposed, aad the crown given republic, and its independence guato Anne of Courland - - 1730 ranteed by the Congress of Vienna, in
Elizabeth, daughter of Peter I. reigns, 1815, is occupied by a Russian and
in prejudice of Ivan VI., anll infant, Austrian army - Feb. 13, 1836
who is imprisoned for life - - 1741 Failure of the Russian expedition aPeter III. dethroned andl murdered; suc- gainst Khiva - - Jan. 3, 1840
ceeded by Catherine his wife, - 1762 Treaty of London. See Syria - July 15,1840
THE CZARS, OR EMIPERORS OP RUSSIA.
i.D. 1161 John III. 1606 Chousky.
1504 Demetrius; murdered. 1616 Michael Fedorowitz.
1504- Basil V. 1645 Alexis.
1534 John IV. 1676 Theodore III.
1584 Theodore 1. 1682 Peter I.. the Great.
1593 Bovise Godounove.' 1725 Catherine I.
1605 Theodore II. 1727 Peter ]I.
1605 Demetrius 1I., assassinated. 1730 Anne, a nun.
22*
514 THEI r WORPLD'S PROGRESS. L.
RUSSIA, oLtilLed.
1740 John V.; murdered, July 17, 1762. 1762 Catherine II.
1741 Elizabeth. 1796 Paul I.; murdered, Feb. 25, 1801.
1762 Peter III.; deposed, and died soon af- 1S01 Alexander.
terwards. 1825 Nicholas, December 1.
RYE-HOUSE PLOT. The real, or more probably pretended, conspiracy to
assassinate Charles II. and his brother the duke of York (afterwards James
II.) at a place called Rye-house, on the way to London from Newmarkct.
This design was said to have been frustrated by the king's house at Newmarket accidentally taking fire, which hastened the royal party away eight
days before the plot was to take place, March 22, 1683. The plot was cliscovered June 12, following. The patriot Algernon Sidney, suffered death on
false charge of being concerned in this conspiracy, Dec. 7, 1683.
RYSWICK, PEACE OF, concluded between England, France, Sp~in, and Holland,
signed Sept. 20, and by the emperor of Germany, Oct. 30, 1697.
S.
SABBATH, THE. Ordained by the Almighty. The Jews observed the seventh
day in commemoration of the creation and their redemption from the bondage of the Egyptians; the Christians observe the first day of the week I
commemoration of the resurrection of Christ fiom the dead, and the universalredemption of mankind. The sabbath-day, or Sunday, ordained to be
kept holy in England, from Saturday at three in the afternoon to Monday at
break-of-day, 4 Canon, Edgar, A. D. 960. Act of parliament levying one
shilling on every person absent from church on Sundays, 3 James I. 1606.
Act restraining amusements, Charles I., 1626. Act restraining the performance of servile works, and the sale of goods, except milk at certain hours,
meat in public houses, and works of necessity and charity, on forfeiture of
five shillings, 29 Charles II. 1677.
SABBAT1ANS. Christians, who, professing to follow the example and precepts
of Christ, keep the ancient divine Sabbath of Saturday, instead of the modern Romish festival of Sunday, for which this sect allege that there is not
a tittle of Scriptural authority. They maintain that the Jewish Sabbath
was never abrogated, nor any other appointed or instituted, and consequently
that it ought to be as religiously observed by the Christians as by the
Jews, 1549.
SABBATICAL YEAR. A Jewish institution, 1444 B. c. Every seventh year,
during which time the very ground had rest, and was not tilled, and every
fbrty-ninth year all debts were forgiven, slaves set at liberty, and estates,
&c., that were before sold or mortgaged, returned to their original families,
&c. —Josephus.
SABINES. The people from whom the Romans, under Romulus, took away
their daughters by force for wives, having made and invited them to some
public sports or shows on purpose; when the Sabines were determined to
revenge this affront, the women became mediators to their fathers in behalf
of their husbands the Romans, and settled a regular and lasting peace bec;
tween them, 750 B. c.
SACRED WAR. The first, concerning the temple at Delphi, took place 448 B. C.
The second Sacred War occurred on Delphi being attacked by the Phocoans,
356 a. c. This latter war was terminated by Philip. of Macedon taking all
the cities of the Phoceans, 348 a. c.-Plldtc&'ch.
SACRIFICE. The first religious sacrifice was offered to God by Abel; it consisted of milk and the firstlings of his flock, 3875 a. c.-Josep/bcs; UshAer.
Sacrifices to the gods were first introduced into Greece by Phoroneus, king of
ST. v ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 515
Argos, 1773 a. c. The offering of human sacrifices seems to have originated
with the Chaldeans, from whom the custom passed into Greece, Persia, and
other eastern nations. All sacrifices to the true God ceased with the sacrifice of the Redeemer, A. n. 33.
SADDLES. In the earlier ages the Romans used neither saddles nor stirrups,
which led to several maladies of the hips and legs. Saddles were in use in
the third century, and are mentioned as made of leather in A D. 304. They
were known in England about the year 600. Side-saddles for ladies were in
use in 1388.- Anne, the queen of Richard II., introduced them to the English ladies.-Stowe.
SADDUCEES. A sect among the Jews, said to have been founded by one
Sadoc, a scholar of Antigonuns, who, misinterpreting his manter's doctrine,
taught there was neither heaven nor hell, angel nor spirit; that the soul
was mortal, and that there was no resurrection of the body fromn the dead.
As for their other opinions, the Saciducees agreed in general with the Samaritans, excepting that they were partakers of all the Jewish sacrifices. This
sect began about 200 a. c.-Pardon.
SAFETY-LAMP. That of the illustrious sir Humphrey Davy, to prevent accidents which happen in coal and other imines, introduced in 1815; and improved in 1817. The safety-lamp is founded on the principle that flame, in
passing through iron-wire imeshes, loses so much of its heat as not to be
capable of igniting inflammable substances around, while flame alone ignites gas. It should be mentioned, that the father of all safety-lamps is
Dr. Reid Clanny, of Sunderland, whose invention and improvements are
authenticated in the Tranlsactions of the Society of Arts, for 1817, and in
Thomqnson's Annals of PLdlosopYy, same year.
SAGUNTUM, SIEGE oe. The famous and dreadful siege of Saguntuml (now
Morviedro in Valencia) was sustained 219 a. c. The heroic citizens, after
exerting incredible acts of' valor for eight months, chose to be buried in the
ruins of their city rather than surrender to Hannibal. They burnt themselves, with their houses and all their effects, and the conqueror became
master of a pile of ashes and of dead.
ST. SALVADOR. The first point of land discovered in the West Indies or
America by the illustrious Christopher Columbus. It was previously called
Guanahami, or Cat's Isle, and Columbus (in acknowledgment to God for
his delivermince from the dangers to which he was exposed in his voyage of
discovery) named it St. Salvador, October 11, 1492.
ST. SEBASTIAN'S, SIEGE OF, by the British and allied army under lord Wellington. St. Sebastian, after a short siege, during which it sustained a most
heavy bombardment, and by which the whole town was laid nearly in ruins,
was stormed by general (afterwards lord) Graham, and taken, August 31,
1813.
ST. SOPHIA, CHURCaE OF. In Constantinople, a short distance from the Sublime Porte, stands the ancient Christian church of St. Sophia, built by
Justinian; and since the Mahometan conquest, in 1453, used as an imperial mosque. It abounds in curiosities. Its length is 269 feet, and its
breadth 243 feet. Six of its pillars are of green jasper, firom the Temple of
Diana, at Ephesus; and eight of porphyry, from the Temple of the Sun, at
Ronme.
ST. VINCENT, BATTLE OF, between the Spanish and British fleets off the
Cape. The latter was commanded by sir John Jervis (afterwards earl St.
Vincent), who took four line-of-battle ships, and considerably damaged the
rest of the Spanish fleet, February 14, 1797.
516 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ SAN
SALAMANCA, BATTLE OF, between the British and allies commanded by lord
Wellington, and the French army under Marshal Marmont, fought July 22,
1812. In this great and memorable battle the illustrious Wellington was
victorious, though the loss of the allies was most severe, amounting in
killed, wounded, and missing, to nearly 6000 men; but that of the enemy
was much greater. Marmont left in the victor's hands 7141 prisoners, 11
pieces of cannon, 6 stand of colors, and two eagles: 8000 men are believed
to have been killed and wounded. Marmont was the seventh French Marshal whom lord Wellington had defeated in the course of four years. An
immediate consequence of this victory was the capture of Madrid with 2500
more prisoners, and an immense quantity of stores.
SALAMIS, BATTLE OF. The Persians defeated by the Greeks in this great seafight, October 20, 480 B. c. Themistocles, the Greek commander, with only
380 sail, defeated the fleet of Xerxes, which consisted of 2000 sail. After
this battle, Xerxes retired from Greece, leaving behind him Mardonius,
with 300,000 men, to carry on the war, and suffer more disasters. In his retreat, he found the bridge of boats he had crossed over at the Hellespont,
now the Dardanelles, destroyed by a tempest.
SALIQUE, OR SALIC, LAW. By this law females are excluded from inheriting the crown of France. It was instituted by Pharamond, A. D. 424. Ratified in a council of state by Clovis I., the real founder of the French
monarchy, in 511.-Hevnctult's France. In order to give more authority to
the maxim that " the crown should never descend to a female," it was usual
to derive it from a clause of the Salian code of the ancient Franks; but
this clause, if strictly examined, carries only the appearance of favoring
the principle, and does not in reality bear the sense imposed upon it.
SALT AND SALT-MINES. Salt is either procured from rocks in the earth, from
salt-springs, or from sea-water. The famous salt-mines of Wielitska, near
Cracow, in Poland, have been worked 600 years, and yet present, it has been
lately said, no appearance of being exhausted. Rock-salt was discovered
about A. D. 950. Saltpetre was first made in England about 1625. The fine
salt-mines of Staffordshire were discovered about 1670.
SAMARITANS. The Samaritans are often mentioned in the Scriptures. They
were the inhabitants of a province of which Samaria was the capital, and
were composed of heathens and rebellious Jews; and on having a temple
built there after the form of that of Jerusalem, a lasting enmity arose between the people of Judea and Samnaria, so that no intercourse took place
between the two countries, and the name of Samaritan became a word of reproach, and as if it were a curse.-Lenpriere.
SANCTUARIES. They had their origin in the early ages. Rome was one
entire sanctuary from 751 B. C. In England, privileged places for the safety
of offenders were granted by king Lucius to our churches and their precincts. St. John's of Beverley was thus privileged in the time of the Saxons.
St. Burein's, in Cornwall, was privileged by Athelstan, A. D. 935; Westminster, by Edward the Confessor; St. Martin's-le-Grand, 1529. Sanctuaries were abolished at the Reformation. Several places in London were
privileged against the arrest of persons for debt. These last were suppressed in 1696.
SANDALS. The shoe or slipper worn especially by the eastern nations. At
first it was only a piece of leather like the sole of a shoe, to keep the foot
from the ground, but was in the course of time improved to a covering of
cloth, ornamented with all the delicacies of art. and made of the richest
materials, and worn by the high priests at great solemnities, and by kings,
princes, and great llen, as a mark of distinction. Sandals were also worn
by women, as appears from the story of Judith and Holofernes, where,
SAR ] DICTIONAIRY OF DATES. 51i
among other decorations, she is said to have put on sandals, at the sight of
which he was ravished. It was usual for ladies to have slaves to carry
their sandals in cases, ready to adorn their feet on occasions of state. See
Shoes.
SANDWICH ISLANDS. A group of eleven islands in the Pacific Ocean. They
were discovered by captain Cook in 1778. Many voyagers report that the natural capacity of the natives seems in no respect below the common standard
of mankind. It was in one of these islands that this illustrious circullnavigator fell a victim to the sudden resentment of the natives, Feb. 14, 1779.
Extraordinary progress in the civilization and improvement of the natives,
cfftcted chiefly by the American missionaries. Tamehamneha, chief of
Hawaii, becomes king of the group, 18. Rihoriho, his 4on, succeeds
him, 1819. Idolatry abolished, 1819. Rihoriho and his queen died in England. 1824. Kanikeaouli, 20 years of age, king, 1824. Mission established
by the American Board, 1820. In 1832 there were 900 schools and 50,000
pupils in the Islands. Treaty with the French, made with admiral DupetitThouars, 1837. Another, enforcing the introduction of Catholic missionaries, &c., 1839. Tamehameha III. becomes king, Dr. G. P. Jt dd, an American, prime-minister, 18. In 1831 there were 14 ships. 2630 tons, belonging to the Islands-which are important to the United States as a whaling
station. See OwAulyhee.
SANHEDRIM. An ancient Jewish council of the highest jurisdiction, of seventy, or as some say, seventy-three members. They date this senate from
uvnlmbers xi. 16. It was yet in being at the time of Jesus CIRIrST, Jo/In
xviii. 31. A Jewish Sanledrim was summloned by the emperor Napoleon
at Paris, July 23, 1806; and it assembled Jan. 20, 1807.
SAPPHIC VERSE. The verse invented by Sappho, the lyric poetess of Mitylene. Sappho was equally celebrated for her poetry, her beauty, and her
amorous disposition. She conceived a hopeless passion for Phaonl, a youth
of her native country, on which account she threw herself into the sea
from Mount Leucas, and was drowned. The Lesbians, after her death, paid
her divine honors, and called her the tenth muse, 594 B. c.
SARACENS. A celebrated people from the deserts of Arabia, Sanra in their
language signifying a desert. They were the first disciples of Mahomet;
and within 40 years after his death, in A. D. 631, they conquered a great part
of Asia, Aflica. and Europe. They conquered Spain in 713 et seq.; the
empire of the Saracens closed by Bagdad being taken by the Tartars, 1258.
-Blair. There are now no people known by this name; the descendants
of those who subdued Spain are called Moors.
SARAGOSSA. Anciently Cmesarea Augusta; whence, by corruption, its name.
Its church has been a place of great devotion. They tell us that the Virgin,
while yet living, appeared to St. James, who was preaching the gospel, and
left him her image, which was afterwards placed in the church, with a little
Jesus in its arms, ornamented with a profusion of gold and jewels, and illuminated by a multitude of lamps. In December 1778, four hundred of
the inhabitants perished in a fire at the theatre. Saragossa taken by
the French, after a most heroic defence by general Palafox, during as renowned a siege as is on record, February 13, 1809.
SARATOGA, BURGOYNE'S SURRENDER AT. Here general Burgoyne, commander of the British army, after a severe engagement with the Americans in
the war of independence (Oct. 7), being surrounded, surrendered to the
American general Gates, when 5791 men laid down their arms, October 17,
1777.
SARDANAPALUS. The last king of Assyria. See Assyr'ia. One of the most
518 TrHE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [SAA
infamous and sensual monarchs that ever lived. Having grown odious to
his subjects, and being surrounded by hostile armies, dreading to fall into
their hands, he shut himself up in his capital at Nineveh. Here he caused
a vast pile of wood to be raised in a court of his palace, and heaping upon
it all his gold, silver, jewels, precious and rare articles, the royal apparel,
and other treasures, and inclosing his concubines and eunuchs in an apartment within the pile, he set all on fire, perishing himself in the flames.
This is the mightiest conflagration of wealth on record. The riches
thus destroyed were worth a thosanld mnyriads of talents of gold, and TEN
TIMES as many talents of silive?!!! about 1,400,000,0001. sterling.-Alhesll.cs.
SARDINIA. The first inhabitants of Piedmont, Savoy, &c., are supposed to
have been the Umbrians, Etrurians, Ligurians, and afterwards the Gauls
(when they established themselves in Italy, under Brennus, &c.,) friom
whom this country was called Cisalpine Gaul (or Gaul on this side of the
Alps, with respect to Rome): it afterwards became a part of Lombardy,
from whom it was taken by the Burgundians. The island of Sardinia hae
been successively possessed by the Phoenicians and Greeks, the Carthaginians, Romans, Saracens, and Spaniards. From settlers belonging to -,hich
various nations the present inhabitants derive their origin.
Subjugated by the Romans B- B. 231 Declares war against Austria, enters
* * Milan with ti a army, to assist the poTaken by the Moors, about - A.D. 728 pular cause, and drives the Austrians
Reduced by the Genoese - - - 1115 towards Mantua - March 23, 1848
The pope grants Sarlinia to thePisanese, Takes Lodi- April 1, ****
who are, however, too weak to expel Forces the Austrian line near Verona,
the Saracens -1132 April 17, ***
Alphonsus IV. of Arragon, becomles Takes Peschiara - M -Iay 30, *..
master of Sardinia - - 324 Defeats the Austriana under Radetsky,
Taken from the Spaniards by the Eng- at Goito *s*
lish naval forces - - - - 708 Sardian army driven from Vicenza,
Recovered by the Spaniards - - - 1717 Verona, the Adige, &c., June-July - 1848
They again lose possession - - - 1719 Retreats to Ticino after capitulation of
Ceded to the duke of Savoy, as an equi- Milan - - -Aug. 4.
valent for Sicily - - - - 1720 Followed by an armistice - *
Victor Amadeus, having the title of king Rupture of the armistice - March 1849
abdicates in favor of his son - A.D. 1730 Battle of'Novara; the Sardinians under
Attempting to recover Sardinia, he is Charles Albert, totally defeated by
taken, and dies in prison - - 1732 Radetslky -**.
[The courlt kept at Turin till 170G, when The king abdicates in fa-vor of his son,
these dominions were overrun by the Victor Emanuel, count of Savoy, and
French arms, and shortly afterwards leaves the kingdom - March 23, *..
annexed to the French empire.] Insurection at Genoa against the new
The king resigns his crown to his bro- king - April 1,...
thlel, duke of' Aoust -. June 4,1802 Genoa invested by Marmora, April 5,
Sardinia annexed to Italy, and Bona- and fully reduced - - April 11,
parte crowned king of the whole. Charles Albert late king, dies at LisDecember 26. 1805 bon - July 28,...
Restored to its rightful sovereign, witli Victor Emanuel opens the legislative
Genoa added to it December 1814 chamber with a moderate speech, and
King Charles Albert, having proteststed is warmly greeted Aug. 1. ***
against Austrian encroachments in Treaty with Austria - - Aug. 6, ***.
Italy, calls out an additional force of The chamber votes 100,000 livres to re25,000 men - - - Jan.'10, 1848 lieve the refugfees fobm various parts
Proclaims the basis of a Constitution of Italy Aug. 30, -
Feb. 8, 1848
KINGS OF SARDINIA.
A., D. 1720. Victor Amadeus, son of Charles Ema- 1802. Victor Emanuel.
nuel duke of Savoy. 1821. Charles Felix.
1730. Charles Emanuel 1831. Charles Albert, April 27.
1773. Victor Amadeus Maria II. 1848. Victor Emanuel
1796. Charles Emanuel.
SATIRE. About a century after the introduction of comedy, satire made its
appeoarance at Rome in the writings of Lucilius, who was so celebrated in
this species of composition that he has been called the inventor of it, 116
SAW ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 519
B. c.-Livy. Lucilius obtained praise lavished with too liberal a hand: we
may comlpare hinm to a river which rolls upon its waters precious sand, accompanied with mire and dirt. —foreace.
SATURDAY. With us this is the last or seventh day of the week; but with
the Jews it is the Sabbath. See Sabbatlh. It was so called fiom an idol
worshipped on this day by the old Saxons, and according to Vertigern was
named by them Saterne's-day.-Parcdoe. It is more probably from Saturn,
dies Saturn-i.-Addison.
SATURN. Ascertained to be about 900 millions of miles distant from the
sun, and its diameter to be 89.170 miles. His satellites were discovered by
Galileo and Simon Meyer, 1608-9-10; his belt, &c., by Huygens in 1634;
his fifth satellite by the same in 1655; and his sixth and seventh by
Herschel in 1789. Cassini was also a discoverer of the satellites of the
planets.
SATURNALIA. Festivals in honor of Saturn. They were instituted long
before the foundation of Rome, in conmmemoration of the freedom and
equality which prevailed on earth in the golden reign of Saturn. Some,
however, suppose that the Saturnalia were first observed at Rome in,he
reign of Tullus Hostilius, after a victory obtained over the Sabines; while
others support that Janus first instituted them in gratitude to Saturn, from
whom he had learned agriculture. Others suppose that they were first
celebrated after a victory obtained over the Latins by the dictator Posthlumius. During these festivals no business was allowed, amusements were
encouragecl, distinctions ceased, and even slaves could say what they pleased
to their masters with impunity.-Lengolet.
SAVINGS BANKS, ENGLAND. The benefit clubs among artisans, having accumulated stocks of mloney for their progressive purposes, a plan was
adopted to identify these funds with the public debt of the country, and an
extra rate of interest was held out as an inducement; hence, savings banks
to receive small sums, returnable with interest, on demand, were formed.
Brought under parliamentary regulation in 1816. The number of savings
banks considerably increased up to 1846; and the number of depositors in
that year was, for the United Kingdom, 1,063,418; and the whole aimount;
deposited, 32 661,9241. In the United States the first savings bank in Philadelphia, 1816; the next in Boston, 1817. They are now very numerous
throughout the United States.
SAVOY. It became a Roman province 1158 B. c. The Alemans seized it in A. D.
395, and the Franks in 496. It shared the revolutions of Switzerland till
1040, when Conrad, emperor of Germany, gave it to Hubert, with the title
of earl. Amladeus, earl of Savoy, solicited Sigismund to erect his dominions into a duchy, which he did at Cambray, February 19, 1417. Victor
Amadeus, duke of Savoy, obtained the kingdom of Sicily, by treaty, fiom
Spain, which he' afterwards exchanged with the emperor for the island of
Sardinia, with the title of king, 1713-20. The French subdued this country
in 1792, and made it a department of France, under the name of Mont
Blanc, in 1800.
SAW. Invented by Dnedalus.-Plisny. Invented by Talus.-ApollodorLs. Talus, it is said, having found the jaw-bone of a snake, he employed it to cut
through a piece of wood, and then formed an instrument of iron like it.
Beecher says saw-mills were invented in the seventeenth century; but he
errs. Saw-mills were erected in Madeira in 1420; at Breslau, in 1427.
Norway had the first saw-mill in 1530. The bishop of Ely, ambassador
from M nry of' England to the court of Rome, describes a saw-mill there,
1555. IL England saw-mills had at first the same fate with printing in Turkey, the crane in Strasburg, &c. The attempts to introduce them were
520 THE WORLD7S P:ROGRESS. 1 SCH
violently opposed; and one erected by a Dutchman in 1663 was forced to be
abandoned.
SAXONY. The royal family of Saxony is of very ancient origin, and is allied
to all the royal houses in Europe. The sovereignty still continues in the
same family, notwithstanding it encountered an interruption of more than
two hundred years, from 1180 to 1423. Saxony, which had been for many
centuries an electorate, was formed into a kingdom in 1806, when Frederick
Augustus became the first king. That sovereign was succeeded by his
brother, Anthony, May 5, 1827. The present sovereign is Frederick Augustus II., who ascended the throne, 6th of June, 1836. Saxony became
the scene of the great struggle against Napoleon in 1813. Insurrection at
Dresden; the king retires to Konigstern, May 3, 1849. Insurgents put
down by the Prussian troops, May 7, 1849.
SCANDALUM MAGNATUM. The name given to a special statute relating
to any wrong, by words or in writing, done to high personages of the land,
such as peers, judges, ministers of the crown, officers in the state, and other
great public functionaries, by the circulation of scandalous statements,
false news, or horrible messages. This law was enacted 2 Richard II,. 1378.
SCEPTIC. The ancient sect of philosophers founded by Pyrrho. 334 B. c.
Pyvrrho was in continual suspense of judgiment; he doubted of every thing,
never made any conclusions, and when he had carefully examined a subject,
and investigated all its parts, he concluded by still doubting of its evidence.
As he showed so much indifference in every thing, and declared that life
and death were the same thing, some of his disciples asked him, why he
did not hurry himself out of the world? "Because," says he, "there
is no difference between life and death." Timon was one of the chief followers of this sect, which was almost extinct in the time of Cicero.-,Strabo.
SCEPTRE. This is a more ancient emblem of royalty than the crown. In the
earlier ages of the world, the sceptres of kings were long walking-staves;
they afterwards were carved, and made shorter. Tarquin the Elder was
the first who assumed the sceptre among the Romans, about 468 B. c. The
French sceptre of the first race of kings was a golden rod, A. D. 481.-Le
Genedi'e.
SCHOOLS. Charity schools were instituted in London to prevent the seduction of the infant poor into Roman Catholic seminaries, 3 James II. 1687.Ratpi. Charter schools were instituted in Ireland 1733.-Scully. In England there are now 13,642 schools (exclusively of Sunday schools) for the
education of the poor; and the number of children is 998,431. The parochial and endowed schools of Scotland are in number (exclusively of Sunday
schools) 4.836; and the number of children, 181,467. The number of
schools in Wales is 841. and the number of children 38,164: in Ireland.
13.327 schools. and 774,000 children. In the United States the system of
public schools is very generally and effectively supported. The school-fund
in Maine amounts to $350;000,; in Massachusetts, $850,000; in Connecticut,
$2 077.641; New York, $6,491,803; New Jersey, $369,278; Delaware,
$225,000; Virginia, $1,448,261; Georgia, $262.300; Alabama, $1.215,381;
Tennessee, $1.346,068; Kentucky, $1,221,819; Ohio, $1,566,931; Michigan,
$500.000; Indiana, $2,195.149; Missouri, $575.668; Iowa, $132,909. Total
in 1849, $21,420.275. In the State of New York the number of District
School Libraries is about 11,000. See Education, Libra'cries, &c.
SCIENCE IN THE UNITED STATES. Franklin's discoveries in electricity, 1752.
American Philosophical Society established, 1769. American Academy of
Arts and Sciences, 1780. First course of Chemical Lectures in the United
States, by Dr. S. L. Mitchill, N. Y., 1792. Botanic garden and Professor of
SCY ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 521
Natural History established at Harvard College, 1805. American Association for the Advancement of Science, formed, 1845.
SCILLY ISLES. They held commerce with the Plhenicians. They are mentioned by Strabo as being ten in number. The memorable shipwreck
of the British squadron under sir Clouclesley Shovel occurred here. This
brave admiral returning from an expedition against Toulon, mistook these
rocks for land, and struck upon them.'His ship, the Association, in which
were his lady, two sons, many persons of rank, and 800 brave men, went
instantly to the bottom. The Eag-le, Captain Hancock, and the Romney and
FiPrebrand, were also lost. The rest of the fleet escaped., Oct. 22, 1707. Sir
Cloudesley's body, being found, was conveyed to London, and buried in
Westminster Abbey, where a monument was erected to his memory.
SCOTLAND. See Caledonia. This important member of the British empire
was governed by a king before the Romans visited England, and continued
an independent kingdom till the death of the English queen Elizabeth,
when James VI. of Scotland, the most immediate heir, was called to the
throne of England, amnd constantly resided in the latter hle and his successors calling themselves kings of England and Scotland, and each
country having a separate parliament, till the year 1707, in the reign of
queen Anne, when both kingdoms were united under the general name cf
Great Britain. See England and Scotland, Tabulasr Views, p. 75., et seq.
SCREW. This instrument was known early to the Greeks. The pumpingscrew of Archimedes, or screw-cylinder for raising water, invented 236 a. c.,
is still in use, and still bears that philosopher's name. The power of the
screw is astonishing; it being calculated that if the distance between the
two spirals or threads of the screw be half an inch, and the length of each
handle twelve inches, the circle that they describe in going round will be
seventy-five inches, and consequently 150 times greater than half an inch,
the distance between the two spirals. Therefore one man can, with the
assistance of this screw, press dow.n or raise up as much as 150 men could
do without it. This power increases in proportion to the closeness of the
spirals and the length of the handles. —Greig.
SCULPTURE. The origin of this art cannot be traced with any certainty.
The invention is given by some ancient writers to the Egyptians, and by
others to the Greeks. It is referred by some historians to 1020 B. c., and
sculpture in marble to 872 B. c. Pausanias refers the nearest approach
to perfection in the art to 560 B. c. According to sacred history, Bezaleel
and Aholiab, who built the tabernacle in the wilderness, and made all the
vessels and ornaments, were the first architects and sculptors of repute, and
their excellence is recorded as the gift of God, E.xodts xxxi. Dipcenus and
Scyllis, statuaries at Crete, established a school at Sicyon. Pliny speaks of
them as being the first who sculptured marble and polished it; all statues
before their time being of wood, 568 B. c. This, however, can only be fact
so far as it relates to the western world; for in the eastern countries the art
was known long before. Alexander gave Lysippus the sole right of making
his statues, 326 B. c. He left no less than 600 pieces, some of which were
so highly valued in the age of Augustus, that they sold for their weight in
gold. Sculpture never found any very distinguished followers among the
Romans, and in the middle ages it fell into disuse. With the revival of
the sister art, painting, it revived also; and Donato di Bardi, born at
Florence, A. D. 1383, was the earliest professor among the moderns. Sculpture was revived, under the auspices of the Medici family, about 1460.Abbe Lenglet.
SCYTHIA. The country situate on the most northern parts of Europe and
Asia, from which circumstance it is generally denominated European and
522 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. SEMI
Asiatic. The most northern parts of Scythia were uninhabited, on account
of the extreme coldness of the climate. The boundaries of Scythia were
unknown to the ancients, as no traveller had penetrated beyond the vast
tracts of lands which lay at the north, east, and wvest. The Scythians made
several irruptions upon the more southern provinces of Asia, especially B. c.
624, when they remained in possession of Asia Minor for twenty-eight
years; and we find them at different periods extending their conquests in
Europe, and penetrating as far as Egypt. In the first centuries after Christ
thev ini-aded the Roman empire.
SEAS, SOVLEREIGNTY OF.THE. The claim of England is of very ancient date.
Arthur was the first who assumed the sovereignty of the seas for Britain.
and Alfred afterwards supported this right. The sdvereignty of England
over the British seas was maintained by Selden, and measures were taken
by government in consequence, 8 Charles i. 1633. The Dutch, after the death
of Charles I., made some attempts to. obtain it, but were roughly treated
by Blake and other admirals. Russia and other parts of the North, armed,
to avoid search, 1780; again 1800. See Armed Neutrality and Flcag.
SECRETARY or STATE. The first in England was lord Cromwell, A. D. 1529.
Towards the close of Henry VIII.'s reign two secretaries were appointed;
and upon the union with Scotland, Anne added a third, as secretary for
Scotch affairs: this appointment was afterwards laid aside: but in the
reign of George III. the number was again increased to three, one for the
American department. In 1782 this last was abolished by act of parliament; and the appointments as at present subsequently took place, the
secretaries being now home, foreign, and colonies. The first Secretary of
State of the United States was Thomas Jefferson, appointed by Washington,
Sept. 26, 1789. For his successors see Admiinistrations. There is a Secretary of State in each of the States, appointed by the executive or elected
by the people.
SECTS. See them severally through the volume. The great vicissitude of
things is the vicissitude of sects. True religion is built upon a rock; all
others are tossed upon the waves of time. —Bacon. Assuming the population of the globe to be one thousand and fifty millions, the following division, with reference to their religious worship, will appear.-.. Balbi.
Jews. - - 4,500.000 Idolaters, &c., not professing the
Christians - -. 225,000,000 Jewish, Christian, or MIahoMahometans - 155,000,000 metan worship - - 665,500,000
SEDAN CHAIRS. So called from Sedan, on the Meuse, in France. The first
seen in England was in 1581. One was used in the reign of James I. by
the dluke of Buckingham, to the great indignation of the people, who exclaimed that he was employing his fellow-creatures to do the service of
beasts. Sedan chairs came into fashion in London in 1634, when sir Francis Duncomb obtained the sole privilege to use, let, and hire a number of
such covered chairs for fourteen years. They became in very general use
in 1649.
SEDUCTION. For this offence the laws of England have provided no other
punishment than a pecuniary satisfaction to the injured family. And
even this satisfaction is only obtained by one of the quaintest fictions in
the world; the father bringing his action against the seducer for the loss
of his daughter's services during her pregnancy and nurturing.-Paley's
1foral P/ilosophl/. A law for the punishment of seduction was passed by
the legislature of New York in 184.
SEMPACH, BATTLE OF, between the Swiss and Leopold, duke of Austria. The
heroic Swiss, after prodigies of valor, gained a great and memorable victory over the duke, who was slain, July 9, 1386. By this battle they es
SEX ]. DICTIONARY OF DATES. 523
tablished the liberty of their country; and it is still annually commemorated with great solemnity at Sempach.
SEPTEMBER. The ninth month of the year, reckoner from January, and the
seventh from March, whence its name, from scptiuints, seventh. It became
the ninth mlonth when January and February were added to the year by
Numa, 713 B. c. The Roman senate would have given this month the name
of Ti berius, but that emperor opposed it; the emperor Domitian gave it his
own name, Germanicus; the senate under Antoninus Pius gave it that of
Antoninus; Conmmodus gave it his surname, Herculeus; and the emperor
Tacitus his own name, Tacitus. But these appellations are all gone into
disuse.
SEPTUAGINT VERSION ol THE BIBLE, made 277 n. c. Seventy-two translators were shut up in thirty-six cells; each pair translated the whole; and
on subsequent comparison the thirty-six copies did not vary by a word or
letter. —-Jistin Mcartyr. St. Jerome affirms they translated only the Pentateuch; but St. Justin and others say they translated the whole. Ptolemy gave the Jews about a lmillion sterling for a copy of the Testat Aent,
and seventy translators half a million miore for the translation.-Josep/nls.
Finished in seventy-two days. —Hewlett.
SERINGAPATAM, BATTLES OF, called also the battle of Arikera, in which the
British defeated Tippoo Saib, May 15, 1791. Battle, in which the redoubts
were stormed, and Tippoo was reduced by lord Cornwallis, Feb. 6, 1792.
After this capture, preliminaries of peace were signed, and Tippoo agreed
to cede one-half of Mlysore, and to pay 83,000,000 of rupees (about
3,300,0001. sterling) to England, and to give up to lord Cornwallis his
two eldest sons as hostages. In a new war the Madras army arrived before Seringapatam, April 5, 1799; it was joined by the Bombay army, April
14; and the place was stormed and carried by major-general Baird, May 4,
same year. In this engagement Tippoo was killed. See lldia.
SERPENTS. The largest, the record of which is in some degree satisfactorily
attested, was that which disputed the passage of the army led by Regulus
along the banks of the Bagrada. It was 120 feet long, and had killed many
of his soldiers. It was destroyed by a battering-ram; and its skin was
afterwards seen by Pliny inthe capitol at Rome. —Pli-ny. The American
papers have frequently chronicled the appearance of a sea-serpent on the
coast, but its existence has been generally doubted. Haydn quotes fiom
Phillips that a sea-serpent was cast on shore on the Orkney Islands, which
was fifty-five feet long, and the circumference equal to the girth of an
Orkney pony, 1808.
SERVANTS. In England, an act laying a duty on male servants was passed in
1775. This tax was augmented in 1781, etseq. A tax on female servants
was imposed in 1785; but this latter act was repealed in 1792. The tax on
servants yielded in 1830 about 250,0001. per annum, but in 1840 the revenue
from it had fallen to 201,4821.
SEVILLE. The capital of Spain until Philip II. finally established his court at
Madrid, A. D. 1563. This city is the Hispalis of the Phoenicians, and the
J.LliC6 of the Romans. The peace of Seville, between England, France, and
Spain, and also a defensive alliance to which Holland acceded, signed Nov.
9, 1729. Seville surrendered to the French, Feb. 1, 1810; and was taken by
assault by the British and Spaniards, after the battle of Salamanca, Aug. 27,
1812.
SEXTANT. This instrument is used in the manner of a quadrant. and contains
sixty degrees, or the sixth part of a circle. It is for taking the altitude of
the planets, &c. Invented by the celebrated Tycho Brahe, at Augsburgh,
524 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [sli
in 1550.- ilzce's Astroml. The Arabian astronomers under the Caliphs are
said to have had a sextant of fifty-nine feet nine inches radius, about A.,
995. —Ashe.
SHEEP. They were impoliticly exported from England to Spain, and, the breed
being thereby improved, produced the fine Spanish wool, which proved
detrimental to our woollen manufacture, 8 Edward IV. 1467.-Anderson.
Their exportation prohibited on pain of fine and imprisonment, 1522. The
number of sheep in the United Kingdom has been variously stated-by some
at 43,000,000, by others at 49,000,000, and by more at 60,000,000, in 1840.
SHERIFF. The office of sheriff is from shli're-reve, governor of a shire or
county. London had its sheriffs prior to William I.'s reign; but some say
that sheriffs were first nominated for every county in England by William
in 1079.
SHERIFFMUIR, BATTLE OF, between the royal army under the duke of Argyle, and the Scotch rebel forces who favored the Pretender (the chevalier
de St. George, son of James II.), commanded by the earl of Mar; the insurgents were defeated, and several persons of rank were taken prisoners. The
battle was fought on the very day on which the rebel forces in the same
cause were defeated at Preston, Nov. 12, 1715.
SHIP-BUILDING. The art is attributed to the Egyptians, as the first inventors; the first ship (probably a galley) being brought from Egypt to Greece
by Danaus, 1485 B. c.-Blair. The first double-decked ship was built by
the Tyrians, 786 B. c.-Lezeglet. The first double-decked one built in England was of 1000 tons burthen, by order of Henry VII. 1509; it was called
the Great Harry, and cost 14,000l.-Stowe. Before this time 24-gun ships
were the largest in the navy, and these had no port-holes, the guns being
on the upper decks only. Port-holes and other improvements were invented
by Descharges, a French builder at Brest, in the reign of Louis XII., about
1500. Ship-building was first treated as a science by Hoste, 1696. A 74gun ship was put upon the stocks at Van Diemen's Land, to be sheathed
with India-rubber, 1829. For beautiful models and fast sailing, the shipping
of the United States-especially the packet ships and steamers sailing from
New York-are not surpassed, and probably not equalled, by any in the
world. See Navy and Stean Vessels.
SHIPPING OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. Shipping was first registered in the
river Thames in 1786; and throughout the empire in 1787. In the middle
of the 18th century, the shipping of England was but half a million of tons
-less than London now. In 1840, the number of ships in the British empire was 29,174; tonnage, 3,277,338; seamen, 205,904. These returns were
exclusive of ships and boats propelled by steam. See Sleamne Vessels.
SHIPPING oF THE UNITED STATES. Tonnage at different periods.
Years. Tonnage. Years. Tonnage. Years. Tonnage. Years. Tonnage.
1791 - 502,146 1806. 1,208,735 1821 1,298,958 1835 - 1,824,940
1792 - 564,437 1807 - 1.2681548 1822 - 1,324,699 1836 - 1,892,102
1793 - 491,780 1808 - 1,242'595 1823 - 1,336,565 1837 - 1,896,685
1794. 628.817 1809 1,350,281 1824 ~ 1;389,163 1838 1,995,839
1795 747,964 1810 - 1424,783 1825 - 1,423,112 1839 - 2.096,478
1796 - 831,900 1811 1'232;502 1826 - 1,534,190 1840 2;180,764
1797 - 876.913 1812 1,269 997 1827 - 1,620,608 1841 2,130,744
1798 - 898,328 1813 1,666.628 1828 -,41,392 18 12 2,092,390
1799 - 946,408 1814 1,159 209 1829 1,260,978 1843 2,158,602
1800 - 972,492 1815 - 1,368,127 1830 - 1,191,776 1814. 2,280,095
1801 - 1,033,219 1816 - 1,372,218 1831 - 1,267,846 1845 - 2,417,002
1802 - 892,101 1817 - 1,399,911 1832 - 1,439,450 1846. 2,562.084
1803 - 949,147 1818 - 1,225,184 18:33 - 1,601,150 1847. 2,839(M46
1804 - 1,042,404 1819 1,260,751 1834 - 1,758,907 1848 - 3,150,502
1805 1,140,369 1820 - 1,280,166
SHR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 525
SHIP-MONEY. It was first levied A. D. 1007, and caused great commotions.
This impost being illegally levied by Charles I. in 1634, led to the revolution. He assessed London in seven ships, of 4000 tons, and 1560 men;
Yorkshire in two ships, of 600 tons, or 12,0001.; Bristol in one ship of 100
tons; Lancashire in one ship of 400 tons. The trial of the patriot Hampden for refusing to pay the tax, which he at first solely opposed, took place
in 1638. Ship-money was included in a redress of grievances in 1641.
Hampden received a wound in a skirmish with prince Rupert, and died June
24, 1643.
SHIPWRECKS, AND DISASTERS AT SEA. See WTiecks of Sltippixg.
SHIRTS. This now almost universal garment is said to have been first gener.ally worn in the west of Europe early in the eighth century.-Du Presnoy.
Woollen shirts were commonly worn in England until about the 38th of
Henry III., 1253, when linen, but of a coarse kind (fine coming at this period
from abroad), was first manufactured in England by Flemish artisans.Stowe.
SHOES. Among the Jews they were made of leather, linen, rush, or wood.
Moons were worn as ornaments in their shoes by the Jewish women.-Isaicah
iii. 18.'Among the Greeks shoes were of various kinds. Pythagoras would
have his disciples wear shoes made of the bark of trees; probably, that
they might not wear what were made of the skins of animals, as they refrained from the use of every thing that had life. Sandals were worn by
women of distinction. The Romans wore an ivory crescent on their
shoes; and Caligula wore his enriched with precious stones. The Indians,
like the Egyptians, wore shoes made of the bark of the papyrus. In England the people had an extravagant way of adorning their feet; they wore
the beaks or points of their shoes so long, that they encumbered themselves
in walking, and were forced to tie them up to their knees; the fine gentlemen
fastened theirs with chains of silver, or silver gilt, and others with laces.
This custom was in vogue from A. D. 1462, but was prohibited, on the forfeiture of 20s. and on pain of being cursed by the clergy, 7:Edward IV. 1467.
See Dress. Shoes as at present worn were introduced about 1633. The
buckle was not used till 1668. —Stowe; Zlortimer.
SHOP-TAX, IN ENGLAND. The act by which a tax was levied upon retail shops
was passed in 1785; but it caused so great a commotion, particularly in
London, that it was deemed expedient to repeal it in 1789. The statute
whereby shop-lifting' was made a felony, without benefit of clergy, was
passed 10 and 11 William III. 1699. This statute has been repealed. See
Acts.
SHREWSBURY, BATTLE OF, between the royal army of Henry IV. and the
army of the nobles, led by Percy (surnamed Hotspur), son of the duke of
Northumberland, who had conspired to dethrone Henry. Each army consisted of about 12.000 men, and the engagement:was most bloody. Henry
was seen every where in the thickest of the fight; while his valliant son,
who was afterwards the renowned conqueror of France, fought by his side,
and though wounded in the face by an arrow, still kept the field, and performed astonishing acts of valor. On the other side, the daring Hotspur
supported the renown he had acquired in many bloody engagements, and
every where sought out the king as a noble object of his vengeance. 2300
gentlemen were slain, and about 6000 private men. The death of Hotspurt
by an unknown hand decided the fortune of the day, and gave the victory
to the king, July 21, 1403.-Humae. [See Slalckspeare's Henqy IV.]
SHROPSHIRE, BATTLE oP, in which the Britons were completely subjugated,
and Caractacnus, the renowned king of the Silures, became, through the
treachery of the queen of the Briganti, a prisoner of the Romans, A. D. 51.
526 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ si
While Caractacus was being led through Rome, his eyes were dazzled by
the splendors that surrounded him. " Alas!" le cried, " how is it possible
that a people possessed of such magnificence at home could envy me xia
humble cottage in Britainl' The emperor was affectecd with the British
hero's misfortunes, and won by his address. He ordered him to be unchained
upon the spot, and set at liberty with the rest of the captives.- Goldstit/t.
SHROVE TUESDAY. In the season of Lent, after the people had made confession, according to the discipline of the ancient church, they were permiittedl to indulge in festive amusements, although not allowed to, partake
of any repast beyond the usual substitutes for flesh; and hence arose the
custom yet preserved of eating pancakes and fritters at Shrovetide, the Greelr
Christians eating eggs, milk, &c. during the first week in Lent. Oni these
days of authorized.indulgence the most wanton recreations were tolerated,
provided a due regard was paid to the abstinence commanded by the church;
and from this origin sprang the Carnival. On Shrove Tuesday the people in
every parish throughout England formerly confessed their sins; and the
parish bell for the purpose was rung at ten o'clock. In several ancient parishes the custom yet prevails of ringing the bell, and obtains in London the
name of pancake-bell. Observed as a festival before 1430.
SIBYLS. The Sibyllte were certain women inspired by hea+ien, who flourished
in different paits of the world. Their number is unknown. Plato speaks
of' one, others of two, Pliny of three, _/lian of four, and Varro of ten, an
opinion which is universally adopted by the learned. An Erythrean sibyl is
said to have offered to Tarquin II. nine books containing the Roman destinies, demlanding for them 300 pieces of gold. He denied her, whereupon
the sibyl threw three of them into the fire, and asked the sale price for
the other six, which being still denied, she burned three nore, and again
clemanded the same sum for those that remained; when Tarquin, conferring
with the pontiffs, was advised to buy them. Two magistrates were creat ed
to consult them on all occasions, 531 B. C.
SICILY. See Naples. The ancient inhabitants of this island were the Sicani,
a people of Spain, and Etruscans, who came hither from Italy, 1294 B. c. A
second colony, under Siculus, arrived 80 years before the destruction of Troy,
1264 B. c.-Lenglcet. The Phoenicians and Greeks settled some colonies here,
and at last the Carthaginians becalme masters of the whole island, till they
were dispossessed of it by the Roumans in the Punic wars. Some authors
suppose that Sicily was originally joined to the continent, and that it was
separated from Italy by an earthquake, and that the straits of the Charybdis were fornied.-Jsclis; Livy.
Arrival of Ulysses.-F/oezer - - B.c. 1186 The Ronmans arrive in Sicily -. c. 264
lie puts out the eye of Polyphemus - 1186 Agrigentum taken by the Romans - 212
Syracuse founded. —Eisebiz s 732 Palermo besieged by the Romans - - 251
Gela Iounded.-Thcydclides - 713 Archimedes flourishes - 236
Arrival of the Messenians - - - 668 The Romans take Syracuse, and make all
Phalaris, tyrant of Agrigentum, put to Sicily a province - - - - 212
death. —See Brazenz Bs el - 552 The servile war began.-Livy - - 135
Hippocrates becomes tyrant of Gela 496
Iaw ol Petalisnl instituted - 466 Conquered by the Saracens - A.D. 82'
Itsign ol Dionysius - - 405 [They made Palermo the capital, and the
it tinded with the freedom of the philo- standard of Mahomet triumpheed for 200
solpher Plato, the tyrant sells him lor a years.]
slave.-Stanley -- 386 They are driven out by a Norman prince,
Plato ransomed by his friends - - - 386 Rger I., son of' Tancred, who takes the
Daimon and Pythias flourish.-See Daztot title of cotnt of Sicily - - - 10
cdrct Pythiats - - 3S6 Roer II., son of the above-named, unites
The sway of Timoleon - - 346 Sicily with Naples, and is crowned king
tUsurpation of A-athocles - - 317 of the Two Sicilies - - - 1130
Defeat of I-amilcar 309 Charles of Anjou, brotller to St. Louis, kilni
Pillage of the temples of Lepari 304 of France, conquers Naples and Sicily,
311E ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 527
SICILY, conetiled.
deposes the Norman princes, and makes Ceded to Victor, duke of Slavoy, by the
hinmself king - - A. D. 1266 treaty of Utrecht - - A. D. 1713
aile French becoming hated by the Sici- Ceded by him to the emperor Charles VI:.
]ians, a general massacre of the invaders Sardinia being given to him as an equitalkes place, one Frenchman only escap- valent 1720
ing.-See,S'icilianz Vesp)ers - -1288 Thle Spaniards havinlg made themselves
I.n itle same year Sicily is seized by a fleet masters of both kingdoms, Charles. son
sent by the lincgs of Arragon, in Spain; of the k]ing of Spain, ascends the thfone,:lut Naples remains to the house of An- with the ancient title renewed, of king
jou, which expires - - - 1382 of the Two Sicilies - 1734
Jane, the late sovereign, having left her Order of St. Januarius instituted by Iting
crown to Louis. duke of Anjou, his pre- Charles - 1738
tensions are resisted by Charles Du- The throne of Spain becoming vacant,
razzo, cousin of Jane, who ascends the Charles, who is heir, vacates the throne
throne -1386 of the two Sicilies in favor of his brother
Alplhonsus, king of Arragon, takes posses- Ferdinand, agreeably to treaty - - 1759
sion of Naples - 1458 Dreadful earthquake at Messina, in Sicily,
Th? kingdom of Naples and Sicily united which destroys 40,000 persons - - 1783
to the Spanish monarchy - - -1504 Naples preserved from the power of the
The tyrantny of the Spaniards causes an French by the British forces under admiinsurrection, excited by Masaniello, a ral Nelson - - - - 1799
fisherman, wiho, in fifteen days, raises Violent earthqcualke in the neighborhood
two hundred thousand men - - 1647 of Naples - - - - 1.805
Henry dutke of Guise, talking advantage of The Frenc.h invade Naples, depose I'ng
these commotions, procures himself to Ferdinand IV., and give the crown of tne
be proclaimed king; but is, in a few Two Sicilies to Joseph Bonaparte, brodays. delivered up to the Spaniards by ther to the emperor of the French - 1806
his adherents - 1647 For subsequent events, see 2Vaples.
K: INGS OF THE TVO SICILIES.
A.D. 1713. Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy; fie 1806. Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte.
resigned it to the emperor Charles 1808. Joachim Murat; he was shot, Octoeber 13,
VI., in 1718, and got Sardinia in 1815.
lieu of' it. 1815. Ferdinand I.; formerly Ferdinand IV. of
1718. Charles VI. emperor. Naples, and intermediately Ferdinand
1734. Charles, second son to the king of III. of Sicily; now of the United KingSpain, resigned in 1759. dom of the Two Sicilies.
1759. Ferdinand IV., third son of the former 1826. Francis I.
king. 1830. Ferdinand II., Nov. 8.
SICILIAN VESPERS. The memorable massacre of the French in Sicily, known
by this name, commenced at Palermo, March 30, 1282. The French had
become hateful to the Sicilians, and a conspiracy against Charles of Anjou
was already ripe, when the following occurrence led to develop and accomplish it. On Easter Monday, the chief conspirators had assemnbled at Palermo; and while the French were engaged in festivities, a Sicilian bride
happened to pass by with her train. She was observed by one Drochet, a
Frenchman, who, advancing towards her, began to use her rudely, under
pretence of searching for arms. A young Sicilian, exasperated at this affiont, stabbed him with his own sword; and a tumult ensuing, 200 French
were instantly murdered. The enraged populace now ran through the city,
crying out " Let the French die!" and, without distinction of rank, age,
or sex, they slaughtered all of that nation they could find, to the number of
8000. Even such as had fled to the churches found no sanctuary there-the
massacre became general throughout the island.
SJEGES. Azoth, which was besieged by Psammetichus the Powerfufl, held out
for nineteen years.- Usher', It held out for twenty-nine years.-Hes-odotss.
This was the longest siege recorded in the annals of antiquity. The siege
of Troy was the most celebrated, occupied ten years, 1184 B. c. The following are the principal anld most memorable sieges since the twelfth century:Acre, 1192, 1799, by Bona- Algiers, 1681; Bonb-vessels Almeida, August 27, 1810.
parte; siege raised ajter fi.rst used by a Fsenclh en- Amiens, 1597.
60 days, open tr'enches. ginzeer nased Renaue, 1816 Ancona, 1798.
Algesiras, 1341. Alklmaer, 1573. Angouleme, 1345.
528 THE WORLDIS PROGRESS. [,S&
SIEGES, contintued.
Antwerp, 1576. Use of in- Compi2gne (Joan of Arc), ban first camne into notice,
fernal eachines, 1583,1585 1430. 1676, 1743, 1794.
1706, 1792,1814. Cond6, 1676, 1792, 1794. Magdebourg, 1631, 1806.
Arras, 1414. Coni, 1691, 1744.' Malaga, 1487.
Ath, 1745. Constantinople, 1453. Malta, 1565, 1798, 1800.
Avignon, 1226. Copenhagen, 1700,1801,1807. Mantua, 1734, 1797, 1799.
Azoff, 1736. Corfu, 1715. Marseilles, 1544.
Badajos, March 11, 1811. Ta- Courtray, 1302, et seg. 1794. Mentz, by Charles V, 1517,
ken? by escalade on tI.7e Cracow, 1772. 1689, 1792 et seq., 1797.
ni'ght of Ap ril 6, 1812. Cremona, 1702. Melun, 1420, 1559.
Bagdad, 1248. Dantzic, 13734, 1793,1807,1813 Menin, 1706, 1744.
Bangalore, March 6, 1791. to Jan. 12, 1814. Mequinenza, June 8, 1810.
Barcelona, 1697, 1714. Dendermonde, 1667. Messina, 1282, 1719.
Bayonne, 1451. Dole, 1668, 1674. Metz, 1552.
Beauvais, 1472. Douay, 1710, Mezidres, 1521.
Belgrade, 1439, 1455, 1521, Dover, 1216. Middleburgh, 1572.
1688, 1717, 1739, 1789,' )Dresden, 1745, 1813. Mons, 1572, 1691, 1709, 1746,
Bellegarde, 1793, 1794. Drogheda, 1649. 1792, 1794.
Belle-Isle, April 7, 1761. Dublin, 1500. Mcntargis, 1427.
Bergen-op-Zoom, 1588, 1622, Dunkirk, 16-146,1793. Montauban, 1621.
1747, 1814. Edinburgh, 1093. Montevideo, Jan. iS08.
Berwick, 1293. Figueras, Aug. 19, 1811. Mothe: theFrench, tauzght by
Besancon, 1668, 1674. Flushing, Aug. 15, 1809. a 1dir. ~iuller, an English
Bethule, 1710. Fontenoy, 1242. engineer,firstpractised the
Bois-le-Duc, 1603, 1794. Frederickshal; Charles XII. art of tehrowingl shells, 1634.
Bologna, 1512, 1796. killed, 1718. Murviedro, Oct. 25. 1811.
Bommel; the invention of Fredericlkstein, August 13, Namur, 1692, 1746, 1792.
the covert- way, 1794. 1814. Naples, 1381,1435,1504,1557,
Bonifacio, 1553. Furnes, 1675, 1744, 1793. 1792, 1799, 1806.
Bonn, 1587, 1689, 1703 Gaeta, 1433, 1707, 1734, 1799, Nice, 1705.
Bordeaux, 1451, 1653. July, 1806, 1815. Nieuport, 1745, 1794.
Bouchain, 1676, 1711. Genoa 1747, 1800. Olivenza, Jan. 22, 1811.
Boulogne, 1545. Gerona, Dec. 10, 1809. Olmutz, 1758.
Brannau, 1744, 1805. Ghent, 1576, 1708. Orleans, 1428, 1563.
Breda, 1590, 1625, 1793. Gibraltar, 1704, 1779. (See Ostend, 1701, 1706, 1745.
Brescia, 1512, 1796, 1799. Gibraltar), 1782. Oudenarde, 1708, 1745.
Breslau, Jan. 8, 1807. Glatz, 1742, 1807. Padua, 1509.
Brisac, 1638, 1703. Gottingen, 1760. Pampeluna, Oct 31, 1813.
Brussels, 1695, 1746. Graves, 1602, 1674, 1794. Paris, 1429, 1485, 159-4.
Buda, 1526, 1541, 1686. Gravelines, 1644 Parma 1248.
Burgos, Sept. 19 to Oct. 22, Grenada. 1491, 1492. Pavia, 1525, 1655, 1796.
1812; raised. T'he French Grofingfen, 1580, 1672, 1795. Perpignan, 1542, 1642.
in their retreat blew up the Guastalla, 1702. Philipville, 1578.
lworks, June 13, 1813. Gueldres, 1637, 1640) 1703. Philipsburg, 1644, 1675,1688,
Cadiz, 1812. Haerlem, 1572, 1573. fist experisent of firing
Caen, 13,46, 1450. Ham, 1411. artillery h-ricochet, 1734,
Calais, 1347, (British histo- H-Iarfleur. 1415, 1450. 1795.
rians af.irsm that cannon Heidelberg, 1688. Ptattsburg, Sept. 11, 1814.
were used at Cressy, 1346, Ilerat, June 28, 1838. Pondicherry, 1748, 1792.,
and here in 1347. First H-Iuningen, 1815. Prague, 1741, 1743, 1744.
eused here ins 1388. —RY- Ismael: the serciless Sewar- Puebla, (col. Child) 1847.
mERs s FrD. ) 1558, 1596. ro butchered 30,000 rezesn, Quesnoy, 1794.
Calvi, 1794. the brave garrison, andCl lennes, 1357.
Campo-Mayor, Mar. 23, 1811. 6000 ewosiez,s ice cold blood, Rheims, 1359.
Candia; the largest cannon I Dec. 22, 1790. Rhodes, 1522.
then known inEerope used Kehl, 1733, /1796. Riga, 1700, 1710.
here by the Tureks, 1667. Landlau, 1702, et seq., 1713, Rochelle, 1573, 1627.
Capua, 1501. 1792, and 1793. Rome, 1527, 1798.
Carthagena, 1706. Landrecis, 1543, 1712. Romorentin; artillery firsi
Castillon, 1452, 1586. Laon, 991, 1594. tssed inlsieges.-VOLTAIRE
Ceuta, 1790. L,eipsic, 1637, et seq., 1813. 1256.
Chalons, 1199. Leroberg, 1704. Rosas, 1645, 1795, 1809.
Charleroi, 1672, 1677, 1693, Lerida, 1647, 1707, 1807. Rouen, 1449, 1562, 1591.
1736, 1794. Leyden, 1574. Roxburgh, 1460.
Chartres, 1568, 1591. Liege, 1468, 1702. St. Sebastian, Sept. 8, 1813.
Chaves, March 25, 1809. Iille, 1667, 1708, 1792. Saflamanca,.unee 27, 1812.
CherbouIrg 1450. Lilo, 1747. Salisbury, 1349.
Chincilla, Oct. 30, 1812. Limerick, 1651, 1691. Saragossa, 1710, 1809.
Ciudad Rodrigo, 1706; July I,ondonderry, 1689.'S[velne, 1675.
10, 1810; Jan. 19, 1812. Louisbourg, 1758. Schweidnitz; first e.xperi.
Colberg, 1760, 1807. Lyons, 1793. oent to reduce afortress
Colchlester, 1645. Maestricht. 1576, 1673. Vau
AIL ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 529
SIEGES, contictaed.
by springing globes of conz- Thorn, 1703. V Valencia, Dec. 25, 1811.
pressiosn, 1762, 1807. Thouars, 1372, 1793. Valencienes, 1677, 1794.
Scio (see Greece), 1822. Tortosa, Jan. 2, 1811. Vannes, 1343.
Seringapatam. 1799. Toulon, 1707, 1793. Venloo, 1702, 1794.
Seville 1096, 1248. Toulouse, 1217. Verdun, 1792.
Smolensko, 1611. Tournay, 1340, 1352, 1581, Vera Cruz, (gen. Scott) 1847.
Snissons, 1414. 1667, 1709, (this was the Vienna, 1529,1683.
Stralsund; the method of best defence ever drawn Wakefield, 1460.
throwing red hot ballsfirst from countermines), 1745, Warsaw, Sept, 8, 1831.
practised with cer-tainty 1794. Xativa, 1707.
1675,.1713, 1807. Treves, 1675. Xeres, 1262.
Tarifa, D"ec. 20, 1811. Tunis, 1270, 1535 Ypres, 1648, 1744, 1794.
Tarragona, May 1813. Turin, 1640, 1706, 1799. Zurich, 1544.
Temeswar, 1716. Urbino, 1799. Zutphen, 1572, 1586.
Thionville, 1643, 1792.
SIERRA LEONE. Discovered in A. D. 1460. In 1786, London swarmed with
free negroes living in idleness and want; and 400 of them, with 60 whites,
mostly women of bad character and in ill health, were sent out to Sierra
Leone, at the charge of government, to form a settlement, December 9, 1786.
The settlement attacked by the French, September 1794: by the natives,
February 1802. Sir Charles Macarthy, the governor of the colony, murdered by the Ashantee chief, Jan. 21, 1824.
SILK. Wrought silk was brought from Persia to Greece, 325 B. c. Known at
Rome in Tiberius's time, when a law passed in the senate, prohibiting the
use of plate of massy gold, and also forbidding men to debase themselves
by wearing silk, fit only for women. Heliogabalus first wore a garment of
silk, A.D. 220. Silk was at first of the same value with gold, weight for
weight, and was thought to grow in the same manner as cotton on trees.
Silk-worms were brought from India to Europe in the sixth century. Charlemagne sent Offa, king of Mercia, a present of two silken vests, A. D. 780.
The manufacture was encouraged by Roger, king of Sicily, at Palermo, 1130,
when the Sicilians not. only bred the silk-worms, but spun and weaved the
silk. The manufacture spread into Italy and Spain, and also into the south
of France, a little before the reign of Francis I., about 1510; and Henry IV.
propagated mulberry-trees and silk-worms throughout the kingdom, 1589.
In England, silk mantles were worn by some noblemen's ladies at a ball at
Kenilworth Castle, 1286. Silk was worn by the English clergy in 1534.
Manufactured in England in 1604; and broad silk wove from raw silk in
1620. Brought to perfection by the Freneh refugees in London, at Spitalfields, 1688. A silk-throwing mill was made in England, and fixed up at
Derby, by sir Thomas Lombe, merchant of London, modelled from the original mill then in the king of Sardinia's dominions, about 1714.
TLVER. It exists in most parts of the world, and is found mixed with other
ores in various mines in Great Britain. The silver mines of South America
re far the richest. A mine was discovered in the district of La Paz in
30, which was so rich that the silver of it was often cut with a chisel.
1749, one mass of silver, weighing 370 lbs. was sent to Spain. From a.niLl e in Norway, a piece of silver was dug, and sent to the Royal Museum
at C(openhagen, weighing 560 lbs.. and worth 16801. In England silver-plate
and vessels were first used by Wilfrid, a Northumberland bishop, a lofty
and ambitious man, A. D. 709. —Tyrell's Hist. of Elngland. Silver knives,
spoons. and cups, were great luxuries in 1300.
SILVER COIN. Silver was first coined by the Lydians, some say; others, by
Phidon of Argos, 869 B. c. At Rome it was first coined by Fabius Pictor,
269 B. G. Used in Britain 25 B. c. The Saxons coined silver pennies, which
were 22~ grains weight. In 1302, the penny was yet the largest silver coin
in England. See Shillings, &c., and Coin. From 1816 to 1840 inclusive,
23
530 THE WORLD7S PROGRESS. LSLA
were coined at the Mint in London, 11,108,2651. 15s. in silver, being a yearly
average of 444,3301. —Pal-. Ret.
SIMONIANS. An ancient sect of Christians, so called from their founder
Simon Magus, or the Magician. He was the first heretic, and went to Rome
about A. D. 41. His heresies were extravagant and presumptuous, yet he
had many followers, A. D. 57. A sect called St. Simonians sprung up in
France; and lately attracted considerable attention in that country; and
the doctrine of Simonianism has been advocated in England, and particularly by Dr. Prati, who lectured upon it at a meeting in London, held Jan.
24, 1834.
SINGING. See Mulsic. The singing of psalms was a very ancien, custom both
among the Jews and Christians. St. Paul mentions this practice, which
was continued in all succeeding ages, with some variations as to the mode
and circumstance. During the persecution of the Orthodox Christians by the
empress Justina, mother of the then young Valentinian II. A. D. 386, ecclesiastical music was introduced in favor of' the Arians. "At this timie it
was first ordered that hymns should be sung after the manner of Eastern
nations, that the devout might not languish and pine away with a tedious
sorrow." The practice was imitated by almost all other congriegations of
the world.-St. Aqgusti?. Pope Gregory the Great refined upon the church
music, and made it more exact and harmonious; and that it might be general, he set up singing-schools in Rome, A. D. 602.
SIRNAMES, first canme up in Greece and Egypt, and arose in great acts and
distinctions; as S'oter, from Saviour; Nicaetor, conqueror; lEue?.etes, or Benefactor; P,7bilopcter, lover of his father; P/eilomaeter, lover of his mother.
&c. Strato was surnameCd PhLysicls, fioom his deep study of nature; Aristides was called the Jast; Phocion the Good; Plato, the Atheitic Bee;
Xenophon, the Attic Micse; Aristotle, the Stangyrite; Pythagoras, the Scamiza
~Sage; Menedmmus, the Eret~rian Bulll; Demlocritus, the LaUq,g'limg Philosopher'; Virgil, the Mlilatean Swaicn, &c. Sirnames were introduced into England by the Normllans, and were adopted by the nobility, A. D. 1100. The old
Normans used Fitz, which signifies son, as Fitzherbert. The Irish used 0,
for grandson, as O'Neal, O'Donnel. The Scottish Highlanders employed
Mac, as Macdonald. son of Donald. The Saxons added the word son to the
father's name, as Williamson. Many of the most common sirnames, such
as Johnson, Wilson, Dyson, Nicholson, &c., were taken by Brabanters and
other Flemings, who were naturalized in the reign of Henry VI. 1435.Rymer's Fcedelra, vol. x.
SLAVERY. Slavery has existed from the earliest ages. With other abominable customs, the traffic in mnen spread froml Chaldea into Egypt, Arabia,
and all over the East, and at length into every known region under heaven.
In Greece, in the time of Homer, all prisoners of' war were treated as slaves
The Lacedermonian youth, trained up in the practice of deceiving al
butchering slaves, were from time to time let loose upon them to show theii
proficiency in stratagem and massacre; and once, for their amusement only,
they murdered 3000 in one night. Alexander, when he razed Thebes, solt,
the whole people, men, women, and children, for slaves, 335 a. c. le
Helots.
SLAVERY IN ROME. In Rome slaves were often chained to the gate of a
great man's house, to give admittance to the guests invited to the feast.
By one of the laws of the XII. Tables, creditors could seize their insolvant
debtors, and keep them in their houses till, by their services or labor, they
had discharged the suni they owed. C. Pollio threw such slaves as gave
him the slightest offence into his fish-ponds, to fatten his lampreys, 42 a. c.
Caecilius Isidorus left to his heir 4116 slaves, 12 a. c.
SLA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 531
SLAVERY IN ENGLAND.' Slavery was very early known; and laws respecting the sale of slaves was made by Alfred. The English peasantry were so
commonly sold for slaves in Saxon and Norman tiines, that children were
sold in Bristol market like cattle for exportation. Many were sent to Ireland, and others to Scotland. A statpte was enacted by Edward VI. that a
runaway, or any one who lived idly for three days, should b'e brought before
two justices of the peace, and marked V with a hot iron onthe breast, and
adjudged the slave of him who brought him for two years. He was to take
the slave, and give him bread, water, or small drink, and refuse meat, and
cause him to work by beating, chaining, or otherwise; and if, within that
space,.he absented himself fourteen days, was to be marked on the forehead
or cheek, by-a hot iron, with an S, and be his master's slave for ever-second
desertion was made felony. Lawful to put a ring of iron round his neck,
arm, or leg. A beggar's child might be put apprentice, cnd, on running
away, become a slave to his master, 1547.
SLAVE TRADE. The slave trade from Congo and Angola was begun by the
Portuguese in 1481. Volumes have been written, confined to facts alone,
describing the horrors of this traffic. The commerce in man has brutalized
a tract 15 degrees on each side the equator, and 40 degrees wide, or of four
millions of square'miles; and men and women have been bred for sale to the
Christian nations during the last 250 years, and wars carried on to make prisoners for the Christian marketi The Abbe Raynal computes that; at the
time of his writing, 9,000,000 of slaves had been consumed by the Europeans,
"Add 1,000,000 at least more, for it is about ten years since," says Mr.
Cooper, who published letters on this subject in 1787. In the, year 1768.
the slaves taken from their own continent amounted to 104,100. In 1786,
the annual number was about 100,000'; and in 1807 (the last year of the
English slave trade), it was shown by authentic documents, produced by
government, that from 1792 upwards of 3,500,000 Africans had been torn
from their country, and had either miserably perished on the passage, or been
sold in the West Indies.* —Butler. Bull of pope Gregory against the slave
trade, Dec. 1830. Quintuple-treaty for the suppression of the slave trade,
allowing mutual right of search, signed at London, by the representatives
of Great Britain, France, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, December 20, 1841.
King of Sweden abolishes slavery in the island of St. Bartholomew, Oct.
9, -1847.
SI-AVE TRADE op ENGLAND. Captain, afterwards sir John Hawkins, was
the first Englishman, after the discovery of America, who made a traffic
of the human species. His first expedition with the object of procuring
negroes on the coast of Africa, and conveying them for sale to the West
Indies, took place in October, 1563. See Guinea. Queen Anne directed the
colonial government of New York to take care " that the Almighty should
European avarice has been glutted with the murder of 180,000,000 of our fellow-creatures,
e~bllecting that for every one slave procured, ten are slaughtered in their own land ip War, and
that a fifth* die on the passage, and a third in the seasoning.-(.-ooooPE's,.TTERS 94i THE SLAV4
TRADE. " But," says BUTLER, " this mronstrous colossal crime hlis not been perpetrated with im.
punlry. Not only its prosecution; but its effects have in some measure called down upon us the
frowns and the judgments of heaven.'By foreign wealth alre British morals changed,
And Afric's sons, and India's, smile avenged."
T'he trade was abolished in Austria in 1782. By the French convention in 1794. By the United
Statesin,1807. By England (see above) in 1807. The Allies, at YVienfia, declared against it, February
1815. Napoleon, in the hundred days, abolished -the trade, March 29, 1815. Treaty with Spain,
1,l7; with the Netherlands, May, 1818; with Brazil,.Noy. 826,. But this horrid traffic contlqlueq
poT,- encouraged in several states.-Haydn.
532 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ SIlfU
be devoutly and duly served, according to the rites of the Church of England, and also that the Royal African Company should.be encouraged, and
that the colony should have a constant and sufficient supply of 7Les'cr/altal-'
nbegr-oes at moderate rates." In the year 1786, England employed 130 ships,
and carried off42 000 slaves; Bristol and Liverpool were chiefly engaged in it;
and such was the extent of' British commerce in human flesh, that at the period of slave emancipation in the British plantations in 1833, the number of
slaves, which had previously been considerably more, yet then amounted to
770,280. The slave-trade question was debated in the British parliament
in 1787. The debate for its abolition lasted two days in April 1791. The
motion of Mr. Wilberforce was lost by a majority of 88 to 83, April 3, 1798.
After several other efforts of humane and just mul, the question was
introduced under the auspices of lord Grenville and Mr. Fox, then ministers, March 31, 1806; and the trade was finally abolished by parliament,
March 25, 1807.
SLAVERY OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS IN EUROPE,
Many of the early navigators to Arne- -but the next gear the slavery of.nrica, including Columbus himself, dians was recognized as lawful; and
carried considerable numbers of the the practice.of selling the natives of
aborigines to Europe, where they North America into obreign bondage
were sold into slavery. Queen Isa- continued for nearly two centuries.
bella commanded the liberation of The excellent Winthrop enumerates
Indians held in bondage in her pos- Indians among his bequests.-Baro
sessions, in - 1501 cr oft.
SLAVERY IN THE UNITED STATES. See Slave Trade.
The first negro slaves in the English [Slavery had been already prohibited
colonies of North Amnerica were in most of the northern States in their
brought to Virginia in a Dutch vessel constitutions.l
of war - - - 1620 Act of congress against fittin!~ out vesNegroes " who had been fraudulently sels for slave trade - - - l79/
brought from Guinea'l to Massachu- Act forbidding any citizen of the Uni-.
setts (the first in New England), were ted States fiomn lholding property in
sent home at the public expense by foreign slave vessels. United States
the general court of that colony - 1646 vessels authorized to seize slavers - 1800
Gorton and Rozer Williams made a de- Act forbidding, under heavy penalties,
cree against slavery in Rhode Island 1652 the introduction of slaves into the
White slaves were sold in England, to United States.. - 1807
be transported to Virginia: average Act declaring the slave trade piracy,
price for 5 years' service, ~5-while punishable with death - - 1820
a negro was worth ~25.-Banciref't - 1672 [Slavery has, however, been continued
Virginia had one slave to 50 whites - 1650 in thirteen of the States. See M1isThe Quakers abolished slavery among souri.]
themselves - - - - 1754 The number of slaves in the United
Resolutions against the slave trade States in 1790 was - 697,697
passed by the first congress of the In 1800 - - - 896,849
colonies - - - 1774 In 1810 -1, 191,364
Act against the external slave trade In 1820 - - 1,538,05
passed by congress of the United In 1830 - -2,010,43:
States -. - -.1789 In 1840 2,487,355
SLAVES, EMANCIPATION OF. Act for the abolition of slavery throughout the
British colonies, and for the promotion of industry among the manumitted
slaves, and for the compensation to the persons hitherto entitled to the ser-i
vices of such slaves, by the grant from parliament of 20,000j0001. sterling,
passed 3 and 4 William IV., Aug. 28, 1833. By the operation of this act,,
slavery terminated in the British possessions on Aug. 1, 1834, and 770,2801
slaves became free.
SLEEP. We are told that while Epimenides was at Athens, and was one day
attending his flocks, he entered a cave, and there fell asleep. His sleep continued, according to some writers, forty or forty-seven years; Pliny says he
slept fifty-seven years; and when he awoke, lihe found eveiy object so altered hRe knew not where he was. It is supposed that he lived 289 yeqar
SOD J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 533
596 a. c. We have many, and even very late, instances of persons in
these countries sleeping continuously, for weeks and months.
SifALL-POX. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu introduced inoculation for the
small-pox fiom Turkey, her own son having been inoculated with perfect
success at Adrianople, A. D. 1718. She was allowed, by way of experiment.
to inoculate seven capital convicts, who, on their recovery, were pardoned.
Inoculation for the small-pox was encouraged under the auspices of' Dr.
Mead. A small-pox hospital was instituted in London, 1746, but the piesent building was not opened till 1756. See ILocLZatio~e and VaccixLation.
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. Founded by will of James Smithson, - na..tural son of the duke of Northumberland, who died 1835, and left ~100,000
"to the United States of America, to found at Washington an institution
for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men." Act of Congress
accepting the bequest, and providing for the fulilment of the trust, 1846.
Corner stone of the building laid, May 1, 1847.
SMOLENSKO, BATTLE OF. One of the most memorable of the celebrated
Russian campaign of 1812, between the French and Russian armies. The
French in this most sanguinary engagement were three times repulsed, but
they ultimately succeeded, and, on entering Smolensko, found the city,
which had been bombarded, burning and partly in ruins. Barclay de Tolli,
the Russian commander-in-chief, incurred the displeasure of the emperor
Alexander, because he retreated after the battle, and Kutusoff succeeded
to the command, Aug. 17, 1812.
SMUGGLERS IN ENGLAND. The customs duties were instituted originally to
enable the king to afford protection to trade against pirates; and they afterwards became a branch of the public revenue. A severe penalty against
smuggling was enacted in 1736.'NUFF-TAKING. This practice took its rise in England from the captures
made of vast quantities of snuff by sir George Rooke's expedition to Vigo
in 1702. The prize of the forces having been sent home and sold, the vice
soon obtained from which the revenue now draws, with tobacco, considerably more than 3,000,0001. per annum. In the year ending Jan. 5, 1840,
there were imported 1;622,493 lbs. of snuff, of which 196,305 lbs. were
entered for home consumption; the duty was 88,2631. See Tobacco.
SOAP. This article was imperfectly known to the ancients. The first express
mention of it occurs in Pliny and Galen; and the former declares it to be
an invention of the Gauls, though he prefers the German to the Gallic soap.
In remote periods clothes -were cleansed by being rubbed or stamped upon
in water. Nausicaa and her attendants, Homler tells us, washed theirs by
treading upon them with their feet in pits of water.-Odyssey, book vi.
The manufacture of soap began in London in 1524, before which time it
was supplied by Bristol at one penny per pound.
SOBRAON, BATTLE OF; INDIA. The British army, 35,000 strong, under Sir
Hugh (now lord) Gough, attacked the Sikh force on the Sutlej. The enemy was dislodged after a dreadfill contest, and all their batteries taken;
and in attempting the passagie of a river by a floating bridge in their rear,
the weight of the masses the ti, crowded upon it caused it to break down, and
more than 10,000 Sikhs were killed, wounded, or drowned. The British
loss was 2383 men; fought Feb. 10, 1846.
SOCIETY ISLANDS seized by tlie French admiral, Dupetit Thouars, and
queen Pomlare deposed, Nov. 9, 1843, but the transaction was dis'avowed by
the French government.
SOCIALISM. This is the name given to the doctrine which teaches that all
m!n have common interests, and that society ought to be, accordingly, or
534 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. L SOit
ganized on that principle. It has been taught, more or less distinctly, in
all ages and nations: by Pythagoras B. c. 466, and Plato B. c. 422, among
the Greeks; by tile sect of Essenes, in the time of our Saviour, among thie
Jews; by the first Christians a. D. 34; by several of the flathers of the
Church; by sir Thomas More, in his Utopia, A. D. 1515; by Camlpunella,
A. D. 1623; and by Babeau, in France, A. D.; but the principal modern
teachers of it have been Charles Fourier, who was born at Besanqon in 1772;
and who published a variety of able works on the subject; by Claude Henri
St. Simon, born also in France, at Paris. in A.D. 1760; and by Robert Owen, of
England, who first taught it publicly in London in 1834. Through the instrumentality of their writings it has been been spread over Germany, France,
England, and the United States, where socialism, in difflerent forms, hat a
considerable number of disciples. In February, 1848, an attempt was made
by Louis Blanc, one of the Provisional Government of Paris, to organize
labor on socialist principles, but without success. A great many religious
sects, such as the Moravians, the Rappites, the Zoarites, and the Shakers,
adopt the doctrine of common property in their social arrangements.
SOCINIANS. So called from their founders, Faustus and Lwlius;ocinus.
They taught that Jesus was a mere man, who had no existence before ho
was conceived by the Virgin; that the Holy Ghost was not a distinct person; and that the Father only is truly God. They maintained that Christ
died only to give mankind a pattern of heroic virtue, and to seal his doctrines with his death. Orignal sin, grace, and predestination they treated
as mere chimeras. Socinianism was propagated about A. D. 1560. —Pardos.
SODOM AND GOMORRAH. These cities, with all their inhabitants, destroyed
by fire from heaven. 1897 B. c. —Bible, Blair, Usher'. The offence of sodomy
was first sown in Englandcl by the Lombards. By an old English law, the criminal was burnt to death, though Fleta says he should be buried alive.
The crime was subject to ecclesiastical censure only at the time of Hen.:.,
VIII., who made it felony without benefit of clergy, 1533. Confirmed by
statute 5 Elizabeth, 1562.
SOLAR SYSTEM. The system near.ly as now accepted, after the investigations and discoveries of many enlightened centuries and ages, was taut-ht
by Pythagoras of Samos, about 529 B. c. In his system of the universe he
placed the sun in the centre, and all the planets moving in elliptical orbits
round it-a doctrine deemed chimerical and improbable, till the deep inquiries of the philosophy of the sixteenth century proved it, by the most
accurate calculations, to be true and incontestable. The system of PytLagoras was revived by Copernicus, and it is hence called the Copernican
system. Its truth was fully demonstrated by sir Isaac Newton, in 1695.
How truly the poet says"He who through vast immensity can pierce,
See worlds on worlds compose one universe,
Observe how system into system runs,
What other planets circle other suns,
What varied beings people every star,
MIay tell why Heaven has made us what we are."-Pospe.
SOLOMON'S TEMPLE. The foundation laid, 480 years after the deliverai(, e
from Egypt, 1012 B.c. The temple solemnly dedicated, Friday, Octobe..r
30, 1004 B. c., being 1000 years before the birth of the Redeemer.- Us/crl.,
Lealet.
SORCERERS AND MAGICIANS. A law was enacted against thei'c sedluctions,
33 Henry VIII. ]541; and another statute equally severe was passed 5 Elizabeth, 1563. The pretension to sorcery and witchcraft and the conversing
with evil spirits was made capital, 1 James I., 1603. For shocking instances
of the punishment of sorcerers, see WitClClc'aft.
SPA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 535
SOUDAN on SOUJAHI. The title of the lieutenant-generals of the caliphs,
which they went by in their provinces or armies. These officers afterwards
made themselves sovereigns. Saladin, general of the forces of the Noradine, king of -Damascus, was the first that took upon him this title in Egypt,
A. D. 1165, after having killed the caliph Caym.
SOUND. Fewer than thirty vibrations in a second give no sound; and when
the vibrations exceed 7520 in a second, the tones cease to be discriminated.
Robesval states the velocity of sound at the rate of 560 feet in a second;
Gassendus, at 1473; Derham, at 1142 feet. At Paris, where cannon were
fired under many varieties of weather in 1738, it was found to be 1107 feet.
The fire of the British on landing in Egypt was distinctly heard 130 miles
on the sea. See Acoustics.
SOUNDINGS AT SEA. Captain Ross, of H. M. S. CEdipsts, took extraordinary
soundings at sea. One of them was taken 900 miles west of St. Helena,
where it extended to the depth of' 5000 fathoms. Another sounding was
made in latitude of 33 degrees S. and longitude 9 degrees W., about 300
mile froin the Cape of Good Hope, when 2266 fathoms were sounded; the
weight employed amounted to 450 lbs., 1840.
SOUTH CAROLINA. One of the United States; first settlement was made
under Governor Sayle, 5at Port Royal, in 1670, and at Charleston 1671; received a colony of French refugees, exiled by the revocation of the Edict
of Nantes, 1690; church of England established by law, 1703; proprietary
government in th'e two Carolinas superseded by one established by the people in 1719; the country purchased of the proprietors by the English parliament in 1729, when the country was divided into North and South
Carolina; received colonies of Swiss, Germans, and Irish at various times.
This State early resisted the claims of the mother country, and was active
in the revolutionary war. Charleston and a large part of the State taken by
the British in 1780; battle of Eutaw Springs, 1781; Federal Constitution
adopted May 23, 1788, by 149 to 73; "nullification ordinance" passed
Nov. 1832. Population in 1790 was 249,000; in 1810, 415,115; in 1830,
581,458; in 1840, 594,398, including 327,538 slaves.
SOUTH SEA BUBBLE. This destructive speculation was commenced in
1710; and the company incorporated by statute, 1716. The bubble, which
ruined thousands of families, exploded in 1720, and the directors' estates,
to the value of 2.014,0001. were seized in 1721. Mr. Knight, the cashier,
absconded with 100,0001.; but he compounded the fraud for 10,0001., and
returned to England in 1743. Almost all the wealthy persons in the kingdom had become stock-jobbers and speculators in this fatal scheme. The
artifices of the directors had raised the shares, originally of 1001., to the
enormous price of 10001. See Law's Bubble.
SOUTHCOTT, JOANNA. See Impostors, &c.
SPAIN. The first settlers are supposed to have been the progeny of Tubal,
fifth son of Japheth. The Phoenicians and Carthaginians successively
planted colonies on the coasts; and the Romans possessed the whole country. In the decline of the Roman empire, Spain was seized by the Vandals,
Alans, and Suevi; afterwards subdued by the Visigoths, who laid the foundation of the present monarchy. See Tcabllar Views, p. 65, et seq.
The Vandals and Suevi wrest Spain Alphonsns II. refusing to pay the Sarafiom the Romans A. D. 412 cens the annual tribute of 100 virgins,
The Visigoths enter Spain under their war is declared; Alphonsus is victoleader, Euric - 472 rious, and obtains the appellation of
The Saracens from Arabia invade the " the chaste" - - A. D, 791 st seq.
country - - - 713 et seq. Inigo, first king of Navarre, &c.. 830
Pelagius, a royal Visigoth, proclaimed Ferdinand I., count of Castile, takes the
king of Asturias - 718 title of king -. I 20
536 THE WORLD7S PROGRESS. | PA
SPAIN, continued.
Union of Navarre and Castile - A. D. 1031 The French take Madrid - A. D. nMarch, 1808
The kingdom of Arragon commenced The prince of Peace dismissed by the
under Ramirez I. - - - 1035 king of Spain - March 18, 18(0S
Leon and Asturias united to Castile -1037 Abdication of Charles IV. in favor of
Portugal taken from the Saracens by Ferdinand - - March 19, 1803
Henry of Bourbon - 1087 And at Blayonne, in favor of his "friend
The Saracens, beset on all sides by the and ally,:' Napoleon, when FerdiChristians, call in the aid of the Moors nand relinquished the crown, May 1, 1808
from Africa, who seize the dominions The French are massacred at Madrid,
they camne to protect, and subdue the May 2, 1808
Saracens - - - 1091 et seq Napoleon assembles the notables at
The Moors defeated in several battles Bayonne - - May 25, 1808
by Alphonsus I. of Navarre - - 1118 Joseph Bonaparte enters Madrid, as
Twelve Moorish kings overcome in one king of Spain - - July 12, 18(j3
great pitched battle - - 1135 He retires itom the capital - July 29, 1808
University of Salamanca founded - 1200 Supreme Junta installed - Sept. 1808
Leon and Castile re-united - - 1226 Madrid retaken by the Frenchs and JoCordova, the residence of the first Moor- seph restored - - Dec. 2, 1808
sish kings, taken by Ferdinand of Cas- The royal family of Spain inmpisoned
tile and Leon -1236 in the palace of Chambery, in Savoy,
The kingdom of Granada begun by the )ec.,c, 1808
Moors, their last refuge ifrom the [Spain now becomes the scene of the
power of the Christians - 1238 struggle called the Peninsular W~ar,
Reign of Alphonsus the Wise - 1252 l or the events of which see thle artiThe crown of Navarre passes to the cles severally.]
royal family of France - - 1276 Constitution of the Cortes - lay 8, 1Si'82
200,000 Moors invade Spain - 1327 Ferdinand VII. restored - ay 14, 1814
They are defeated by Alphonsus XI., Spanish revolution began Jan. 1, 1820
with great slaughter - - - 1340 Ferdinand swears to the constitution of
The infant Don tlenriquez, son of John the Cortes - March 8, 1820
the First of Castile, first hadl the title Removal of the kine to Seville, and
of prince of Asturias - - 1388 thence to Cadiz M- tarchl 20, 1823
Ferdinand II. of Arragon marries Isa- Tile French enter Spain - April 7, 1823
bella of Castile; and nlearly the whole They invest Cadiz - Jlune 25, 1823
Christian dominions of Spain are uni- Battle of the Trocadero - - Aug. 31, 18 3
ted in one monarchy - - - 1474 Despotism resumed; the Cortes disGranada taken after a two years' siege solved; executions Oct. 182..,
and the power of the Moors finally Riego put to death Nov. 27, 182:3
extirpated by the valor of Ferdinand - 1492 inhe French evacuate Cadiz - Sept. 21, 1828
Columbus issent from Spain to explore Cadiz made a free port - eb. 24, 1829
the western world - - 1492 Saliqcue law abolished - MIarch 25, 1830
Ferdinand conquers the greater part of Queen of Spain appointed regent durthe kingdom of Navarre - -1512 ing the kings indisposition, and a
Accession of the house of Austria to the complete change msade in the ministhrone of Spain - - 1516 try - - - Oct. 25, 1832
Charles V. of Spain and Germany re- Don Carlos declares himself legitimate
tires from the world - 1556 successor to his brother's throne,
Philip I. commences his bloody perse- should the king die - April 29,1833
cution of the Protestants - 1561 Death of Charles IV., and his queen
The Escurial began building - - 1562 assumes the title of governing queen,
Portugal united to Spain - - - 1580 until Isabella II., her infant daughter,
The invincible Spanish Armada de- attains her majority - Sept. 29, 1833
stroyed. See Awmtada, and Naval The royalist volunteers disarmed, with
Battles - - - - 1588 some bloodshed, at Madrid - Oct. 27, 1833
Philip III. banishes the Moors and their Don Carlos lands at Portsmouth with
descendants, to the number of 900,000, his family - - June 18, 1834
from Spain - - - - 1610 He suddenly appears among his adPhilip IV. loses Portugal - - 1640 herents in Spain - July 10, 1834
Gibraltar taken by the English - 1704 The peers vote the perpetual exclusion
Philip V. invades Naples - - 1714 ofDon Carlos fron the throne, Aug. 30,1831
Charles III., king of the Two Sicilies, [Hlere commences the desolating civil
succeeds to the crown - - 759 war, in which British auxiliaries take
Battle of Cape St. Vincent - Feb. 14, 1797 the side of the queen.]
Spanish treasure-ships, valued at3,000,- Espartero gains the battle of Bilboa,
000 dollars, seized by the English and is ennobled - - Dec. 25, 1836
Oct. 29, 1804 General Evans retires from the comBattle of Trafalgar. See Tsmnfalgar, mand of the auxiliary legion, and arBattle of - - Oct. 31, 1505 rives in London, after having achieved
Sway of the prince of Peace - - 1806 various successes in Spain - June 20, 1837
Conspiracy of the prince of Asturias Madrid is declared in a state of siege.
against his father - July 25, 1807 Aug. 11, 18 37
Treaty of Fontainebleau - Oct. 27, 1807 [Espartero and other Christine generals
SEPA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES, 537
SPAIN, cotistbseed.
engage with the Carlists, and nume- I The troops evacuate the citadel, and
rous conflicts take place with various retire to Montjuich - Nov. 17, 1842
success.] The regent Espartero arrives before
Madrid is again declared in a state of Barcelona, and demands its utncondisiege - - A. D. Oct. 30, 1838 tional surrender - - Nov. 29,1842
The Spanish Cortes dissolved - June 1, 1839 Bombardment of Barcelona - Dec. 2, 1842
The Carlists under Marota desert Don It capitulates - - Dec. 4, 1842
Carlos - - - Aug. 25. 1839 The disturbances of Malaga - May 25, 1843
Marota and Espartero conclude a treaty The revolutionary junta is re-establishof' peace - - Aug. 29, 1839 ed xt Barcelona - - June 11, 1843
Don Carlos seeks refuge in France [Corui na, Seville, Burgos, Santiago,
Sept. 13, 1839 and numerous other towns, shortly
Cabrera, the Carlist general, unable to afterwards "pronounce" against the
maintain the war, enters France with regent Espartero.]
a body of his troops - July 1, 1840 Arrival of Gen. Narvaez at Madrid,
The British auxiliaries evacuate St. Se- which surrenders - - July 15, 1843
bastian and Passages - Aug. 25, 1840 Espartero bombards Seville - July 21, 1843
Espartero makes his triumphal entry The siege is raised July 27, 1843
into Madrid - - - Oct. 5, 1840 [The revolution is completely successThe queen regent appoints a new min- ful, and Espartero flies to Cadiz, and
istry, who are nominated by Espar- embarks on board her Majesty's ship
tero - - - Oct. 5. 1840 M.lalbar. ]
The abdication of the queen regent of The new government deprive Espartero
Spain - - - Oct. 12, 1840 of his titles and rankl Aug. 16, 1843
[Sihe subsequently leaves the kingdom; Espartero and his suite and friends arvisits France; next settles in Sicily; rive in London - - Aug. 23, 1843
but returns to France.] Reaction against the new government
Espartero, dule of Victoiy, expels the breaks out at Madrid - Aug. 29, 1843
papal nuncio - - Dec. 29, 1840 The young queen Isabella II., 13 years
The Spanish cortes declare Espartero old, is declared by the cortes to be of
regent durinlg the minority of' the are Nov. 8, 1843
young queen - - Apr. 12, 1841 The queen-mother, Christina, returns to
Insurrection in favor of Christina is Spain - - - March 23, 18-14
commenced at Pampeluna by Gen. Don Carlos, from Bourges, formally reO'Donnell's army - - Oct. 2, 1841 linquishes his right to the crown, in
It spreads to Vittoria and otherp.arts of favor of his son - - May 18, 1845
the kingdom - - Oct. 18-11 Narvaez and his ministry resign, Feb.
Don Diego Leon attacks the palace at 12- they return to power, March 17;
Madrid, and his followers are repuls- and again resign - - March 28, 1846
ed, and numbers of them slain by the TIhe queen is publicly affianced to her
queen's guard - - Oct. 7, 1841 cousin, don Francisco d'Assiz, dulce
Don Diego Leon. having been seized, is of Cadiz - - - Au. 27, 1846
shot at Madrid - - Oct. 15, 1841 Escape of Don Carlos and others friom
Zurbano captures Bilboa - Oct. 21. 1841 France - - - Sept. 14, 1846
Rotlil, the constitutional general, enters Marriage of the queen; and marriage
Vittoria - - Oct. 21, 1841 also of the infinta Louisa to the duiie
Espartero decrees the suspension of de Montpensier - - Oct. 10, 1846
queen Christina's pension - Oct. 26, 1841 [The Montpensier marriage occasions
Esi)artero malces his triumphal entry the displeasure of' England, andt disinto Madrid - - Nov. 23, 1841 tuirbs the friendly relations of the
An insurrection breaks out at Barce- French and Eng-lish governments.]
lona; the national guard joins the Amnesty grlanted by the queen to ponpopulace - - Nov. 13, 1812 litical offenders - - Oct. 18, 1846
Battle in the streets between the national The queen has a son born, who dies the
guard and the troops; the latter lose samle day - July 1, 1850
100 in killed and wounded, and retreat
to the citadel - - Nov. 15, 1842
KINGS OF SPAIN.
A.D. 406. Alaric I., king of the Goths; murdered. 548. Theodisele; murdered for female vio411. Athalsus; murdered by his soldiers. lation.
415. Wallia. 549. Agila; taken prisoner and put to death.
420. Theodoric I.; killed in battle. 554. Athanagild.
450. Torrismuns, assassinated by his fa- 567. From this year to the year 687, sixteen
vorite. kings reigned.
452. T!leodoric II. 687. Egica or Egiza.
466. Euric. 697. Vitizza.
484. Alaric II.; killed in battle. 741, Roderick; killed in battle in
507. Gesalric; killed in battle. An interregnum till
511. Alllalaric; killed in battle. 718. Pelagius.
531. Theodat; assassinated by a madman. 736. Favila; killed by a boar in hunting.
23*
5338 TiHE WORLD7S PROGRESS. [ SPA
SPAIN, conztintued,
738. Alphonsus I.; Catholic. 1350. Peter the Cruel; deposed.. Reinstated
757. Frola I.; killed by his brother Aure- by Edward the Black Prince of Et -
lius. land; afterwards beheaded by his
768. Aurelius. subjects.
774. Silo. 1368. Henry II.,,the Gracious; poisoned by
783. Mauregat. a monk.
789. Veremond. 1379. John I.; he united Biscay to Castile.
791. Alphonsus II.; the chaste. 1390. Henry III., the Sickly.
82,. Ramiro I.; he put 70,000 Saracens to 1406. John II.
the sword in one battle. 1454. Henry IV, the Imlpotent.
860. Ordogno I. 1474. Ferdinand V., the Catholic, in whom,
862. Alphonsus III.; surnamed the great; by his marriage with Isabella, the
deposed by his son. kingdoms of Castile and Arraoon
910. Garcias. were united.
914. Ordogno II. 1504. Philip I. of Austria, and his queen
923. Froila II. Joan.
924. Alphonsus IV.; abdicated. 1506. Joan alone over both kingdoms.
931. Ramniro II., killed in battle. 1516. Charles I., and emperor of Germany,
950. Ordogno III. resigned both crowns, and retired to
955. Ordogno IV. a monastery.
956. Sancho I., the Fat; poisqoned with an 1555. Philip II., married Miary, queen-regapple nant of England.
967. Ramiro III. 1598. Philip II., son of the preceding; he
982. Veremund II.; the Gouty. drove the Moors from Grenada and
999. Alphonsus V.; killed at the siege of the adjacent provinces.
Viscu. 1621. Philip IV., his son; a reign of nearly
1028. Veremund III.; killed in battle. continuous and unfortunate wars with
1035). Ferdinand the Great, king of Leon and the Dutch and France.
Castile. 1665. Charles II.
1065. Sancho II., the Strong, king of Castile; 1700. Philip V., duke of Anjou, grandson to
Alphonsus in Leon and Asturias; and Louis XIV. of France; resigned.
Garcias in Galicia. 1724. Lewis I.; who reigned only a few
1072. Alphonsus VI., the Valiant; in Castile months.
and Leon. 1724. Philip V.; again.
1109. Alphonsus VII. 1745. Ferdinand VI., surnamed the Wise; he
1122. Alphonsus VIII. distinguished his reign by acts of
1157. Sancho III., the Beloved, in Castile; liberality and beneficence.
Ferdinand in Leon. 1759. Charles III., king of the Two Sicilies.
1158. Alphonsus IX., in Castile. 1788. Charles IV.; abdicated in favor of his
1214. Henry I. son and successor.
-1236. Ferdinand III. the Holy; in him Cas- 1808. Ferdinand VII., whom Napoleon, of
tile and Leon were reunited, and per- of France, also forced to resign.
petually annexed. 1808. Joseph Bonaparte, brother of Naro1252. Alphonsus the Wise; deposed. leon; deposed.
1284. Sancho IV., the Brave; Peter III. in 1814. Ferdinand VII.; restored; succeeded
Arragon. by his daughter.
1295. Ferdinand IV. 1833. Isabella II., Sept. 29; who came to the
1312. Alphonsus X.; John in Arragon. throne when three years of age.
While nearly all the other nations of the world have been at peace, this country, for the last quarter of a century, has been a prey to the most deplorable commotions, and almost continuous and destructive civil war. From
the death -of Ferdinand, the intrigues of Christina, the queen-mother, and
the parties in her interest, have led to successive revolutions in the state,
and caused, in 1840, her own abdication of the regency, and expulsion from
the kingdom.
SPANISH ARMADA AGAINST ENGLAND. See article Armada.
SPARTA. The capital of Laconia, one of the most considerable republics o.
the Peloponnesus, and the formidable rival of Athens. Though without
walls, it resisted the attacks of its enemies by the valor of its citizens, for
eight centuries. The epoch of its foundation is much disputed. Lelex is
supposed to have been the first king, 1516 a. c. From Lacedcemon the fourth
king, and his wife Sparta, who are also spoken of as the founders of the
city, it obtained the naules by which it was most known. The history of
Lacedramon may be divided into five eras, viz., 1st. Under the ancient kings,
from Lelex to the settlement of the Heraclidm, comprising about four hu-5
aPI] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 539
dred and twelve years. 2d. Under the Heraclidm as absolute monarchs, till
Lycurgus instituted a senate, by which the people obtained a share in the
government, including about two hundred and twenty years. 3d. From the
establishment of the senate, to the introduction of ephori, or five inspectors
by Theopompus, about one hundred and twenty-four years. 4th. From the
appointment of the ephori, to the total abolition of royalty, about five hundred and forty years. 5th. From the abolition of the monarchy, to the subjugation of the country to the Roman power, a period of about seventytwo years, 147 B. c.-Abb6 Lenglet. See Tabular Views: Greece, page 7, et
seq. See also Greece. The Lacedamonians were a nation of soldiers. They
cultivated neither the arts, sciences, commerce, nor agriculture. All their
laws, all their institutions, all their education, in a word, the very constitution of their republic, were calculated to make them warriors. And never
were men brought into the field more capable of enduring fatigue. They
hardened their bodies by stripes, and by manly exercises, accustoming themselves to undergo hardships, and even to die without fear or regret. The
women were as courageous as the men, and celebrated with festivals the fall
of their sons, when killed in battle, or coolly put them to death with their
own hands, if by a shameful flight, or the loss of their arms, they brought
disgrace upon their country.-Abbe Lenglet.
SPECTACLES AND READING-GLASSES. See Optics. Spectacles were unknown to the ancients. They are generally supposed to have been invented
in the 13th century, by Alexander de Spina, a monk of Florence, in Italy,
about A. D. 1285.-Gen. Hist. They were invented by Roger Bacon, our own
illustrious countryman, according to Dr. Plott. The hint was certainly
given by Bacon.about 1280. Some affirm that the real inventor was Salvino; and Mr. IManni gives proofs in favor of Salvino in his Treatise on Spectacles.
SPHERES. The celestial and terrestrial globes, and also sun-dials, were invented by Anaximander, 552 B. c. The armillary sphere is said to have been invented by Eratosthenes about 255 B. c. The planetarium was constructed
by Archimedes before 212 B. c. It was maintained by Pythagoras that the
motions of the twelve spheres must produce delightful sounds, inaudible to
the ears of mortals, which he called the music of the spheres.
SPINNING. The art of spinning was ascribed by the ancients to Minerva, the
goddess of wisdom, such was their veneration for it. Areas, king of Arcadia, taught his subjects the art of spinning about 1500 B. c. Lucretia with
her maids was found spinning, when her husband Collatinus paid a visit to
her from the camp. The wife of Tarquin was an excellent spinner; and a
garment made-by her, worn by Servius Tullius, was preserved in the tesple of Fortune. Augustus Cxsar usually wore no garments but such as
were made by his wife, sister, or daughter. The spinning-wheel was invented at Brunswick, about A. D. 1530. Till 1767, the spinning of cotton
was performed by the hand-spinning-wheel, when Hargrave, an ingenious
mechanic, near Blackburn, made a spinning-jenny, with eight spindles.
Hargrave also erected the first carding-machine, with cylinders. Arkwright's
machine for spinning by water was an extension of the principle of Hargrave's; but he also applied a large and small roller to expand the thread,
and, for this ingenious contrivance, took out a patent in 1769. At first, he
worked his machinery by horses; but in 1771 he built a mill on the stream
of the Derwent, at Cromford. In 1779, Crompton invented the mule, which
is a further and wonderful improvement of this art.-P dillips.
SPIRES. In ancient times the emperors held many diets at Spires, and it was
the seat of the imperial chamber till 1689, when the city was burnt by the
French, and not rebuilt till after the peace of Ryswick in 1697. The diet to
540 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [STA,.
condemn the reformers was held at Spires, called there by the emperor
Charles V., 1529. This was the era of Protestantism. See Protestants.
SPIRITS. See Distillation. No human invention has ever tended more to cor
rupt the morals, and ruin the character, constitution, and circumstances ou
numbers of mankind, than distillation. In all nations spirituous l411uors
have been considered as a proper subject of heavy taxation for the support
of the state. In 1840, England made about ten millions of gallons of spirits,
Scotland made about seven millions of gallons, and Ireland about nine millions of gallons. In England, Ireland, and Scotland, duty was paid, in 1840,
on the following quantities of spirits. viz.-Rum, 2,830,263 gallons; brandy,
1,167,756 gallons; Geneva, 18,640 gallons; on other foreign spirits,.8,758
gallons; and on British, Irish, and Scotch spirits, 25,190,843 gallons; mak
ing in the whole nearly thirty millions of gallons, upon which the duty
amounted to about eight millions of pounds sterling!-Parl. Retnlm's.
SPITZBERGEN. Discovered in 1533, by sir Hugh Willoughby, who called it
Greenland, supposing it to be a part of the western continent. In 1595, it
was visited by Barentz and Cornelius, two Dutchmen, who pretended to be
the original discoverers, and called it Spitzbergen, or sharp mountains, from
the many sharp-pointed and rocky mountains with which it abounds.
STAMP-DUTIES IN ENGLAND. The first institution of stamp-duties was by
statute 5 and 6 William and Mary, June 23, 1694, when a duty was imposed
upon paper, vellum, and parchment. The stamp-duty on newspapers was
commenced in 1713, and every year added to the list of articles upon which
stamp-duty was made payable. The American Stamp Act, a memorable
statute, one of those imposts levied by the parliament of Great Britain
which produced the American war,:-nd led to the independence of the
United States, was passed March 22; 1765. Stamp-duties in Ireland commenced 1774. Stamps on notes and bills of exchange in 1782. The stamp —
duties produced in England, in 1800, the revenue of 3,126,5351.; and in
1840, for the United Kingdom, 6,726,8171. See Newspapers, &c.
STANDARDS. See Banners, Flags, &c. The practice in the army of using the
cross on standards and shields arose in the miraculous appearance of a cross
to Constantine, previously to his battle with Maxentius: this fact rests on
the authority of Eusebius, who states that he had received it from the emperor himself, A.. 312. For the celebrated French standard, see Lily.
STANDARD OF MAHOMIET; on this ensign no infidel dare look. It was carried in procession about 1768, when several hundred Christians who ign: -
rantly looked upon it, were massacred by the Turkish populace The
IMPERIAL STANDARD was first hoisted on the- Tower of London, and on Bedford Tower, Dublin, and displayed by the Foot Guards, on the union of the
kingdoms, Jan. 1, 1801.
STAR-CHAMBER, COURT OF. So called haply from its roof being garnished
with stars.-Coke. This court of justice, so tremendous in the Tudor and
part of the Stuart reigns, was called Star-chamber, not from the stars on its
roof (which were obliterated even before the reign of queen Elizabeth'
but from the Starra, or Jewish covenants, deposited there by order of Richard I. No Star was allowed to be valid except found in those repositories, and here they remained till the banishment of the Jews by Edward I.
The court was instituted 2 Henry VII. 1487, for trials by a committee of
the privy council. In Charles I.'s reign, it exercised its power, independent
of any law, upon several bold innovators in liberty, who only gloried in
their sufferings, and contributed to render government- odious and contemptible.-Goldsmnitl/. It was abolished 16 Charles I., 1641. There were
,STE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 541
firom 26 to 42 judges, the lord-chancellor having the casting voice.Gibbons.
STARS. They were classed into constellations, it is supposed, about 1200 E. c.
Hicetas, of Syracuse, taught that the sun and the stars were motionless, and
that the earth moved round them (this is mentioned by Cicero, and probably
gave the first hint of this system to Copernicus), about 344 a. c. Job, Hesiod, and Homer, mention several of the constellations. The Royal Library
at Paris contains a Chinese chart of the heavens, made about 600 B. c., in
which 1460 stars are correctly inserted. The aberration of the stars discovered bly Dr. Bradley, 1727. See Astronewmy and Solar System.
STATES-GENERAL op FRANCE. An ancient assembly of France. Previously to the Revolution it had not met since A. D. 1614. The states consisted of three orders, the nobility, clergy, and commons. They were convened by Louis XVI., and assembled at Versailles, May 5, 1789. Here a
a contest arose, whether the three orders should make three distinct houses,
or but one assembly. The commons insisted upon the latter, and, assuming
the title of the National Assembly, declared that they were competent to
proceed to business, without the concurrence of the two other orders, if
they refused to join them. The nobility and clergy found it expedient to
concede the point, and they all met in one hall. See LNtional Assembly.
STATIONERS. Books and paper were formerly sold only at stalls, hence the
dealers were called stationers. The company of stationers of London is of
great antiquity, and existed long before printing was invented; yet it was
not incorporated until 3 Philip and Mary, 1555. Their old dwelling was in
Paternoster-row. —ilio'timer.
STATUES. See Moulds, SculptrLe, &c. Phidias, whose statue of Jupiter
passed for one of the wonders of the world, was the greatest statuary among
the ancients, 440 B. c. He had previously made a statue of Minerva at the
request of Pericles, which was placed in the Parthenon. It was made with
ivory and gold, and measured 39 feet in height. Acilius raised a golden
statue to his lather, the first that appeared in Italy. Lysippus invented the
art of taking likenesses in plaster moulds, from which he afterwards cast
models in wax, 326 B. c. Michael Angelo was the greatest artist among
the moderns. The first equestrian statute erected in Great Britain was that
of Charles I. in 1678.
STEASM ENGINE. This is the most important prime mover that the ingenuity of man has yet devised. The first idea of it was suggested by the
marquis of Worcester in his Century of Iventionvs, as' a way to drive up
water by fire," A. D. 1663. It does not, however, appear that the noble inventor could ever interest the public in favor of this great discovery.
Papin's digester invented - A. D. 1681 Watt's expansion engine - - - -1778
Captain Savery's engine constructed Double acting engines proposed by Dr.
ior raising water - 1698 Flcl on Newcornen's principle - 1779
Papin's engine, exhibited to the Royal Vatt's double engine, and his first paSociety, about - - 1699 tent for it granted -. 1781
Atmospheric engine by Savery and The marquess Jouffroy constructed an
Newcomen - 1713 engine on the Saone - - - 1781
First idea of steam navigation set forth Fitchs' experiments in steam naviga.
in a patent obtained by Hulls - 1736 tion on the Delaware, (See Smith's
Watt's invemion of performing conden- Ans. Curios.) - - 1783-4
sation in a separate vessel from the Oliver Evans' experiments in the
cylinder - - -1765 same -1785-6
His first patent - 1769 Rumsey's experiments in the same in
His engines upon a large scale erected Virginia -1787
in manufactories, and his patent re- W. Syrnington made a passage on the
newed by act of parliament - - 1775 Forth atid Clyde canal - 1789
Thomas Paine proposed the application First steam-engine erected in Dublin by
of stea in America - - - 1778 Henry Jackson -1791
Engine made to give a rotary motion - 1778 Jouffroy's experiments in France - -1792
542 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ STE
STEAM ENGINE, continued.
Chancellor Livingston builds a steamer Steam applied to printing in the Tzunes
on the Hudson - 1797 office. See Press - 1814
First experiment on the Thames - - 1801 There were five steam vessels in ScotThe experiment of Mr. Symington re- land (Parl. Returnss) in - - - 1813
peated with success - - - - 1802 First steam vessel on the Thames
Trevethick's high-pressure engine - 1802 brought by Mr. Dodd, from Glasgow 1815
Oliver Evans' experiments in locomo- The first steamer built in England(Pal-l.
tive enaines in Penn. - - - 1804 Returns) -1815
Woolf's aouble cylinder expansion en- The Savannaoh steamer, of 350 tons,
gine constructed - -1804 went fiom New York to Liverpool
Manulactories warmed by steam - 1806 in 26 days - - - July 15, 1819
Fulton started a steam-boat on the river First steamer in Ireland - - 1820
Hudson, built by himself, and named Captain Johnson obtained 10,0001. fior
" The North River;" engine by Boul- making the first steam voyage to Inton and Watt; passage to Albany in 33 dia, in the Enter-rise, which sailed
hours: FIRs STEA S NAVIGATION on from Falmouth - - Aug. 16, 1825
record - - - 1807 Locomotive steam carriages on railThe next three steam-boats in the world ways, at Liverpool - - Oct. 1829. were the Car ojf Neptzune, - 1808 The Railway opened (see Livesjpool) - 1830
The Paragose - - 1811 The Great TWestern arrives from BrisThe RiZcAlzond -1812 tol at New York, and the Si?'ius friom
all in New York. Cork, same day, being their first voySteam power to convey coals on a rail- age, in 18 days - - June 17, 1838
way, employed by Blenlinsop - - 1811 War steamers built in England - - 1838
Steam vessels first comumenced plying First steamer of the Cunard line was
on the Clyde (FIRST in EUROPE) - 1812 the Britannia to Boston; after a passage of 14 ds. 8 hrs., arrived July 18, 1840
STEAMfi BOATS IN THEI UNITED) STATES. In 1838 returns from 23 States
gave an aggregate of 700 vessels-whole tonnage, 153,660 tons; beut these
returns were not complete. The increase from 1838 to 1850 was very great:
probably there are, in 1850, at least 1500 vessels, with an aggregate of 300,000
tons. The first American ocean steamer of any note was the Washington,
which made her tfirst passage to Southamnpton in June 1847. The whole
number of steam-boats, locomotive and stationary engines, in the United
States, in 1838, was 8,010.
STEAM VESSELS ofv THE BRITISH EMPIRE.
STEAM VESSELS BELONGING TO THE BRITISH EMPIRE AT THE FOLLOWING PERIODS;
Year. rEnglazd. EScolland. Iroelan-cl. eependencies. Total.
1814 - 0 0 1 6
1815 - 3 5 0 2 10
1820 - 17 14 3 9 43
1825 - 112 36 3 17 168
1830 - 203 61 31 20 315
1835 - 344 85 68 48 5145
1845 - 694 139 79 89 1001
STEEL-YARD. A most ancient instrument, the same that is translated balance in the Pentateucd The Statesa Romansa, or Roman steel-yard, is mentioned in 315 a. c.
STENOGRAPHY. The art of-writing in short-llhand is said to have been practised by most of the ancient nations. It is said to have followed from the
hieroglyphics of the Egyptians. It is also attributed to the poet Ennius,
improved upon by Tyro, Cicero's freed-man, and still more by Seneca. The
As ScribenLdi Characteris, printed about A. D. 1412, is the oldest system extant. Peter Bales, the famous penman, published on stenography in 1590.
There are now numerous systems of it, many of them of easy acquirement
and great simplicity.
STEREOMETRY. The instrument by which is compassed the art of taking
the contents of vessels of liquids by gauging, invented about A. D. 1350.Ande?-sonr.
STEREOTYPE. See Prisrlitbg. It is said that stereotyping was known in
1711; but this is dloubted. It is said to have been suggested by Wm. Ged
LY -N UWIIIC~ VV ~~-YrV nlVY —NI~h~VNVV~* UJ ~1 I~~~~ ~1v-3
STO ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 543
of Edinburgh, 1735.-Nichols. This species of printing is ascribed by
others to Mr. Tilloch, 1779. The invention of it is also attributed to Francis Ambrose Diclot, of Paris, about that year. —Feso gson. But stereotype
printing was in use in Holland, in the last century; and a quarto Bible and
Dutch folio Bible were printed there.-Phillips. Stereotyping was introduced into London, by Wilson, in 1804.-Ideam.
STEREOTYPING. The foregoing is from Haydn. But this art is said to have
been invented by Cadwallader Colden of New York, who sent the details of his
plan in 1779 to Dr. Franklin, then in Paris. Franklin communicated the plan
to Didot, the famous printer, and Herbau, a German, who had been an assistant of Didot, took it up in opposition to Didot. It is affirmed, on good authority, that Herbau's method of stereotyping is precisely similar to that
which Colden invented. Stereotyping was first actually practised in New
York in 1813; when John Watts stereotyped the Larger Catechism. In
June 1815 the Bruces of New York stereotyped a duodeciimo Bible.-Dr.
J. WV. Frlancis.
STOCKINGS. Those of silk were first worn by Henry II. of France, 1547. In
1560, queen Elizabeth was presented with a pair of black knit silk stockings, by her silk-woman, Mrs. Montague, and she never wore cloth ones
any more.-tiHowell. He adds, "Henry VIII. wore ordinarily cloth hose,
except there came fiom Spain, by great chance, a pair of silk stockings;
for Spain very early abounded with silk." Eclvarcl VI. was presented with
a pair of Spanish silk stockings by his merchant, sir Thomas Gresham; and
the present was then much taken notice of. —Idem. Others relate that William Rider, a London apprentice, seeing at the house of an Italian merchant,
a pair of knit worsted stockings from Mantua, ingeniously made a pair like
them, which he presented to the earl of Pemlbroke, the first of the kind
made in England, 1564.-Sltowe.
STOCKS. The public funding system originated in Venice, and was introduced
into Florence in 1340. The English funding system may be said to have
had its rise in 1694. The number of stockholders in 1840 amounted to
337,481. By a return of the average price of the public funds by the coimmissioners for the reduction of the national debt, it appears that Consols
averaged in the year1780 - 6313 6 179a -7486 1810 -.i716 3 1825.;90 0 8
1785 - -68 6 6 1800 - - 66 3 1815 - -58 13 9 1830 - 89 15 7
1790 - 7t 2 6 180.5 58 14 0 1820 6 12 0 1840 - 89 17 6
See Public Debt.
STOICS. Disciples of Zeno, the cynic philosopher; they obtained the name
of stoics because they listened to his instructions and harangues in a porch
or portico at Athens, called in Greek Stoe. Zeno taught that man's supreme happiness consisted in living according and agreeable to nature and
reason, and that God was the soul of the world. The Pharisees affected
the same stiffness, patience, apathy, austerity, and insensibility, which this
sect is famous for.-Stanley.
STONE. Stone buildings were introduced into England, A. D. 670. A stone
bridge was built at Bow in 1087, and is accounted the first; but a bridge
exists at Crowland, which is said to have been built in 860. See B)ridg-es.
The first stone building in Ireland was a castle, 1161. See Btildingi. Stone
china-ware was made by Wedgwood in 1762. Artificial stone for statues
was manufactured by a Neapolitan, and introduced into England, 1776.
Stone paper was made in 1796.
STONEHENGE. Among the most celebrated monuments of British antiquity.
Said to have been erected on the counsel of Merlin by Aurelius Ambrosius,
in memory of 460 Britons who were murdered by Hengist., the Saxon, A. D,
544 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ STO
475. —Geoffrey oj MormorthA. Erected as a sepulchral monument of Anmbrosius, A. D. 500.-Polsydo'e Ve'gil. An ancient temple of' the Britons, in
which the Druids officiated.-Dr. Stulkeley. The Britons had annual meetings at Abury and Stonehenge, where laws were made, and justice administered, and heinous crimes punished, by burning alive in wicker-baskets.
STORMS. The following are among the best authenticated and most memorable. In London a storm raged which destroyed 1500 houses, A. D. 944.
One in several parts of England, the sky being very dark, the wind coming
from the S.W.; many churches were destroyed; and in London 500 houses
fell, October 5, 1091. One on the coast of Calais, when Hugh de Beauvais,
and several thousand foreigners, on their voyage to assist king John against
the barons, perished, 1215.-Holbib7s/eed.
It thundered 15 days successively, with ter- greatly damnaged, and some ships lost, and
pests of rain and wind, A.D. 1233. 30,000 persons perished, Oct. 11, 1737.
A storm with violent lightnings; one flash A dreadful hurricane at the 11avana; many
passed through a chamber where Edward public edifices and 4048 houses were deI. and his queen were conversing, did them stroyed, and 1000 inhabitants perished,
no damage, but killed two of their attend- Oct. 25, 1768.-Anneua l Register.
ants: 1285.-flovedlen. An awful storm in the north of lngland, in
A violent storm of hail near Chartres, in which many vessels were destroyed. and
France, which fell on the army of Edward 4 Dublin packets foundered. Oct. 29, 1775.
III., then on its march. The hail was so At Surat, in the East Indies; destroyed 7000
large that the artny and horses suffered of the inhabitants, April 22, 17S2.
very much, and Edward was obliged to One hundred and thirty-one villages and
conclude a peace, 1339. —Matt. PcLazis. farms laid waste in France, 1785.
XWhen Richard Il.'s queen came from Bohe- A dreadful hurricane, which ravaged the
mia, on setting fbot on shore an awful Leeward Islands, from 20th to 22d Sept.
storm arose, and her ship and a number 1819. At the Island of St. Thomas alone,
of others were dashed to pieces in the har. 104 vessels were lost.
bor, Jan. 1382.-Hsolinshed. At Gibraltar, where more than a hundred
Richard's second queen also brought a storm vessels were destroyed, Feb. 18, 1828.
with her to the English coasts, in which Awful hurricane on the western coast of
the lking's baggage was lost, and many England, and in Ireland. The storm raged
ships cast away, 1389. —Ides?. through Cheshire, Staffordshire, and WarA hurricane throughout Europe, which did wickshire; 20 persons were killed in Livery considerable damage; more remark- verpool, by the falling of buildings, and
ed in England, happening Sept. 3, 1658, the 100 were drowned in the neighborhood;
day that Cromwell died. —lMortimzer. the coast and harbors were covered with
A storm on the eastern coasts of England; wrecks; the value of two of the vessels
200 colliers and coasters lost, with most of lost being nearly halfa million sterling. In
their crews, 1696. Limerick, Galway, Athlone, and other
The storm called the " Gr-eat Storm,"' one of. places, more than 200 houses were blown
the most terrible that ever raged in Eng- clown, and as many more were burnt, the
land. The devastation on land was im- wind spreading the fires. Dublin suffermense; and in the harbors, and on the ed dreadfully; London and its neighborcoasts, the loss in shipping and in lives hood scarcely sustained any damage, Jan.
was still greater, Nov. 26, 1703.* 6-7, 1839.
A snow storm in Sweden, when 7000 Swedes, Iturricane at Havana, 92 vessels sunk, 1275
it is said, perished upon the mountains, in houses destroyed, and 1038 injured, Oct.
their march to attack Drontheim, A. D. 10-11, 1846.
1719. Hurricane at Antigua, St. Thomas, &c. Aug.
One in India, when many hundreds of ves- 21, 1848.
sels were cast away, a fleet of Indiamen,
STOVES. The ancients used stoves which concealed the fire, as the German
stoves yet do. They lighted the fire also in a large tube in the middle of'
* The loss sustained in London alone was calculated at 2,000.0001. sterling. The number of persons drowned in the floods of the Severn and Thames, and lost on the coast of Holland, and in
ships blown from their anchors and never heard of afterwards, is thought to have been 8000. Twelve
men-of-war, with more than 1800 men on board, were lost within sight of their own shore. Trees
were torn up by the roots, 17,000 of them in Kent alone. The Eddystone light-house was destroyed,
and in it the ingenious contriver of it, Winstanley. and the persons who were with him. The bishop of Bath and Wells and his lady were killed in bed in their palace, in Somersetshire. Multitudes of cattle were also lost; in one level 15,000 sheep were drowned.
sVG J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 545
the room, the roof being open. Apartments were warmed too by portable braziers. See Chimneys.
STRASBURG. The attempt at.nsurrection in the city of Strasburg, by LouisNapoleon Bonaparte, a nephew of the deceased emperor, aided by two officers and some privates, which was instantly suppressed by the arrest of
the parties. The prince was afterwards shipped off' to America by the
French government, Oct. 29, 1836. This enthusiast made another attempt,
by a descent at Boulogne, Aug. 6, 1840. See Prance.
STRATTON-HILL, BATTLE OF, in Devonshire, between the royal army and the
forces of the parliament, headed by the poet Waller; in this battle the
victory was gained over the parliamentarians, who lost numbers in killed
and wounded, and Waller was obliged to fly to Bristol; fought May 16,
1643.
STUCCO-WORK. The art was known to the ancients, and was much prized
by them, particularly by the Romans, who excelled in it. —Abbv Lenglet.
It was revived by D'Udine about A. D. 1550; and is now exquisitely performled in Italy and France, and is advancing rapidly to perfection in
England.
STYLE. The style was altered by Augustus Cmsar's ordering leap-year to be
but once in four years, and the month Sextillis to be called Augustus, 8 B.c.
Again at Rome, by taking twelve days off the calendar, A. D. 1582. See
Calendar. Introduced into most of the other states of Europe, 1710. Act
passed to change the style in England from the Julian to the Gregorian,
1751. It took effect Sept. 3, 1752. See New Style and Year.
STYLE, ROYAL, OF THnE KINGS OF ENGLAND. See articles Majesty and'litles.
SUBSIDIES. Subsidies to the kings of England formerly granted in kind, particularly in wool; 30,000 sacks were voted to Edward II. on account of the
war with France, 1340. —AnLdersoen. Subsidies raised upon the subjects of
England for the last time by James I., 1624, but they were contained in a
bill for the redress of grievances, 1639. England granted subsidies to foreign powers in several wars, particularly in the war against the revolutionists of France, and the war against Bonaparte. One of the most remarkable
of these latter was June 20, 1800, when a treaty of subsidies was ratified at
Vienna, between Austria and England, stipulating that the war should be
vigorously prosecuted against France, and that neither of the contracting
powers should enter into a separate peace. Subsidies to Austria, Prussia,
Russia, the Porte, and other powers, were afterwards given by England, to
the amount of many tens of millions sterling.-Phillips.
SUB-TREASURY. Bill providing for the safe keeping of the moneys belonging
to the United States, passed the Senate by 24 to 18, Jan. 23, 1840; repealed
Aug. 9, 1841. Re-enacted in a new form, 184-.
SUCCESSION, ACT of. The memorable act to exclude Roman Catholics
from ascending the throne of Great Britain was passed in 1689; and the
crown of England was settled upon the present royal family by the act cf
June 12, 1701.
SUCCESSION, THE WAR oF. This celebrated war, alike distinguished by
the glorious achievements of the duke of Marlborough and its barren and
unprofitable results, arose in the question whether an Austrian or a French
prince, grandson of Louis XIV.. should succeed to the throne of Spain.
Our court opposed Louis, and Marlborough was victorious; but the allies
withdrew, one after another, and the French prince succeeded; 1702 to
1713. See Utrecltt, Peace of.
SUGAR, Sacchlarm officinarn'm. Sugar is supposed to have been known to the
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ SuL
ancient Jews. Found in the East Indies by Nearchus, admiral of Alexander,
325 B. c. —Strabo. An oriental nation in alliance with Pompey used the
juice of the cane as a common beverage.-Lucae. The best sugar was
produced in India.-Pliany. It was prescribed as a medicine by Galen.Ewscyclop. Brought into Europe fiom Asia, A. D. 625. In large quantities,'1150. It was attempted to be cultivated in Italy; but not succeeding, the
Portuguese and Spaniards carried it to America about 1510.-RobertsoJ1's
Histoy ofv Charles V.*
SUGAR-REFINING. The art of refining sugar was made known to the Europeans by a Venetian, A. D. 1503. It was first practised in England in 1659,
though some authorities say that we had the art among us a few years
sooner. Sugar was first taxed by name, 1 James II., 1685. —lAderson; 1Mortizmer. See Beet Root.
SUICIDE. The first instance of it (passing that of Samson) recorded in Jewish
history is that of Saul, 1055 B. c. —Apollodorz's. The Greek and Roman
philosophers deemed it a crime, and burned the offending hand apart from
the rest of the body. In the early part of the Roman history, the only instance recorded occurs in the reign of Tarquin I., when the soldiers, thinking themselves disgraced by being ordered to make common sewers, destroyed themselves, 606 B. c. Instances afterwards occurred, however, of
illustrious men committing suicide, as Cato, 45 B. c. In the Catholic church,
in the sixth century, it was ordained that no commemoration should be
made in the Eucharist for such as committed self-murder. This. ecclesiastical law continued till the Reformation, when it was admitted into the
statute law of England by the authority of parliament, with the confiscation
of land and goods.
A FEW OF THE MOST MEMORABLE RECENT CASES OF SUICIDE IN ENGLAND, &C.
Suicide of gen. Pichegru April 7, 1804 Of Mr. Simpson, the traveller July 24, 1840
Of marshal Berthier - - June 1, 18115 Oflord James Beresford - April 27, 1841
Of Samuel Whitbred, esq. - Sept. 6, 1515 Of the earl of Mlunster March 20. 1842
Of sir Samuel Romilly - Nov. 2, 1818 Of Laman Blanchard Feb. 25, 1845
Of Christophe, king of Hayti Oct. 8, 1820 Of col. Gurwood - - Dec. 29, 1845
Of marquess ofLondonderry Aug. 12,1822 Of Haydon, the eminent painter
Of hon. colonel Stanhope - Jan. 26, 1825 June 22, 1845
There have been only three instances of self-destruction by fire; that of
the philosopher Empedocles, who threw himself into the crater of Mount
Etna; of a Frenchman, who, in imitation of him, threow himself, in 1820,
into the crater of Vesuvius; and of an Englishman, who jumped into the
furnace of a forge about the year 1811. Plutarch relates that an unaccountable passion for suqcide seized the Milesian virgins, from which they could
not be prevented by the tears and prayers of their friends; but a decree
being issued that the body of every young maid who did self-murder should
be drawn naked through the streets, a stop was soon put to the extraordinary frenzy. In England, the body was buried in cross-roads, a stake being'
previously driven through it, until the statute 4 George IV., 1823.
SULTAN. A Turkish title, from the Arabic, signifying king of kiings, and
given to the grand signior or emperor of Turkey. It was first given to the
Turkish princes Angrolipex and Musgad, about A.. 1055. —Vcattier. It
* About the year 1138 the sugar-cane was transported from Tripoli and Syria to Sicily, thence
to Madeira, and finally to the West Indies and America. It is not known at what date sugar
was introduced into England, but it seems to have been prior to the reign of Henry VIII. Mr.
Whittaker, in the History of Whalley, p. 1.09, quotes an earlier instance, in 1497. A manuscript
letter, from sir Edward Wotton to lord Cobham, dated Calais, 6th March, 1546, advertises him that
sir Edward had taken up for his lordship, 25 sugar-loaves at six shillings a loaf, "' whiche is eithte
penco a pounde." In 1840, the imports of sugar into the United Kingdom were nearly 5,000,000 cwts.,
qf which nearly four millions were for home consumption; and the duty amounted to about five
millions and a half sterling,
SUP DICTIONARY OP DATES. 547
was first given, according to others, to the emperor Mlahbmoud, in the fourth
century of the Hegira.
SUMMATRA, ISLAND or. The Malays at Qualla Battoo having committed
piracies on American vessels, the-town was destroyed by the United States
frigate Potomac, and 150 Malays killed, Feb. 6, 1832.
SUMPTUARY LAWS. Laws to restrain excess in dress, furniture, eating, &c.
Those of Zaleucus ordained that no woman should go attended by more
than one maid in the street, unless she were drunk; and that she should
not wear gold or embroidered apparel, unless she designed to act unchastely,
450 B. c. —Diog. Laert. This law checked luxury. The Lex Orchiia among
the Romans limited the guests at feasts, and the number and quality of the
dishes at an entertainment; and it also enforced that during supper, which
was the chief meal among the Romans, the doors of every house should be
left open. The English sumptuary laws were chiefly in the reigns of Edward III. and Henry VIII. See Dress, LuxzuJry, &c.
SUN. Pythagoras taught that the sun was one of the twelve spheres, about
529 a. c. The relative distances of the sun and moon were first calculated
geometrically by Aristarchus, who also maintained the stability of the sun,
about 280 B. c. Numerous theories were ventured during fifteen centuries,
and astronomy lay neglected until about A. D. 1200, when it was brought
into Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain. The Copernican system
was made known in 1530. See Coperzican S'ystem and Solar S~ystem. Galileo and Newton maintained that the sun was an igneous globe. Maculm
were first discovered by Chr. Scheiner, 1611. Transit of Mercury observed.
by Gassendi. By the observations of Dr. Halley on a spot which darkened
the sun's disk in July and August, 1676, he established the certainty of its
motion round its own axis. Parallax of the sun, Dr. Halley, 1702. A macula, three times the size of the earth, passed the sun's centre, April 21,
1766, and frequently since. Herschel measured two spots whose lengtl
taken together exceeded 50,000 miles, April 19, 1779.
SUN-DIALS. Invented by Anaximander, 550 B. c. —Ptity, 1, 2. The first,
erected at Rome was that by Papirius Cursor, when the time was divided
into hours. 293 B. c. Sun-dials were first set up in churches.,, D. 613.Abbe Lelnglet.
SUNDAY, oR LORD'S DAY. Sunday was the clay on which, anciently, divine adoration cwas paid to the Sun. Among Christi.ans it is called the
Lord's day, on account of. our Saviour's rising from the dead on that
day, which, according to the Jewish account, was the next day after the
sabbath. The apostles transferred that religious rest observed by the Jews
on the sabbath to this day. The first civil- law for its proper observance
was made by Constantine, A...321.-Eusebius. The council of Orleans
prohibited country labor, 338. The Book of Ilmeoce~t Szxelnd/y Sports, authorizing certain sports and pastimes after divine service on Sundays, published in England 14 James I. in 16.17, was violently opposed by the clergy
and puritans. Its sanction by the unfortunate Charles 1. was a primary
cause of the civil war which ended in his death. Thlis book was burn't by
the hangman, and the sports suppressed by order of parliament.-Rapis'a
Sunday schools were established in England flrst by Mr. Raikes. in 1780.
Act of parliament closing all the post-offices on Sunday passed May 1850.
SUPREMACY oven T-HE CH-URCH. The s-premacy of the kling over the
church as well as sovereignty over the state, whereby the'king was made
head of the church of England. was established in 1534i, when Henry VrII.
shook off the yoke of Rome, and settled the supremacy in hiumself Our
kings have from that time had the title of supreme head of the church conferred upon them by parliament. The bishop of Rochester (Fisher) and
548 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. r SWE
the es-lord chancellor (sir Thomas More) were, among numerous others,
beheaded for denying the king's supremacy, 1535. —aIcydn.
SURGERY. It was not until the age of Hippocrates that diseases were made
a separate study from philosophy, &c., about 410 a. c. Hippocrates mentions
the ambe, the ancient instrument with which they reduced dislocated bones.
Celsus flourished about A. D. 17; Galen, 170; JEtius, 500; Paulus 2Egineta
in 640. The Arabians revived surgery about 900; and in the 16th century
sprung up a new era in the science; between these periods surgery was
confined to ignorant priests or barbers. Anatomy was cultivated under the
illustrious Vesalius, the father of modern surgery, in 1538. In England
surgeons and doctors were exempted from bearing arms or serving on juries,
1513, at which period there were only thirteen in London.
SURGEONS, COLLEGE OF. The first charter for surgeons was granted by HIenry VIII., 1540. Formerly barbers and surgeons were united, until it was
enacted that "no person using any shaving or barbery in London shall
occupy any surgery, letting of blood, or other matter, excepting only the
drawing of teeth." TIle surgeons obtained another charter in 1745; and
a new charter in 1800.
SURPLICES. First worn by the Pagan priests. First used in churches, A. D.
316, and generally introduced by pope Adrian, 786. Every minister saying
public prayers shall wear a comely surplice with sleeves, CLan. 58. The
garb prescribed by Stat. 2 Edward VI., 1547; and again 1 Elizabeth, 1558;
and 13 and 14 Charles II., 1662.
SUSPENSION BRIDGES. The greatest and oldest in the world is in China,
near King-tung; it is formed of chains. Rope suspension bridges, from
rocks to rocks, are also of Chinese origin. In these realms chain suspension bridges are of recent construction. The bridge over the M'enai Strait
is the most surprising work, every way considered, of modern times.
SUTTEES, OR THE BURNING oF WIDOWS. This custom began in India from
one of the wives of " Bramah, the son of God," sacrificing herself at his
death, that she might attend him in heaven. So many as seventeen widows
have burned themselves on the funeral pile of a rajah; and in Bengal alone,
700 have thus perished, until lately, in each year. Mr. Holwell was present
at many of these sacrifices. On February 4, 1743, he saw a young and
beautiful creature, only seventeen years of age, the mother of two children,
thus sacrifice herself, with a fortitude and courage that astonished every
witness of the scene. —Holwell. The English government in India have discouraged these s l1f-immolations,,while yet avoiding any undue interference
with the religion and prejudices of the natives. Suttees were abolished by
English colonial law, Dec. 7, 1829; but they have since occasionally, though
rarely, taken place.
SWEARING ON THE GOSPEL. First used A. D. 528. Introduced in judicial
proceedings about 600.-Rapin. FROFANE SWEARING made punishable by
fine; a laborer or servant forfeiting ls., others 2s. for the first offence;- for
the second offence, 4s.; the third offence, 6s.; 6 William III., 1695. See
Oat/ls.
SWEDEN. The ancient inhabitants were the Fins, now the modern inhabitants of Finland, a diminutive race, who retired to their present territory
on the appearance of the Scandinavians or Goths, who have ever since been
masters of the country.
Gylf reigns in Sweden - - -B.c. 57I barbarians, falls upon the North of
During this reign, Odin, surnamed the Europe, making vasts conquests *"
Divine, at the head of a swarm olf
SWE 3 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 549
SWEDEN, conetieaed.
Ynge, founder of the family of the Yn- Battle of Pultowa, whiere Charles is
lingars, reigns - - - B.C. 32 defeated by the czar of Russia. See
[The early history of the Ikingdom is Putltocs - - - A.D. 1709
altogether involved in fables and ob- lIe escapes to Bender, where after three
scurity.] years' protection, he is made prison-......* * s er by the Turlks - - - 1713
Olif the Infant is baptized, and intro- le is restored; and after ruinous wars,
duces Christianity among his people, and fighting numerous battles, he is
about - - - A.D. 1000 at len-th killed at the siege of FredeGothland, so celebrated for its warlike rickshall - - - Dec. 11, 1718
people and invasions of other coun- Queen Ulrica Eleanor abolishes despottries, is annexed to Sweden - - 1132 i. government - - - - 1719
Waldemar I. of Denmark subdues Ru- Royal Academy founded by Linn6, afgen, and destroys the Pagan temples 1168 terwards called Linnaeus -..1741
Stockholm founded - - - 1260 Conspiracy of counts Brahe and Horne,
Magnus Ladelus establishes a regular who are beheaded - - 1756
form of government - - 1279 Despotism re-established - 1772
The crown of Sweden, which had been Order of the Sword instituted - 1772
hereditary, is made elective; and Assassination of Gustavus III. by ount
Steenchel Magnus, surnamed Smeek, Ankerstrom, at a ball, March 16: he
or the Foolish, king of Norway, is expired the 29th - - 1792
elected - - 1318 The regicide was dreadfully scourged
Waldemar lays Gothland waste- - 1361 with whips of iron thongs three sucThe crown made elective -- 1320 cessive days; his right hand was cut
Albert of Mecklenburg reigns - - 1365 off, then his head, and his body imSweden united to the crown of Denmark paled - - - May 18. 1792
and Norway, under Margaret - 1394 Gustavus IV. dethroned, and the goUniversity of Upsal fobunded - 1476 vernment assumned by his uncle, the
Christian II., "the Nero of the North," duke of Sudermania - March 13, 1809
massacres all the Swedish nobility, to Sweden cedes Finland to the czar of
fix his despotism - - 1520 Russia - - Sept. 17, 1809
The Swedes delivered from the Danish Marshal Bernadotte, the prince of Ponte
yoke by the valor of Gtustavus Vasa 1523 Corvo, is chosen the crown prince of
IHe makes the crown hereditary, and Sweden - - Aug. 11, 1810
introduces the refobrined religion - 1544 Gustavus IV. arrived in London,
The titles of count and baron introduced Nov. 12, 1810
by Eric XIV. - -61 Swedish Pomerania seized by NapoThe conquests of Gustavus Adolphus, leon Bonaparte - Jan. 9, 1812
between 1612 and - 1617 Alliance with England - July 12, 1812
He is slain at Lutzen - 1633 Sweden joins the grand alliance against
Rugen ceded to Sweden by Denmark - 1648 Napoleon - - March 13, 1813
Abdication of Christina - - 1654 Norway is ceded to Sweden by the treaCharles X. overruns Poland - - 1657 ty of K iel - - Jan. 14, 1814
Arts and sciences begin to flourish - 1660 Bernadotte ascends the throne of SweCharles XII., "the madnman of the den as Charles John XIV. - Feb. 5, 18SIS
North," begins his reign - 1699 Treaty of navigation between Great
Ile makes himself absolute, abolishes Britain and Sweden - May 19, 1826
the senate - **
KINGS OF SWEDEN.
A D 825 1Regnard Lobrock. 1223 Eric XII.
* * ieigns uncertain.] 1250 Waldemnar.
966 Eric, the Victor. 1276 Magnus II.
994 Olaf, or Olif Sckotkong. 1290 Birger II.
1026 Edmund Jacobson. 1318 Magnus III.; dethroned by his subjects
1035 Edmund, or Amand III. 1365 Albert.
1041 Haquin. 1397 Margaret.
1056 Stenkell, or Steenchel. 1411 Eric XIII.; abdicated.
1060 Ingo I.; assassinated by his brother. 1441 Christopher.
1064 Halstan. 1448 Charles VIII.
1080 Philip. 1458 Christian I.
1100 Ingo II.; died in a monastery. 1497 John II.
1130 Rafgwald; murdered by the Visigoths. 1520 Christian II.
1133 Magnus I.; assassinated in Scania. 1528 Gustavus I., Vasa.
1144 Suercher II. 1556 Eric XIV.; died in prison.
1150 Eric X.; beheaded by rebels. 1569 John III.
1162 Charles VII.; made prisoner by Ca- 1592 Sigismond I., king of Poland.
nute, who reigns. 1606 Charles IX..
1168 Canute, son of Eric X. 1611 Gustavus Adolphus II.
1192 Suercher III., son of Charles; killed in 1632 Christina; resigned her crown to
battle. 1654 Charles X., Gustavus duke of Deux.
1211 Eric XI. Ponts.
1220 John 1. 1660 Charles XI.
550 TIIE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ swot
SWEDEN, chttltlnued.
1699 Charles XII.; killed at the siege of 1771 Gustavus IIT., Adolphus,
Frederickshall. 1792 Gustavus Ado]lphus IV.
1718 Ulrica Eleanora; resigned when her 1809 Charles XIII.
husband was elected. 1818 Charles John XTV., Bernadotte, Feb. 5,
1720 Frederick, landgrave of Hesse-Cassel. 1844 Oscar, his son, March 8.
1751 Adolphus Frederick, duke of Holstein.
SWEDENBORGIANS. A sect of mystics, so called from the learned but eccentric Emanuel Swedenborg, a Swedish nobleman. He considered the New
Jerusalem, foretold in the Apocalypse, to be a church now about to be established, in which will be known the true nature of God and of man, of
the Word, of heaven and of hell-concerning all which subjects error and.
ignorance now prevail, and in which church this knowledge will bear its
proper fruits-love to the Lord and to one's neighbor, and purity of life.
His first work on theology was published in 1743; his sect rose about 1760,
but it did not spread in England until 1782. His doctrines have a considerable number of respectable advocates in the United States.
SWITZERLAND. The ancient Helvetians were a Gaulish people, conquered
by Julius Cesar, and afterwards subject to the Burguncldians and Germans.
Many Franks also settled here in the early ages. The canton of Schweitz
was -peopled by the Cimbrians, who, leaving their original habiteation it,
Scandinavia, invaded Italy, and were defeated by the Roman general Marius;
after which they fled into Helvetia, about 100 B. c. This canton has given
name to the whole confederacy.
The Itelvetians; converted to Christian- Independence of Svitzerland recognized
ity by Irish missionaries - A.D. 612 by the treaty of' Westphalia (see
HIelvetia ravaged by the Hluns - 909 lVestphalia, Peace of) - D. 1648
Becoines subject to Germany - 1032 [From this period until the French ReFribourg built by Berthold IV. - - 1179 volution the canton enjoyed tranquilTyranny of' Geszler, which occasions lity, disturbed only by the changes
the memorable revolt under the pa- arising out of their various constitutriot William Tell. - 1306 tions.)
Swiss independence - Nov. 7, 1307 Alliance with France - May 25, 1777
A malignant fever carries off, in the can- Domestic strife in Geneva, between the
ton of Basle, 11000 souls - -1314 aristocratic and democratic parties;
Form of government. made perpetual - 1315 France interferes - -1781
Lucerne joins the confederacy - 1335 1000 fugitive Genevans seek an asylum
The canton of Zurich joins, and be- in Ireland (see Geneva) - 1782
comes head of'the league - - 1350 Swiss guards ordered to quit France - 1792
Berne, Glaris, and Zug join - 1351 llelvetic confederation dissolved; its
The Grisons league (see Caddee) - 1400 subjugation by France - 1798
Second league of'the Grisons - 1424 Thle numsber ofcantons increased to19;
The third league of the Grisons -1436 the federal government restored; and
Swiss soldiers first enter into the pay a landtlamnan appointed by France,
of France, under Louis XI. 1480 May 12, 1802
Union of Fribourg and Soleure - 1481 Uri, Schweitz, ansd Underwald separate
Maximilian I. emperor, acnowledges from the republic - July 13, 1802
Swiss independence - 1499 Switzerland joins France with 6,000
Schaffhlausen joins the union - 1501 men - - Aug. 24, 1811
The Swiss confederacy acknowledged The Allies entered Switzerland in the
by France and other powers - 1516 spring of 1814. The numbser of can
The Reformation begins at Basle; the tons increased to 22, and the indepenbishop compelled to retire - - 1519 deunce of Switzerland secured by the
The Grison leagues join the Swiss con- treaty of Vienna - 1815
fecleracy as allies - - - 1544 Federal diet opened - Oct. 16, 1847
Appenzel joins the other cantons -1597 -passes resolves against the SonderCharles Emanuel of Savoy attempts bund, and troops of Uri attack canton
Geneva by surprise, scales the walls, Tessino - - Nov. 4, 1847
and penetrates the town; but in the Forces of the diet attack Friburg, Nov.
end is defeated - - 1602 10, and tale Lucerne - Nov. 24, 1847
[This circumstance gives rise to an an- Neufclhatel declares independence,
nual festival commemorative of their Feb. 29, 18-148
escape from tyranny.]
SiWORDS. They were formed of iron taken from a mountain by the Chinese,
1879 n, c, —Utiv. Hist. The sword is one of the earliest implenent,
,rYRj DICTIONARY OF DATES. 551
of war. The Roman swords were from 20 to 30 inches long. The broadsword and scimitar are of modern adoption. The sword of state carried at
an English king's coronation by a king of Scotland, 1194. Damascus steel
swords are the most prized; and next, the sword of' Ferrara steel. The
Scotch Highlanders were accustomed to procure the latter fiom a celebrated
artificer, named Andrea di Ferrara, and used to call them their AblrCew
Fecrrabras. The broad-sword was forbidden to be worn in Edinburgh in
1724.
SYCAMlORE-TREE. This tree is called by some the Egyptian Fig-tree. The
date of its being planted in England is not known, but it was very early.
In Nirs. Jamieson's Memoirs of Female Sovereigns, we are told that Mary
queen of Scots brought over from France a little sycamore-tree, which she
planted in the gardens of Holyrood, and that from this little tree have
sprung all the beautiful groves of sycamore now to be seen in Scotland.
SYDNEY, NEW SOUTH WALES. Founded by governor Philip, on a cove of Port
Jackson, in 1788, as a British settlement for the colony of convicts originally
intended for Botany Bay; but now the principal seat of the government of
the colony. It was denominated Sydney in complimlent to lord Sydney.
The town is now becoming considerable in extent and population; and it
has a legislative council, which was first held July 13, 1829. See New Soentl
Wales; Convicts, 4-c.
SYNAGOGUE. Authors are not agreed as to the time when the Jews first had
synagogues. Some refer it to the time of the ceremonial law, and others
to the times after the Babylonish captivity. In Jerusalem were 480 synagogues. There are in London six synagogues.
SYNOD. The first general synods were called by emperors, and afterwards by
Christian princes; but the pope ultimately usurped this power, one of his
legates usually presiding (see Councils). National, were those of one nation
only. The first of this kind held in England was at Hertford, A. D. 673: the
last was held by cardinal Pole in 1555. Made unlawful to hold synods but
by royal authority, 25 Henry VIII., 1533.
SYNOD oF DORT. The famous, or general assembly of Dort in Holland, to
which deputies were sent from England and all the reformed churches in
Europe, to settle the difference between the doctrines of Luther, Calvin,
and Arminius, principally upon the points of justification and grace, 1618.
-Aitzema.
SYRACUSE. Founded by Archias, 732 B. c. —Etsebius. 749 R. c. — Univ. Hist.
Taken by Marcellus, when Archimedes, the illustrious mathematician, was
slain, 212 B. C. (see Sicily). Syracuse was destroyed by an earthquake, with
many thousands of its inhabitants, January 1693. Again nearly destroyed,
Aug. 6, 1757.
SYRIA. Of the early history of ancient Syria, a few particulars are gleaned
from Scripture; and it otherwise affords nothing peculiar, being involved
in the histories of the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian empires (whici
see). The capital of Syria was originally Damascus; but after the battle
of Ipsus, Seleucus (the chief of the Seleucidwt) founded the celebrated city
of Antioch.
Seleucus, surnamed Nicator, i. e. Con- Antiochus, son of Seleucus. falling in
queror, enters Babylon - - R.. 312 love with his fatheves' queen, StratonAEra of the Seleucidce (lwhichs see) - 312 ice, he pines away nearly to death;
Great Battle of Ipsus, defeat and death but the secret being discovered, she
of Antigonus 301 is divorced by the atlther and married
City of' Antioch founded. 299 by the son..' - Boc. 297
* This is related as one of the most strange events connected with the early history of physic.
7rasistratus, the ill ustrious father of anato-ny (jointly with lerophilus), had albseryed, than wlien
552 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ SYR
SYRIA, continned.
Battle of Cyropmedion - s.c. 281 Noureddin conquers Syria - A.D. 116CSeleucus is foully assassinated by Ce- Saladin puts an end to the power of the
raunus.-Lensglet. - - - 280 Fatimite dynasty - - - 1171
Antiochus defeats the Gauls, and takes The Tartars overrun all Syria - -1259
the name of Soter, or Saviour - 275 Recovered by the sultans of Egypt, who
Reign of Antiochus It., surnamed by the expel the Crusaders - - - 1291
Milesians Theos, or God! - - 261 Syria overrun by Tamerlane - - 140
Seleucus II. makes a treaty of alliance Conquered by the Turks under Selim - 15.7
with Smyrna and Magnesia' - - 243
Reign of Seleucus III., surnamed Ce- After the conquest by Selim, Syria conrsaunus. or Thunder - - 226 tinued in possession of the Turks till
Battle of Raphia, in which Antiochus the invasion of Egypt by the Frelch,
III. is signally defeated - - 217 July 1, 1797
Antiochus' conquest of Judea - - 204 Bonaparte defeats the Mamelukes with
War with the Romans begins - - 192 great loss - - - Aug. 6, 1798
Reign of Antiochus IV., who assumes He overruns the country, and takes Gathe title of Theos-Epiphanes, or the za and Jafla - - - -1798
Illustrious God! - - - 175 Siege of Acre - March 6 to May 27, 1799
He sends Appolonius into Judea; Jeru- Bonaparte returns to France from Esalem is taken; the temple pillaged; gypt - - - - Aug. 23, 1799
40,000 inhabitants destroyed, and Egypt is evacuated by the French army
40.000 more sold as slaves - 170 Sept. 10, 1801
Cleopatra, the queen, murders her son Mehemet Ali attacks and captures A -re,
Seleucus with her own hand - 124 and overruns the whole of Syria, 1831-32
Reign of her son Antiochus Grypus, Ibraham Pacha, his son, defeats the arwhom she attempts to poison; but he my of the grand signior - July 30, 1832
compels his mother to swallow the [Numerous battles and conflicts follow
deadly draught herself - - 123 with various success.]
Reign of Cyzicenus at Damascus, and Ibrahim Pacha defeats the Turkish arof Grypus at Antioch - - 111 my, making 10,000 prisoners, June 25, 1839
Defeat of Tigranes by Pompey, who en- The Turkish fleet arrives at Alexandria
ters Syria, and dethrones Antiochus and places itself at the disposal of
Asiatichus, about - - - 65 MehemetAli - - - July 14, 1839.... "I' * * * The Five Powers propose to the Porte
Conquest ol'Syria - - A.. 970 to negotiate with Mehemet All, July
[This conquest is made by the Fatimite 16, 1839
caliphs who rule in Egypt.] Death of the celebrated lady Hester
Revolt of the emirs of Damascus - 1067 Stanhope - - - June 23, 1840
The emirs of Aleppo revolt - - 1068 Treaty of London (not signed by offendThe Crusades fiom Europe commence ed France) - - - July 15, 1840
(see article Crusades) - - 1095 Capture of Sidon Sept. 27, 1840
[The Christians ultimately conquer that Fall of' Beyrout (see Beyrout) Oct. 10 1840
part of Syria called the Holy Land.- Fall of Acre (see Acre) - Nov. 3, 184U
See Jerusalem.]
After much expostulation with the sultan, the four powers, England, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, prevail upon him to make the pachalic of Egypt
hereditary:n the family of Mehemet All, who surrenders to the Tulrkis'
fleet, and whose troops evacuate Syria. A treaty to that effect signed at
London, between the representatives of those powers, July 13, 1841. This
result conciliates France, and promises peace in the East, and its continuance among the great powers of Europe.
ever the queen appeared, the young prince her step-son blushed. a tremor overspread his frame
his pulse quickened, and his voice grew weak. She was of his own age, and of exceeding beauty.
On discovering the true cause of his patient's disorder, Erasistratus adopted an expedient whic,'
was the foundation of his great fame. He informed the king that his heir must die, as he languished
under a hopeless passion.' Who," asked Seleucus, "is the object of his love? " y "'YI ife,"
answered the physician. "'Then resign her to him," said the ki'lng.' But if," said Erasistratus' it were the queen he loved, would you, Seleucus, yield up the idol of your affections to another'
"Yes," replied Seleucrus,' I would readily relinquish both my queen and liingdom to save
my son's life."'"Then be at ease," Erasistratus rejoined, " for the object of his love is Stra
tollice!"-Biog. Dict.
* This treaty was engraved on a marble column, now in the court of the Theatre of Oxford. I
was presented to Oxford by the earl of Arundel in the reign of Charles II.
TlHR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 553
T.
T iHITI. The French, or abbreviated name for Otaheite. See Otaheite.
TALAVERA, BATTLE 01, between the united British and Spanish armies under
sir Arthur Weilesley (19,000 British and 30,000 Spaniards), and the French
army, amounting to 47,000, commanded by marshals Victor and Sebastiani,
July 27 and 28, 1809.
TALMUD. There are two books of the doctrine of the religion and morality
of the Jews,-the Talmud of Jerusalem, and the Taniuclud of Babylon. The
one composed by the Rabbi Juda Hakkadosh, about the close of the second
century; the second, being commentaries, &c., by sncceeding rabbis, were
collected by Ben Eliezer, about the sixth century. Abridged by Maimonides in the twelfth century.
TAMERLANE. The conqueror of Persia, India and Egypt, and plunderer of
Bagdad, Delhi, and Cairo; He subdued the renowned warrior Bajazet, sultan of the Turks, whom he exposed in a large iron cage, the fate the latter
had destined for his adversary if he had been the victor. Bajazet dashed
his head against the bars of this prison, and killed himself, 1403.-ChtaCcondila's Hist. Tzl'k.
TANNING. Was early practised by various nations. The use of tan was introduced into these countries from Holland by William III. for raising
orange-trees, It was discontinued until about 1719, when ananas were first
brought into England. Since then, tan has been in general use in gardening. Great improvements were made in tanning in 1795, et seq.
TAPESTRY. An art of weaving borrowed from the Saracens, and hence
its original workers in France were called Sarazinois. The invention of
tapestry hangings belongs [the date is not mentioned] to the Netherlands.
-Gsuicciac'dini. Manufactured in France under Henry IV., by artists invited fiom Flanders, 1606. The art was brought into England by William
Sheldon; and the first manufactory of it was established at Mortlake by sir
Francis Crane, 17 James I., 1619.-Salmons. Under Louis XIV. the art of
tapestry was much improved in France. See Gobelin Tapestry. Very early
instances of making tapestry are mentioned by the ancient poets, and also
in Scripture; so that the Saracens' mnanufkcture is a revival of the art. For
the tapestry wrought by Matilda of England, see Bayeex Tcapestry.TARENTUM, WAR oF. The war which the people of Tarentum supported.
against the Romans, assisted by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, and which is
greatly celebrated in history. This war, which had been undertaken B. c.
281, by the Romans, to avenge the insults the Tarentines had offered to their
ships when near their harbors, was terminated after ten years; 300,000 prisoners were taken, and Tarentum became subject to Rome.
_ARTARY. This name is given to several nations of the East. The Tartar
race was known and celebrated in antiquity under the name of Scythians.
It was during the decline of the Roman empire that these tribes began permanently to forsake their own plains, in search of more fertile regions; and
the first of these ravagers whose terror and fame reached the frontier of
Italy were the Huns, the ancestors of the modern race of Mongols. The
first acknowledged sovereign of this vast country was the famous Jenghis
Klhan, A. ). 1206. His empire, by the conquest of China, Persia, and all
Central Asia, became one of the most formidable ever established; but it
was split into parts in a few reigns. Timur, or Tamerlane, again conquered
Persia, again broke the power of the Turks in Asia Minor, 1402, and
founded a dynasty in India, which formed the most splendid court in Asia,
till the close of the eighteenth century.
TAVERNS. In England, were places of entertainment, under various names,
24
554 THE WVORLD'S PROGRESS. [ TEA
in ancient times. Taverns, as so called, may be traced to the 13th century.
"In the raigne of king Edward the Third ontly th'ee tlaverns were allowed
in London: one in Chepe, one in Walbroke. and the other in Loinbardstreet.-"-Sbi J'/~n?/ X,lSelpleban. The Boair's lead, in Eastcheap, existedci in
the reign of Henry IV., and was the rendezvous of prince Henry and his
dissolute companions. Shakspeare mlentions it as the residence of Mrs.
Quickly, and the scene of sir Johnl Falstaff-'s meimer lt.-m, S'/n at Sesperc,
tHecny IV. Of little less antiquity is the V/ate rie I-t, Bishopsgate, estlhblished in 1480: this house was rebuilt in 1829. Taverns were restrained by
an act of Edward VI., 1552, to 40 in London, 8 in York, 4 in Norwich, S
in Westminster, 6 in Bristol, 3 in Lincoln, 4 in Hull, 3 in Shrlewsbhnly, 4 in
Exeter, 3 in Salisbury, 4 in Gloucester, 4 in Chester, 3 in Hereford,' in
WTorcester, 3 in Southampton, 4 in Canterbury, 3 in Ips'wich, 3 in Winchester,
3 in Oxford, 4 in Cambridge, 3 in Colchester, 4 in Newcastle-upon-TIyne.
Taverns were licensed in 1752.
TAXES. The first levied on the people was by Solon, the first Athenian legislator, 540 Bs.. iThe first class of citizens paid an Attic talent of silver,
about 551. English money. The next wvas by Darius, the son of' Hystaspes,
whicIh was a land-tax by assessment, and deermed so odious that his subjects
styled hi, by way of cl derision, Darius the Trader, 480 B. e. —D'Po's Histoiee des Iinzccences.'axes in sp)ecie were first introduced into Englancldby
William I., 1067, and he raised them arbitrarily; yet subsidies in kindcl as
in wvool, corn, leather, and other products of the country, continued till
the accession of Richard II., 1377. —Csadea. First taxation of the British
colonies in America, 1764' produced active resistance, 1705; stamp -act
repealed, 1766: re-enacted 1767. See iucogLe,!ievcurte, Cost of.Govern?
wment, &c.
TE DEUliJ. A kind of hymn or song of thanlksgiivig used in the church,
beginning with the words'le DeLtu lCeudlemns-We praise thee. O God. It
is generally supposed to be the composition of Augustin ard Ambrose,
about A. D. 390; and is sung in the Romish church with extraorlinary pomp
and solemnity on some happy event, such as a national thanksgivingl for a
great victory or for a bounteous harvest.
TE.A. First known in Europe; being brought from India by the Dutch, 1610.
Brought into England in 1666, by lord Ossory and lord Arlington, from
Holland and being admclired by persons of rank, it was imported from
thence, and generally sold for 60 shillings per pound, till our East India
Company took up the tradce.-Anderson. Green tea began to be used in 171-5.
The duty imposed on tea in America, 1767. This tax occasioned the destruction of 17 chests at New York, and 340 at Boston, November 1773,
and was one of the causes of the Revolutionary war.
TEAS IMPORTED INTO ENGLAND OR CHARGED WVITH DUTY IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS.
1726. l- bs. 700,000 1805. - bs. 24,133,000 1 i825. lbs. 27,803,66r
1766. - - 7,000,000 1810. - 250,414000 1830. - 30,544,40!
1792. - - 13,185,000 1815. - 26u368,000 1835. 44,360,55,
1800. 23,723,000 1820. - 25,662,474 1840. - - 38,068,55
In England, the duty derived on tea is now about 4,000,0001. annually.
Millions of pounds weight of sloe, liquorice. and ash-tree leaves, are every
year mixed with Chinese teas in Englandcl. —Repot of the Itouse of Commons,
1818. The consumption of the whole civilized world, exclusively of England, is about 22 000,000 of pounds, while the annual consumption in Great
Britain is 30.000.000.-Evi'del.ce inb the Sobse o/ Couno.ess 1830. Tile first
tea-sale in London on the abolition of -the exclusive privileg of the'East
India Company, Aug. 19, 1834. The value of teas- imported into the United
States for one year, ending July 1, 1847, was $4;278,463; while that of coffee
was,9,102,872.
retE ] DICTIONARY OF:DATES. 555
TEA-TREE. T7ea Bogecc.. Bronght to England friom China, about 1768.
The finest tea-plant known in England was raised in Kew Gardens; but the
first that ever flourished in Europe was one belonging to the duke of' Northumiberland at Sion.
TELEGRAPHS. They were early in use. Polybius calls the different instruments -usel by the ancients for communicating information py-,'si2e,
because the signals were always made by fire. The most ingenious of the
moderns had not thonglht of such a machine as a telegraph until 1663, when
the plan was suggested by the marquis of Worcester. The first idea of a
telegraph on the modern construction was suggested by Dr. Hooke, 1684.
M. Amontons is also said to have been the inventor of telegraphs about
this period. It was not till 1793 that the instrument was applied to useful
purposes: M. Chappe then invented the telegraph first used by the French.
Two erected over the admiralty-office, London, 1796. The Semaphore was
erected there 1816. The naval signals, by telegraph, enable 400 previouslyconcerted sentences to be transmitted from ship to ship, tv varying the
combinations of two revolving crosses; and also to spell any particular
words, letter by letter. See Electric Telegrapb.
TELESCOPES. This invention is noticed by Leonard Digges, about 1571.
Roger Bacon, about A. D. 1250, described telescopes and microscopes exactly, and yet neither were macle till one Metius, at Alkanmaer, and Jansen,
of Middleburgh, made themn about the same time; the latter from an accidental discovery made by his children, 1590-1609. Galileo imitated
their invention by its description, and made three in succession, one of
which magnified a thousand times. With these he discovered Jupiter's
moons and the phases of Venus. Telescopes became very popular. and
were improved by Zucchi, Huygens, Gregory, and Newton; and finally by
Martin, Hall, Dolland, andcl H-erschel. Achromatic telescopes were made by
More Hall, about 1723. A telescope was made in London for the observatory of Madrid, which cost 11.0001. in 1802; but the Herschel telescope,
made 1789-1795, is superior: it has the great speculum 48 inches in diameter, 3, inches thick, weighs 2118 lbs., and magnifies 6400 times. See
Iler'sclhel Telescope.
TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES, It is to the credit of the American people that
the first great public movement in behalf of temperance was made in this
country. Temperance societies began to be formed in 1825-6. One of the
most prominent of the first promoters of the reform was the Rev. Dr. Hewitt
of Connecticut, who was worthily styled the Apostle of Temperance. The
exertions of this and other energetic advocates of temnperance and total
abstinence have effected a wonderful change for the better in the general
habits of the people. Several thousand temperance societies. under various
names, have been formed, andl a large number of vessels now sail from
various ports of the United States, the crews of which are unsupplied with
spirituous liquors of any kind. The movement has spread to some extent
in Europe, but by far the most successful of its promoters has been the
Rev. Theobald Mathew, a Roman Catholic clergyman in Ireland, who has
administered the "total abstinence" pledge to about two millions of his
countrymen. He commenced his ministry in this cause in 1830. In Germany there were 300 temperance societies in 1846.
TEMIPLARS. The first military order of Knights Templars was founded in
A. D. 1118 by Baldwin II., iking of Jerusalem. The templars were numerous
in several countries, and camine to England in 1185. The order was suppressed by the council of Vienna, and its revenues were bestowed upon
other orderls. in 1312. Numbers of the order were burnt alive and hanged,
and it suffered great persecutions throughout Europe, particularly in France
556 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ TEW
in the reign of Philip of Valois, 1342. They were several times suppressed
in England, and finally in 1340.
TEMPLE, LONDON. Thus called, because it was anciently the dwelling house
of the Knights Templars. At the suppression of that order, it was purchased
by the professors of the common law, and converted into inns. They are
called the Inner and Middle Temple.
TEMPLES. They originated in the sepulchres built for the dead.-BElsebies.
The Egyptians were the first who erected temples to the gods.-Herodotus.
The first erected in Greece is ascribed to Deucalion.-Apolloniuls. For temple of Belus, see Babel. The temple of Jerusalem, built by Solomon, 1012
B. c. Fired by Nebuchadnezzar, 587 B. c. Rebuilt, 536 B. c. Pillaged by
Antiochus, 170 B. c. Rebuilt by Herod, 18 B. c. Destroyed by Titus, A. D.
70.-The temple of Apollo, at DELPHOS, first a-cottage with boughs, built
of stone by Trophorius, about 1200 B. d. Burnt by the Pisistratidme, 548 B.c.
A new temple raised by the family of the AlcmTeonidse, about 513 B. C.Temple of Diana at Ephesus, built seven times; planned by Ctesiphon, 544
B. c. Fired by Erostratus, to perpetuate his name, 356 B. c. To rebuild it,
employed 220 years. Destroyed by the Goths, A. D. 260.-The Temple of
Piety was built by Acilius, on the spot where once a woman had fed w. rh
her milk her aged father, whom the senate had imprisoned, and exclude t
from all aliments.-Val. Max. Temple of Theseus, built 480 years B. c.,
is at this day the most perfect ancient edifice in the world.-The heathen
temples were destroyed throughout the Roman empire by Constantine the
Great, A. D. 331. See IHeathen Temples.
TENNESSEE. One of the United States; was originally included in the charter of North Carolina by Charles II. in 1664; first settlement on Wetanga
river, 1757; attacked, and 200 men, women, and children massacred by the
Indians in 1760; the Indians chastised next year, but continued frequent
contests with the colonists for several years. The territory ceded by North
Carolina to the United States in 1790; admitted into the Union'as a State,
1796. Population in 1790, 35:691; in 1810, 261,727; in 1830, 681,904; in
1840, 829,210, including 183,059 slaves.
TEST ACT. The statute of Charles II., directing all officers, civil and military. under government, to receive the sacrament according to the forms of
the Church of England, and to take the oaths against transubstantiation,
&c., was enacted March 1673; repealed, 1828.
TEUTONI, OR TEUTONES. A people of Germany, who with the Cimb'i:
made incursions upon Gaul, and cut to pieces two Roman armies. They
were at last defeated by the consul Marius, and an infinite number made
prisoners, 101 B. C. See Cimbri.
TEUTONIC ORDER. The order of military knights established in the Holy
Land towards the close of the twelfth century. The institution arose in
the humanity of the Teutones to the sick and wounded of the Christian
army under the celebrated Guy of Lusignan when before Acre. The
order was confirmed by a bull of pope Caelestine III., A. D. 1191. See
Prussia, &c.
TEWKSBURY, BATTLE OF, in which Edward IV. gained a decisive victory over
the Lancastrians. Queen Margaret, the consort of Henry VI., and her son,
were taken prisoners. The queen was conveyed to the Tower of London,
where king Henry expired a few days after this fatal engagement; being,
as is generally supposed, murdered by the duke of Gloucester, afterwards Richard III. The queen was ransomed in 1475, by the French king,
Lewis XI., for 50,000 crowns. This was the last battle between the houses
of' ork and Lancaster, May 4, 1471. See Roses.
THE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 557
TEXAS. One of the United States; first settled by the Spaniards at San Francisco in 1690; made one of the federal States of Mexico, in conjunction
with the adjacent State of Coahuila, on the formation of the Mexican republic-an unpopular Union to the Texans, and productive of the first disagreement with the central government; colonization of Texas by'emigrants
from the United States, commenced 1821; war with Mexico for independence commenced 1833, and ended by the defeat and capture of the Mexican
president, Santa Anna, at San Jacinto, 21st April, 1836, which secured the
independence of Texas; admitted into the Union as a State (the 28th),
after active opposition with reference to...qgclusion of slavery, Feb. 20,
1845. Population at that time about:,-;U&3. [The first treaty for its annexation was rejected by the United States Senate, 35 to 16, June 8, 1844.]
THAMES TUNNEL. Projected by Mr. Brunel, to form a communication
between the two sides of the river, at Rotherhithe and Wapping, the most
extraordinary construction of ancient or modern times. The shaft was
begun in 1825. At a distance of 544 feet friom the shaft the -first irruption
took place, May 18, 1827. The second irruption, by which six workmen
perished, Jan. 12, 1828. The length of the tunnel is 1300 feet; its width
is 35 feet; height, 20 feet; clear width of each archway, including footpath,
about 14 feet; thickness of earth beneath the crown of the tunnel and the
bed of the river, about 15 feet. The tunnel was opened throughout for foot
passengers, March 25, 1843.
THANE. A title much in use anciently, and which sometimes signified a
nobleman, sometimes a freeman, and sometimes a magistrate; but most
properly, an officeci under the king. The Saxons had a nobility called
thanes, and the Scots also. The title was abolished in England at the Conquest, upon the introduction of the feudal system. Abolished in Scotland
by king Malcolm III., when the title of earl was adopted, 1057.
THEATRES. That of Bacchus, at Athens, built by Philos, 420 B. c., was the
first erected. Marcellus' theatre at Rome was built about 80 B.c. Theatres
were afterwards numerous, and were erected in most cities of Italy. There
was a theatre at Pompeii where most of the inhabitants of the town were
assembled on the night of August 24, A. D. 79, when an eruption of Vesuvius covered Pompeii. Scenes were introduced into theatres, painted by
Baithazar Sienna, A. D. 1533. The first royal license for a theatre in England
was in 1574, to master Burlbge and four others, servants of the earl of
Leicester, to act plays at the Globe, Bankside. See Globe. But long before
that time, miracle plays were represented in the fields. The prices of admission in the reign of queen Elizabeth were, gallery, 2d.; lords' room, Is.
— Dick-ens. The first play-bill was dated April 8, 1663, and issued frc:.&
Drury-lane; it runs thus: " By his Majestie, his company of Comedians at
the New Theatre in Drury Lane, will be acted a comedy called the Ulemomv-'ovs Lievtern7at." After detailing the characters, it concludes thus: "The
play will begin at three o'clock exactly." Lincoln's-inn theatre was opened
in 1695. The first attempt at theatrical performances in the United States
was the acting of Otway's Orp/lam, in Boston, in 1750; but all such exhibitions were immediately afterwards prohibited there. A strolling company
acted in a sail-loft in New York in 1758. The first regular theatre was in
New York in 1793; the second il: Boston; and the third in Philadelphia
soon after. Dunlap's History of the American Tleatre was published in New
York, 1832. See DranmZa, PlcyaS, &c.
rHEBES. The ancient celebrated city of Thebais in Egypt, called also Hecatomnpylos, on account of its hundred gates, and Diospolis, as being sacred to
Jupiter. In the time of its splendor, it extended above twenty-three miles,
and upon any emergency could send into the field, by each of its hundred
558 TIE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ THR
gates, 20,000 fighting men and 200 chariots. Thebes was ruined by Cambyses. king of' Persia, and few traces of it were seen in the age of Juvena.l.
-Piutarc/z. Also Thebes. the capital of the country successively called
Aonia_ Messapia Ogygia, Hyantis, and Bceotia. See Brzotia. Thebes was
called Cadcmeis, fron Cadlmus, the founder of the city. It rose to a celebrated repulblic. stylcd-the Theban, about 820 n. c. It was dismantled by
the Romans, 145 B. c.-Liry; I'tlaucydidcs.
THEFT. This offence was punished by heavy fines among the Jews. By dealth
at Athens, by the laws of Draco. See Dr'aco. The Anglo-Saxons nominally punished theft with death, if above 12d. value; but the criminal could
redeem his life by a ransom. In the 9th of Henry I. this power of redemation was taken away, 1108. The laws against theft, until lately, were very
severe in England; they were revised by Mr. (afterwards Sir Robert) I'eel's
acts, 9 and 10 George IV.
THEISTS. The sect so called came in with the Restoration, about 1660. ansd
they taught a union with all men who believed in one God, but who rejected public worship and exterior forms of religion. They mlaintained that
their religion was better because older and more simple than that which was
given by God to the Hebrews.
THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. The first in the United States was that at Andover, founded 1808.
THERMOMETER. The invention of this instrument is ascribed to several
scientific person all about the same time. Invented by Drebbel of Alemaer,
A. D. 1609.-Boerlta avc. Invented by Paulo Sarpi, 1609.-Fl-/aoee7Lho. Invented by Sanctorio in 1610.-Bo'elali. Fahrenheit's thermometer was invented
about 1726; and the scale called Reaumur's soon afterl, 1730. The mode of
construction by substituting quicksilver for spirits was invented some years
subsequently.
THERMOPYLIAE, BATTL, Or. Leonidas at the head of 300 Spartans, at the
defile of' Thelrmoplyl, withstands the whole force of the Persians during three
days, when Ephialtes, a Trachinian, perfidiously leading the enemy by a secret path up the mountains, brings them to the rear of the Greeks, vwho,
thus placed between two assailants, devote themselves to the good of their
country, and perish gloriously on heaps of their slaughtered foes. Of' 300
heroes who engaged in this conflict with hundreds of thousands of the Persians, one man only returned home. and he was received with reeproaches and
insults for having fled from a battle in which his brave companions, wSithl.
their royal leader; had fallen. Twenty thousand Persians perished by the
hands of the Spartans, Aug. 7, 480 B. c.- - rossins de G~'ccc. Jist.
THESSALY. This country is much celebrated in classical history, as'being
the seat of many of the adventures clescribed by the poets. The filst knlig
of whom we have any certain knowledge was Hellen, son of Deucalion. firom
whom his subjects were.alled Hellenists, a name afterwards extendled to ad
Greece. From Thessaly the nlost powerful tribes of Greece derived their
origin, as the Achmans, the AEltolians. the Dorians, the Hellenists, &c. The
two most relnmarkable events in the early history of this country, are tlhe
deluge of Deucalion, 1503 n. c., and the expedition of the Argonauts, 1263.
See them severally.
THEIRACE. So called from Thrax, the son of NMars. Coiiquered by Philip and
Alexander. and annexed to the Macedonian empire about 335 a. c.; and It
so remained till the conqiuest of Macedonia by the Romans. 168 a. c. Byzantium was the capital of Thrace, on the ruins of which C:nstantinople
was built. The Turks took the country under Mahomet I1[., A. D. 1453. —
Priestley.
TIM ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 559
TIHRASHING-MACHINES. The flail was the only instrument formerly in use.
The Romans used a machine called the tribl'h,m, a sledge loaded with stones
or iron, drawn over th-e corn-sheaves by horses. The first machine attemlltec
in modern times was invented by IBichl'el hMenzies, at Edinburgh, about
1732; M-iekles, in 1776.
THRASYMENUS, BAtrTLEr or'. A most bloody enuagement between the Carthaginians under Hannibal and the Rolnmans under Fianminius. 217 1. c. No
less than 15,000 Romuans were left dead on the field of' battle. and 10 000 taken
prisoners; or, according to Livy, 6000 or Polybius, 15.000. The loss of
Hannibal was about 1500 men. And about 10 000 Romans made their escape, all covered with wounds.-Livy; Polybitus.
THUMB-SCREW. An inhuman instrument which was commonly used in the
first stages of torture by the Spanish inquisition. It was in use in England
also. The Rev. Wmi. Carstairs was the last who suffered by it before the
privy council, to make him divulge secrets entrusted to him, which he firmly
resisted. After the revolution in 1688. the thumb-screw was given him as a
present by the council. King William expressed a desire to see it, and tried it
on. bidding the doctor to turn the screw; but at the third turn he cried out,
"Hold! hold! doctor; another turn would mlake mee confess any thing."
2rHURSDAY. The fifth day of the week, derived fronm Thor, a deified hero
worshipped by the ancient inhabitants of the northern nations, particularly
by the Scandinavians and Celts. The authority of this deity extended over
the winds and seasons, and especially over thunder and lightning. He is
said to have been the most valiant of the sons of Odin. This day, whichl
was consecrated to Thor, still retains his name in the Danish, Sivedish, and
Low-Dutch languages, as well as in the English. Thursday, or Thors-day,
has been rendered into Latin by dies Jovis, or Jupiter's day.
TiD)ES. Homer is the earliest profane author who speaks of the tides. Posidonius of Apa-mea accounted for the tides from the motion of the moon,
about 79 B. C.; and Cs sar speaks of them in his fourth book of the Gallic
War. The theory of the tides was first satisfactorily explained by Kepler,
A. D. 1598; but the honor of a complete explanation of them was reserved
for sir Isaac Newton, who laid hold of this class of phenomena to prove
universal gravitation, about 1683.
TILSIT, PEACE Os. The memorable treaty concluded between France and Russia, when-Napoleon restored to the Prussian monarch one-half of his territories, and Russia recognized the Confederation of the Rhine, and the elevation of Napoleon's three brothers, Joseph, Louis, and Jerome, to the thrones
of Naples, Holland, and Westphalia. Signed July 7, 1807, and ratified July
19 following.
2TILTS AND TOURNAMENTS. Were greatly in vogue in England in the
eleventh and twelfth centuries. Notwithstanding many edicts against them,
and anathemas from Rome, they were not abolished till the reign of Henry
IV., about A. D. 1400.-Rapin. They first took their rise in Italy upon the
suppression of the gladiators in the fifth century. They were supipressed in
France in 1560.- Voltaire's Geen. Hist.
TIMBER. The annual demand of timber for the British navy, in war, is 60 000
loads, or 40,000 full-grown trees, a ton each. of whicll. thirty-five will stand
on an acre; in peace, 32,000 tons, or 48.000 loads. A seventy-four gun ship
consumes 3000 loads, or 2000 tons of trees, the prodluce of fifcy-seven acres
in a century. Hence the whole navy consumes 102 600 acres. and 1026 per
annum.-Allltet. England imports about 800.000 loads of timiler annually,
exclusively of masts, yards, staves, lathwood, &c., together with'about 8,000,000 of deals and deal-ends. —Pcarl. Ret.
560 THE WORLD'S PROGIRESS. [ TOB
TIME-MEASURE. That of Scipio Nasica was invented 159 B. c. Early authors inform us that Alfred's time-keeper was six large wax tapers, each
twelve inches long; but as they burnt unequally, owing to the wind, he invented a lantern made of wood, and thin plates of ox-horns, glass being a
great rarity, A. D. 887. The ancients had three time-measures: hour-glasses,
sun-dials, and a vessel full of water with a hole in its bottom. See Clocks,
1Watches, &c.
TIN. The Phoenicians traded with England for this article for more than 1100
years before the Christian era. It is said that this trade first gave them
commercial importance in the ancient world. Under the Saxons, our tinmines appear to have been neglected; but after the coming in of the Normans, they produced considerable revenues to the earls of Cornwall, particularly to Richard, brother of Henry III.; a charter and various immunities were granted by Edmund, earl Richard's brother, who also framned the
stannary laws, laying a duty on the tin, payable to the earls of Cornwall.
Edward III. confirmed the tinners in their privileges, and erected Cornwall
into a dukedom, with which he invested his son, Edward the Black Prince.
1535. Since that time, the heirs-apparent to the crown of England. if eldest
sons, have enjoyed it successively. Tin-mines were discovered in Germany,
which lessened the value of those in England, till then the only tin-mines in
Europe, A. D. 1240.-Anderson. Discovered in Barbary 1640; in India, 1740;
in New Spain, 1782. England exports at present, on an average, 1500 tons
of unwrought tin, besides manufactured tin and tin-plates, of the value of
400,0001.
TITHES AND TENTHS. Were first given by Moses to the tribe of Levi, 1490
B. c.-Josephuns. For the first 800 years of the Christian church they were
given purely as alms, and were voluntary.- Wicllifge. "I will not put the
title of the clergy to tithes upon any divine right, though such a right
certainly commenced and I believe as certainly ceased, with the Jewish theocracy."-Blackstone. The first mention of them in any English written law,
is a constitutional decree made in a synod strongly enjoining tithes, A.D. 786.
Offa, king of Mercia, gave unto the church the tithes of all his kingdom, to
expiate for the death of Ethelbert, king of the East Angles, whom he had
caused to be basely murdered, A. D. 794.-Burn's Eccles. Law. Tithes were
first granted to the English clergy in a general assembly held by Ethelwold,
A. D. 844.-Henry's Hist. of Eng. They were established in France by
Charlemagne, about 800.-Henangt. Tenths were confirmed in the Lateran
councils, 1215.-Rainaldi.
TITLES, ROYAL. The following is the succession in which the royal titles
swelled in England. Henry IV. had the title of " Grace" and " My liege"
conferred upon him, 1399. The title of "Excellent Grace" was conferred
upon Henry VI., 1422. Edward IV. had that of " Most High and Mighty
Prince," 1461. Henry VII. had the title " Highness," 1485; and Henry VIII.
had the same title, and sometimes " Grace," 1509, et seq. But these two last
were absorbed in the title of " Majesty," being that with which Francis I.
of France addressed Henry at their memorable interview in 1520.-See Field
of the Cloth of Gold. Henry VIII. was the first and last king who was styled
" Dread Sovereign." James I. coupled to " Majesty" the present " Sacred?"
or " Most Excellent Majesty." "Majesty" was the style of the emperors of
Germany; the first king to whom it was given was Louis XI. of France,
about 1463.
TOBACCO, Nicotiana Tabacsnam. This plant received its name from Tabacco,
a province of Yucatan, New Spain. Some say from the island of Tobago,
one of the Caribees; others, from Tabasco, in the gulf of Florida. It was
first observed at St. Domingo, A. D. 1496; and was used freely by the Span
TOP ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 561
iards in Yucatan in 1520. Tobacco was first carried to England, 7 Elizabeth,
1565, by sir John Hawkins; but sir Walter Raleigh and sir Francis Drake
are also mentioned as having first introduced it there. It was manufactured
only for exportation for some years.-Stowe's Ch-on. In 1584 a proclamation was issued against it. King James I. issued his famous Counter-Blast
against Tobacco in 16. The star-chamber ordered the duties to be 6s. 10d.
per pound, 1614. Its cultivation was prohibited in England by Charles II.
An act laying a duty on the importation was passed, 1684. The cultivation
was allowed in Ireland 1779. The tax was increased, and put under the
excise, 1789.-Anderson; Ashe. Various statutes have passed relative to
tobacco. Act to revive the act prohibiting the culture of tobacco in Ireland passed 1831. Act directing that tobacco grown in Ireland be purchased
in order to its being destroyed, 1832. The quantity consumed in England;n 1791 was nine. millions and a half of pounds, and in 1829 about fifteen
millions of pounds.-Chaan. of the Ex. In 1840, the quantity had reached
to forty millions of pounds.-Parl. Ret. In the United States, tobacco is
grown chiefly in Maryland and Virginia; but to some extent in all i'se
southern states. The value of the crop exported in 1848 was $7,551,122.
Tobacco is produced also in France, in India, &c.; that of the United
States is considered the best in flavor, but that of Cuba is preferred for
smoking. Several works have been published on the evil effects and bad
taste of this weed.
TOBAGO. Settled by the Dutch, A. D. i642. Taken by the English, 1672; retaken, 1674. In 1748 it was declared a neutral island; but in 1763 it was
ceded to the English. Tobago was taken by the French under De Grasse
in 1781. and confirmed to them in 1783. Again taken by the English, April
14, 1793, but restored at the peace of Amiens, Oct. 6, 1802. The island was
once more taken by the British under general Grinfield, July 1, 1803, and
was confirmed to them by the peace of Paris in 1814.
TOLERATION ACT. To William III. is due the honor and wisdom of the
first toleration act known in the history of this country, passed in 1689. The
dissenters have ever since enjoyed the benefits of this act without interruption, though their liberties were greatly endangered in the latter end of
queen Anne's reign.
TOLLS. They were first paid by vessels passing the Stade on the Elbe, A. D.
1109. They were first demanded by the Danes of vessels passing the Sound,
1341. Toll-bars in England originated in 1267, on the grant of a penny for
every wagon that passed through a certain manor. Toll-gates or turnpikes
were used in 1663.
TONNAGE AND POUNDAGE. An ancient duty levied on wine and other goods,
commenced in England about 21 Edward III.. 1346. The first granted to
the kings of England for life, 5 Edward IV., 1465. Ceun'ngham's Hist.
Taxes.
TONTINES. Loans given for life annuities with benefit of survivorship, so
called from the inventor Laurence Tonti, a Neapolitan. They were first set on
foot at Paris to reconcile the people to cardinal Mazarin's government. by
amusing them with the hope of becoming suddenly rich, A. D. 1653. —Voltaire. The late celebrated Mr. Jennings was an original subscriber for a
1001. share in a tontine company; and being the last survivor of the shareholders. his share produced him 30001. per annum. He died worth 2,115,2441., aged 103 years, June 19, 1798. —Haydn.
TOPLITZ. BATTLE OF. A battle was fought at Toplitz between the Austrians
and Prussians, in which the latter were defeated, 1762. Battle of Toplitz,
August 30, 1813. Here the allied sovereigns had their head-qfuarters a
considerable time in this latter year. Treaty' of Toplitz, being a triple
24*
562 THIE WORLD S PROGRESS. L TOI
alliance between Russia, Austria, and Prussia; Sept. 9, 1813. Treaty of
Toplitz, between Austria and Great Britain, Oct. 3, same year.
TORTURE. It has disgraced humianity in the earliest ages in every country.
It was only permitted by the Romans in the examination of' slaves. It was
used early in the Catholic church against heretics. Occasionally used in
England so late as the 1st Elizabeth, 1558; and in Scotland until 1690.
The trial by torture was abolished in Portugal, 1776; in France, by order
of Louis XVI., in 1780, although it had not been practised there some time
before. Ordered to be discontinued in Sweden by Gusta:::s III., 1786. it
yet continues in other countries.
TORY. Various authors have differently described this term. It is said to bh
derived fiom an Irish word, originally signifying a savage, or rather a col.
lector of tithes and taxes.-Enclyclop. The names of Cavaliers and Roundheads, which existed in the time of Charles I. were changed, some tell us,
into those of Tories and Whigs. The Tories were those who vindicated
the divine right of kings, and held high notions of their prerogatives;
while "the Whigs "denoted a friend to civil and religious liberty.-Ashte.
The name of Tory was given by the country party to the court party, comparing them to Popish robbers; and arose out of the Meal-tub plot (whic/h
see), in 1679. The terms are defined by extreme politicians, as of two parties in the aristocracy: the Whigs, who would curb the power of the crown;
and the Tories, who would curb the power of the people. —Plhillips. In our
revolutionary war the term was applied to the royalists; bhut, oddly enough,
at the time of president Jackson, it was given to the ultra democratic party,
while the other great party called themselves Wl/igs. See Whigs.
TOULON, FRANCE. In 1706 this town was bombarded by the allies, both by
land and sea, by which almost the whole town was reduced to a heap of
ruins, and several ships burned; but they were at last obliged to raise
the siege. It surrendered, August 23, 1793, to the British admiral, lord
Hood, who took possession both of the town and shipping in the name of
Louis XVII., under a stipulation to assist in restoring the French constitution of 1789. A conflict took place between the English and French
forces, when the latter were repulsed, Nov. 15, 1793. Toulon was evacuated
by the British, Dec. 19, same year, when great cruelties were exercised
towards inhabitants as were supposed to be favorable to the British.
TOULOUSE, FRANCE. Founded about 615 B. c. A dreadful tribunal was established here to extirpate heretics, A. D. 1229. The troubadours, or rhetoricians of Toulouse, had their origin about A. D. 850, and consisted of a fraternity of poets, whose art was extended throughout Europe, and gave rise to
the Italian and French poetry. See 7Tro6badoes.s.
TOULOUSE, BATTLE OF. The final battle between the British PeninsUlar army
under lord Wellington and the French-one of the most bloody that had
been fought fiom the time lord Wellington had received the command of
the troops in Portugal. The French were commanded by marshal Soult,
whom the victorious British hero forced to retreat, after twelve hours fighting, from seven o'clock in the morning until seven at night, the British
forcing the French intrenched position before Toulouse. The loss of the
allies in killed and wounded was between four and five thousand men; that
of the French exceeded 10,000. At the period of this battle Bonaparte
had abdicated the throne of France; but neither of the commanders was
aware of that fact, or the close of tile war at Pariis. Fought April 10, 1814.
TOURNAMENTS on JOUSTS. Some authors refer them to Trojan origin,
such as Ascanius instituted among the Romans. The tournament is a martial sport or exercise which the ancient cavaliers used to perform, to show
sow J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 563
their bravery and address. It is derived from the French word tosurser,
" to turn round," because, to be expert in these exercises, much agility,
both of horse and man, was necessary. They were much practised A. D.
890; and were regulated and countenanced by Henry I., emperor, about
919. The Lateran council published an article against their continuance
in 1136. One was held in Smithfield so late as the 12th century, when the
taste for them declined in England. Henry II. of France, in a tilt with the
count de Montgomery, had his eye struck out, an accident which caused
the kirg's death in a few days, June 29, 1559. Tournaments were fiom
this event abolished in France, and with them " the age of chivalry is
fled." A mlagnificent and costly feast and splendid tournament took
place at Eglinton castle, August 29, 1839, and the following week: many
of the visitors assumed the characters of ancient knights, lady Seymour
being the " Queen of Beauty," as fairest of the female throng. But this festivity is not likely to lead to a revival of the old tournament.
TOURNAY. Taken by the allies in 1709, and ceded to the house of Austria
by the treaty of Utrecht; but the Dutch were allowed to place a garrison
in it, as one of the barrier towns. It was taken by the French under general Laboucrdonnaye, Nov. 11, 1792. Battle near Tournay, by the Austrians
and British on one side, and the French on the other, the former victorious,
May 8, 1793. Another battle was fought between the British and French,
when the latter were repulsed, at Rousalaer, losing 200 men and three fieldpieces, May 6, 1794.
TOURS, BATTLE O'. One of the glorious victories of Charles Martel, and that
which most established his fame, gained over the Saracens near Tours,
and firom which he acquired the name of MaIrtel, signifying ba7mnzer'. We
are told that but for this timely victory of Charles Martel, all Europe, as
well as Asia and Africa, must have become Mahomedan; October 10,
A. D. 732.
TOWERS. That of Babel, the first of which we read, built in the plains of
Shinar (Genesis xi.), 2247 A. c. See Label. The Tower of the Winds at
Athens, built 550 a. c. The Tower of Pharos (see Phasos), 280 B. c. Towers were built early. in England; and the round towers in Ireland may be
reckoned among the most ancient curiosities. They were the only structures of stone found in Ireland before the first arrival of the English,
except some buildings in the maritime towns founded by the Danes.
These towers were tall, hollow pillars, nearly cylindrical, but narrowing
towards the top, pierced with lateral holes to admit the light, high above
the ground, and covered with conical roofs of the same materials. Of these
productions of old Irish masonry, fifty-six still remain, from 50 to 130 feet
high.
TOWER or LONDON. Anciently a royal palace, and consisted of no more
than what is now called the White Tower, which appears to have been first
marked out by William the Conqueror, A. D. 1076, commenced in 1078, and
completed by his son William Rufus, who, in 1098, surrounded it with walls,
and a broad, deep ditch. Several succeeding princes made additions to it,
and king Edward III. built the church. In 1638 the White Tower was rebuilt; and since the restoration of king Charles II. it has been thoroughly
repaired, and a great number of additional buildings made to it. Here are
the Armory, Jewel-office, and various other divisions and buildings of
peculiar interest; and here were many executions of illustrious persons,
and many murders See.Engliand.
TOWTON, BATTLE OF. This great battle is supposed to be the most fierce and
bloody that ever happened in any domestic war. It was fought between
the houses of York (Edward IV.) and Lancaster (Henry VI.), to the latter
564 THE WORLD'S PROGRPESS. [ TRa
of whom it was fatal, and on whose side more than 37,000 of his subjects
fell. Edward issued orders to give no quarter, and the most merciless
slaughter ensued. Henry was made prisoner and confined in the Tower
his queen, Margaret, fled to Flanders: fought March 29, 1461.
TRAFALGAR, BATTLE OF, the greatest naval victory ever obtained by England, fought by the British, under command of' the immortal Nelson, against
the combined fleets of France and Spain, commanded by admiral Villeneuve
and two Spanish admirals. The enemy's force was eighteen French and
fifteen Spanish vessels, all of the line;. that of the British twenty-seven ships.
After a bloody and protracted fight, admiral Villeneuve and the other admirals were taken, and nineteen of their ships captured, sunk, or destroyed.
But the hero of England lost his life in this memorable battle; and admiral
Collingwood succeeded to the command. Nelson's ship was the Victory; and
his last signal on going into the engagement, was " England expects every
man to do his duty." Oct. 21, 1805.
TRAGEDY. That of Alcestis was the first represented by Thespis, the first
tragic poet at Athens, 536 B. c. —Ar'lend. Ml~arbles. Prizes instituted, and the
first gained by zEschylus, 486 B. c.-Ibid. Another prize carried by Sophocles, 470 B. c.-Ibid. Another by Euripides, 442 a. c.-Ibid. Another by
Astydamus, 377 B. c.-Ibid. See DcramaC; Plays; Theatres.
TRAJAN'S PILLAR. Erected A. nD. 114, by the directions of the emperor
Trajan, and executed by Apollodorus. This column, which still exists at
Rome, was built in the large square called the FeoreLm RomaLnem; it is
140 feet high, of the Tuscan order, and commemorates the victories of the
emperor.
TRANSFUSION OF THE BLOOD. It began to be practised in the fifteenth
century, and was successful in France, where Louis XI., when dying, went
farther still, and drank the warm blood of infants, in the vain hope of prolonging life, A. D. 1483.-Henauelt. After trials of the efficacy of' transfusion
upon animals, M. Denis revived the practice in Paris, where, out of five
persons upon whom he operated, two died, and the magistracy prohibited
the experiment upon human bodies afterwards, 1668.- Lower, an English
physician, who died in 1691, practised in this way.-Friend's Hist. of Phys.
Transfusion again attempted in France, in 1797; and recently in Great Britain, but seldom with success. See article Blood.
TRANSPORTATION oF FELONS IN ENGLAND. The first criminals were
ordered for transportation instead of execution, A. D. 1590; but banishment
for lighter offences than those adjudged death was much earlier. Englandis reproached abroad for transporting persons whose offences are comparatively venial. John Eyre, esq., a man of fortune, was sentenced to transportation for stealing a few quires of paper, Nov. 1, 1771.-Phillips. More
recently, the reverend Dr. Halloran, tutor to the earl of Chesterfield, was
transported for forging a frank, (10d. postage) Sept. 9, 1818. The first
transportation of felons to Botany Bay was in May 1787; they arrived at the
settlement in January 1788. Returning from transportation was punished
with death until 1834, when an act passed lmaking the offence punishable
by transportation for life.
TRANSUBSTANTIATION. This doctrine was first introduced by a friar, about
A. D. 840. It became a confirmed article of Christian faith about 1000. It
was opposed in England about 1019; but the English church admitted the
doctrine before 1066. Belief in it as necessary to salvation was finally established by the council of Placentia, 1095. The word " transubstantiation"
was first used by Peter of Blois about 1165. John Huss, in subsequent
times, was the first opposer of this doctrine; he was burnt by order of the
council of Constance, A. D, 1415.-Cave's Hist. Lit.
TRE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 565
TRAPPISTS, OR MONKS oF LA TRAPPE. A French order in the department of Orne, famed in the days of superstition for their austerity of discipline, and for keeping a perpetual silence. This order was charged with
rebellion and conspiracy in France, and 64 English and Irish Trappists were
shipped by the French government at Painbheuf, Nov. 19, and were landed
from the H/b6 French frigate at Cork, Nov. 30, 1831. They have established
themselves at Mount Melleray, county of Waterford; but do'not maintain
there the extreme rigor of their order.
TR' AVELLING ABROAD. See article Absentees. In order to discourage
English subjects from travelling to foreign countries and spending money
there, a tax was levied (but of very inadequate amount) by way of license
for going abroad, and paid to the crown, 10 Charles I., 1635.-Rapiny.
TREAD-MILL. An invention of the Chinese, and used in China to raise
water for the irrtigation of the fields. The'read-mill lately introduced into
the prisons of Great Britain is of a more complicated construction. It is
the invention of Mr. Cubitt of Ipswich. The first was erected at Brixton
jail, 1817. This punishment has not been introduced in the United States.
TREASON. See Hio'h Treason. It was punished in England only by banishment till after Henry I.-Balcer's Ch'ronicle. Ascertained by law. Edward
III., 1349. Trials regulated, and two witnesses required to convict. 1695.
The laws relating to treason are numerous, and formerly the punishment
was dreadful-hanging, quartering, beheading, &c., and even burning alive.
Mr. Martin brought in a bill for the abolition of burning alive for treason,
which passed both houses in 1788. PETTY TREASON may happen three
ways: a wife's murder of her husband; a servant;s murder of his master;
and an ecclesiastical person's murder of his prelate or other superior-so
declared by statute 25 Edward III., 1350.
rREATIES. The first formal and written treaty made by England with any
foreign nation was entered into A. D. 1217. The first commercial treaty was
with the Flemings, 1 Edward, 1272; the second with Portugal and Spain,
1308.-Angderson. The chief treaties of the principal civilized nations of
Europe will be found described in their respective places: the following
forms an index to them. See Conventions; Cocalitions; Leagues, &c.
Abo, peace of - 1743 Carlsbad, congress of - -1819
Aix-la-Chapelle - - 1668 Cateau-Cambresis, peace of - - 1559
Aix-la-Chapelle, peace of - 1748 Chauniont, treaty of -. 1814
Akermann, peace of - - 1826 Chunar, India - - - 1781
Alt Radstadt.- 1706 Cintra, convention of - - - 808
America, peace with - 1- 783 Closterseven, convention of - - 1757
Aeniens, peace of -. 1802 Coalition, first, against France - 1792
Armed Neutrality - - 1800 Coalition, second, ditto - - -1799
Arras, treaty of - - 1435 Coalition, third, ditto - -1805
Arras, ditto - - ]482 Coalition, fourth, ditto - 1806
Augsburgh, league of - - 1686 Coalition, fifth, ditto -- -1809
Baden, peace of - - 1714 Coalition, sixth, ditto - - 1813
Barrier treaty - ~ - 1715 Concordat - - 1801
Basle, peace of - -1795 Conflans. treaty of - - 1465
Bassein, India.-1802 Constantinople, peace of -1712
Bayonne, treaty of - - 1808 Constantinople, treaty of - - - 1833
Belgium, treaty of London - 1839 Copenhagen, peace of - - 1660
Belgrade. peace of.1739 Cressy - - - 1544
Berlin, peace of - - 1742 Dresden - - -1745
Berlin decree - - 1806 Family compact -1761
Berlin convention - 1808 Fontainebleau, peace of. 1679
Breda, peace of - - - 1667 Fontainebleau, treaty of - - 1785
Bretigny, peace of - - - 1360 Fontainebleau, concordat at - 1813
Bucharest, treaty of - -1812 Friedwald, treaty of - 1551
Cambray, league of - - 1508 Fuessen, peace of - - 1745
Cambray, peace of - - 1529 Ghent, pacification of - - - 576
Campo-Formio, treaty of - 1797 Ghent, peace of America) -1814
Carlowitz, peace of - - 1699 Golden Bull - - - 1356
566 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ TRB
TREATIES, continued.
Grand Alliance - -1689 Pyrenees, treaty of the - - 1659
Greece, treaty of London. - 1829 Quadruple Alliance - 1718
Hague, treaty of the - - - 1659 Radstadt, peace of - - - - 1714
Hague, treaty of the - 1669 Radstadt, congress of - - 1797
IHalle, treaty of - -1610 Ratisbon, peace of - - -1630
Hamburgh, peace of - 1762 Ratisbon, treaty of - - -1806
Hanover treaty - - - 1725 Religion, peace of - -.1555
Holland, peace with - 1784 Rhine, Con'ederation of the. 1806
Holy Alliance - - - -815 Ryswick, peace of - - -1697
Hubertsberg, peace of - 1763 St. Germain's, peace of -1570
Interim - - - - -1548 St. Germain-en-Iaye - - - 1679
Kiel, treaty of - 1814 St. Ildefonso, alliance of Spain with
Laybach, congress of - - 1721 France - — 1795
Ieague - 1576 Seville, peace of - - 1792
Leipsic, alliance of - 1631 SiSrod, peace of - - 1613
Leoben, peace of - - 1797 Smalcald, league of- - 1529
Lisbon, peace of - 1668 Spain, pacification of (London) - 1834
London, treaty of(Greece) - 1829 S.ettin, peace of - 1570
London, convention of (Turkey) - 1840 Stockholm - - 16:30
Lubeck, peace of - 1629 Stockholm, peace of - 1719
Luneville, peace of - 1801 Stockholm, treaty of - 1724
Madrid, treaty of - - 1526 Stockholm, treaty of - 1813
Methuen treaty - - 1703 Temeswar, truce of - 1664
Milan decree - - 1807 Teschen, peace of - -1779
Munster, peace of - - 1648 Teusin, peace of - 1595
Nantes, edict of - - 1598 Tilsit, peace of - 1807
Naumberg, treaty of - 1554 Tolentino, treaty of - 1793
Nice, treaty of -1518 Toplitz, treaty of - - 1813
Nimegruen, peace of - 1678 Triple Alliance - - 1717
Noyon, treaty of - 1516 Triple Alliance of the Hague - 1668
Nuremberg, treaty of - 1532 Troppau, congress of - 1820
Olivia, peace of - - 1660 Troyes, treaty of - - - 1420
Paris, peace of (see PIaris) - 1763 Turkmauchay, peace of - 1828
Paris, treaty of - 1796 Ulm, peace of - - 1620
Paris, peace of (Sweden) - 1810 Utretht, union of - 1579
Paris, capitulation of - 1814 Utrecht, peace of - - 1713
Paris, treaty of - 1814 Valeneay, treaty of - 1813
Paris, peace of - - 181.5 Verona, congress of - 1822
Paris, treaty of - - 1817 Versailles, peace of - 1783
Partition, first treaty - 169t Vienna, treaty of - - 1725
Partition, second treaty - 1700 Vienna, treaty of alliance - 1731
Passarowitz, peace of - 1718 Vienna, definitive peace - 1737
Passau, treaty of - 1552 I Vienna, peace of - - 1809
Petersburgh, peace of - 1762 Vienna, treaty of; March 23 - 1815
Petersburgh, treaty of - 1772 Vienna, treaty of, May 31 -1815
Petersburgh, treaty of - - 1805 Vienna, treaty of, June 4 - 1815
Petersburgh, treaty of - 1810 i Vossem, peace of - 1673
Peterswalden, convention of - 1813 Warsaw, treaty of - 1768
Pilnitz, convention.f - 1791 Warsaw, alliance of - 1683
Poland, partition of - - 1795 Westminster, peace of - 1674
Pragmatic Sanction - 1439 I Westminster (with Holland) - 1716
Pragmatic Sanction - 1713 W estphalia, peace of - 1648
Prague, peace of - 1653 Wilna, treaty of - - - 1561
Presburg, peace of - - 1805 Worms, edict of - - 1521
Public good, league for the - 1464 Wurtzburg, treaty of - 1610
TREATIES OF THE UNITED STATES. —Some of the most important:
Alliance with France - Feb. 6, 1779 Treaty with Great Britain, by Monroe
Treaty of Paris (independence secured) and Pinckney-rejected by the AmeSept. 3, 1783 rican government - - -18606
Treaty of commerce with Pruslza - 3783 Treaty of Ghent, with Great Britain,
Treaty with Morocco - - - 1787 signed by J. Q. Adams, Gallatin, and
Treaty of commerce with Great Britain HI. Clay, for the United States, clos(Jay's) - - - - 1794 in% the " war of 1812," but leaving
Treaty with the Six Nations andc.other the original dispute much as before - 1314
Indian tribes - - - 1794 Ratified by the United States, Feb. 17, 1:15
T'reaty with Spain. by Pinckney; and Treaty with the Choctaws and CheroAlgiers, by Humphries - - 1795 kees -1816'reaty with Tunis; with Prussia (by Treaty with the republic of Colombia - 1S25
J. Q. Adams) - -17'99 Treaty with the Creeks, Osages, &c. - 1821
Treaty with France, by Ellsworth, Pa- Treaty with Great Britain, indemnifytrick Henry, &s. Sept. 30, 1800. ing American citizens for spollations
RI ] mDICTIONARY OP DATES. 567
TREATIES, continued.
during the war with Napoleon Cushing;- ratified by the senate
Nov. 13, 1826 Jan. 16, 1845
Treaty with Brazil - March 18, 18329 Treaty of peace with Mexico. signed at
Treaty with Turkley May 7, 1830 Guadaloupe Hidalgo, Feb. 2 i848;
Treaty with Mexico (commercial) Ap.5, 1831 ratified by the senate (with modificaTreaty with do. April 5, 1832 tions); ratified at Queretaro by AmeTreaty with Naples - Oct. 14, 1832 rican commissioners Sevier and ClifTreaty with Russia (commercial) ford, and Mexican minister Rosas
Dec. 18, 1832 May 30, 1848
Treaty with Great Britain, respecting Treaty with Great Britain, respecting
thle N. E. boundary, si-ged at Wash- Nicaraguta, on the Isthmus between
ington by Lord Ashburton and Mr. North and South America; signed
Webster; ratified by the senate (39 at WVashington by Sir IH. L. Bulwer
to 9) - - - Aug. 20, 1842 and J. M. Clayton - June, 1850
Treaty with China, negotiated by C.
TREES, AGE oi'. Among others mentioned in an article in the American Almanac for 1838, p. 102, are,
The Wallace oak at Ellerslie, Scotland, Elms, in Switzerland, 335 years.
700 years. Cedars on Lebanon, 800 years.
(Some oaks are supposd to hlave lived 1,500 Olives, in thle Garden of Olives, Jerusalem,
years.) 800 years.
Oak on estate of JamesWadswo rth, Gene- Bcaniae, in Hindostan, 3,000 years.
seo, New Yorlc, 500 years. CQyp3esses, at Grenada, 800 years.
Yew trees at Fountain's Abbey, England, [For proofs and details see. the article re1,200 years; and in Scotland, said to be | lerred to.]
2:500 years.
TRENT, COUNCr, on.. This celebratecl council is reckoned in the Catholic
churce as the eighteenth or last general council. Its decisions are inlplicitly received as the standarrd of faith, morals, and discipline in that church.
The first council assembled A. D. 1545, and continued (but with interrup-'tions) under pope Paul III., Julius III., and Pils IV., to 1563, when the last
council was held.
TRIALS. Alfired is said to harve been the cont river of trial by july; but there
is good evidence of such trials long) before his time.- In a cause tried at
-Iawarden, nearly a hundred years before the reign of Alfied, we have a
list of the twelve jurors; confirmed, too, by the fact that the descendants of
one of them, of the name of Corbyn, of the Gate, still preserve their name
and residence at a spot in the parish yet called the Gate. —P Iilips.
TRIBUNES o,- TIHE PEOPLE. T1ibtujni Plebis. Magistrates of Rome, first
chosen from among the commlnons to represent the people, 492 B. c., at the
time the people, after a quarrel with the senators, had retired to MLons Sacer. The first two were C. Licinius, aned L. Albinus; but their neumber was
soon after raised to five, and 37 years a:fter to ten, which remainled fixed.
Their office was annual, and as the first hlad been created on the 4th of the
ides of December, that day was ever after cllosen for the election.
TRINIDAD. This island was discovered by Columbus in 1498, and was taken
from the Spaniards by sir Walter Raleigh in 1595; but the French took it
from the English in 1676. Taken by the British, with four ships of the
line. and a military force under command of sir Ralph Abercrombie, to wholl
the island capitulated, Feb. 21, 1797; they captured two, and burnt three
Spanish ships of wvar in the harbor. This possession was confirmecl to England by the peace of Amiens in 1802. The insurrection of the negroes
occurred Jan. 4, 1832. See Coloasies.
TRINITY AND TRINITARIANS. The doctrine of the Trinity is received by
all Citristian sects excelt those called Unitarians (.whicA scC). Theophilus,
bishop of Antidch, who flourishei d in the second century, the first who used
the term Trinity, to expiess the three sacred persons in the Godhead. His
Defen~ce of Ch/'istia.nity was edited by Gesner, at Zurich, in 1546.- Watkins.
568 THE IWORLD S PROGRESS. [ TRO'
An order of the Trinity was founded, A. D. 1198, by John de Matha and Felix
de Valois. The Trinity fraternity, originally of fifteen persons, was instituted at Rome by St. Philip Neri, in 1548. An act to exempt friom penal.
ties persons denying the doctrine of the Trinity was passed in England in
1813.
TRIPLE ALLIANCE. This celebrated treaty of alliance was ratified between
the States-General and England, against France, for the protection of the
Spanish Netherlands; Sweden afterwards joining the league, it was known
as the Triple Alliance, Jan. 28, 1668.
TRIUMPHS. The triumph was a solemn honor done generals of armies after
they had won great victories, by receiving them into the town with gred
magnificence and public acclamations. Among the Romans there were two
sorts-the great, that was called simply the triumph; and the little, styled
the ovation. They also distinguish triumphs into land and sea triumphs,
accordingly as the battles were fought. See Ovation.
TRIUMVIRI. Three magistrates appointed equally to govern the Roman state
with absolute power. These officers gave a fatal blow to the expiring independence of the Roman people, and became celebrated for their diffelrent
pursuits, their ambition, and their various fortunes. The first triumvirate,
B. c. 60, was in the hands of Julius Cmesar, Pompey, and Crassus, who at the
expiration of their office kindled a civil war. The second and last triumvirate, B. c. 43, was under Augustus, Mark Antony, and Lepidus, through
whom the Romans totally lost their liberty. Augustus disagreed with his
colleagues, and after he had defeated them, he made himself absolute in
Rome. The triulvirate was in full force at Rome for about 12 years. See
Rome.
TROUBADOURS oR JONGLEURS. They first appeared in the ninth century,
and were so encouraged by the patronage of the court of Poitou, and byseveral powerful princes, that they spread in process of time throughout
Europe. They cultivated poetry and music, and refinement followed in
their steps, greatly improving the taste and temper of the times. To the
troubadours we owe Latin and French poetry.
TROY. The history of Troas, or Phrygia Minor. is at best but obscure, and
more particularly so in times prior to the reign of Dardanus, who came
hither from Italy (or Crete) about the year 1506 B. c., and married the
daughter of Teucer, prince of the country, whom he succeeded. Dardanir
built a city, and named it, after himself, Dardania: Troas, the second in
succession from Dardanus, changed the name to Troy; and Ilus, his successor, converted it into Ilium.
Arrival of Scamander in Phrygia Mi- War.of IIercules and Laodemon B.c. 1224
nor.-Blair - - B. c. 1546 Reign of Priam or Podarces - 1224
Teucer succeeds his father - 1502 Rape of Helen. by Alexander Paris,
Dardanus succeeds Teucer. and builds son of Priam, 20 years before the
the city of Dardania - - 1480 sacking of Troy.-lonzer's Iliad,
Reign of Ericthonius - - -1449 booak xxiv., line 964, Pope's edit. - 1204
Reign of Troas, from whom the peo- Commrencement of the invasion of the
pie are called Trojans - - 1374 Greeks to recover Helen - - 119d
The rape of Ganymede - 1341 Troy taken and burned in the night of
Ilus, son of Troas, reigns - -1314 the I th of June, i. e. 23d of the
Reign of Laomedon - - - 1260 month Thalrgelion.-Parian Mar.Arrival of Hercules in Phrygia; He- bles. 408 years before the first
sione delivered from the sea-monster. Olympiad.-Apollodorus - - 118
-Blair, Usher - - 1225 Eneas arrives in Italy.-Lenglet - 1183
Some time after the destruction of old Troy, a new city was built, about
thirty stadia distant from the old site; but though it bore the same name,
and received ample donations from Alexander the Great in his Asiatic expe
TUN J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 569
dition, it'never rose to much importance, and in the age of Strabo was
nearly in ruins.-Priestley.
TROY WEIGHT. The Romans left their ounce, now our avoirdupois ounce, in
Britain.-Arltbutlaot. The present ounce of this weight was brought from
Grand Cairo into Europe, about the time of the Crusades, A. D. 1095, It
was first adopted at Troyes, a city of France, whence the name; and is used
to weigh gold, silver and precious stones. The troy weight, Scots, was established by James VI. (our James I.) in 1618.
TROYES, TREATY OF, between England, France, and Burgundy, whereby it
was stipulated that Henry V. should marry Catherine, daughter of Charles
VI., be appointed regent of France, and after the death of Charles should
inherit the crown, May 24, 1420. The French were driven from Troyes by
the allied armies, Feb. 7; it was retaken by Napoleon, Feb. 23; and was
finally reoccupied by the allies, March 4, 1814.
TRUMPET. Some of the Greek historians ascribe the invention of the trumpet to the Tyrrhenians, and others to the Egyptians. It was in use in the
time of Homer, but not at the time of the Trojan war. First torches, then
shells of fish, sounded like trumpets, were the signals of primitive wars.Potter. The speaking-trumpet is said to have been used by Alexander the
Great in 335 B. c. Trumpets were first sounded before the king in the time
of Offa, king of Mercia, A. D. 790. Speaking-trumpets were improved by
Kircher in 1652. Made by Salland, 1654. Philosophically explained by
Moreland, 1671.
TUESDAY. The third day of the week, so called, as it is supposed, from Tztisco, or Tiw, a Saxon deity, that was particularly worshipped on this day.
Tuesday, in Latin Dies Martis, was called the third day among the Jews.
See Week Days.
CUILERIES, PARIs. One of the royal palaces of that city, commenced by
Catharine de Medici, after the plans of Philibert de Lorme, A. D. 1564; continued by Henry IV.; and finished by Louis XIV. This palace was the
scene of great events during the three memorable revolutions, particularly
those of 1789 and 1848.
TULIPS. They came to England from Vienna, A. D. 1578, and have always
been among our most esteemed flowers. They became an object of commerce in the 16th century; and it is recorded in the register of the city of
Alcmaer. in Holland, that in the year 1639, 120 tulips, with the offsets, sold
for 90,000 florins; and in particular, that one of them, called the viceroy,
sold for 4203 guilders l The States at last put a stop to this extravagant
and ruinous passion for flowers. The tulip-tree, Liriodesedon tqulipifera, was
carried to England from America, about 1663.
TUNBRIDGE-WELLS. The celebrated springs here were first discovered by
Dudley lord North, who had retired into the neighborhood in the last stage
of consumption, and became perfectly restored to health by the use of its
waters, A. D. 1606.
TUNIS AND TRIPOLI. The former stands near where Carthage was built. The
territories of both formed part of the celebrated Carthaginian state, and
were entirely destroyed by the Romans after the third Punic war, 148 a. c.
Besieged by Louis IX. of France., 1270. It remained under African kings
till taken by Barbarossa, under Solyman the Magnificent. Barbarossa was
expelled by Charles V.; but the country was recovered bly the Turks, under
Selim II. Taken, with great slaughter, by the emperor Charles V., when
10,000 Christian slaves were set at liberty, 1535. The bey of Tunis was
first appointed in 1570. Tunis was reduced by admiral Blake, on the bey
refusing to deliver up the British captives, 1656.
57C THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [.TUr
TURBAN. The head-dress of many of the Eastern nations, consisting of two
parts. a cap and a sash, the latter artfully wreathed about the head. The
sash of the Turk's turban is white linen; that of the Persians, red woollen.
These are the dclistinguishing marks of their different religions. Sophi, king
of Persia, being of the sect of Ali, was the first who assumed the red color,
to distinguish himself from the Turks, who are of the sect of Omar.
TURIN. The French besieged this city in 1706; but prince Eugene defeated
their army, and compelled them to raise the siege. In 1798, the French
republican army took possession of Turin, seized all the strong places and
arsenals of Piedmont, and obliged the king and his family to remove to the
island of Sardinia. In 1799, the French were driven out by the Austrians
and Russians; but shortly afterwards the city and all Piedmont surrendered
to the French. In 1814, it was delivered up to the allies, when they restored it to the king of Sardinia.
TURKEY. The Turks themselves were originally a tribe of Tartars; but by
reason of the number of people whom they conquered, and with whom they
became incorporated, the modern Turks must be regarded as a mixture of
many races of men.
Birth of Mahomet the prophet, at Mecca [Dreadful persecutions of the Christians
(see Mecca) - - - A.D. 571 during this reign]
His imposture commenced (see tlalho- The Turks driven out of Persia by the
metanisn) -- 604 famous Schah Abbas - - A. D. 1585
The Koran written (see Koran) - 610 Bloody reign of Mahomet 1II. - 1595
Flight to Medina (see Medinr) - 622 Great fire in Constantinople - -1606
iEra of the Hegira (see Hegira) 622 Reign of Amurath IV., who strangles
Death of Mahomet - - 631 hlis father and four brothers - - 1624
Holy wars begtn (see Cruzsades) - 1095 The Turkls defeat the Persians, and take
The Turkish empire first formed under the city of'Bagdad - - - 1639
Othman at Bythinia - 1298 The island of Candia, or Crete, taken
The Turks penetrate into Thrace, and after a 25 years' siege - 1669
take Adrianople - - 1360 Vienna besieged by Mitahomet IV., but
Amurath I. institutes the Janizaries, a relieved by.Tohn of Poland - - 1683
guard composed of Christian slaves Mahomet IV. deposed by Solyman - 1687
bred Mahometans - 1362 Peace of Carlovitz - - 1699
Bajazet I. overruns the provinces of the Mustapha 1II. deposed - - 1703
Eastern empire - - 1389, et seq. The Morea retaken by the Turks - 1715
Hie lays siege to Constantinople; but is Belgrade taken fiom Austria; andRusat length taken by Tamerlane (see sia relinquishes Azoff - -1739
Tamerlane) - - - -1403 Great sea-fight in the channel of Scio;
The Turks invading Hungary, are re- the English and Russian fleets defeat
pelled by Huniades - - - 1450 the Turlkish - - - - 1770
Constantinople taken by the Turks un- The Crimea falls to Russia Jan. 1783
der Mahomet II., which ends the [This ends the disastrous war with RusEastern Roman empire - - 1453 sia and Austria (begun in 1787), the
Greece made subject to the Mahome- Turks having lost more than 200,000
tans (see Greece) - - -1458 men.-Ashe.]
The Turks penetrate into Italy, and War against Russia - Dec. 30, 1806
take Otranto, which diffuses terror Passage and repassage of the Dardathroughout Europe - - -1480 nelles effected by the British fleet, but
Selim I. raised to the throne by the Ja- with great loss (see Dardanelles)
nizaries; he murders his father, bro- Feb. 19, 1807
thers, and their sons - - 1512 The sultan Selim is deposed and rourHe takes the islands of the Archipelago dered, and Mustapha IV. called to
from the Christians - - -1514 the throne - - May 29, 1807
He overruns Syria - - 1515 Treaty of Bucharest (chich see) May
Adds Egypt to his empire - -1516 28, 1812
Solyman II. takes Belgrade - 1521 A caravan consisting of 2000 souls, reRhodes talken from the knights of St. turning lionm Mecca, destroyed by a
John, who go to Malta - -1522 pestilential wind in the deserts of
Solymtan II., with 250,000 men, is repuls- Arabia; 20 only were saved Aug. 9, 1812
ed before Vienna - - - 1529 Subjection of the Wachabees - 1819
Cyprus taken fromn the Venetians - 1571 Ali Pacha of Janina, in Greece. declares
Great battle of Lepanto, which puts an himself independent - - - 1820
end to the fears of Europe from Turk- Insurrection of Moldavia and Wallachia
ish power (see Lepanto) - - 1571 March 6, 1821
Amurath IT. ascends the throne; stran- The Greek Patriarch put to death at
gles his five brothers - - 1574 Constantinople April 23, 1821
TUt J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 571
TURKEY, contisnoe i,
Ilorrible massa ire at Scio; the most Russians retreat from before Schumla,
dreadful in min dern history (see note October 16, 1828
to Gr-eece) - - April 23, 1822 Surrender of the castle of the Morea to
Sea-fil ht near MItfylene - (Oct. 6, 1124 the Flench - - - Oct. 310, 1828
New'fIahomletan army announced to be Siege of Silistria raised by the Russians
orlanized - - - MIay 29, 1826 Nov. 10, 1828
Insurrection of the Janizaries at Con- Victory of the Russians at Kulertsaa
stanticlople - - June 14, 1826 near Sichumnla - - June 11, 1829
Fircman of the s.ttan abolishing the Ja- Adrianople is entered by the Russian
nizaries - - S2 troops - - - Aug. 20. 1829
Fire at Consta cilople; 6000 houses re- Arnmistice between the Russianl and
duced to ashes - August 30, 1826 Turk lish armies - Aug. 29, 1849
Battle of Navarino; the Turkish fleet Treaty of peace - Sept. 14, 18:29
destroyed by the fleets of England, Treaty with the U. States M- ay 7,1830
France, and Russia (see Ncuvarino) St. Jean d'Acre taken by Ibrahin PaOct. 20, 1827 cha son of Mehemet Ali - July 2, 1832
Banishmnent of 132 French, 120 English; Ile defeats the army of ti. e sultart in Syand 85 Russian settlers, from the ria, with great loss - Jc ly30, 1832
Turtlish empire - January 5, 1828 A series of successes brings the ar. ny of
War with Russia - April 26, 1828 Ibrahim Pacha within eighty leagues
The emperor Nicholas tales the field of Constantinople, and the sultan has
against the Turlts - May 20, 1828 recourse to the aid of tussia - Jan. 1833
The Russian emperor arrives before A Russian force enters the Turkish caVarna - - Au8. 5, 1828 pital - - - April 3, 1833
Battle of Aklhalzic - - Aug. 24, 18'28 Treaty with Russia, offensive'.nd deFortress of Bajazet talcen - Sept. 9, 1828 fensive - - July 1833
The sultan leaves his capital for the Office of grand vizier abolished by the
camp, bearing with him the sacred sultan - - - March 30, 1838
standlard - - - Sept. 211, 1828 Insurrection in Wallachia June 18, 1848
Dardanelles blockaded - Oct. 1, 1828 Mehemet Ali dies at Alexandria Aug. 2 1849
Surrender of' Varna - Oct. 15, 1828
TURKIISII EM PER OR S.
1296 Ossmtan, or Ottoman I. and his uncle restor ed.
1325 Orchamm, his youngest son. 1622 Mustapha I. again deposed and suc1359 Amurath I., his son; assassinated. ceeded by his grandson.
1388 Bajazet I., his son; diedl in prison. 1623 Amurath IV., succeeded by his brother.
1397 Isa Belis; killed by his brother. 16t40 Ibrahim, strangled by the Janizaries,
1403 Solyman; killed by his brother. succeeded by his son.
1410 Musa; strangled by his brother. 1655 Mahomet IV., deposed; succeeded by
1413 Malhomet I.; succeeded by his son. his brother.
1.421 Amurath II.; succeeded by his son. 16S7 Solyman III.; succeeded by his bin.
1451 Mahomet 11.; left the empire to his tler.
two sons. 1691 Achmet II.; succeeded by his nephew.
1481 Co tacus, his grandson; succeeded by 1695 Mustapha II., eldest son of Mahomet
his fat.her. IV., deposed arld succeeded by his
1481 Xencin; obligedto abdicate in favor of brother.
his brother. 1703 Aclsmet III.; deposed.
1481 Bajazet II.; deposed by his son. 1730 Mahomtet V.; succeeded by his brother.
1520 Solyman, the Magnificent. 1754 Oscman II.; succeeded by his brother.
15G6 Selim II.; succeeded by his son. 1757 Mutstapha III.; succeeded by his bro1512 Selin; succeeded by his son. ther.
1574 Anlurath III.; succeeded by his son. 1774 Abelhamet, or Achmet IV.
1595 Mallomet III.. succeeded by his son. 1789 Selim III.
1601 Achmet; succeeded by his brother. 1807 Mustapha IV.
1617 Miustapha I.; succeeded by his nephew, 1803 Maih. Khan II.
1617 Osman I.; strangled by the Janizaries, 1839 Abdul-Metdjid, June 27.
TURKEYS AND GUINEA FOWLS. First brought to England A. D. 1524, and
to France in 1570. Turkeys are natives of America, and were, consequently, -unknown to the ancients. Mr. Pennant has established this fact by various particulars in'he history of these birds; evincing that they are natives
neither of Europe; Asia, nor Africa; a circumstance since placed beyond
controversy, by thlle researchles of Mr. Beckmann. Wild turkeys are met
with in flocks of' soime thoussands in parts of the new world, and except being larger do not differ fiom ours.-S-tcyt/.
TURNING. According to Pliny this art was known to the ancients, by whom
articles of wood, ivory, iron, and gold were formed, The precious vases,
572 THIE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ TYR
enriched with figures in half relief, which at this day adorn the cabinets of
the antiquary and curious, were producecl by turning. The lathes made for
turnery in England are, many of them, wonderful in their machinery; and
in some of our dock-yards, blocks and other materials for our ships of war
are now produced by almost instantaneous processes, from rough pieces of
oak, by the machinery of Mr. Brunel.
TURNPIKES. See Tolls. Turnpike-gates for exacting tolls, which were otherwise previously collected, were set up in the reign of Charles II., 1663.Clhalmers. The statutes relating to turnpike-roads are very numerous.
TUSCANY. This country was created into a dukedom, A. D. 1530. It came
into the Austrian family in 1737. It was seized by the French in March
1799. Ferdinand IV., the grand duke, was dispossessed by France, and his
dominions given to Louis, son of the king of Spain, with tLe title of king
of Etruria, February 26, 1801. He*died June 30, 1803; and soon afterwards this state was transformed into an ppendage to the crown of Italy;
but was restored to Austria in 1814. The present granu..luKe Leopold II.
(cousin to the emperor), ascended June 18, 1824.
Disturbances and revolutions of 1847-8 The chambers meet.
began at Leghorn - - Sept. 2, 1847 Provisional government proclaimed,
Grand-duke grants a national militia. Feb. 9, 1849
The grand-duke granted a liberal con- Leghorn attacked and carried by Tusstitution. - Feb. 1848 can troops - - May 10, 1849
Insurrection at Leghorn - Sept. 5, 1848 The arand-duke re-enters Florence and
The grand-duke flees from Florence resumes his authority - July 27, 1849
TWELFTH-DAY. The church-festival called the Epiphany, or manifestationof Christ to the Gentiles. See Epiphany. The custom of drawing king
and queen on this day was borrowed from the Greeks and Romans, who, on
the tabernacle, or Christmas festivals, drew lots for kings, by putting a piece
of money in the middle of a cake, which whoever found, was saluted as
king.
TYLER, WAT, HIS INSURRECTION. It arose in the opposition of the people to
the poll-tax, which was levied in 1378. Owing to the indecent rudeness of
one of the collectors to Tyler's daughter, with a view to prove her of sufficient age (fifteen) to pay the tax (Tyler striking him dead for the offence),
the provoked populace gathered upon Blackheath to the number of 100,000
men. The king, Richard II., invited Tyler to a parley at Smithfield, where
the latter addressed the king in a somewhat menacing manner, now and
again lifting up his sword. His insolence raised the indignation of the
mayor, Walworth, who stunned Tyler with a blow of his mace, and one of
the knights attending the king dispatched him. The death of their leader
awed the multitude, to whom Richard promised a charter, and they dispersed, 1381.
TYRE. This great city was first built by Agenor. Another city was built
1257 B. c. It was besieged by the Assyrians, 719 B. c., and they retired from
before it, after a siege of upwards of five years, 713 B. c. Taken by Nebuchadnezzar, 572 B. c., and the city demolished, when the Tyreans removed
to an opposite island, and built a new and magnificent city. It was taken
by Alexander with much difficulty, and only after he had joined the island
to the continent by a mole, after a siege of seven months, Aug. 20, 332 B. c.
-Strabo. Two of the most atrocious acts in the history of human crimes
were the itege and destruction of Tyre by Alexander, and of Jerusalem by
Titus. Histories which laud such monsters ought to be consigned to the
flames. —Plhillips.
TYRE, ERA or. Began on the 19th of October, 125 B. c., with the month Hyperberetoeus. The month was the same as those used in the Grecian era
and the year is similar to the Julian year. To reduce this era to ours, sub
UNI ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 573
tract 124; and if the given year be less than 125, deduct it from 125, and
the remainder will be the year before Christ.
U.
UBIQUARIANS. A sect of Lutherans which arose and spread through Germany and other countries, and who believed the natural body of Christ to
be every where present. This sect arose under Brentius, about A. D. 1540.
UKRAINE. The name signifies a frontier. By a treaty between Russia and
Poland, these states divided the Ukraine in 1693. Poland having the west
side of the Dnieper, and Russia the east. But the whole country (the borders of Poland, Russia, and Little Tartary) was assigned t? Russia by the
treaty of Partition in 1795.
ULM, PEACE OF, by which Fredrick V. lost Bohemia (having been driven from
it previously), July 3, 1620. Ulm was taken by the French in 1776. Great
battle between the French and Austrians, in which the latter, under general Mack, were defeated with dreadful loss, by marshal Ney, whose victory was consummated by the surrender of Ulm, and 36,000 men, the flower
of the Austrian army, Oct. 17, 19, 1805. From this time the ruin of the
confederates, and grandeur and power of Napoleon, had their date.
UMBRELLA. Described in early dictionaries as "a portable pent-house to
carry in a person's hand to screen him from violent rain or heat." Umbrellas are very ancient: it appears, by the carvings at Persepolis, that umbrellas were used at very remote periods by the Eastern princes. Niebuhr, who
visited the southern parts of Arabia, informs us that he saw a great prince
of that country returning from a mosque, preceded by some hundreds of
soldiers, and that he and each of the princes of his numerous family caused
a large umbrella to be carried by his side. The old china-ware in our pantries and cupboards show the Chinese shaded by an umbrella. It is said
that the first person who used an umbrella in the streets of London was
the benevolent Jonas Hanway, who died in 1786.*
UNCTION, EXTREME. Unction was frequent among the Jews. At their
feasts, and other times of rejoicing, they anointed sometimes their whole
body, and at other times their head or feet only: their kings and high
priests were anointed at their inauguration; they also anointed the vessels
of the temple to consecrate them. None of the emperors, it is said, were
anointed before Justinian, Aug. 1, A. D. 527. As a religious rite, extreme
unction was in common use, A. D. 550. St. Asaph was the first who received
aunction from the pope, 590. —Bayle. It is administered in dying cases as
extreme unction. See Aseointing.
UNIFORMS. Militar3 uniforms were first used in France, " in a regular man* For a long while it was not usual for men to carry them without incurring the brand of effeminacy. At first, a single umbrella seems to have been kept at a coffee-house for extraordinary
occasions-lent as a coach or chair in a heavy showerbut not commonly carried by the walkers.
The Fesmale Tattler advertises " The young gentleman belonging to the Custom-house who, in
iear of rain, borrowed the umblrellafrom. Wil/cs's Coffee-hotse, shall the next time be welcome to
the maid's pattens." As late as 1778, one John Macdonald, a footman, who wrote his own life
informs us, that he had " a fine silk umbrella, which he brought from Spain; but he could not
with any comnfort to himself use it, the people calling out'Frenchman! why don't you get a
coach?"' The fact was, the haclkney-coachmen and chairmen, joining with the true esprit de corps,
were clamorous against this portentous rival. The footman in 1778, gives us some farther
information. "At this time, there were no umbrellas worn in London, except in noblemen's and
gentlemen's houses, where there was a large one hung in the hall to hold over a lady if it rained,
between the door and her carriage." This man's sister was compelled to quit his arm one day
from the abuse he drew down on himself and his umbrella. But he adds, that "he persisted
for three months, till they took notice of this novelty. Foreigners began to use theirs, and then'
ihe English. Now it is become a great tlade in L~ondon." —NewMonthly 1aogoazine.
'574 ThE WOPRLD'S PROGRESS. [ J1l1
ner," by Louis XIV., 1668. In England the uniform was soon afterwards
adopted. For an account of naval uniforms, see Naval Unifor'ms.
UNIFORMITY, AcT OF. An Act of Uniformity passed 1 Elizabeth, 1559. But
the statute known as tile Act of Uniformlity was passed 13 and 14 Charles
[T., 1661, 2. It enjoined uniformity in matters of religion, and obliged all
clergy to subscribe to the thirty-nine articles, andl use the same form of
worship, and same book of common prayer. This act caused upwards of
2000 conscientious ministers to quit the Church of England, and take their
lot among the dissenters, who thereby received so large an addition to their
numbers that they may be considered as the fathers of the dissenting interest.
UiNION OF THE CROWNS. The crowns of England and Scotland were united
by the accession of James VI. of Scotland as James I. of England, March
24, 1603. The legislative union of the two kingdoms was attempted in 1604,
but the project failed. It was again attempted, but again failed, in 1670. In
the reign of Anne it was once more tried, and in the end with better success. Comnmissioners were appointed, the articles discussed, and, notwithstanding great opposition made by the Tories, every article in the union
was approved by a great majority, first in the House of Commons. and afterwards by the peers, July 22, 1706, and ratified by the Scottish parliamlent, Jan. 16, 1707. It became a law, May 1, same year.
UNION WITE IRELAND. The UNION of GREAT BRITAIN and IRELAND, proposed in the Irish parliament, Jan. 22, 1799. The act passed in the British
parliament, July 2, 1800.
UNITARIANS. This sect began A. D. 1550. Tile Unitarians believe in and
worship only one self-existent God, in opposition to those who, besides the
Father, worship his Son Jesus. They arose under Servetus. This learnedc
man, excited by the discussions of the reformers, began to read the Scriptures, and conducted his researches with so free a spirit, that he. printedl,tract in disparagement of the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity. In 1533,
proceeding to Naples through Geneva, Calvin induced the magistrates to
arrest him on a charge of blasphemy and heresy: and refusing to retract
his opinions, he was condemned to the flames, which sentence was carried
into execution, October 27, 1553. Servetus is numbered among those anatomists who made the nearest approach to the doctrine of the circulation
of the blood, before Harvey established that doctrine. In the United States,
especially in New England, the Unitarians form a large, intelligent, and influential portion of the community. The celebrated philanthropist andl
eloquent writer, Dr. W. E. Channing, was a Unitarian.
UNITED KINGDOM or GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. The British
realm was so named, on the union with Ireland, Jan. 1, 1801, when a new
imperial standard was hoisted on the Tower of London and Castle of Dublin. See Ueiion.
UINITED PROVINCES, THF, SEVEN. Established by throwing off the Spanishi yoke, A. n. 1579. The revolted states, with William, prince of Orange,
at their head, after long deliberations at the Hague, published an edict excluding king Philip from any sovereignty, right, or authority over the I -
therlands. The deputies from the provinces of Holland, Zealand, Utrecllt,
Friesland, Groningen, Overyssell, and Guelderland, met at Utrecht, Jan. 23,
1579; signed a treaty for their mutual defence; appointed the prince of
Orange as their stadtholder; and formed the alliance ever since klnown. as
the "Union of Utrecht," the basis of the commonwealth so renoowned by
-the appellation of the " Seven United Provinces." Their independence was
acknowledged in 1607. United to France in 1796. Louis Bonaparte was
crowned king bythe authority of Napoleon, June 5, 1806. Louis abdicated.
'TJI ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 575
July 1, 1810. Restored to the house of Orange, and Belgium annexed
Nov. 18, 1813. Belgium separated from Holland, and Leopold of SaxeCoburg elected king, July 12, 1831. See Holland and Belgi,-nm.
UNITED STATES oF AMER CA. See Amer'icca; and the separate States,
l3Jitai.e, &c. The first colonial Congress, for the redress of r;nievances. con.
siSting of' delegates fiom the several colonies, met at New York, June 7,
1 65. The Continental Congress at Philadelphia adopts Declaration of
RPigllts, 1774; revolutiomary war commenced at Lexington, April 19, 1775.
See iar. Declaration of Independence adopted by the Congress, July 4,
1776. The title of " United Sacetes " adopted by Congress, Sept. 9, 1776.
Incldependence acknowledged by Great Britain in the Treaty of Paris
Sept. 23, 1783. Constitution adopted Sept. 17, 1787. War against Great
Britain declared by Congress, June 19, 1812. Treaty of peace signed at
Ghent, Dec. 3, 1814. War with Mexico commenced April, 1846. Treaty
of peace signed May 30, 1848. See WaC-s of the Unlilted States, &c.; also
_.TNaval Battles; also Admiinistrations, Expots, National Debt, Treaties, Populalion, &c. [The various occurrences in the history of the United States
are given more at large under that head in the Tatbnlar Views in this
vol., page 122, et. seq.]
UNIVERSALISTS. Those who believe in the final salvation of all men. Sects
of' Universalists existed in various countries and ages. The learned and
celebrated Dr. Tillotson appears from some of his sermnons to have adopted
the opinion of this universal salvation.-Jleknsob. Certain it is. about 1691,
hlie entertained a design for forming' a new book of homilies; and a sermlon
which he preached before the queen (Mary) against the absolute eternity
of hell tormlents, involved this doctrine.
UNIVERSITIES. They sprang from the donvents of regular clergy, and from
the chapters of cathedrals in the church of Rome. The most ancient universities in Europe are those of Oxford, Cambridge, Paris, Salamuanca, and
Bologna. The British universities were vested with the lands of ex-Catholies, and permitted to send members to Parliament by James I. The following are the principal universities in Europe:
Aberdeen founded - 1494 I Dublin -1591
Abo, Finland - -1640 Edinburgh, founded by. ames VI. -1582
Aix, 1409; re-established - - 1603 Erfurt, Thuringia; enlarged - -1390
Alba Julia, Transylvania - - 1629 Florence, Italy; enlarged - -1438
Altorf, Franconia - 1581 Frankfort-ol-the-Oder - - 1506
Andrew's, St., Scotland.- 1411 Fribourg, Germany - 1460
Angers, chiefly law - 1393 Geneva - - 1365
Anjou, 1349; enlarged - - 1364 Glasgow... 1450
Avignon. France - 1388 Gottingen -... 1734
Bamberg.... 1585 Granada, Spain - - 1537
Baale, Switzerland - -1458 Gripswald -... 1547
Berlin - 1812 Groningen, Friesland - 1614
Besancon, Burgundy - - 1540 Halle, Saxony - 1694
Bologna, Italy - - 423 Heidelberg - -1346
Bruges, French Flanders - 1665 Ingoldstadt, Bavaria.. 1573
Caen, Normandy 4....1 17 Jena, or Sala, Thuringia -1548
Cambridge, began, 626-according to Kiel, Holstein. - 1665
others, 900. See Cambridcge. King's College, London -1829
Cambridge, New England, projected - 1630 Konigsberg, Prussia - 1544
Cologne, in Germany, re-founded -1389 Leipsic, Saxony - - 1409
Compostella, Spain - - 1517 Leyden, Holland.-.1575
Coimbra, Portugal - - -1391 Lim"a, in Peru - - 1614
Copenhagen. 1497; enlarged - 1539 Lisbon, 1290; removed to Coimbra 1391
Cordova, Spain.. 968 London University - 1826
Cracow, Poland, 700; enlarged -1402 i ouvaine, Flanders, 926; cnlalrged -1427
Dijon, France - - 172'2 Lyons, France - - 830
Dillingin, Swabia - 1565 Mechlin, Flanders -. - 1440
Dole, Burgundy - - - 1426 Mentz - - - 1482
Douay, French Flanders - 1562 Montpelier -. 119G
Dresden, S axony - - 1694 Moscow -1754
576 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ UTi
UNIVERSITIES, continued.
Munster -1491 Saltzburg.. - 1623
Naples — 1216 Saragossa, Arragon - - 147'
Orleans, France - 1312 Seviile - 1531
Oxford (see Oxford) - - 886 Sienna - 1387
Paderborn - - 1592 Siguenza, Spain -1517
Padua, Italy - -1179 Sorbonne, Paris - ~ 1253
Palenza, 1209; removed to Salamanca 1249 Strasburg - -1'33
Paris, 792; renovated - 1100 Toledo, Spain -. -1518
Parma - -1599 Treves, Germany - - -1473
Pavia, 791; enlarged - 1361 Tubingen, Wirtemberg - - - 1477
Perpignan - 1349 Turin -1405
Perugia, Italy - 1307 Upsal, Sweden - -1477
Petersburgh- -1747 Utrecht, Holland - - - -1636
Pisa, 1339; enlarged.. 1552 Valence, Dauphine - - -1475
Poictiers — 1430 Valencia in the thirteenth century.
Prague - - - - - - -1348 Valladolid. -1346
Rheims, 1145; enlarged - - - 1560 Venice.- -1592
Rome Sapienza - - - 1303 Vienna.12.36
Rostock, Mecklenburgh - - - 1419 Wirtemberg. - - -10
Salamanca - - - 1240 Wittenberg - - - 02
Salerno - o - -1233 Wurtzburg - - - -1403
UNIVERSITIES IN UNITED STATES. See Colleges.
UNKNOWN TONGUE. A disturbance in the Rev. Mr. Irving's chapel, irv
London, occasioned by a Miss Hall interrupting a discourse on prophecy,
by holding forth in what was denominated the " Unknozonw Tonzgue." She
was removed to the vestry. On the same evening, a Mr. Taplin rose, and
commenced, with the permission of Mr. Irving, a violent harangue in the
same unknown language. A scene of most alarming confusion ensued, the
whole congregation rising from their seats in affright, and the females
screaming, while Mr. Irving listened with the most profound attention to
the ravings of' the i7nspired teacher', October 16, 1831. From this period,
much of the same mummery, followed by a translation into English rhapsody, was played off; and large crowds assembled, not on Sundays only, but
as early as six o'clock on the mornings of week-days also, some to be edified by prophetic spirits, and some to laugh at the ravings of fanatics.A -n. Register.
URANUS. This planet, with its satellites, was discovered by Herschel, by
whom it was called the Georgian planet, in honor of his majesty George IIl,
The name of Herschel is also given to it, in compliment to its illustrious
discoverer, by the astronomers of Great Britain; but by foreigners it is
asually called Uranus. It is about twice as distant fiom the sun as thb
planet Saturn; and was discovered on the 13th March, 1781.
USURY. Forbidden by parliament, 1341. Two shillings per week were given
for the loan of twenty, in 1260. This was at the rate of 431. 6s. 8d. per
annum for 1001., which was restrained by an act, 1275, against the Jew%.
Until the fifteenth century no Christians were allowed to receive interest
of money, and Jews were the only usurers, and, therefore, often banished
and persecuted (see Jews). By the 37th of Henry VIII.. the rate of interest
was fixed at 10 per cent., 1545. This statute conlfirmed by the 13th Elizabeth, 1570. Reduced to 8 per cent., 21 James I., 1623, when the word inc
ten'est was first used for the word ussury. Reduced to 5 per cent., 13 Anne,
1714. See Ittetrest.
UiTRECHT, TrREATY OF, &C. The Union of the Seven United Provinces began
here (see United Provinzces), A. n. 15 9. The celebrated Treaty of' Utrecht,
which terminated the vwars of queen Anne, was signed by the ministers of
Great Britain and France, as well as of' all the other allies, except the ministers of the empire. The most important stipulations of this treaty were
the security of the Protestant succession in England, the disuniting tl2.
VAL] DICTIoNARxY OF DATES. 577
French and Spanish crowns, the destruction of Dunkirk, the enlargement
of the British colonies and plantations in America, and a full satisfaction
for the clains of the allies, April 11, 1713. Utrecht surrendered to the
Prussians, May 9, 1787; and was possessed by the French, Jan. 18, 1795.
V.
VACCINE INOCULATION. Variola vaccinla, discovere-d by Dr. Jenner. lHe
made the first experiment in vaccination, by transferring the pus from
the pustule of a milk-maid, who had caught the cow-pox from the cows, to
a healthy child, in May 1796. Dr. Jenner subsequently published the result
to the world, and the cure became general in 1799. The cure was introduced Jan. 21, in that year. The genuine cow-pox appears, in the form of
vesicles, on the teats of the cow. Dr. Jenner received 10,0001. for the discovery from parliament in 1802; and the first national institution for the
promotion of the cure, called the Royal Jennerian Institution was founded
Jan. 19, 1803. Vaccination was practised throughout all Europe previously
to 1816.
VAGRANTS. After being whipped, a vagrant was to take an oath to return
to the place where he was born, or had last dwelt for three years, 22 Henry
VIII., 1530. A vagrant a second time convicted, to lose the upper part of
the gristle of his right ear, 27 Henry VIII., 1535; and a third time convicted,
death. By 1 Edward III., a vagabond to be marked with a V. and be a
slave for two years. Vagrants were punished by whipping, jailing, boring
the ears, and death for a second offence, 14 Elizabeth, 1571. The milder
statutes were those of 17 George II.; 32, 35, and 59 George III. The laws
against vagrancy are still very severe in England, and operate unequally as
respects the character of the offender.
VALENCIA. Its university was founded, it is said, in the 13th century, and
was revived in 1470. Valencia was taken by the earl of Peterborough in
1705, but was soon lost again. It was taken from the Spaniards by the
French, under Suchet, with a garrison of more than 16,000 men, and immense stores, Jan. 9, 1812.
VALENCIENNES, SIEGE OF. This citY was besieged from May 23 to July 14,
when the French garrison surrendered to the allies under the duke of York,
1793. It was retaken, together with Conde, by the French, on capitulation,
the garrison and 1100 emigrants made prisoners, with immense stores, viz.
-300 pieces of cannon, one million pounds of gunpowder, eight millions
of florins in specie, six millions of livres, 1000 head of cattle, and vast
quantities of other provisions, Aug. 30, 1794.
VPALENCAY, TREATY O'P, between Napoleon of France and Ferdinand VII.
of Spain, whereby the latter was put in full possession of that kingdom, on
agreeing to maintain its integrity. This celebrated treaty was signed December 8, 1813.
VALENTINE'S DAY. The practice of " choosing a Valentine," as it is
called, on this day, is too well known to need explanation, The origin of
the custom has been much controverted; it is indisputably of very ancient
date. Valentine was a presbyter of the church, who suffered martyrdom under Claudius II. at Rome, A.D. 271. It is said that on this day
the birds choose their mates; whence, probably, came the custom of'
young people choosing Valentines or particular friends on the feast of
Valentine.
VA-_ENTINIANS. This sect of enthusiastics were followers of the opinions
of one Valentine, a priest, who, upon being disappointed of a bishopric.
25
578. rTLE WORLD OS PROGRESS. L [vil
forsook the Christian fiith, and published that thlere were thirty gods and
goddesses, fifteen of each sex, which he called Zlones, or Ages. He
taug'ht in the second century, and published a gospel and psalms: to
these his followers added several other errors, cleclarinlg there Awas no obligation to suffr mlartyrdom; some declared against baptism, and others
practised it in a peculiar manner, and all indulged themselves in licentiousness.
VANCOUVER'S VOYAGE. Captain Vancouver served as a midshipman
under captain Cook; and a voyage of discovery, to ascertain the existence
of any navigable communication between the North Pacific and North
Atlantic oceans being determined on, he was appointed to collmmiand
it. He sailed in 1790, and returned September 24, 1795. He compiled elr
account of this voyage of survey of the Northwest coast of America, and
died in 1798.
VANDALS. The Vandal nations began their ravages in Gerin iny and Gaul,
A. D. 406-414. Their kingdom in Spain was founded in 411. They invaded
and conquered the Roman territories in Africa, under Genseric, who took
Carthage, Oct. 24, 439. They were driven out, and attacked in turn by the
Saracen Moors. The Vandalii overran a vast portion of Europe and spread
devastation wherever they appeared.
VAN DIEMEN'S LAND. This country was discovered by Tasman in 1633.
It was visited by Furneaux in 1773; by captain Cook in 1777; and was
deemed the south extremity of New Holland until 1799. A British settlement was established on the south-east part, within the mouth of the Derwent, and named HIobart Town, wahichi is the seat of government, 1804.
VASSALAGE. See Feuldal Lavws and Villanage. Vassalage was introduced
by the Saxons, and its slavery increased under William I. Under the Norman princes there were vassal boors and fiee boors; those who were sold
with the land, and those who were free to choose an employer. To this day
the distinction prevails in some countries, and particularly in Russia, where
the vassal boors are divided into classes; as boors belonging to the sovereign; mining boors, who are sold with the property; and private boors, who
belong to the nobility, and perform the labor on their estates. In England,
a vassal did homage to a lord on account of land, &c., held of him in fee.
Vassalage was abolished in Hungary in October 1785; in Holstein, in May
1797; and Courland, in Sept. 1818.
VATIC AN. The magnificent palace of the pope at Rome, adjoining St. Petera'
said to contain 7000 rooms. In this palace, the library, founded A. D. 1448,
is noted for its collection of MSS., but the number of books is comparatively moderate. See Libraries. The phrase " thunders of the Yaticar"
was first. used by Voltaire, 1748.
VENEZUELA. When the Spaniards landed here in 1499, they observed some
huts built upon piles, in an Indian village named Cora, in order to raise thes.
above the stagnated water that covered the plain; and this induced them t
give it the name of Venezuela, or Little Venice. This state declared in
congressional assembly the sovereignty of its people, in July 1814. It-3. C
arated from the federal union and declared itself sole and independent
1830. See Colombia.
VE NI-, VIDI, 1VICI.-" I came, I saw, I conquered." This well-known sentence formed the whole of Caesar's dispa tch to the Roman senate wher he
vanquished Pharnaces, king of ChintLerian Bosphorus, 47 B. c. See Zela,
Battle oJf:'VENICE. So called friom the Venetii who inhabited its site, when it was made
a kingdom by the Gauls, who conquered it about 356 B. C. Marcellus c-,v
DICTIONARY OF DATES. 579
qfered it for the Roman republic, and slew the Gaulish king, 221 a. c. The
tis aMds on which the city is built began to be inhabited. A. a. 421, by Italiams, who fled here as a p)lace of safety friom the Goths, and other barbarous nations. when they ravaged Italy. The first house was erected on the
mor-ass by Enltinopus. by whom the people of Padua were assisted in building the cig'hty houses wich first frlled the city.-P)riesiey/. Ve.nice was
first governecl by a doge (Anllaftsto Palulio), A. D. 697. The republic was
not completiely ioundeld until 80ri. The city rclduced to ashes, 1101. The
celremlolny of the doges of Venice alnrying the Adriatic was instituted by
Iope Alexander II. in 1173. Venice carried on a vast commierce until the
discovery of America, and a passage to the East Indies by the Cape, gave
it another direction, about 1500. By the treaty of Campo Fornmio, the territory to the north and west of the Adige wtere ceded to Austria. and the
rest was annexed to what the French then styled the Cisalpine Republic,
1797. This disposition was altered by the treaty of Presburg, and the
whole country annexed to the kingdom of Italy, 1805. Venice returned
under the power of Austria in 1814. The city declared a free port, Jan. 24,
1880.
Venice declares herself an independent Venice, after a gallant resistance, capirepublic - Aug. 18, 1848 tulates to Marshal Radetzky, and is
Provisional government decrees an as- again in the power of Austria,
senibly with fetll powers to be elected Aug. 22, 1849
by universal suffrage, 1 to every 1,500
inhabitants - ec. 29, 1848
VENTRILOQUISMI[. Persons who had this art were by the Latins called Ventriloquli, and by the Greeks, Engastrim)ythoi, i. e. people that speak out of
their bellies. or who have the art of throwing out the voice in an extraordinary manner. Exhibitors of this kind have appeared in England in various
ages, but some of extraordinary capabilities in their art exhibited in. the
last century. Mr. Thomas King is said to have been the first malan whose
experimental philosophy, shown in this line, excited great wonder, about
1716. One of the most accomplished professors of' ventriloquism that ever
appeared in France or England, was M. Alexandre, about 1822.
VENUS. This planet's transit over the sun, it was ascertained by Horrox, in
1633, would take place Nov. 24, 1639. He was the first who predicted, or
rather calculated this passage, firom which lie deduced many useful observations. Maskelyne was sent to St. Helena to observe her transit, in Jan.
1761. Captain Cook made his first voyage, in the Endeavor, to Otaheita,
to observe a transit of Venus, in 1769. See NOTE to article Cook's Voyages.
The diurnal rotation of Venus was discovered by Cassini in 1712. This
planet will not be again so brilliant as in 1769 to our globe until 1874.
VERMONT, one of the JUnited States, first settled by colonists from Massachusetts, 1723. The territory was claimed by New Hampshlire, firom 1741 to
1764: claimed also by New-York, and granted to that colony by parliament
in 1664 Owing to these conflicting claims, the state was not admitted into
the confederacy during the Revolution, but it still performed its part in
that struggle. The British defeated at Bennington by gen. Stark, in 1777.
Claims of New-York withdrawn on payment of $30,000, in 1790. The state
admitted into the Union, 1791. Population in 1790, was 85,589; in 1810,
217,895; in 1830, 280,679; in 1840, 291,948.
VERSAILLES, PALACE O'. In the reign of Louis XIII., Versailles was only a
small village, in a forest thirty miles in circuit; and here this prince built a
hunting-seat in 1630. Louis XIV., in 1687, enlarged it into a magnificent
palace, which was finished in 1708, and was the usual residence of the kings
of France till 1789, when Louis XVI. and his family were removed from it
to Paris. Louis Philippe appropriated the whole of the immense building
580 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ rEto a grand national museum of paintings and statues, dedicated a tolts les
gloires de Freavnce; and freely opened to the public.
V,'RSAILLES, PYE'ACE OF. The definitive treaty of peace between Great Britain and the United States, signed at Paris; when the latter power was admitted to be sovereign and independent. On the same day. the definitive
treaty was signed at Versailles between Great Britain, France, and Spain,
Sept. 3, 1783. In pursuance of the treaty of Versailles, Pondicherry alld
Carical, with the former possessions in Bengal, were restored to France.
Trincomalle at the same time restored to the Dutch.
VERSE, BLANK. Blank verse and the heroic couplet, now in general use for
grave or elevated themes, are both of comparatively modern date. Surrly
translated part of Visril's JEneid into blank verse, which is the first composition of the kind, omitting tragedy, extant in the English language; and the
other measure was but little affected till the reign of Charles II. The verse
previously used in our grave compositions was the stanza of eight lines, the
otta.cva risema, as adopted with the addition of one line by Spenser (in his
Fae'ry QuLeen). who probably borrowed it from Ariosto and Tasso. the Italian
language being at that time in high repute. Boccaccio first introduced it into
Italy in his heroic poem La Teseide, having copied it from the old French
chalsonbs. —iliet'opgolitax. Trissino is said to have been the first introducer cf
blank verse among the moderns, about 1508.- Vossies. See Poetry.
VESTA. The planet Vesta (the ninth) was discovered by Dr. Olbers, of Bremen, on March 28, 1807. She appears like a star of the sixth magnitude.Aa2ntal Re]gister.
VESTALS. Priestesses of the goddess Vesta, who took care of the perpetual
fire. consecrated to her worship. This office was very ancient, as the mother
of Romulus was one of the vestals.?lneas is supposed to have first chosen
the Vestals. Nul-a, in 710 B. c., first appointed four, to which number Tarquin added two. They were always chosen by the monarchs; but after the
expulsion of the Tarquins, the high-priest was intrusted with the care
of them. As they were to be virgins, they were chosen young, from
the age of six to ten; and if there was not a sufficient number that
presented themselves as candidates for the office, twenty virgins were
selected, and they upon whom the lot fell were obliged to become priestesses.
The vestal Minutia was buried alive for violating her virgin vow, 337 B. c.
The vestal Sextilia was buried alive for incontinence, 274 B. C.; and the vestal Cornelia Maximiliana on the same charge, A. D. 92.-Biblioteqsue Uni-.
verselle.
VESUVIUS, MOUNT. The dreadful eruption of Mount Vesuvius, when it
emitted such a quantity of flame and smoke that the air was darkened, and
the cities of Pomvpeii and Herecslceseelt were overwhelmed by the burning
lava, A. D. 79. More than 250,000 persons perished by the destruction of
those cities; the sun's light was totally obscured for two days throughout
Naples; great quantities of ashes and sulphureous smoke were carried not
only to Rome, but also beyond the Mediterranean into Africa; birds were
suffocated in the air and fell dead upon the ground, and the fishes perishe('
in the neighboring waters, which were made hot and infected by it: tmiis
eruption proved fatal to Pliny the naturalist. IHerculaneum was discovered
in 1737, and many curious articles have been.dug fiom the ruins since that
time; but every thing combustible had the marks of having been burned by
fire. Numerous eruptions have occurred, causing great devastation and
loss of lives. In 1631 the town of Torre del Greco, with 4000 persons, and
a great part of the surrounding country. were destroyed. One of the most
dreadful eruptions ever known took place suddenly. Nov. 24, 1759. The
violent burst in 1767 was the thirty-fourth from the the time of Titus, when
VIE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 581
Pompeii was buried. One in 1794 was most destructive: the lava flowed
over 5000 acres of rich vineyards and cultivated lands, and the town of
Torre del Greco was a second time burned; the top of the mountain fell in,
and the crater is now nearly two miles in circumference. There have been
several eruptions since.
VETOES oc THE PRESIDENTS of TIIE UNITED STATES. The power of cancelling acts of Congress by executive veto, was exercised as follows:-by
Washington, twice; Madison,, four times; Monlroe, once; Jackson, five
tinmes; Tyler, three times; Polk, twice. Bill relating to steam-vessels in the
navy vetoed by president Tyler, and afterwards passed by vote of two thirds
of both houses, and became a law: the first instance of the kind, February
20, 1845. River and Harbor bill, vetoed by president Polk, August 3, 1846.
French Spoliation Indemnity bill, by the same, Aug. 8, 1846.
VIENNA. The former capital of the German empire, and fiom 1806 the capital of the Austrian dominions only. Vienna was made an imperial city
in 1136; and was walled and enlarged with the ransom paid for Richard I.
of Englandc. 40,0001., in 1194. Besieged by the Turks under Solyman the
MIag'nilicent, with an army of 300 000 men: but he was forced to raise the
siege with the loss of 70.000 of his best troops, 1529. Again besieged in
1683, when the siege was raised by John Sobieski, king of Poland, who
totally defeated the Turkish army of 100,000, which had cannonaded the
city from July 24 to the beginning of November. Vienna was taken by
the French, under prince Murat, Nov. 14, 1805; and evacuated January 12,
following. They again captured it, May 13, 1809; but restored it once
more on the conclusion of peace between the two countries, Oct. 14, same
year. Conference of the ministels of the allies and France, September 28,
1814. Congress of sovereigns, Oct. 2, 1814. See Azustria and HltaxgCer.
See next articles.
VIENNA, TREATY OF, WtITH SPAIN. The celebrated treaty signed between the
emperor of Germany and the king' of Spain, by which they confirmed to
each other such parts of the Spanish clominions as they were respectively
possessed of, and by a private treaty the emperor engaged to employ a force
to procure the restoration of Gibraltar to Spain, and to use means for placing
the Pretender on the throne of Great Britain. Spain guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction, April 30, 172-5.
VIENNA, TREATY OF ALLIANCE, between the emperor of Germany, the king
of Great Britain, and Holland, by which the Pragmatic Sanction was guaranteed, and the disputes as to the Spanish succession terminated (Spain
acceded to the treaty on the 22d of July); signed March 16, 1731.
VIENNA, TREATY OF WITHI FRANCE. A definitive treaty of peace between the
emlperor of Germany and king of France, by which the latter power agreed
to guarantee the Pragmatic Sanction, and Lorraine was ceded to France;
signed Nov. 18, 1738.
VIENNA, PEACE OP, between Napoleon of France and Francis (II. of Germany)
I. of Austria. By this tre.: y Austria ceded to France the Tyr1ol, Dalmatia,
and other territories, which were shortly afterwards declared to be united
to France under the title of,the Illyrian Provinces, and engaging to adhere
to the prohibitory system adopted towards England by France and Russia,
October 1I, 1809.
VIENNA. TRFEATI S oF. The trealy of Vienna between Great Britain. Austria,
Riussia, and Prussia, confirming the principles on which they hal acted. by
the treaty of Chaumont, M3umarch 1, 1814; signed March 2'3, 1815. The
treaty of Vienna between the kino' of the Low Countries on the one part,
an.d Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, on the other, agreeing to
582 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ vI.
the enlargement of the Dutch territories, and vesting the sovereignty in the
house of Orange, May 81, 1815. The treaty of Vienna: Denmark ced-ei
Swedish Pomerania and Rungen to Prussia, in exchange for Lauenbnrg,
June 4, 1815. The federative constitution of Germlany sig'ned at Vienna,
June 8, 1815.
V'ILAIN, The name of a vassal under the Norman princes, his hard labor:
being the tenure by which he lived upon the land. Of and pertaiini.g to
the vill or lordship; was a servant during- life, and was devisable as chalttels in the feudal times. Queen Elizabeth gave the principal blow to tihis
kind of severe service, by ordering her bondsmen of the western counties
to be made free at easy rates, A. D. 1574.-Stowe's CGrot.
VIMEIRA, BATTLE OF,, between the British, under sir Arthltr WVellesley, and
the whole of the French and Spanish forces in Portugal, under marshal
Junot, duke of AbranLtes, whom the British signally defeated, August 21,
1808. For this victory the British hero and the officers and soldiers under
his command were voted the thanlks of parliament, the first of many sireilar honors that marked sir Arthur's (now duke of Wellington's) triumphant career.
VINCENT'S, Sv. This was long a neutral island; but at the peace of 1768,
the French agreed that the right to it should be vested in the English.
The latter, soon after, engaged in a war against the Caribs. on the windward
side of the island, who were obliged to consent to a peace, by which they
ceded a large tract of land to the British crown. The consequence of this
was, that in 1.779 they greatly contributed to the reduction of' this island
by the French, who, however, restored it in 1783. In 1795 the French
landed some troops, and again instigated the Caribs to an insurrection, which
was not subdued for several months. The great eruption of the Scouffrier
mountain, after the lapse of nearly a century, occurred in 1812.
VINE. The vine was known to Noah. A colony of vine-dressers from Phocca,
in Ionia, settled at Marseilles, and instructed the South Gauls in tillage,
vine-dressing, and commerce, about 600 B. c. Some think the vines are
aborigines of Languedoc, Provence, and Sicily, and that they grew spontaneously on the Mediterranean shores of Italy, France, and Spain. The
vine was carried into Champagne, and part of Germany, A. D. 279. The
vine and sugar-cane were planted in Madeira in 1420. It was planted in
England in 1552; and in the galdens of Hampton-court palace is an old and
celebrated vine, said to surpass any known vine in Europe. See Gs'?'/aj,
and Win;ie.*
VINEGAR. Known nearly as soon as wine. The ancients had severcal kinds
of vinegar, which they used for drink. The Roman soldiers were accustomed to take it in their marches. The Bible represents Boaz. a rich citizen of Bethlehem, as providing vinegar for his reapers. into which they
migiht dip their breacl, and kindly inviting Ruth to share with them in their
repast: hence we may infer that the harvesters, at that period, partoole of
this liquid for their refreshment; a custom still prevalent in Spain aid Italy.
It is conjectured that the vinegai which the Roman soldiers offeried to 9;'
Saviour at his crucifixion was that which they used for their own dltinki
* The followvine is a tradition in relalion to the vine:-When Adam planted the first vile, nmridl
left it, Sa.tan approached it, and salid, I,ovely plant! I wilt cherish thee;"' alnd theieupon tak.inl
three animals, a la li, a lio d a ho. he slayed them at the root of the tree. and ltheir blood 1has
been imbibed by the fi'uit to this day. Thus, ii you take one goblet of wine, yot are clleered by its
influence, yet are mnild and docile as the lahub; if'vou take two goblets, you become ftlrious, and
rave anil bello-w like the lion; and if you drinkl of the third goblet, your reason sinks, and, like the
hog, you wallow in the,mire.-Ashie.
.ILR 3 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 583
There was, however, a kind of potent vinegar, which wias not proper for
drinking till diluted.
V IOL AND VIOLIN. As the lyre of the Greeks was the harp of' the moderns,
so the viol and vielie of' the middle ac'es became the modelrn violin. The
viol was of various sizes formerly, as it is at pr-es-nt and wiits anciently very
much in use for chamber airs and songs. That of thlree strilgs was introducecl into Europe by the jugglers of' tlhe thirteenth century. The violin
was invented towards the close of the salme centn lry.-Ab6d Lae,?e)t. Tile
fiddle, however, is mentioned as early as A. 1). 1200, in the legendary life of
St. Christopher. It was introduced into England, solme say, by Charles II.
VIRGIN. The Assumption of the Virgin is a festival in the Greek and Latin
churches, in honor of the miraculous ascent of [llary into heaven, according
to their belief, August 15, A. D. 45. The Presentation of the Virgin, is a
feast celebrated November 21, said to have been instituted among the
Greeks in the eleventh century; its institution in the West is ascribed to
Gregory XI., 1372. A distinguished writer says:': The Indian incarnate
god Chrishna. the Hindoos believe, had a virgin-mother of the royal race,
and was sought to be destroyed in his infanecy. about 900 years a. c. It
appears that he passed his life ini worling miracles and preaching, and
was so humble as to wash his fiiends' feet; at length dlying, but rising
friom the dead, he ascended into heaven in the presence of' a multitude.
The Cingalese relate nearly the same things of their Budda."`-Sir [ilicaci
Jones.
VIRGINIA, daughter of the centurion L. Virginius. Appius Claudlius, the
decemvir, became enamored of her, and attempted to remove her from thle
place where she resided. She was claimed by one of' his favorites as the
daughter of a slave, and Appins, in the capacity and with the authority of
judge, had pronounced the sentence, and delivered her into the hands of his
friend, when Virginius, informed of his violent proceedings, arrived from
the camlp. The father demanded to see his daughter, anld when this request was granted, he snatchled a knife and plunged it into Virginia's breast,
exclaiming, " This is all, my daug'hter! I can give thee thee, to preserve thee
from the lust of a tyrant." No sooner was the blow given than Virginius
ran to the camp with the bloody knife in his hancl. The soldiers were astonisheci and incensed, not against the murderer, but the tyrant, and they
immediately marched to Rome. Appius was seized, but he destroyed himself in prison, and prevented the execution of the law. Spurius Oppius,
another of the tdecemvirs, who had not opposed the tyrant's views, killed
himself also; and Marcus Claudius, the favorite of Appius, was put to
death, and the decemviral power abolished, 449 B. c.
VIRGINIA. One of the United States; sometimes called the " Old Dominion,"'
having been settled, April, 1607, at Jamestown, on James river-the first
white settlement in the United States. Named Virginia in honor of queemn
Elizabeth, who had granted the country to Sir Walter Raleigh. A settlement attempted by Raleigh but failed, and the grant was vacated on his
attainder and execution. The country granted by James I. to two comnpanies, the London and the Plymouth. Jamestown settled by the former. and
named in honor of their royal patron. The colony suffered much fioom the
Indians, and by various disasters; proved loyal during the English revolution; was the first to proclaim Clharles II. on his restoration; established
the Church of England by law, 1662; took an early and promlinent part in
the stlruggle for independence. Surrender of the British army under Cornwallis, at Yorktown. October 19. 1782. Constitution of the United States
adopted June 25, 1788, by 89 to 79. Virginiat has given birth to six presidents of the United States, viz: Washington, Jefferson, gMIadison, MIonroe,
584 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ -,O
Harrison, and Taylor; and also, Patrick Henry, John Marshall, and;,any
distinguished patriots. Population in 1790 was 747,610; in 1810, 974,d22;
in 1830, 1,211,272; in 1840, 1,239,737, including 448,937 slaves.
vXSIER on VIZIER, GRAND. An officer of the Ottoman Porte, first appointed
in 1370. Formerly this officer governed the whole empire immediately
under the grand seignior; he is sometimes called the grand seignior's lieutenant, or vicar of the empire; at his creation, the prince's seal is put into
his hand, upon which is engraven the emperor's name, which he places in
his bosom, and carries away with him. —Knolles.
VITTORIA, BATTLE OF. One of the most brilliant victories recorded in the
annals of England, obtained by Wellington over the French army corn
manded by Jerome Bonaparte and marshal Jourdan, June 21,1813. Marshal Jourdan lost 151 pieces of cannon, 451 wagons of ammunition, all his
baggage, provisions, cattle, and treasure, with his baton as a marshal of
France. Continuing the pursuit on the 25th, Wellington too.k Jourdcan's
only remaining gun!
VOLCANOES. In different parts of the earth's surface, there are above 200
volcanoes, which have been active in modern times. The eruptions of
IMount Etna are recorded as early as 734i B. eC. by authentic historians. See
Etnla. The first eruption of Vesuvius was in A. D. 79. See VesLrZixl.
The first eruption of Hecla is said to have occurred A. D. 1004. For an account of the awful eruption of this volcano in 1783, see.Iceland. In Mexico,
a plain was filled up into a mountain more than a thousand feet in height
by the burning lava from a volcano in 1759. A volcano in the isle of Ferro
broke out, Sept. 13, 1777, which threw out an immense quantity of red
water, that discolored the sea for several leagues. Anew volcano appeared
in one of the Azore islands, May 1, 1808.
VOLUNTEERS. This species of force armed in England, in apprehension of
the threatened invasion of revolutionary France, 1794. Besides their large
army, and 85,000 men voted for the sea, England subsidized 40,000 Germans,
raised the militia to 100,000 men, and armed the citizens as volunteers.
Between the years 1798 and 1804, when this force was of greatest amount,
it numbered 410,000 men, of which 70,000 were Irish. The English volunteers were, according to official accounts, 341,600 on Jan. 1, 1804. In the
United States, on the breaking out of the _Mexican war, Congress authorized
the enlistment of 50,000 volunteers. A much larger number responded,
but less than 30,000 were actually needed or enrolled.
VOYAGES. The first great voyage, or voyage properly so called, was by order
of Necho, pharoah of Eg~ pt, when some Phoenician pilots sailed from
Egypt down the Arabic Gulf, round what is now called the Cape of Good
Hope, entered the Mediterranean by the Straits of Gibraltar, coasted along
the north of Africa, and at length arrived in Egypt, after a navigation of
about three years, 604 B. c.-Blair, HerodotLs. The first voyage round the
world was made by a ship, part of a Spanish squadron which had been
under the command of Magellan (who was killed at the Philippine island in a skirmish) in 1519-20. The era of voyages of discovery wag
the end of the eighteenth century. See Circumnzvigators, and lNorid,- fHferg
Passage.
W.
WAGES IN ENGLAND. The wages of sundry work men in England were first
fixed by act of parliamefit, 25 Edward III., 1350. Haymakers had but one
penny a day. Master carpenters, masons, tylers, and other coverers of
houses, had not more than 3d. per day (about 9d. of our money); and their
WAL I DICTIONAILY OF DATES. 585
servants 1 ~dl.- Fine r's Slczlltes. By the the 23d Henry VI., 144t, the wages
or a bailiff of husbancdry Awas 23s. 4d. per annum, and clothing of the price
of 5s. swith meat and drink; chief hind, carter, or shepherd, 20s., clothii.g
4s.; comlmon servant of husbandry. 15S., clothing 40d.; woman-servant, 10s.
clothing 4s. By the 11th Henry VII., 1495, there was a like rate of wages,
only with a little advance; as, for instance, a free mason, master carpenter,
rough mason, bricklayer, master tyler, plumber, glazier, carver, or joiner,
wvas allowved fiolm Easter to Mlchaelimas to take 6d. a day, without meat and
drink; or with nmeat and drink 4d.; from lMichaelmas to Easter, to abate
Id. A master havinv unier him six men was allowed 1d. a day extra. The
following were the
WAGES OF IHARVEST-MiEN IN ENGLAND AT DIFFERENT PERIODS.
Year. s. d. I Year. s. d. Year. s. d.
In 1350 per clie. 0 1 1 In 16S per diem. 0 8 In 1783 per diem., 1 4
In 1460 ditte 0 2 I 1716 ditto 0 9 an 1794 ditto 1 6
In 1568 ditto 0 4 In 1740 ditto 0 10 In 1800 ditto 2 0
In 1632 ditto 0 6 In 1760 ditto 1 0 In 1840 ditto 3 0
WAGRA15M, BATTLE or, between the Austrian and French armies, in which the
latter was completely victorious, and the former entirely overthrown. The
slaughter on both sides was dreadful; 20,000 Austrians were taken, y the
French, and the defeated army retired to Moravia, July 5, 1809. This
battle led to an armlistice, signed on the 12th; and on Oct. 24, to a treaty
of peace, by which Austria ceded all her sea-coast to France, and the
kingdoms of Saxony and Bavaria were enlarged at her expense. The emperor was obliged also to yield a part of his plunder of Poland in Gallicia
to Russia. The emperor also acknowledged Joseph Bonaparte as king of
Spain.
WAKEFIELD, BATTLE OF, IN ENGLAND, between Margaret, the queen of Henry
VI., and the duke of York, in which the latter was slain, and 3000 Yorkists
fell upon the field. The death of the duke. who aspired to the crown,
seemed to fix the good fortune of Margaret; but tile earl of Warwick espoused the cause of his son, the earl of M'larch, afterwards Edward IV., and
the civil war that was continued from that time devastated all England.
This battle was fought December 31, 1460.
WAKES. Every church at its consecration received the name of some particular saint; this practice existed among the Romans alcnd Britons. and
was continued among the Saxons. —'V/eXilaker. Women were hired among
the ancient Romlans to weep at funerals: they were called Caribcr. Tlhe
Irish howl originated fiom this Roman outcry at the decease of their
frie Ids. They hoped thus to awaken the soul, which they supposed might
lie inactive.
WALDENSES. The persecution of this sect in the beginning of the thirteenth
century led to the establishment of the Holy Office or Inquisition. Pope
Innocent III. had collnmissionedc some llonks to preach against the heresies
of the Waldenses in Narbonne and Provence; but the Catholic bishops
were at first jealous of this nlission, armed as it was with great power. and
the feudal chiefs refused to obey the orders of the legates. A. D. 1203-4.
One of the mlonks, the first inquisitor, Peter Chateauneuf, having been assassinated, the aspiring pontiff called on all the neighboring powers to
ma'ch into the heretical district. All obstinate heretics were placed at
the disposal of Simon de Montfort, conmmander of this crusade, and the
whole race of the Waldenses and Albigenses were ordered to be pursued
witil fire and sword. Neither sex, age, nor condition was spared; the country became a wilderness. and the towns heaps of smoking ruins. Such was
the era of the Inquisition. Dominic de Guzman was constituted first inquisitor-general, 1208.
25*
586 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS [WAIq
WALES. After the Roman emperor Honorius quitted Britain, Vortigern was
elected king of South Britain, and he invited over the Saxons to defend his
country against the Picts and Scots; but the Saxons perfidiously sent foireinforcelments, consisting of Saxons, Danes, and Angles, by which they
made themselves masters of South Britain, and most of the ancient Britons
retired to Wales, and defended themselves against the Saxons, in its inaccessible mountains, about A. D. 447. In this state Wales remained unconquered till Henry II. subdued South Wales in 1157: and in 1282 Edward I.
entirely reduced the whole country, putting an end to its independency by
the death of Llewellyn, the last prince. The Welsh, however, were not
entirely reconciled to this revolution, till the queen happening to be brought
to bed of a son at Carnarvon in 1284, Edward with great policy styled himl
prince of Wales, which title the heir to the crown of Great Britain has
borne almost ever since. Wales was united and'incorporated with England
by act of parliament, 27 Henry VIII. 1535. See Britain.
WALES. PRINCE or. The first prince of this title was Edward, the son ofEdward I., who was born in Carnarvon castle on the 25th April. 1284, Immediately after his birth he was presented by his father to the Welsh c~iieftains as their future sovereign, the king holding up the royal infant in his
arms. and saying, in the Welsh language, " Eich D.y," literally in English
"This is your nman,"'but signifying, "This is your countryminai and king."
These words were' afterwards changed, or corrupted, as some historians
assert, to " Ich Dienm," which is the motto attached to the arms of the prince
of Wales to this day. Owing to the premature death of his elder brother. this
prince succeeded to the throne of England, by the title of Edward II., in
1307.-lMUvy7r' ianc A rch&eology. Hist. Wales. For another and very different
account of the origin of the motto " Ic/; Dien," see the article under that
head.
WALLOONS. The people who fled to England from the persecution of the
cruel duke of Alva. the governor of the Low Countries for Philip II. of
Spain. On account of the duke's religious proscriptions, those countries
revolted from Philip, 1566.-Sar'iana's Hist. o' Spai-n. The Walloons were
well received in England. A large Protestant church was given to them by
queen Elizabeth, at Canterbury, and many of their posterity still remain in
this part of England. -Pardo-l.
WALPOLE'S ADMINISTRATIONS. Mr. Walpole (afterwards sir Robert,
and earl of Orford) became first lord of the treasury in 1715. He resigned,
on a disunion of the cabinet, in 1717, bringing in the sinking fund bill
on the day of his resignation. Resumed as head of the ministry, on
the earl of Sunderland retiring, in 1721; and continued as premier until
1742, when his administration was finally shaken by its unpopular endeavors
for some time previously to maintain peace with Spain.
WANDERING JEW. The following is the strange account given of this personage:-His original name was Calaphilus, Pontius Pilate's porter. When
they were dragging Jesus out of the door of the Judgment-hall. he struck
him on the back, saying, " Go faster, Jesus! go faster; why dost thou linger." Upon which Jesus looked on him with a frown, and said, "I am indeed going; but thou shalt tarry till I come." Soon after he was converted,
and took the name of Joseph. He lives for ever; but at the end of every
hundred years falls into a fit or trance, upon which when he recovers, he
returns to the same state of youth he was in when our Saviour suffered,
being about thirty years of age. He always preserves the utmost gravity
of deportment. He.was never seen to smile. He perfectly remembers the
death and resurrection of Christ.- Cab.l-et's Hist. of tihe Bible.
WAR] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 587
WARS. War is called by Erasmus " the malady of princes." Scriptural writers date the first war as having been begun by the impious son of Cain
3563 B. C. Osymandyas of Egypt was the first warlike king; he passed
into Asia, and conquered Bactria, 2100 B. C. —Usher. He is supposed
by some to be the Osiris of the priests. The most famious siege recorded
in the annals of antiquity was that of Troy, 1193-1184 n. c. The longest
siege was that of Azoth, 647 B. c. The most famous sortie was that of the
Platscans from their city, 428 B. c. It is computed that from the beginning
of the world to the present time, no less than 6,860 000,000 of men have
perished in the field of battle, being about seven times as many of the human species as now inhabit our whole earth.
GWARS, CIVIL, OF GREAT BRITAIN. The most remarkable civil wars of Great
Britain are the following:-That of A. D. 1215-16. The war of the barons
against IHenry III., 1565; of the usurpation of Henry IV., 1400; of the
White and Red Roses, or houses of York and Lancaster, from 1452 to 1471.
The war between Richard III. and Henry VII., 1485. The war against
Charles I. from 1642 to 1651. The Scottish civil war under the Pretender,
1715-16; that under the Young Pretender, 1 745. In Ireland, that under Tyrone, 1599; under O'Neill, 1641; and that produced by the great rebellion,
1798.
WARS, FoREIGN, OF GREAuT BRITAIN. The wars in France, in which England
was involved for nearly two centuries, arose from the dukes of Normandy
being kings of England. They held Normandy as a fief of the crown of
France; and when William I. conquered England, it became an English
province, but was lost in the reign of king John, 1204. The wars with
France were many; the English princes gained bloody victories at Cressy,
Poictiers, and Agincourt; but they were finally driven out of France in the
reign of Henry VI., and lost Calais, by surprise, in the reign of Mary. It
vwas to the English people a fortunate loss; but the rival policy and interests
of the two governments have, ever since then, caused half as many years
of war as peace. See the countries respectively, Battles, &c.
FOREIGN WARS OF GREAT BRITAIN SINCE THE CONQUEST.
WVar with Scotland, 1068 Peace 1092 War with Scotland, 1542 Peace. 1546
" France, 1116 " 1118 " Scotland, 1547 1550'c Scotlanld, 1138 " 1139 " France, 1549 " 1550
" France, 1161 " 1186 " France, 1557 " 1559' France, 1194': 1195 " Scotland, 1557': 1560
" France, 1201 " 1216 " France, 1562 " 1564
France, 1224'" 1234 " Spain, 1588 " 1604
France, 1294 " 1299 " Spain, 1694 " 1629
" Scotland, 1296 " 1323 " France, 1627 " 1629
i; Scotland, 1327 " 1328 H olland, 1651 " 1654
" France, 1339 " 1360 " Spain, 1655 " 1660
" France, 1368 " 1420 " France, 1666 " 1668
" France, 1422 " 1471 " Denmark, 1666 i" 1668
France,. 1492 " same year' Holland, 1666 " 1668
i' France, 1512 " 151.4 " Algiers, 1669 " 1671
C, France, 1522 " 1527 " Holland, 1.672 " 1674
" Scotland, 1522 " 1542 " France, 1689 " 1697
The general peace of Ryswick between England, Germany, Holland, France,
and Spain, was signed by the ministers of these powers, at the palace of
Ryswick, Sept. 20, 1697. It concluded this last war.
THE GREAT MODERN AND EXPENSIVE WVARS OF GREAT BRITAIN.
War of the Succession, commenced May 4, War with France, March 31, 1744. Closed
1702. Peace of Utrecht, March 13, 1713. also on April 30, 1748.
War with Spain, Dec. 16, 1718. Peace con- War; the Seven years' war, June 9, 1756.
cluded 1721. Peace of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763.
War; the Spaznish Was, Oct. 23, 1739. War with Spain, Jan. 4, 1762. General
Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, April 30,1748. peace of Feb. 10, 1763.
588 THE. WORLD'S; PROGRESS. L WAR
WARS, FOREIGN, Or GREAT BRITAIN-continued.
War with the United States, July 14, 1774. War of thi Revolution, Feb. 1, 1793. Peace
Peace of Paris, Nov. 30, 1782. of Amiens, March 27, 1802.
War with France, Feb. 6, 1778. Peace of War against Bonaparte, April 29, 1803. FiParis. Jan. 20, 1783. nally closed, June 18, 1815.
War with Spain, April 17, 1780. Closed War with'the United States, June 18, 1812.
same time, Jan 20, 1783. Peace of Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814.
War with Holland, Dec. 21, 1780. Peace For the wars with India and China, see those
signed-Sept. 2, 1783. countries respectively.
In the war against Bonaparte, the great powers of Europe leagued sometimes
with, and'sometimes against Great Britain. England spent 65 years in war,
and 62- in peace, in the 127 years previous to the close of the last war in
1815. In the war of 1688, she-spent 36 millions sterling; in the war of the.
Spanish Succession, 62 millions; in the Spanish war, 54 millions; in the
Seven Years' war, 112 millions; in the American war, 136 millions; in the.
war of the French Revolution, 464 millions; and in the war against.Bonaparte, 1159 millions;- thus forming a total expenditure for war, in 127 years
(from the Revolution in 1688 to the downfall of Napoleon in 1815), of 2023millions of pounds sterling. M. de Pradt estimates the loss of life-sustained
by the French forces in the six campaigns of the Peninsular war at six
hundred thousand men. The loss sustained by the Spaniards and. their
allies was probably as great. During the war many districts of the Peninsu.la were from time to time laid waste by the contending armies, and the
inhabitants were victims to all the calamities and horrors thus produced.
The total destruction of human beings in this last war must have amounted
to one million two hundred thousand.
WAR, REVOLUTIONARY, ending in the independence of the United States, commenced by the battle of Lexington,'April 19, 1775. See Battles. Ended
by the Treaty of Paris, 1783. This war cost $135,193;700.
WAR, THE, OF 1812, between the United States and Great Britain:
First difficulty respecting the search of War declared - June 19, 18
American vessels - - - 1806 Gen. H. Dearborn appointed commanChesapeake United States frigate fired der-in-chief.
on -' - - 1807 [See Battles and N2aval Battles.l'
Non-intercourse act passed - - 1809 The war opposed in New England, and
United States frigate President, engag- levies of troops refused by Mass.,
ed the British'sloop-of-war Little Belt Conn., anid R. I.
May 16,.1811 Treaty of'peace ratified - Feb. 17, 1815
President Madison's war message to
congress - - June 1, 1812 1
WAR AGAINST ALGIERS, to punish piracies, &c., declared by the United States,
1815. Commodores Decatur and Bainbridge captured two Algerine vessels
and " conquered a peace," July 4,
WAR BETWEEN' THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. [The annexation of'
Texas to the United States having been completed by the vote of the senate'
of Texas, Dec. 22, 1845.]
American army of occupation, (3500) already existed, by act of that power,
under Gen. Taylor took post on the'and authorizing 50,000 volunteers
Rio Grande opposite Matamo.ras, May 12, 1846
March 28, 1846 Monterey taken by Corn. Sloat, July 6, 1847
First collision-a reconnoitring party Santa Fe occupied by Gen. Kearney
of 70 from American army under Col. Aug. 18,1846
Thornton, fired upon and taken pri- Mexican ports on the Pacific blockaded
soners by the Mexicans - April 24, 1846 -by Coin. Stockton - - Aug. 19, 1846
Gen. Taylor defeats the Mexicans at' Battle of Monterey, 4700 Americans
Palo Alto, loses 48 killed and 126 under Taylor, 10,000 Mexicans under
wounded. Mexicans, 262 killed and Ampudia. Montereysurrendered. A355 wounded - May 8-9, 1846 merican loss, 120 killed 368 wounded,
Bill passed both' houses of Congress U. Mexican much greater - Sept. 21-23, 1846
S., declaring that war with Mexico
WAR ] IDICTIONARY OF DATES. 589
WAR WITH MEXICO, conetirLced.
Stevenson's California regiment sailed Battles of Contreras and Churubusco,
from New-orck - - Sept. 26, 1846 American sen. Smith drives the MexiToblasco bombarded by corn. Perry, cans fiom these fortified posts towards
Oct. 25, 1846 Mexico, losing 1066 killed and woundTampico occupied by corn. Connor, ed; Mexican loss 6000 - Au. 20, 1847
Nov. 14, 1846 Armistice agreed upon; broken by the
Col. Doniphan with 450 Missouri volun- Mexicans. Hostilities recommenced
teers defeated 1100 Mexicans at Bari- Sept. 7, 1817
to, the latter losing 63 killed and 150 Battle of Molino del Rey; American
wounded. American loss 6 wounded. gen. Worth carried tle fortifications
Gen. Kearney deleats the "revolted" defended by 14,000 Mexicans under
Calilornians, at San Gabriel, &c. Santa Anna. Anmerican loss, 787 kilJan. 8, 1847 led and wounded; Mexican loss 3000,
Major Borland, Cassius M. Clay, Major Sept. 8, 1347
Gaines, and 80 men, taken prisoners Battle of Chepultepec, a height near
by the Mexicans at Encarnacion, Mexico, carried by American geneJan. 23, 1847 rals WVorth, Quitman, and Pillow,
Revolt against Americans in N. Mex- (under gen. Scott) after a loss of f6i2
ice, American governor Bent and five Sept. 12-13. 1847
others murdered - - Jan 14, 1847 This was followed by the surrender of
1500 N. Mexican Indians and Mexicans the city of Mexico - - Sept. 14, 1847
defeated by col. Price - Jan. 24, 1817 Col. Clilds with 400 men and 18010
Battle of Buena Vista: Americans 4759 sick in hospitals besieged3 28 days at
mostly volunteers, Iuntder ge. Taylor Puebla, but compelled tile Alexicans
and gesn. WoV~ol; and Mexicans 22,000 to raise the siege - Oct. 12, 13'7
under Santa Annta; latter defeated and Contriblution of $600,000 levied in Mexloss G000 killed and wounded; Anmei- ico for protecting public property in
can loss 267 klilled and 456 wounded, the city - - - Sept. 17, 1847
/! Feb. 2a-93, 1847 City of lIuanmantla captured by AmeBattle of Sacrarmento; American col. rican ge. L.ane, who dlefeats Santa
Doniphan, 924 men, defeated 4000 Anna. American loss,24'killed and
Mexicans und(er HIerridea, latter loss wounded; Mexican loss 150, Oct. 9, 1847
300 ktilled, 300 wounded and 40 pri- Port of Guayamlas bombarded arnd capsoners; American loss, 1 killed and 8 tlured by American frigate Congress,
wounded - - Feb. 28, 1847 and sloop Portsmouth Oct. 20, 18-17
Vera Cruz surienidered to gen. Scott A tax levied upon tle states of Mexico,
anrl corn. Perry; American loss 65 anld duties &c. laid to the ainount of
killed and woundedl - Mach 29, 1847 about $3,000,000 - - Dec. 31, 1847
Alvasado surrendered to lieut. Hunter, Gen. Scott superseded by Gen. Butler,
April 2, 1847 Feb. 18, 1848
Battle of Cerro-Gordo; Americans 8500 Treaty of peace ratified at Queretaro,
under gen. Scott, defeat 12,000 Mex- by the Hon. A. H. Sevier and N.
icans under Santa Anna; 5 generals Clifford, for the United States, and
and 3000 men, takenl prisoners by the foreign Mexican minister, Signor
Scott: Aumerican loss 250, Mexican De la Rosa - - May 30(, 1848
350. American troops finally withdrawn
Taspan taken by corn. Perry, April 18, 1847 from the city oifMexico, - June 12, 1848
WARSAW. Late the metropolis of Poland. The diet was transferred to this
city from Cracow, in 1556. Warsaw surrendered to Charles XII. in 1703.
It has been a great prey to war of late years. In the beginning of 1794, the
empress of Russia put a garrison into this city, in order to compel the Poles
to acquiesce in the usurpations she had in view; but this garrison was expelled by the citizens, with the loss of 2000 kIilled and 500 wounded, and 36
pieces of cannon, April 17, 1794. The king of Prussia besieged Warsawv in
July 1794, but was compelled to raise the siege in September, same year.
It was taken by the Russians in the Russians in the November following. See qtext article.
Warsaw was constituted a duchy and annexed to the house of Saxony
in August, 1807; but the duchy was overrun by the Russians in 1813,
and soon afterwards Warsaw again became the residence of a Russian viceroy. The late Polish revolution commenced here, November 29, 1830. See
Poland.
WARSAW, BATT,LES OF. The Poles suffered a great defeat in a battle with
the Russians, Oct. 10.12, 17094; and Suwarrowv, the Russian general, after
the siege and destruction of Warsaw, cruelly butchered 30,000 Poles, of all
ages and conditions, in cold blood, Nov. 8, 1794. The battle preceding the
5Z90 TH-R sTRE WOuLD S PROGRESS. WAT
surrender was very bloody; of 20.000l men, more thllan 10,000 were killed,
nearly 10,000 were made prisoners, and 2000 only escaped the fury of the
merciless conqueror. Battle of Growchow, near Warsaw, in which the Russians were defeated, and forced to retreat with the loss of 7000 mlen, Feb.
20, 1831. Battle of Warsaw, when, after two days' hard fighting, the city
capitulated, and was taken possession of by the Russians. Great part of
the Polish army retired towards Plock and 1Iodlin. This last battle was
fought Sept. 7 and 8, 1831.
WARSAW, TREAAIFS O. The treaty of alliance of Warsaw, between Austria.
and Poland, against Turkey, in pursuance of which John Sobieski assisted
in raising the siege of Vienna (on the 18th of September following), signed
March 31, 1683. Treaty of Warsaw, between Russia and Poland, February
24, 1768.
WASHINGTON. The capita. of the United States, founded in 1791, and first
made the seat of government in 1800. The house of representatives was
opened for the first time, May 30, 1808. Washington was taken in the late
war by the British forces under general Ross, when the Capitol and the
President's house were consumed by a general conflagration, the troops not
sparing even the national library, August 24, 1814. General Ross was soon
afterwards killed in a desperate engagement at Baltimore, Sept. 12, following. See Uenlited States.
WASHINGTON. GEORGE. Born Feb. 22, 1732; in the expedition of Braddock against fort Du Quesne 1755; appointed commander-in-chief of the
American army 1775; elected president of Convention for forming Constitution 1787; elected President of the United States 1789; again in 1793;
died 1799. Washington monument at New York, corner-stone laid, Oct. 19,
1847. National imonument to Washington, corner-stone laid July 4, 1848;
osation by Robt. C. Winthrop. Virginia monument to Washington, cornerstone laid by President Taylor, Feb. 22, 1849.
WATCHES. They are said to have been first invented at Nuremberg, A. D.
1477; although it is affirmed that Robert, king of Scotland. had a watch
about A. D. 1310. Watches were first used in astronomical observations by
Purbach, 1500. Authors assert that the emperor Charles V. was the first
who had any thing that might be called a watch, though some call it a small
table-clock, 1530. Watches were first brought to England fiom Germany in
1577.-IItLe. Spring pocket-watches (watches properly so called) have
had their invention ascribed to Dr. Hooke by the English, and to M. Huygens by the Dutc'., Dr. Derham, in his Artificial Cloc/c&ia/cr', says that Dr.
Hooke was the inventor; and he appears certainly to have produced what
is called the pendulum watch. The timle of this invention was about 1658;
as is manifest, among other evidences, from an inscription on one of the
double-balance watches presented to Charles II., viz., "Rob. Hooke inven. 1658. T. Tompion fecit, 1675." Repeating watches were invented
by Barlowe, 1676. HIarrison's time-piece was invented in 1735; improved
1739, 1749, 1753. In 1759, he made the time-piece which procured hihn
the reward of 20 0001., offered by the Board of Longitude, 1763. Watche~s
and clocks were taxed in 179'7. The tax was repealed in 1708. See
Clocks.
WATER. Thales of Miletus, founder of' the Ionic sect, looked upon water
(as also did Homer, and several of the ancient philosophers) as being the
original principle of every thing besides, about 59-4 B. c. —Stanley. It is the
universal drink of man. The ancients usually diluted their wines with
much water;'and Hesiod prescribes three measures of water to one of wine
in sunmmer.-Mcadame Dacier. In the Roman church water was first mixed
WAT J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 591
with the sacramental wine, A. D. 122. —Leng'let. "Honest water is too weak
to be a sinner; it never left a man in the mire.".-S/ltakspeare.
WATER-CLOCKS. The first instruments used to measure the lapse of time,
independently of the sunshine, were clepsydrae or water-clocks. These were
most probably vessels of water, with a small hole through the bottom;
through this hole the water ran out in a certain time, possibly an hour;
after which the vessel was again filled to be emptied as before. This invention was a manifest improvement on the old sun-dials, whose perpendicular gnomon gave hours of different length at the various seasons of the
year. Something similar to the hour-glass was occasionally used; and
Alfred the Great, probably ignorant of these methods, adopted the burning
of a taper as a measure of time.
WATER-MILLS. Used for grinding corn, invented by Belisarius, the general
of Justinian, while besieged in Rome by the Goths, A. D. 555. The ancients
parched their corn, and pounded it in mortars. Afterwards mills were invented, which were turned by men and beasts with great labor; and yet
Pliny mentions wheels turneci by water.
WATER TOFANA, oR WIVEs' POIsoN. See article Poisonin"g. The poison so
freely adluinistered by Italians in the 17th century, called aqua tofcalbb, fi'o0l
the name of the woman Totania, who made and sold it in small fiat vials.
She carried on this traffic for half a century, and eluded the police; but on
being taken, confessed that she had been a party in poisoning 600 people.
Numerous persons were impllicated by her, and many of'them were publicly
executed. All Italy was thrown into a ferment, and many fled, and some
persons of distinction, on conviction, were strangled in prison. It appeared
to have been chiefly used by married women who were tired of their husbands. Four or six drops were a fatal dose; but the effect was not sudden,
and therefore not suspected. It was as clear as water, but the chemists
have not agreed about its real composition. A proclamlation of the pope described it as aquafortis distilled into arsenic, and others considered it as a
solution of crystallized arsenic. The secret of its preparation was conveyed
to Paris, where the marchioness de Brinvilliers poisoned her father and two
brothers; and she with many others was executed, and the preparers burnt
alive.-PPhillips.
WATERLOO, BATTLrE 01F. The greatest victory ever won by British arms, and
the most decisive and happy in its consequences. In this great battle the
French army, with Napoleon as its chief, was signally overthrown by the
British and allies under the duke of Wellington, June 18, 1815. Napoleon
attacked the British, wlhoml he expected to overwhelm by superior numbers, but they maintained their ground, and repulsed the enemy from about
nine in the morning till seven at night, when the French line began to waver.
The commander then gave orders to charge; a total rout ensued, and Blucher, who opportunely came up at this juncture, joined in the pursuit.
On both sides the carnage was immense; but that of the French was double
the amount of the British. Napoleon quitted the wreck of his flying army,
and returned to Paris, where he attempted, after the destruction of three
great armies, to raise a fourth; but finding this impossible, his abdication
followed. See Bonaparte and Fr'ance.
WATER-SPOUT. Whirlwinds and water-spouts proceed from the same cause,
the only difference being that water-spouts pass over the water, and whirlwinds over the land.-Dr. FCraLnlin.?. Two water-spouts fell on the Glatz
mountains in Germany, aend caused dreadful devastation to Hautenbachl, and
many other villages; a prodigious number of houses were destroyed, and
many persons perished, July 13, 1827. A water-spout at Glanflesk, near Kil.
592 THIE WORMLD S PROGRESS. [ WED
larney, in Ireland, passed over a farm of Mr. John M.acarthy, and destroyed
his cottag'e, two other farmhouses, and other buildings, of which not a vestige remlained. In this catastrophe seventeen persons perished. August t,
1831.
WAX. This substance calne into use for candles in the twelfth century; and
wax candles were esteemed a luxury in 1300. being but little used. In China,
candles of vegetable wax have been in use for centuries. See Candlcebrry.
Wax candles are made very cheap in America, from the berry of a particular species of myrtle, which yields excellent wax, of a green color. Sealingwax was not brought into use in England until about 1556. The wax-tree,
Ligmqstru, IlucidcLum, was brought from China before 1794.
WE. The common language of kings is zqe. which plural style was begun with
king John, A. D. 11909.-Coke's Insti. Before this time sovereigns used the
singular person in all their edicts.-Ide/cm. The German emlaperors asnd Fiench
kings used the plural about A. D. 1200. —/:caLlt. It is now the style royal
of all monarchs. In the articles of public journals they also adopt the plural, indicating that what they write proceeds firom a plurality of pens.
WEALTH. This is a relative term; for as there is only a certain amount of
property in a country, so the possession of a large share by one man is the
poverty of others. The wealth of individuals is therefore no benefit to the
country, while as to others it is the cause of their poverty. The instances
of wealth in the early ages are many and most extraordinary. The mightiest conflagration of wealth on record is that of Sardanapalus, where riches
amounting to one thousand four hundred millions sterling were destroyerl.
-Atheneeu.s. Ccecilius Isidorus died at Ronie possessed of 4116 slaves, 3600
oxen. 200.000 head of other cattle, and three millions of our money in coin,
8 B. c.- Uoiv. Hist.
WEAVING. The art of weaving appears to have been practised in China firo'
the earliest antiquity —more than a thousand years before it uwas known in
Europe or Asia. Poets assign the art to the spider. Women originally
spun, wove, and dyed; and the origin of these arts is ascribed, by ancient
nations, to different women as women's arts. The Egyptians ascribed it to
Isis; the Greeks, to Minerva; and the Peruvians, to the wife of Maanco Capac. In most eastern- countries, the employment of weaving is still performed by the women. Our Saviour's vest, or coat, had not any seam, being
woven from the top throughout, in one whole piece. Perhaps, says Dr. Doddridge, this curious garment might be the work and present of some piolls
women who attended him, and ministered unto him of their substance, Lul/e
viii. 3. The print of a frame for weaving such a vest may be seen in Ca?',et's
Dictioarco'.y, under the word Veshtwiets.
WEAVING IN ENGLAND. Two weavers froim Brabant settled at York, where
they manufactured woollens, which, says king Edward, "may prove of
great benefit to us and our subjects," 1331. Flemish dyers, cloth-drapers,
linen-makers, silk-throwsters, &ec. settled at Canterbury, Norwich, Colchester, Southampton, and other places, on account of the duke of Alva's persecution, 1567.
WEDGWOOD WARE. A fine species of pottery and porcelain, produced by
Mr. Josiah Wedgwood, of Staffordshire, 1762. The manufactories for this
ware employed 10,000 families in England. Previously to 1763, most of the
superi( r kinds of earthenwares were imported from France.
WEDNESDAY. The fourth day of the week, so called friom a Saxon idol, called Woden, supposed to be Mars, worshipped on this day. The name given
to our Wednesday by the Saxons was Woden's day, which was afterwards
corrupted to Wednesday. See next a'ticle.
WES ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 593
WVEEK. The space of seven.cldays, supposed to be first used among the Jews,
who observed the sabbath every seventh day; they had three sorts of weeks,
the first the common one of seven days, tile second of years, which was
seven years, the third of seven times seven years, at the end of which was
the jubilee. All the present English names are derived from the Saxon: —
Latin. English. Sazoen. Presided over by
Dies Saturni, Saturday, Saterne's day, Saturn.
Dies Solis, Sunday, Sun's day, The sun.
Dies Lunue, Monday, Moon's day, The moon.
Dies Martis, Tuesday, Tiw's day, Mars.
Dies Mercurii, Wednesday, Woden's day, Mercury.
Dies J.Tovis, Thursday, Thor's day, Jupiter.
Dies Veneris, Friday, Friga's day, Venus.
WEIGHTS AND -MEASURES. These, and the stamping of gold and silver
money, were invented by Phydon, tyrant of Argos, 895 B. c. et seq. —Ar'eudeliezn Mcearbles. Weights were originally taken from grains of wheat, the
lowest being still called a grain.-Clcdalnzcrs. The standard measure was
originally kept at Winchester by the law of king Edgar, n D. 972. Standards of' weiohts and measures were provided for the whole kingdom of England by the sheriffs of London, 8 Richard I., 1197. A public weighingmachine was set up in London, and all commodities ordered to be weighed
by the city-officer, called the weigh-master, who was to do justice between
buyer and seller, statute 3ld Edward II., 1309.-Stowve. The first statute,
directing the use of avordupois weight, is that of 24 Henry VIII., 1532.Pleilosophical TralcLsactions, vol. 65, cart. 3. The French adopt the metre of
3.28084, or the 10 millionth part of the distance from the Pole to the Equator, as the standard of measure; and the kilogramrlue, equal to 2;255 pounds
avoirdupois, as the standard of weight.
WESLEYAN METHODISTS. A large body of Christians, whose sect was
founded by an excellent and pious man, John Wesley. In 1730 he and his
brother, with a few other students, formed themselves into a small society
for the purpose of mutual edification in religious exercises. So singular an
association excited considerable notice, and among other names bestowed
upon the members, that of Methodists was applied to them. Mr. Wesley
went to Georgia in America, in 1735, with a view of converting the Indians.
On his return to England, he commenced itinerant preacher, and gathered
many followers; but the churches being shut against him, he built spacious
meeting-houses in London, Bristol, and other places. For some time he
was united with Mr. Whitefield; but differences arising on account of the
doctrine of election, they separated, and the Methodists were denominated
according to their respective leaders. 3fr. Wesley was indefatigable in his
labors, and almost continually engaged in travelling over England, Wales,
Scotland, and Ireland. His society was well organized, and he preserved his
influence over it to the last. He died in London in 1791.
WEST INDIES. Discovered by Columbus, St. Salvador being the first land he
made in the new world, and first seen by him in the night between the 11th
and 12th Oct., 1492. See the Islacds respectively.
VWESTERN -EMPIRE. The Roman empire was divided into Eastern and
Western by Valentinian and Valens, of' whom the former had the western
portion, or Rome, properly so called, A. D. 364. Odoacer, a chief of the
Heruli, entered Italy, defeated Orestes, took Rome and Ravenna, deposed
Augustulus, andl assumed the title of king of Italy. August 23, which ended
the Western empire, 507 years after the battle of Actium, A. n. 476. Seo
Eastcsrn Esivivee.
WESTMINSTER ABBEY. As regards this magnificent cathedral, the miracIA
lous stories of monkish writers and of ancient historians have been que
594 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ Will
tioned by sir Christopher Wren, who was employed to survey the present
edifice, and who, upon the nicest examination, found nothing to countenance
the general belief that it was erected on the ruins of a pagan temple. Historians, agreeably to the legend, have fixed the era of the first abbey in the
sixth century, and ascribed to Sebert the ihonor of erecting it. This church
becoming rnilous, it was splendidly rebuilt by Edwardl the Confessor, between A. D. 1055 and 1065; and he stored it with monks fr on Exeter. Pope
Nicholas II. about this time constituted it the place for the inaug-uration of
the kings of England. The church was once more built in a magnificent
and beautiful style by Henry III. In the reigns of Edward II., EdwsardcIII.,
and Richard II., the great cloisters, abbot's house, and the principal monastic buildings were erected. The western parts of the nave and aisles
were rebuilt by successive monarchs, between the years 1340 and 1483. The
west front and the great window were built by those rival princes, Richard
III. and Henry VII.; and it was the latter monarch who commenced the
magnificent chapel which bears his name, and the first stone of which was
laid Jan. 24, 1502-3. The abbey was dissolved. and made a bishopric, 1541;
and was finally made a collegiate church by Elizabeth, 1560.
WESTMINSTER HALL. One of the most venerable remains of English architecture, first built by William Rufus in 1097, for a banqueting-hall; and
here in 1099, on his return from Normandy, " he kept his feast of Whitsuntide very royally." Richard II. held his Christmas festival in 1397, when
the number of the guests each day the feast lasted was 10,000.-Slowve.
The courts of law were established here by king John.-Ideln. Westminster-hall is universally allowed to be the largest room in Europe unsupported
by pillars: it is 270 feet in length, and 74 broad. The hall underwent a
general repair in 1802.
WESTPHALIA. This duchy belonged, in former times, to the duke of Saxony. On the secularization of 1802, it was made over to Hesse Darmstadt;
and in 1814, was ceded for an equivalent to Prussia. The kingdom of
Westphalia, one of the temporary kingdoms of Bonaparte, composed of
conquests fiom Prussia, Hesse-Cassel, Hanover, and the smaller states to
the west of the Elbe, created December 1, 1807, and Jeromle appointed
king. Hanover was annexed March 1, 1810. This kingdom was overturned
in 1813.
WESTPHALIA, PzACE of, signed at Munster and at Osnaburgh, between
France, the emperor, and Sweden; Spain continuing the war against
France. By this peace the principle of a balance of power in Europe was
first recegnised: Alsace given to France, and part of Ponmerania and some
other ditriets to Sweden; the Elector Palatine restored to the Lower Palatinate; the civil and political rights of the German States established; and
the independence of the Swiss Confederation recognised by Germany, October 24, 1648.
WHALE FISHERY OP THE UNITED STATES. In 1845 this trade employed
650 vessels, aggregate tonnage 200,000 tons,-cost, $20.000,000; manned by
17,500 officers and seamen.' Commercial history furnishes no parallel the
this whaling fleet-it is larger than those of all other nations combined.' —
Speecch of Ilt. Grinxell.
WHEAT AND FLOUR. The amount exported by the United States, fisom
1790 to 1838, was 10;283,471 bushels,-average, 209.666 bushels per annum.
In 1845 the amount exported was valued at $5:735,372; in 1846, $13.350 644.
This was exclusive of Corn, Rye, &c. The amount was greatly increased
by the scarcity in Europe, especially in Ireland.
WHITE FRIARS. These were an order of Carmelite mendicants, who took
WIL ] DICTIONAItY OF DATES. 595
their name from Mount Carmel, lying southwest of Mount Tabor, in tho
Ioly Land. They pretended that Etlijah and Elisha were the founders of
their order, and that Pythagoras and the ancient Druids were professors of
it. At first they were very rigid in their discipline, but afterwards it was
moderated, and about the year 1540 divided into two sorts, one following
and restoring the ancient severities, and the other the milder regimen.
They had numerous monasteries throughout England: and a precinct in
London without the Temple and west of Blackfriiars, is called Mritefriars to
this day, after a community of their order, founded there in 1245.
WHITEHALL, LONDON. Originally built by Hubert de Burgh, earl of Kent,
before the middle of the 13th century. It afterwards devolved to the archbishop of York, whence it received the name of York-place, and continued
to be the town residence of the archbishops till purchased by Henry VIII. of
cardinal Wolsey, in 1530. At this period it became the residence of the
court. Queen Elizabeth, who died at Greenwich, was brought fiom thence
to Whitehall, by water, in a grand procession. It was on this occasion,
CAMDEN informs us, that the following quaint panegyric on her majesty was
written:" The queen was brought by water to Whitehall,
At every stroke the oars did tears let fall.
iIore clung aboutt the barge; fish under water
Wept out their eyes ofpearl, and swam blind after.
I think the bargemen might, with easier thighs,
Have rowed her thither in her people's eyes;
For howsoe'er, thus much my thoughts have scann'd,
She had come by waten, had she come by land."
In 1697, the whole was destroyed by an accidental fire, except the banqueting-house, which had been added to the palace of Whitehall by James I.,
according to a design of Inigo Jones, in 1619. In the front of Whitehall
Charles I. was beheaded, Jan. 30, 1649. George I. converted the hall into a
chapel, 1723-4. The exterior of this edifice underwent repair between 1829
and 1833.
WHITSUNTIDE. The festival of Whitsunday is appointed by the church to
commemorate the descent of the Holy Ghost upon the apostles: in the primitive church, the newly-baptized persons, or catechumens, used to wear
white garments on Wrhi'sunday. This feast is movable, and sometimes falls
in May and sometimes in June; but is always exactly seven weeks after
Easter. Rogation week is the week before Whitsunday; it is said to
have been first instituted by the bishop of Vienne in France, and called
Rogation week upon account of the many extraordinary prayers and preparatory petitions made for the devotion of Holy Thursday for a blessing
on the finits of the earth, and for averting the dismal effects of wvar and
other evils.
WICK(LIFFITES. The followers of John Wickliffl, a professor of divinity
in the university of Oxford. He was the father of the Reformation of the
English church fiom popery, being the first who opposed the authority of the pope, the jurisdiction of the bishops, and the temporalities of
the church, in 1377. Wiclliffi was protected by John of Gaunt, Edward's
son and Richard's uncle, yet virulently persecuted by the church. and rescued fiom martvrdomn by a paralytic attack, which caused his death, IDec.
31, 1384, in his 60th year.-Mloitiei;er.
WlILDFIRE. An artificial fire, which burns ulnder water. Thle French call it
fCte Grcrq'C Lois, because it was discovered by the Greeks. by whom it was
first used, about A. D. 660. Its invention is ascribed to Callinicus of Heliopolis.-Nort. Dict. See article Greek Fire.
596 THE WORLI)DS PROGRESS. [ WIN
WILKES' NUMlBER. The designation given to the 45th number of a paper
styled the Noet/l Briton, published by John NWilkes, an alderlman of London.,
He commenced a papel warfare against the earl of Bute and his administration, and in this particular copy, printed April 23, 1768, made so free a
use of royalty itself, that a general warrant was issued against him by the
earl of Halifax, then secretary of state, and he was conimitted to the Tower.
His warfare not only deprived him of liberty, but exposed him to two duels;
but he obtained ~1,000 damages and full costs of suit for the illegal seizure
of his papers. He further experienced the vengeance of the court of King's
Bench, and both houses of parliament, for the libel, and for his obscene
poem "An Essay on Woman;" and was expelled the commons and outlawed; he was, however, elected a fifth time for Middlesex in October
1774, and the same year served the office of lord mayor; but was overlooked in a subsequent general election, and died in 1797.
WILLS, LAST, AND TESTAMENTS. Wills are of very high antiquity. See
Ge.nesis, c. 48. Solon introduced theml at Athens, 578 B. c. There are
many regulations respecting wills in the Koran. The Romans had this
power, and so had the native Mexicans; so that it prevailed at least in
three parts of the globe. Trebatius Testa, the civilian, was the first person
who introduced codicils to wills at Rome, 31 B. c. The power of bequeathing lands by the last will or testament of the owner, was confirmed to English subjects, 1 Henry I., 1100; but with great restrictions and limitations
respecting the feudal system; which were taken off by the statute of Henry
VIII., 1541. —Blackstone's Comzeseentc'ries. The first will of a sovereign on
record is stated (but in error) to be that of Richard II., 1399. Edward the
Confessor made a will, 1066.
WIND-MILLS. They are of great antiquity, and some writers state them to
be of Roman invention; but certainly we are indebted for the wind-mill to
the Saracens. They are said to have been originally introduced into Europe
by the knights of St. John, who took the hint fiom what they had seen in
the crusades.-Baker. Wind-mills were first known in Spain, France, and
Germany, in 1299.-Anderson. Wind saw-mills were invented by a Dutchman, in 1633, when one was erected near the Strand, in London.
WINDOWS. See Glass. There were windows in Pompeii, A. D. 79, as is evident from its ruins. It is certain that windows of some kind were glazed
so early as the third century, if not before, though the fashion was not introduced until it was done by Bennet, A. D. 633. Windows of glass were
-used in private houses, but the glass was imported 1177. —Anderson. In
England about 6090 houses now have fifty windows and upwards in each;
about 275:000 have ten windows ncld upwards; and 725,000 have seven windows, or less than seven. The window-tax was first enacted in order to
defray the expense of and deficiency in the re-coinage of gold, 7 William
III., 1695.
WINDSOR CASTLE. A royal residence of the British sovereigns, originally
built by William the Conqueror, but enlarged by Henry I. The mlonarchs
who succeeded him likewise resided in it, till Edward III., who was born
here, caused the old building, with the exception of' three towers at the
west end, to be taken down, and re-erected the whole castle, under the direction of William of Wykeham. He likewise built St. George's chapel.
Instead of alluring workmen by contracts and wages, Edward assessed
every county in England to send him so many masons, tilers, and carpenters, as if he had been levying' an army. Several additions were made to
this edifice by succeeding sovereigns; the last by George IV.
WINES. The invention of wine is given to Noah.-AbbI Leag, let. The art of
WIT ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 597
making wine from rice is ascribed by the Chinese to their king, Ching
Noung, about 1998 B. c. — Uiiv. Hist. The art of making wine was brought
from India by Bacchus, as other authorities have it. Hosea speaks of the
wvine of Lebanon as being very ifagrant. — eosea, xiv. 7. Our Saviour
changed water into wine at the marriage of Cana in Galilee.-Je/la ii. 3, 10.,, The conscious waters saw their God, and blush'd."-Addisos.
No wine was produced in France inll the time of the Romans.-Bossalet.
Spirits of wine were known to the alchymists.-Idemn. Concerning the acquaintance which our progenitors had with wine, it has been conjectured
that the Phoenicians might possibly have introduced a small quantity of it;
but this liquor was very little known in our island before it was conquered
by the Romans. Wine was sold in England by apothecaries as a cordial in
A. D. 1300, and so continued for some time after, although there is mention
of " wine for the king " so early as 1249; and we are even sent to a much
earlier period for its introduction and use in Britain. In 1400 the price
was twelve shillings the pipe A hundred and fifty butts and pipes condemned for being adulterated, were staved and emptied into the channels
of the streets by Rainwell, mayor of London, in the 6th of Henry VI., 1427.
-Stolwe's CAroe. The first importation of claret wine into Ireland was on
June 17, 1490. The first act for licensing sellers of wine in England passed
April 25, 1661. In 1800 England imported 3,307,460 gallons of all kinds of
wine. In 1815, the United Kingdom imported 4.306,6528 gallons. In 1830
were imported 6.879,558 gallons; and in the year ending Jan. 5, 1840,- were
imported 9,909,056 gallons, of which 7,000,486 were for home consumption.
-Pail. Ret.
WIRE. The invention of drawing wire is ascribed to Rodolph of Nuremberg,
A. D. 1410. Mills for this purpose were first set up at Nuremb erg in 1563.
The first wire-mill in England was erected at Mortlake in 663.-Mor-liszer.
The astonishing ductility which is one of the distinguishing qualities of
gold, is no way more conspicuous than in gilt wire. A cylinder of' 48 ounces
of silver, covered with a coat of gold weighing only one ounce, is usually
drawn into a wire two yards of which only weigh one grain; so that 98
yards of the wire weigh no more than 49 grains, and one single grain of
gold covers the whole 98 yards; and the thousandth part of a grain is above
one-eighth of an inch long. —Hallefy. Eight grains of gold covering a cylinder of silver are comimonly drawn into a wire 13,000 feet long; yet so
perfectly does it cover the silver, that ever a microscope does not discover
any appearance of the silver underneath.-Boyle.
WIRTEMBERG. One of the most ancient states of Germany, and most populous for its extent. The dukes were Protestant until 1772, when the reigning prince became a Catholic. Wirtemberg has been repeatedly traversed
by hostile armies, particularly since the revolution of France. Moreau
made his celebrated retreat Oct. 23, 1796. The prince of Wirtemberg married the princess royal of England, daughter of George III., May 17, 1797.
This state obtained new acquisitions in territory in 1802 and 1805. The
elector assumed the title of king Dec. 12, 1805, and was proclaimed Jan. 1,
1806. His majesty, as an ally of France, lost the flower of his army in Russia, in 1812. The kingdom obtained a free constitution in 1819. The king
granted liberty of the press, March 2, 1848.
WISCONSIN. One of the western United States was organized out of the
North West Territory, and received a territorial government in 1836; admitted into the Union as a state Feb. 9, 1847. Population in 1830,.30,945:
clhiefly emigrants from the northern and middle states.
WITCHCRAFT. The punishment of witchcraft was first countenanced by the
598 THE WVORLD7S PROGRESS. [ WIT
church of Rome; and persons suspected of the crime have been subjected
to the most cruel and unrelenting punishments. In tens of thousands of
cases, the victims, often innocent, were burnt alive, while others wei0
drowned by the test applied; for if, on being thrown into a pond, they did
not sink. they were presumed witches, and either killed on the spot, or reserved for burning at the stake. Five hundred witches were burnt in Geneva, in three months, in 1515. One thousand were burnt in the diocese of
Conmo in a year. An incredible number in France. about 1520, when one
sorcerer confessed to having 1200 associates. Nine hundred were burnt in
Lorraine, between 1580 and 1595. One hundred and fifty-seven were burnt
at Wurtzburg, between 1627 and 1629, old and young, clerical, learned. and
ignorant. At Lindheim, thirty were burnt in four years, out of a popu.tdtili
of 600; and more than 100,000 perished, mostly by the flames, in Germany.
Grandier, the parish priest of Loudun, was burnt on a charge of having bewitched a whole convent of nuns,. 1634. In Bretagne, twenty poor women
were put to death as witches, 1654.' Disturbances commenced on charges
of witchcraft in Massachusetts, 1648-9; and persecutions raged dreadfully
in Pennsylvania in 1683. Maria Renata was burnt at Wurtzburg in 1749.
At Kalisk, in Poland, nine old women were charged with having bewitched,
and rendered unfruitful, the lands belonging to that palatinate, and were
burnt Jan. 17, 17, 1775.-A1 eg. Rego. Five women were condemned to death by
the Bramins, at Patna, for sorcery, and executed Dec. 16, 1802.-I-dee.:TCHCRAFT AND CONJURATIO N N ENGLAND. Absurd and wicked
laws were in force against them in Great Britain in former times, by which
death was the punishment, and thousands of persons suffered both by the
public executioners and the hands of the people. A statute was enacted
declaring all witchcraft and sorcery to be felony without benefit of clergy,
33 Henry VIII., 1511. Again, 5 Elizabeth, 1562, and 1 James. 1603. Barrington estimates the judicial maurders for witchcraft in England in 200 yearls
at 30:000. The English condemned and burnt the beautifll and heroic Joan
of Arc, the Maid of Orleans, as a sorceress, A. D. 1431. See Jean o2f Arc.
Sir Matthew Hale burnt two persons for witchcraft in 1664. Three thousand
were executed in England under the long parliamlent. lNorthamptonshire
and Huntingdon preserved the superstition about witchcraft later than any
other counties. Two pretended witches were executed at Northampton in
1705, while'he Spectcator was in course of publication in London, and five
others sevel: years afterwards. In 1716, Mrs. Hicks and her daughter, aged
nine, were hanged at Huntingdon. In Scotland, thousands of persons were
burnt in the period of about a hundred years. Among the victims were persons of the highest rank, while all orders in the state concurred. James I.
even caused a whole assize to be prosecuted for an acquittal. This king published his Dialo-sues of Dmmoeolog-ie first in Edinburgh, and afterwards in
London.* The last sufferer in Scotland was in 1722, at Dornoch. The laws
All persons at court who sought the favor of James, praised his DaZ?72onoloie*; and paliarlent. to flatter him, made its twelfth law against witchcraft in 1603. By this statute death wad
inflicted on sorcerers in these words: "If any person shall use any invocation or conjuration of any
evil or wicked spirit-shall entertain, employ, feed, or reward any evil or cursed spirit-take up
any dead body to employ in witchcraft, sorcery, or enchantment-or shall practise, or shall exor
cise, any sort of witchcraft, sorcery, &c., whereby any person shall be killed, wasted, consumed
pined, or lamed." This being the law of theb land, no person presumed to doubt thel existence ot
N, itchleraft; hence Shahkspeare gave countenance to the error, and the learned bishop Hall mentions
a place where, he said. there were more witches than houses. Allaying of ghosts, driving out evfi
spirits, and abjuring witches became in consequence, for a century, a profitable employmnent to the
clergy of all denoninations. Witch-finders existed, too, as public officers; and, besides the public
executions, which disgraced every assizes, multitudes of accused were destroyed by popular re.
sentment,-Phillips.
WOO ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 599
against witchcraft had lain dormant for many years, when an ignorant person,
attempting to revive them, by finding a bill against a pool' old womrlan in Surrey for the practice of witchcraft, they were repealed, 10 George II., 1736. —
te r's Abridg'ment.
WITENA-MOT, onR WITENA-GEMOT. Among our Saxon a'ncestors, this was
the term which was applied to their deliberations, and which literally signified the assembling of the wise men in the great council of tie nation. A
witena-mot was called in London, A. D. 833, to consllt on the proper means
to repel the Danes. This name was dropped about the period of the Norman
conquest, and that of parliament adopted. See Pa liaelmeat.
WVOLVES. These animals were very numerous in England. Their heads were
demanded as a tribute, particularly 300 yearly fromi Wales, by king Edgar,
A. D. 961, by which step they were totally destroyed.-Ca'rte. Edward I.
issued his mandate for the destruction of wolves in several counties of England, A. D. 1289. Ireland was infested by wolves for mawy centuries after
their extirpation in England; for there are accounts of some being found
there so late as 1710, when the last presentment for killing wolves was
made in the county of Cork. Wolves still infest France, in which kingdom
834 wolves and cubs were killed in 1828-9. Wheu wolves cross a river, they
follow one another directly in a line, the second holding the tail of the first
in its mouth, the third that of the second, and so of the rest. This figure
was, on this account, chosen by the Greeks to denote the year, composed of
twelve months following one another, which they denominated Lycabas, that
is, the march of the wolves.-Abbe Pulchce.
WOMIAN. Among the ancient Greeks and Romans, women seem to have been
considered merely as objects of sensuality and domestic convenience, and
were commonly devoted to seclusion and obscurity; it was not until the
northern nations had settled themselves in the provinces of the Roman empire that the female character assumed new consequence. They brought
with them the respectful gallantry of the North, and a complaisance towards
females which inspired generous sentiments hitherto little known to the
polished nations of antiquity, and which ultimately led to the institution of
chivalry. England is called the paradise of women; Spain, theirpurgatory;
and Turkey, their hell. The following lines beautifully describe Adam's
first sight of Eve:
" Ile laid him down and slept-and from his side
A woman in her magic beauty rose;
Dazzled and charmed, he called that woman' bride.'
And his first sleep became his last repose."-Besser, tranc!ated by Bowrissg.
The following distinguished men, though married, were unhappy in that
state: Arist tle, Socrates, Pittacus, Periander, Euripides, and Aristophanes.
Among the moderns: Boccaccio, Dante, Milton, Steele, Addison, Dryden,
Molidre, Racine, Sterne, Garrick, and lord Bacon.-ZWomane; as slhe is, andel
as she sleoulld be. Among the most beautiful eulogies on woman is the following, addressed to a lovely Italian nun by an English nobleman:
"Die when you will, you need not wear,
At heaven's court, a form more fair
Than beauty at your birth has given;
Keep but the lips, the eyes we see,
The voice we hear, and you will be
An angel ready-made fbr heaven!"-Lord Herbert.
WOOD-CUTS, oR WOOD-ENGRAVING. See article Eigre'avieg oat Wood.
The invention is ascribed by some to a gun-smith of Florence; by others, to
Reuss, a German, A.D. 1460; but it has an earlier origin, as shown in the
article referred to. Brought to perfection by Durer and Lucas. Brought
600 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ Won
to great perfection by Bewrick, Nesbett, Anderson, &c., in 1789-1799; and
more recently by Cruikshank, and others.
WOOL. Dr. Anderson, in a memorial subjoined to the " Report of the Committee of the Highland Society," proves, from indisputable records, that
from the earliest times down to the reign of queen Elizabeth, the wool of
Great Britain was not only superior to that of Spain, but accounted the
finest in the universe; and that even in the times of the Romans, a manufacture of wroollen cloths was established at Winchester for the use of' the
emperors. In later times, wool was manufactured in England, and is mentioned in A. D. 1185, but not in any quantity until 1331, when the weaving of
it was introduced by John Kempe and other artisans from Flanders. This
was the real origin of the English wool manufactures, Edward III., 1331.RyZner's -Fede'a. The exportation prohibited, 1337. The exportation of
English wool, and the importation of Irish wool into England, prohibited,
1696. The non-exportation law repealed, 1824.
WOOLLEN CLOTH. The manufacture of cloth was known, it is supposed, in
all civilized countries, and in very remote ages, and probably of linen also.
Woollen cloths were made an article of commerce in the time of Julius Cmsar, and are familiarly alluded to by him. They were made in England before A. D. 1200, and the manufacture became extensive in the reign of Edward
III., 1331. They were then called Kendal cloth, and Halifax cloth. See
preceding article. Blankets were first made in England about A. D. 1340.Camden. No cloth but of Wales or Ireland to be imported into England,
1463. The art of dyeing brought into England, 1608. See article Dyeibg.
Medleys, or mixed broad-cloth, first made, 1614. Manufacture of fine cloth
begun at Sedan, in France, under the patronage of cardinal Mazarine, 1646.
British and Irish woollens prohibited in France, 1677. All persons obliged
to be buried in woollen, or the persons directing the burial otherwise to forfeit 51., 29 Charles II., 1678. The manufacture of cloth greatly improved
in England by Flemish settlers, 1688. Injudiciously restrained in Ireland,
11 William III., 1698. The exportation from Ireland wholly prohibited, except to certain ports of England, 1701. English manufacture encouraged
by 10 Anne, 1712, and 2 George 1., 1715. Greater in Yorkshire in 1785,
than in all England at the Revolution.- Calmncers.
QUANT.TY AND DECLARED VALUE OF CLOTHS EXPORTED FROM GREAT BRITAIN IN THE FOLLOWVING YEARS:Quantity. 1800. 1825. 1830. 18:0.
Pieces - 1,022,838 1,741,983 1,747,036 2,143,796
Yards - - 4,213,677 7,798,610 5,561.877 8,170,642
Declared value.~3,914,661 ~6,194,926 ~4,608,592 35,921,116
WORCESTER, BATTLE o,; in the Civil War, fought between the Royalist army
and the forces of the parliament, the latter comnlancled by Cromwell. A
large body of Scots had lllarched into England with a view to reinstate
Charles II., but Cromwell signally defeated them; the streets of the city
were strewed with the dead, the whole Scots army having been either killed
or taken prisoners. This famous battle afforded Cromwell what le called his
crownin~,g c.ecyJ. Charles with difficulty escaped to France. Of 8000 prisoners, most were sent to bond-service in the American colonies. Septembct
3, 1651.
WORLD. According to Julius Afiricanus, as quoted by Gibbon, the world was
created September 1, 5508 3. c. Most chronologers, however, mention the
year 4004 B. c. as the period of its first existence. The Jews celebrate the
19th of Septemnber as the day of the creation, and some suppose that it was
created in spring. Its globular form was first suggested by Thales of Miletus, about 640 B. c. The first geoglaphical table and map of the world was
WOR ] DICTIONARY OF )LT'rES. 601
made by Anaximander, about 560 a. c.-Pliny. Discoveries of Pythagoras
and his system, about 539 a. c. —S'anley. The magnitude of the earth calculated by Eratosthenes, 240 B. c. The system of Copernicus promulgated,
A. D. 1530. Map of the world on Mercator's projection, in which the earth
is taken as a plane, 1556. The notion of the magnetism of the earth started
by Gilberd, 1583. Magnitude of the earth determined by Picart, 1669.
WVORMS, DIET OF. The celebrated imperial diet before which Martin Luther
was summoned, April 4, 1521, and by which he was proscribed. Luther
was met by 2000 persons on foot and on horseback, at the distance of' a
league from Worms. Such was his conviction of the justice of his cause,
that when Spalatin sent a messenger to warn him of his danger, he answered, " If there were as many devils in Worms as there are tiles upon the roofs
of its houses, I would go on." Before the emperor, the archduke Ferdinand,
six electors, twenty-four dukes, seven margraves, thirty bishops and prelates, and many princes, counts, lords, and ambassadors, Luther appeared,
April 17th, in the imperial diet, acknowledged all his writings and opinions,
and left Worms, in fact, a conqueror. But Frederick the Wise advised him
to seclude himself to save his life, which he did for about ten months, and
his triumph was afterwards complete.
WTORSHIP. Athotes, son of Menes, king of Upper Egypt, is said to have been
the author of religious worship: he is supposed to be the Copt of the
Egyptians, and the Toth or Hermes of the Greeks; the Mercucry of the
Latins, and the Teubtates of the Celts or Gauls, 2112 B. c.- Usher. Religious
worship had an origin in most tribes and nations, in their ignorance of the
causes of natural phenomena. Benefits were ascribed to a good spirit, and
evils to a bad one. This primary idea was enlarged and diversified by
dreaming during imperfect sleep, or thinking while the volition was torpid,
and by illusions of the senses, which led to belief in ghosts, signs, and omens,
and these causes were augmented by enthusiasts.-P/billips. In all nations,
whether civilized or barbarous, worship prevails, but is purest in Protestant
states.-Sherlock.
WORSHIP IN ENGLAND. In England were many forms of worship at the
period of the Roman invasion. The first Saxons were idolaters, and dedicated to their gods groves of the tallest trees and thickest forests, and
there worshipped them without building any temples to them, or representing them by any figures or images. Our days of the week are named after
Saxon divinities-the Sun, Moon, Tuesco, Woden, Thor, Friga, and Saturn.
Easter is named from their goddess Eostre; and Christmas was from their
great festival Geoli. Faul, or Fola, was their dreaded enemy; and they believed in elves and fairies, sorcery and witchcraft. The Saxon religion was
afterwards mingled with the Christian; but the former was in time wholly
superseded by the latter, and in the end, the Reformation introduced our
present pure and simple mode of worship. In Scotland, the benign influence
of the Reformation soon put aside all other forms. The following is a remarkable document, given in M'Crie's Life of Jo/rn K7nox, (Blackwood,
Edinburgh, 1831,) relating to the removal of images from Catholic places
of worship in Scotland, at the period of the Reformation:" To our traistfriendis, the Lairds of Am?- and so cominittis yozo to the lprotection of
tilly and Kiinvaid. God. Front Edinburgh, the xii of Au.gust,
"I Traistfriends, after Woaist harty corn. 1560.
o2nendaciooe, woe pray you faill not to pass Faill not, hot ze tak guid heyd that neiincontirnent to the hyrk' of Dunkceld, and tak ther the dasks, windocks, nor dulris, be ony
dozen the haill inaoges thereof, and bring ways hurt or broken-either glassin wark
furth to the kyrkizard, and burns thaym op- or iron wark.
pinly. And siclylc cast down the altaris, "AR. ERGYLL,
and purge the kyrk of all kynd of m7osou-'JAMES STEWART
ments of idolatrye. Anod this ye faill not to "RUTHVEN.'"
do, as ze will do us singulear enmpleseur;
26
602 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ WR,
WORSTED. A species of woollen fabric, being spun wool, which obtained its
name from having been first spun in a town called Worsted, in Norfolk, in
which the inventor lived, and where manufactures of worsted are still extensively carried on, 14 Edward III., 1340. —Anderson. Worsted-stocking
knave is a term of reproach or contempt used by Shakspeare.
WRECKS oF SHIPPING. The wreckers of Cornwall are the inhabitants of a
few parishes, on the rocky coast, between Mount's Bay and the Lizarid.
When a wreck takes place, thousands assemble with axes, hatchets, crowbars, &c.; and many women and children fight, by habit, for the plunder,
utterly regardless of the sufferers. —Phillips. The loss of merchant and
other ships by wreck upon lee-shores, coasts, and lisasters in the open se.,
was estimated at Lloyd's, in 1800, to be about an average of 365 ships a
year. In 1830, it appeared by Lloyd:s List, that 677 British vessels were
totally lost, under various circumstances, in that year. The annual loss
varies; but it is always many hundreds.
SOME OF THIE MOST REMARKABLE SHIPWRECIKS.
Of the Tl.lhunderer, 74 guns; Stirling days afterwards, and has never since
Castle, 64; Phcezix, 44; La Blancihe, been heard of - March 13, 1811
42; Laurel, 28; Asndromteda, 28; Of the Peacock, one of the United States
Deal Castle, 24; Scasrborough, 20; exploring expedition, at the mouth
Barbadoes, 14; Cameleon, 14;.En- of the Columbia river, Oregon, middeavour, 14; and Victor, 10 guns; day and smooth water - July 18, 1841
British vessels of war, all lost in the Of the Mlissouri United States steamsame storm, in the West Indies, in fiigate, by fire, at Gibraltar, Aug. 27, 1843
October, 1780 Of the United States schooner Shalrk,
Of the Royal George, Capsized in Ports- wreckled at same place - Sept. 10, 1816
mouth harbor, England, when 1,000 Of the Great Brfitais iron steam-ship.
persons perished - June 28, 1782 This stupendous vessel grounded in
Of the steamer Home, from New York Dundrum bay, on the east coast of
to Charleston; 100 lives lost, Oct. 9, 1837 Ireland - - Sept. 22, 1846
Of the Fosus:farshire steamer, from Iull Of the United States sloop of war Bosto Dundee; 38 persons drowned. ton, on the Bahamas - Nov. 16, 18'4a
Owing to the courage of Grace Dar- Of the United States brig Somners, capling and her father, 15 persons were sized in a squall, off Vera Cruz; 39
saved. See JFofarshire - Sept. 5, 1838 drowned - - Dec. 8, 1846
Of the Pennsylvania, Osforad, and St. Of the West India mail packet Tweeed;
Asldrewo, packet ships, in a great gale about 90 souls perished - Feb. 19, 1847
off Liverpool - - Jan. 6, 1839 Of the ship Ocean Monarch, of Boston,
Of the Poland from New York to burnt near Liverpool; 170 lives lost,
Havre, struck by lightning, May 16, 1840 Aug. 24, 1848
Of the President steamer, from New Of the barque Charles Bartlett, run
York to Liverpool, with fifty pas- down at sea by steamer Europa; 134
sengers on board; sailed on March lives lost - - June 27, 1849
11, encountered a terrific storm two See Fires, and Steam Vessels.
It is estimated at Lloyd's that about 170 British registered vessels are annually lost; 360 are annually rendered unfit for service; and 1100 experience
serious damage, requiring extensive repairs, exclusively of the ordinary
wear and tear.
WRITING. Pictures were undoubtedly the first essay towards writing. The
most ancient remains of writing which have been transmitted to us are upon
hard substances, such as stones and metals, used by the ancients for edicts
and matters of public notoriety. Athotes, or Hermes, is said to have written a history of the Egyptians, and to have been the author of hieroglyphics, 2112 B. c.-Usher. Writing is said to have been taught to the Latins
by Europa, daughter of Agenor, king of Phoenicia, 1494 n. c.-TThucydides.
Cadimus, the founder of Cadmea, 1493 B. c., brought the Phoenician letters
into Greece.- Vossiscs. The commandments were written on two tables of
stone, 1491 B. c.- Usher. The Greeks and Romans used waxed table-books,
and continued the use of them long after papyrus was known. See Papyrls, Par'chmesnt, Pacper. "I would check the petty vanity of those who
slight good penmanship, as below the notice of a scholar, b3 reminding
XER,! DICTIONARY OF DATES. 603
them that Mr. Fox was distinguished by the clearness and firmness, Mr.
professor Porson by the correctness and elegance, and sir William Jones by
the ease and beauty, of the characters they respectively employed."-DE.
PARR.
X.
XANTHUS. SIEGE OF, by the Romans under Brutus. After a great struggle,
and the endurance of great privations, the inhabitants, being no longer able
to sustain themselves against the enemy, and determined not to survive the
loss of their liberty, set fire to their city, destroyed their wives and children, and then themselves perished in the conflagration. The conqueror
wished to spare them, but though he offered rewards to his soldiers if they
brought any of the Xanthians alive into his presence, only 150 were saved,
much against their will; 42 B. c.-Plutar-h,.
XENOPHON, RETREAT OF. Xenophon surnamed the Attic Muse, led in the
memorable retreat of the Greeks, one of the most celebrated events in
ancient history. The Greeks were mercenaries of the younger Cyrus, after
whose defeat and ftll at the battle of Cunaxa, they were obliged to retreat;
but Xenophon kept them in a compact body, and retreated through Asia
into Thrace. The Greeks proceeded through various fierce and barbarous
nations, surmounted all the obstacles and dangers that arose at every step,
and accomplished their arduous enterprise, after repeated triumphs over
toils, fraud, and force. This retreat is esteemed the boldest and best-conducted exploit on record; 401 B. c. — Vos.si,3s.
XERXES' CAMPAIGN iN GREECE. Xerxes entered Greece in the spring
of 480 B. c. with an army, which, together with the numerous retinue of
servants, eunuchs, and women that attended it, amounted, according to some
historians, to 5,283,220 souls. But Herodotus states the armament to have
cctsisted of 3000 sail, conveying 1,700,000 foot, besides cavalry, and the
mariners, and attendants of the camp. This multitude was stopped at
Thermopyla, by the valor of 300 Spartans under Leonidas. Xerxes, astonished that such a handful of men should oppose his progress, ordered some
of his soldiers to bring them alive into his presence; but for three successive days the most valiant of the Persian troops were defeated, and the
courage of the Spartans might perhaps have triumphed longer if a base
Trachinian, named Ephialtes, had not led a detachment to the top of the
mountain, and suddenly fallen upon the devoted band. The battle of Therllopylea (which see) was the beginning of the disgrace of Xerxes, Aug. 7,
480 B. c. The more he advanced, the more he experienced new disasters.
His fleet was defeated at Artemisium and Salamis, and he hastened back to
Persia, leaving Mardonius, the best of his generals, behind, with an army of
300,000 men. The rest that had survived the ravages of war, famine, and
pestilence, followed Xerxes on his route home.
XERXES' BRIDGE. The famous bridge of Xer'xes across the Hellespont,
the strait which joins the Archipelago and the sea of Marnlora. It was
formed by connecting together ships of different hinds, some long vessels of
fifty oars, others three-banked galleys, to the number of 360 on the side
towards the sea, and 318 on that of the Archipelago; the former were
placed transversely, but the latter, to diminish the strain on their cables, in
the direction of the current, all secured by anchors and cables of great
strength. On extended cables between the lines of shipping were laid fastbound rafters, over these a layer of unwrought wood, and over the latter
was thrown eartlh: on each side was a fence, to prevent the horses and
604 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [LYA
beasts of burthen from being terrified by the sea, in the passage from shore
to shore. This wonderful work was completed, it is said, in one week, 480
B. C.
Y.
YEAR. The Egyptians, it is said, were the first who fixed the length of the
year. The Roman year was introduced by Romulus 738 B. C.; and it' as
corrected by Numa 713 B. c., and again by Julius Caesar, 45 B. C. See Calendar. The solar or astronomical year was found to comprise 365 days, 5 hours,
48 minutes, 51 seconds and 6 decimals, 265 B. c. The siderial year, or return
of the same star, is 365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes, and 11 seconds. A consi;lerable variation prevailed generally among the nations of antiquity, and still
partially prevails, with regard to the commencement of the year. The Jews
dated the beginning of the sacred year in the month of March; the Athenians in the month of June; the Macedonians on the 24th Sept.; the Christians of Egypt and Ethiopia on the 29th or 30th of August; and the Persians
and Armenians on the 11th of that month. Nearly all the nations of the
Christian world now commence the year on the 1st of January. Charles IX.
of France, in 1654, published an arrat, the last article of which ordered the
year for the time to come to be constantly and universally begun, and writfen
on and from January 1. See New Style, &c.
YEAR, LUNAR. This is the space of time which comprehends twelve lunar
months, or 454 days, 8 hours, 48 minutes, and was in use among the Chaldeans, Persians, and ancient Jews. Once in every three years was added
another lunar month, so as to make the solar and lunar year nearly agree.
But though the months were lunar, the year was solar; that is, the first
month was of thirty days, and the second of twenty-nine, and so alternately;
and the month added triennially was called the second Adar. The Jews
afterwards followed the Roman manner of computation.
YEAR or OUR LORD. The first sovereign who adopted this distinction was
Charles III., emperor of Germany: he added " In the year of our Lord " to
his reign, A. D. 879. It was followed by the French kings, and afterwards by
the English; and is the mode of designating the year from the birth of the
Redeemer in all Christian countries. See Eras.
YEAR, PLATONIC. The doctrine of the Platonic year was believed among the
Chaldeans, and in the earliest ages. It is that space of time at the end
whereof all the planets are to return to the same point from whence they
set out, and have the same aspects and configurations one upon another.
Some affirm this return to be in 15,000 common years, others in 36,000. The
ancient heathens were of opinion, that when this period was completed, the
world would be renewed again, and the departed souls re-enter their bodies
and go through a second course of being.
EAR, SABBATICAL. This was every seventh year, among the Jews. In this
year the people were enjoined by the law to let the ground lie fallow and
have rest. Every seventh Sabbatical year, or every forty-ninth year was
called the JUBILEE YEAR, when was joy and rejoicing; all debts were forgian-n.
and slaves set at liberty, and it was usual to return to the original families
all estates and property that had been sold or mortgaged.-Hist. Jews.
EAR, SIBBEIAN, AND IN LAPLAND. The year in the northern regions of Siberia
and Lapland, is described in the following calendar, as given by a recent
traveller:June 23, Snow melts. July 25, Plants in flower.
July 1, Snow gone. Aug. 2, Fruits ripe.
July 9, Field quite green. I Aug. 10, Plants shed their seed.
July 17, Plants at full growth. Aug. 18, Snow.
OR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 605
The snow then continues upon the ground for about ten months, from August 18th of one year, to June 23d of the year following, being 309 dlays out
of 365; so that while the three seasons of spring, summer, and autumn, are
together only fifty six days, or eight weeks, the winter is of forty-four weeks'
duration in these countries.
YEAR AND A DAY. A space of time, in law, that in many cases establishes
and fixes a right, as in an estray, on proclamation being made, if the owner
does not claim it within the time, it is forfeited. The term arose in the
Norman law, which enacted that a beast found on another's land, if unclaimed for a year and a day, belonged to the lord of the soil. It is otherwise a
legal space of time.
YELLOW FEVER, THE, visited the city of New York in the years 1741, 1742,
1791, 1795, 1795, 1798, 179 1799, 1800, 1803, 1180, and 1822. The deaths by that
disease were as follows: 732 in 1795; 2086 in 1798 (population, 55,000);
670 in 1803; 280 in 1805; 23 in 1819;.366 in 1822. In 1805, 37,000 of the
inhabitants (out of 76,000, the whole population) fled from the city. In 1804,
40 persons died with it at Brooklyn, but New York escaped. Philadelphia
was nearly desolated by it in 1793, and again in 1798. 4041 persons died in
1793, and 17,000 fled from the city (population, 50,000). In 1798, the mortality was great, and 50;000, out of 70,000 inhabitants, fled. Several thousand
died, and the greatest number of deaths in one day was 117. Baltimore
suffered from this disease in 1798, 1819, and 1821. New Orleans and Havana have it annually. In several of the islands of the West Indies in 1732,
1739, and 1745. It broke out in Spain in Sept. 1803. The yellow fever was
very violent. at Gibraltar in 1804 and 1814; in the Mau'ritius, July 1815; at
Antigua, in Sept. 1816; and it raged with dreadful consequences at Cadiz,
and the Isle of St. Leon, in Sept. 1819. The yellow fever rages more or less
every year or two at Charleston, New Orleans, and other southern cities of
the United States. It first appeared at Rio Janeiro in 1849-50, where it
proved fatal to many thousands.
YOKE. The ceremony of making prisoners pass under it, was first practised
by the Samnites towards the Romnans, 321 B. c. This disgrace was afterwards
inflicted by the Romans upon their vanquished enaenies.-AbbU Le'nglet,
DufJiesnoy.
YORK. The Eboracum of the Romans, and one of the most ancient cities of
England. Here Severus held an imperial court, A. D. 207; and here also
Constantius kept a court, and his son Constantine the Great was born, in
274. York was burnt by the Danes, and all the Normans slain, 1069. York
received its charter from Richard II., and the city is the only one in the
British kingdoms, besides London and Dublin, to whose mayors the prefix
of lo~rd has been granted.
YORK. AacnmsnHOPRIC OF, the most ancient metropolitan see in England, being,
it is said, so made by king Lucius, about A. D. 180, when Christianity
was first, although partially, established in England. But this establishment
was overturned by the Saxons driving out the Britons. When the former
were converted, pope Gregory determined that the same dignity should be
restored to York, and Paulinus was made archbishop of this see, about A. D.
622. York and Durham were the only two sees in the north of England for
a large space of time, until Henly I. erected a bishopric at Carlisle, and
Henry VIII. another at Cllester. York was the metropolitan see of the Scottish bishops; but during the time of archbishop Nevil, 1464, they withdrew
their obedience, and had archbishops of their own. Much dispute arose
between the two English metropolitans about precedency, as, by pope Gregory's institutions, it was thought he meant, that which ever of them was
606 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ZAN
first confirmed, should be superior; appeal was made to the court of Rome
by both parties, and it was determined in favor of Canterbury; but York
was allowed to style himself primate of England, while Canterbury styles
himself primate of all England. York has yielded to the church of Rome
eight saints, and three cardinals; and to the civil state of England, twelve
lord chancellors, two lord treasurers, and two lord presidents of the north.
It is rated in the king's books, 39 Henry VIII., 1546, at 16091. 19s. 2d. per
annum.-Beatson.
YORK CATHEDRAL, ENGLAND. This majestic fabric was erected at different
periods, and on the site of former buildings, which have again and again
been destroyed by fire. The first Christian church erected here, which appears to have been preceded by a Roman temple, was built by Edwin, king
of Northumbria, about the year 630. It was burnt for the third time in
1137, along with St. Mary's Abby, and 39 parish churches in York. Archbishop Roger began to build the choir in 1171, but it was by many hands,
and with the contributions of many families, and of multitudes who were
promised indulgences for their liberality, that this magnificent fabric was
completed, about 1361. It was set on fire by Jonathan Martin, a lunatic,
and the roof of the choir and its internal fittings destroyed, Feb. 2, 1829;
the damage estimated at 60,0001., was repaired in 1832.
YORK AND LANCASTER, WARS OF THE HOUSES oF. The first battle between these houses was that of St. Albans, fought May-22., 1455. The last
was that of Tewkesbury, fought May 4, 1471. In these battles the Yorkists,
or Whilte Roses, were victorious against the house of Lancaster, or the Ped
Roses. But in the sixteen years between these two dates, more than thirty
great battles were fought with different success, and half' the country was
depopulated, and nearly the whole of the nobility exterminated. See
Roses.
YORKTOWN. A village in Virginia, memorable for the surrender of the British army under lord Cornwallis, consisting of 7000 men, to the Americans
and their allies under Washington and count Rochambeau, Oct. 19, 1781.
This event decided the contest for independence in favor of the Americans.
YUCATAN, adopted a constitution as a republic (having declared its independence of. Mexico), May 16, 1841.
Z.
ZAMA, BATTLE OF, between the two greatest commanders in the world at the
time, Hannibal and Scipio Africanus. It was won by Scipio, and was decisive of the fate of Carthage; it led to an ignominious peace which was
granted the year after, and closed the second Punic war. The Romans lost
but 2000 killed and wounded, while the Carthaginians lost, in killed
and prisoners, more than 40,000; some historians make the loss greater;
s. c. 202.
ZANTE. This island, with the rest of the islands now forming the Ionian republic, was subject to Venice prior to the French Revolution; but the whole
group were ceded to France by the treaty of Campo Forntio (which see),
October 17, 1797. They were taken by a Russian and Turkish fleet, and
were erected into an independent republic by the name of the Seven Islands,
in 1799. They fell into different hands in the course of the succeeding
year, and were surrendered to the French by the Russians, together with
Ragusa. August 14, 1807. They submitted to the British army, October 3,
1809. In the arrangements at the congress of Vienna, in 1815, they were
put: under the protection of Great Britain. The treaty was ratified.
ZIN ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 607
Paris for that purpose, between Great Britain and Russia, November 5,
1815. The new constitution was ratified by the prince regent, February
22, 1817.
ZANZALEENS. This sect rose in Syria, under Zanzalee. A. D. 535; he taught
that water by baptism was of no efficacy, and that it was necessary to be
baptized with fire, by the application of'a red-hot iron. The sect was at
one time very numerous.-Ashe.
ZE, ZOW, ZIERES. For ye, yo;u, and yours. The letter z was retained in
Scotland, and was commonly written, for the letter y, so late as the reign of
queen Mary, up to which period many books in the Scottish language were
printed in Edinburgh with these words, A. D. 1543.
ZEALAND, NEW, IN THE PACIFIC. Discovered by Tasman in 1642. He traversed the eastern coast, and entered a strait where, being attacked by the
natives soon after he came to anchor, he did not go ashore. From the time
of Tasman, the whole country, except that part of the coast which was
seen by him, remained altogether unknown, and was by many supposed to
make part of a southern continent, till 1770. when it was circumnavigated
by captain Cook, who found it to consist of two large islands, separated by
the strait. The introduction of potatoes into New Zealand has saved many
lives, for the natives give this root a decided preference to human flesh,
under every circumstance, except that of wreaking vengeance on a chief of
the foe whom they have taken in battle. Captain Cook, in 1773, planted
several spots of ground on this island with European garden-seeds; and in
1777, he found a few fine potatoes, greatly improved by change of soil.
ZELA, BATTLE OF, in which Julius Csesar defeated Pharnaces, king of Pontus,
son of Mithridates. Cqesar, in announcing this victory, sent his famous
dispatch to the senate of Romne, in three words: " Veri, vidi, vici" —"I
came, I saw, I conquered," so rapidly and easily was his triumph obtained.
This battle concluded the war; Pharnaces escaped into Bosphorus, where
he was slain by his lieutenant, Asander; and Pontus was made a przvince
of Rome, and Bosphorus given to Mithridates of Pergamus, 47 B. c.Suie. Cezs.
ZELICHOW, BATTLE OF, between the Polish and Russian armies, one of the
most desperate and bloody battles fought by the Poles in their late struggle
for the freedom of their country. The Russians, who were commanded by
general Diebitch, were defeated, losing 12,000 men in killed, wounded, and
prisoners; and Diebitch narrowly escaped being taken in the pursuit of his
flying army, April 6, 1831.
ZENO, SECT o?! founded by Zeno. This sect also took the name of Stoic, from
a public portico, so called, from which the philosopher delivered his harangues. It was the most famous portico in Athens, and was called by way
of eminence, Eroax, the porch. See Stoics. In order to form his own school
of philosophy, and to collect materials for a new system, Zeno had attended
the schools of various masters, and among others he offered himself as a
disciple of Polemo. This philosopher, aware of Zeno's object, said, " I am
no stranger, Zeno, to your Phoenician arts. I perceive that your design is
to creep slily into my garden, and steal away my fruit." He taught about
312 B. c.
ZINC.' The discovery of this metal, so far as the fact is known, is due to the
moderns. It is said to have been long known in China, however, and is noticed by European writers as early as A. D. 1231; though the method of
extracting it from the ore was unknown for nearly five hundred years
after. A mine of zinc wa's discovered on lord Ribbledale's estate, Craven,
Yorkshire, in 1809. Zincography was introduced in London shortly after
608 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ZUR
the invention of lithography became known in England, in 1817. See Litlhogrbaphy.
ZODIAC. The obliquity of the zodiac was discovered, its twelve signs named,
and their situations assigned them in the heavens, by Anaximander, about
560 B. c. The Greeks and Arabians borrowed the zodiac from the Hindoos,
to whom it has been known from time immemorial.-,Sir Williamn Jones.
The invention of geographical maps, and of sun-dials, belongs also to Anaximander.-Pliny.
ZOE, REIGN or. This extraordinary woman, daughter of the emperor Constantine IX., married Romanus, who, in consequence, succeeded to the
throne of the Eastern empire, A. D. 1028. Zoe, after intriguing with a Paphlagonian money-lender, caused her husband Romanus to be poisoned,
and afterwards married her favorite, who ascended the throne under the
name of Michael IV., 1034. Zoe adopted for her son Michael the Fifth,
the trade of whose father (careening vessels) had procured him the surname
of Calaphates, 1041. Zoe and her sister, Theodora, were made sole empresses by the populace; but after two months, Zoe, although she was sixty
years of age, took for her third husband Constantine X., who succeeded to
the empire in 1042. See Eastern Empire.
ZOOLOGY. The animal kingdom was divided by Linnmus into six classes,
viz: —MaZammalia, which includes all animals that suckle their young; Aves,
or birds; Amphibia, or amphibious animals; Pisces, or fishes; Insecta, or
insects; Vern'es, or worms; A. D. 1741. From this period the science of
zoology has had many distinguished professors, the most illustrious of whom
was the baron Cuvier, who died in Paris, May 13, 1832. The Zoological
Gardens of London were opened in April 1827; the society was chartered
March 27, 1829.
ZUINGLIANS. The followers of Ulricus Zuinglius. This zealous reformer,
while he officiated at Zurich, declaimed against the church of Rome and
its indulgences, and effected the same separation for Switzerland from the
papal dominion, which Luther had for Saxony. He procured two assemblies to be called; by the first he was authorized to proceed, and by the
second the ceremonies of the Romish church were abolished, 1519. Zuinglius, who began as a preacher, died in arms as a soldier: he was slain in a
skirmish against the Popish opponents of his reformed doctrines, in 1531.
The reformers who adhered entirely to Zuinglius were called after his name
and also Sacramentarians.
ZURICH. It was admitted to be a member of the Swiss confederacy, of which
this canton was made the head, A. D. 1351. Cession of Utznach, 1436. This
was the first town in Switzerland that separated from the church of Rome,
in consequence of the opposition given by Zuinglius to a Franciscan monk
sent by Leo X., to publish indulgences here, 1519, et seq. A grave-digger
of Zurich poisoned the sacramental wine, by which eight persons lost their
lives, and many others were grievously injured, Sept. 4, 1776. The French
were defeated here, losing 4000 men, June 4, 1799. The Imperialists were
defeated by Massena, the former losing 20,000 men in killed and wounded,
Sept. 24, 1799. See Switzerland.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY.
[From the Companion to the British Almanac, with additions.]
Tins following Chronological List of Authors is in extension of the Catalogue
furnished in the Companiorn of 1831, differing from it by adding to the name
of each author the title of his most important production, or some word
expressive of the nature of his works.
In order to show the various literary character of each age the catalogue is
divided into three columns: the first containing those authors who have drawn
chiefly from their own sources. as poets and novelists; the second those who
Ireat on matters of fact, as history and geography; and the third. the philosophic and scientific writers. Where an author has written in different styles,
his name will be found in the column to which his most distinguished productions appertain. The Hebrews having, almost without exception, treated
on speculative subjects, the triple division does not extend to them.
The dates of birth and death are appended to each name, where they could
be ascertained. In other cases, the situation of the name will show nearly the
time when each author has flourished.
HEBREW.
[The words in italics between parentheses are the familiar appellations of the preceding persons;
they are formed from the first letters of each word composing their names. Fbor example, the
Jews call Maimonides Rambasn, from the four initial letters of his full name, Rabbi Moses ben
Maimon. J ~.m Tof, in like manner, is called Ritba, from the words Rabbi Yom Tof bar
Abraham.]a
B. C. B..
1500 Moses, 1572-1452. 100 Nechoniah ben Halkkanah,'SenTler habPhinehas, supposed author of the book of bahir,' the illustrious book. The most
Joshua. ancient of Rabbinical books. Cabbalistic.
1100 David, 1085-10815. Jonathan,' Targum,' or Chaldee paraphrase
1000 Solomon, 1033-975. of the Bible.
800 Jonah, d. 761. A. D.
Amos. 0 Onkelos,'Targum.2
IIosea. Josephus, b. 35.
Joel. 100 Akiba, d. 120. The Mishna has been inObadiah. correctly attributed to him.
Micah. Shimeon ben Jochai (Rashbi). The' Zohar,'
Isaiah, d. 681. a celebrated cabbalistic Commentary
Nahum. on the Pentateuch is usually attributed
700 Habakkuk. to him, but was composed by his disZephaniah. ciples.
Jeremiah. Jose ben Chilpheta,'A History of the
600 Baruch. World.'
Ezekiel. Nathan of Babylon,' Pirke aboth,' the sayDaniel. ings of the fathers. Ethics.
Zechariah. Eliezer,'Pirke Eliezer,' the sayings of
Haggai. Eliezer, a History of the World.
500 Ezra. Judah Hakkadosh,' Mishna,' the oral tradiNehemiah, d. 430. tions of the Jews, which, with the
Malachi. Gemara or Commentary, constitutes the
500 Jesus, son of Sirach. Babylonian Talmud.
26*
610 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
Raf, supposed author of the'Siphra,' a Moses Milkkotsi,'Great Book of Precepts,'
commentary on Leviticus, and of the'Compendium of Talmud.''Siphre,' a commentary on Numbers Isaac ben Solomon, d. 1268.'Proverbs and
and De)uteronomy. Fables.'
200 Ushaya,' Bereshith Rabba,' a Commentary Nissim, d. 1268.' Book of Homilies.'
on the Mishna. Isaac ben Joseph, d. 1270.'Book of Precepts.'
Author of the'Mechilta,' a Commentary Moses Aben Tybon, Translator of Matheon Exodus. matical and Philosophical works from
Jochanan, Talmud of Jerusalem.' the Greek and Arabic.
300 Rabba bar Nachmon,' Rabboth,' Commen- Solomon ben Adras (Rashba), Theology.
taries on the Bible. Meir, Meditations, on' Maimonides.'
400 Rabasha, began the' Gemara,' a Commen- Menachem Rekanat, d. 1290.' Reason for
tary on the Mishna. the enactment of the Laws of Moses.'
Martemar, continued the' Gemara.' Bechai,' Commentary on Pentateuch.'
500 Abina, completed the'Gemara.' 1300 Shimson, d. 1312.' Intro. to the Talmud.'
800 Simeon Hejara, Great decisions,' jurid. Isaac Israeli,'Foundation of the World,'
Judah bar Nachman (Riban), Compendium History.
of the preceding. Judah, son of Benjamin, Riital.
980 Saadis Gaon,' Philosopher's Stone,'' Book Mordechai,' Compendium of Talmud.'
of Faith,''Grammar,' &c. Isaac Dura,' On Forbidden and Permitted
Sherira,' The Book of Answers,' history. Food.'
1000 Samuel Haccohen, d. 1034. Aaron Ilaccohen,' The Way of Life.'
Joseph Ching, Grammarian. Jerucham,' Book of Rectitude.'
Judah Barzelloni,'Rights of Women,' ju- Jacob ben Asher,'The Four Orders,' a
ridic. Ritual of much authority.
Joseph ben Gorion (Ribag),' Compendium David Abudraham, astronomy.
of Hebrew I-istory.' Levi ben Gerson (Ralbag), d. 1370.' Comn
Moses Aben Ezra, d. 1080. Grammarian. mentary on the Law.'
Isaac of Cordova, cl. 1094.' Chest of Spices.' Menachen Aben Serach, d. 1375. Ritual.
1100 Alphes, d. 1103.'Compendium of the Isaac ben Sheshat (Ribash),'Questions
Talmud.' and Answers on Various Subjects.'
Nathan, d. 1106.'Talmudic and Chaldee Moses Haccohen,' Help of Faith.'
Lexicon.' Isaac Sprot,'Aben Bochan,' a polemic work
Solomon Jarchi (Rashi), Grammarian, d. against Christianity.
1105.'Tongue of the Learned.' Join Tof bar Abraham (Ritba), CommenJoseph ben Meir (Ribarest), d. 1141.' Com- tary on Maimonides.'
mentary on Talmud.' Chasdai, d. 1396.'Liht of the Lord.'
Juda the Levite,'Sepher Cosri,' philoso- Ethics and Theology.
phical. Simeon bar Zemach,' Shield of the Fathers.'
Abraham Aben Ezra, very learned Com- 1.400 Jacob Levi, d. 1427. A Ritual.
mentaries on the Bible. Joseph Albo, the Divine Philosopher,Tam. d. 117.' Sepher Hajashar,' the Book' Foundation of Faith.'
of Righteousness. Israel Germanus,' Questions and Answerb
Samuel ben Meir (Rashbasn), d. 1171. on the Law.'' Commentary on the Talmud.' Joshua Levita,' Introd. to the Talmud.'
Benjamin of Tudela, d. 1173.' Travels.' David Vital,' Golden Verses.'
Samuel,' Book of Piety,' Ethics and Theo- Samuel Sirsa, Grammar.
logy. Isaac ben Arama,' Corn. on the Law.'
Isaac bar Abba, Grammarian. Elias Misrachi (Ram), Arithmetic.
Moses Kimhi, Grammarian. Abarbinel,' Commentary on the Bible.'
David Kimhi (Radak), Grammarian. Isaac Abuhaf, Ethics.
Abraham bar Dior (Rabad), cd. 1199. Cab- 1500 Abraham Seba,' Bundle of Myrrh,' a Combalist. mentary.
Abraham ben David (Rabad), Jurist. Isaac Yarro,' Explanations of the Bible.'
Moses ben Maimon (Rambaon), 1131-1205. Elias Levi, Grammar.' Yad Hazaka,' the'sq.ong hand, a very Solomon ben Virga,' History of the Jews.'
celebrated Commentary on the Talmud, Benjamin Zeef,' Questions and Answers.'
&c. (This author is better known by Abraham Zaccoth,'Juchasin,' Sacred and
his Latinized name, Maimonides.) Jewish History.
1200 Abraham bar Chasdai, Ethics. Moses Iserle, Astrology.
Eliakim, Ceremonies. Joseph Karro,' Com. on Maimonides.'
Baruch Miggarmisa, Laws, Ceremonies. Azarias Edomaeus, History and Philology.
Eliezer Miggarmisa, Ethics, Commentaries. Gadaliah,' Cabbalistic Chain,' History and
Asher, Compendia of Talmud. Chronology.?erez Itaccohen (Haraph), Cabbalist. Leo, d. 1592.'Lion's Whelp,' Grammar.
Moses ben Nachman (Ramban), d. 1260. David Gans, IHistory.'Law of Man,' a celebrated book on 1600 Moses of Trana,' Book of God.'
Ceremonies, &c. 1700 Moses Mendelssohn, 1729-1785, Philosophy.
AUTHORS OF THE NEW-TESTAMENT.
A. D.
0 St. Matthew, St. Mark, St. Luke, St. John, Evangelists.
St. Paul, St. Peter, St. James, St. Jude, Epistlers.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY-GRELEEK. 611
GREEK.
IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
D.C. B.C. B.C.
900 Homer,'Iliad,'' Odyssey,' 900 900
&c.
Hesiod,' Works and Days,'
&c.
700 Tyrtweus, Elegies (fragm'ts.) 700 700
Archilochus, Satires, Elegies (fragments).
600 Alc us, Lyrics (fragments). 600 600
Sappho, Lyrics (fragments).
Solon, d. 558.
Epimenides.
Stes-ichorus, 633-553 Lyrics
(firagments).
Mimnnermus, Elegies (fragmerits.)
Anacreon, Lyrics. Pythagoras, Philosophy.
5090 Simonides, 556-467, Lyrics. 500 500 Zeno of Elea, Philosohy..Eschylus, 525-456, Trage- Ocellus Lucanus, Philosodies. Gorgias, Orations (frgts.) phy.
Pindar, 518-439, Odes.
Bacchylides, Lyrics.
Anaxagoras, 500-428, Philo.
Hecatreus, Hist. (fragmn'ts.) sophy.
Sophocles, 495-405, Trage- Herodotus, d. 484, History.
dies. Thucydides, 471-391, HistoEuripides, 480-486, Trage- ry of Peloponnesian War.
dies. Antiphon, Orations.
Aristophanes, d. 338, Come- Andorides, Orations. Socrates, 468-399, Philosodies. Lysias, 458-378, Orations. phy.
400 400 Ctesias, History (fragm'ts.) 400
Xenophon, 444-359, History,
Philosophy, &c.
Ismeus, Orations.
Hippocrates, 460-357, MediIsocrates, 536-338, Orations. cine.
Dinarchus, Orations. Democritus, 450-357, PhiloLycurgus, Orations. sophy.
Demosthenes, 382-322, Ora- Plato, 429-347, Philosophy.
Diphilus, Comedy (figats.) tions. Aristotle, 384-322, PhilosoMenander, 242-291, Come-.Eschines, 389-314, Orations. phy, Criticism.
dies (fragments.) Theophrastus,d. 288, Ethics.
Epicurus, 341-270, Philosophy.
300 Bion, Idyls. 300 300 Euclid, Geometry.
Zento of Citium, d. 263, Philosophy.
Moschus, Idyls.
Lycophron,' Cass;mdra.'
Callimachus, Hymns and
Epigrams.
Theocritus, Idyls. Manetho, History (fragm'ts.)
Aratus, Poem on Astrono- Apollonius, Conic Sections.
my.
Cleanthes, Hymns.
Apollonius Rhodius, Argo- Archimedes, d. 212,' Sphere
nautics.' and Cylinder,' &c.
Eratosthenes, Philosophy.
e.~~~~ ~ _ _. _ _.
61i 2 THE WORLD9S PROGRESS.
IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
200 Nicander, Theriaca. 200 Polybius, 206-124, Universal 200
History.
Apollodorus,' Bibliotheca,'
Mythology.
100 Meleager, Epigrams. 100 Conon, Mythology. 100
Scymnus, Poetical Geogr.
Dionysius Halicarnassus,'Roman Antiquities.'
Dionysius Periegetes, Geography?
Diodorus Siculus, General
History.
0 0 Strabo, Geography. 0
Dioscorides, Botany and MePausanias, Description of dicine.
Greece.
Plutarch, Biography, Morals
&c.
Dion Chrysostom, Orations. Epictetus,'Enchiridion,'
Philosophy.
A. D. A. D. A. D.
100 100 2Elian, d. 140. Varieties. 100
Appian, History. Justin Martyr, d. 163, TheoPtolemy, Geog., Astron. logy.
Polycarp, d. 167, Theology.
Arrian,' Expedition of Alex- Galen, 103-193, Medicine.
ander.'
Athenagoras, d. 172,' On the
Iamblichus,' Rhodis and Si- Resurrection.'
nonides, a novel. Phavorinus, Lexicon.
HIermogenes, d. 161, Rh,toric.
Polymenus, Strategy.
M. Aurelius Antoninus, Philosophy.
Nephaestion,' On Metres.'
DMax. Tyrius, Philosophy.
Lucian, Dialogues.
Oppian, Poems on Hunting
and Fishing.
Athenaeus, d. 194,'Deipnosophiste, anecdotes. Julius Pollux,'Onomasticon,' Rhetoric.
200 200 Diogenes Laertius, d. 222, 200'Lives of Philosophers.'
Philostratus, d. 244, Life of
Apollonius.
Dion Cassius, History of
Rome. Ammonius, Philosophy.
IIerodian, History of Rome. Origen, d. 254, Theology
Hesychius, Lexicon.
lamblichus, Philosophy.
Longinus, d. 273,'On thc
Porphyrius, 23.3-304, Life of Sublime.'
Pythagoras, Philosophy.
300 300 Eusebius, d. 340, Ecclesias- 300
tical History.
Achilles Tatius,'Clitophon
and Leucippe,' novel. Julian, d. 363, Philosophy.
Xenophon,'Anthea and Ab- Liabanius, Orations and Athanasius, 298-371, Theorocome,' novel. Epistles. logy.
Greg. Nazianzen, 318-389,
Theology.
LITERARY CH:RONOLOGY.-GREEK. 613
IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
300 300 Gregory Nysseus, d. 39G,
Theology.
Cyril, 315-386, Theology.
Diophantus, Mathematics.
Eunapius,' Lives of Philosophers.'
30C Aristarnetus,'Erotic Let- 300 300
ters.' Chrysostom, 354-407, The.
ology.
Heliodorus,' Theagenes &
Chariclea,' novel.
Chariton,' Chmeleus and
Calirrhoe,' novel.
400 Longus,'Daphnis and 400 Synesius, Orations &Epis- 400 Nemesius,' Nature of
Chloe,' novel. ties. Man,' Philosuphyo
Nonnus,' Conquest of India
by Bacchus.'
Stobmus,' Literary Collections.'
Quintus Smyrnaeus (com- Zosimus,' Hist. of Roman
monly called) Calabar, Emperors.' Cyril, d. 443, Homilies.' Contin. of Homer.' Socrates, 389-446, Ecclesi- Proclus, d. 445, Theology.
Musmeus, Poem of Hero and astical History.
Leander 3 Sozomen, d. 450, Ecclesiastical History.
Theodoret, d. 450, EcclesiEumathius,' Ismenmus & astical History.
Ismenaea,' novel.
Proclus, d. 500, Platonist.
Coluthus, Poem on'Rape
of Helen.'
Tryphindorus, Poem on'Destruction of Troy.'
500 500 Stephanus, Geography. 500 Simplicius, Comments on
Aristotle.'
Tribonianus, Jurist.
Procopius,'Hist. of Reign
of Justinian.'
Olympiodorus,'Hist. of
Honorius.'
Cos. Indicopleustes, Topography.
Evagrius, Ecclesiast. Hist
Agathias, Byzantine Hist.
600 600 Menan, Protector, Chron. 600
Theophanes, Byzant. His.
Philoponus, Grammarian.
Theophylactus Simocatta,
Byzantine History.
700 700 700 Damascenus, d. 750, Theology.
800 800 Nicephorus, 758-828, Hist. 800 Theodorus Studites, 759Syncellus, History. 826, Sermons.
Photius, d. 891, c Biblio.
theca.'
John Malalas, History.
900 900 900 Leo VI., d. 911,' On Chris.
tian Faith.'
Leontlus, History.
Genesius, History.
614 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULAI1VE AND SCIENTIVIC.
900 900 Const. Porphyrogenneta, 91)0
905-959, Hist. Selections.
Sim. Metaphrastes, Lives
of Saints.
I000 1000 George Cedrenus, History. 1000
John Xiphilinus, d. 1080,
Abridg. of Dion Cassius. Theophylactus, Theology.
[ Michael Psellus, MathemaJohn Scylitza, History. tics.
1100 1100 1100 Euthymius Zygabenus,
Nicephorus Bryennius, d. Theology.
1137, Byzant. Affairs.
Anna Comnena, Reign of
her father Alexius.
C. Theo. Prodromus,'Rhodanthe and Dosicles,'
novel. Const. Manasses, History.
Zonaras, History of Ro- Suidas, Lexicon.
mans, History of Jews. Eustathias, Commentaries
on Homer.
Will. of Tyre, 1100-1184,
History.
John Tzetzes, History in Isaac Tzetzes,Commentary
Verse. on Lycophron.
Cinnamus, History.
1200 1200 Joel, History. 1200
Michael Glycas, History. Nicephorus Blemmidas,
George Acropolita, Hist. Theology.
Nicetas Acominatus, Hist.
George Pachymer, Hist.
1300 Manuel Philes, 1275-1340, 1300 Theod. Metochita, d. 1312, 1300
Poems. History.
Callistus Xantopulus, Ecclesiastical History.
Niceph. Gregoras, History.
Maximus Planudes, Anthology.
Leo Pilatus, Literature.
John Cantacuzenus, Hist.
George Codinus, Hist.
Michael Ducas, History.
1400 1400 1400 Eman. Chrysolorus, d.
1415, Grammar.
Geo. Gemistius, or Pletho,
d. 1450, Philosophy.
Eman. Moscopulus, Notes
on Hesiod.
Bessarion, 1395-1472, Theology.
Geo. of Trebizond, 13961468, Aristotelian.
Theodore Gaza, d. 1478.
Origin of Turks.
Laonicus Chalcondyles,
History of Turks. John Argyrophilus, Aristc.
Demet. Pamperes, Tales. George Phranza, History. telian.
Marullus Tarchoniota d.
1500, Poems.!500 1500 1500 Demetrius Chalcondyles,
| 1453-1513, Philology.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY-LATIN ARD ITALIAN. 615
IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
166d 1600 1600 Panagioti, d. 1763, Theology.
1700 Kallinikus, Poems. 1700 1700 Dorotheus, Aristotelian.
Alexander Maurocordato,
History of the Jews.
Meletius, Geography.
Nicholas Caradza, Trans- Marcus Tharboures, Melation of Voltaire. chanics.
1700 1700 1700 Bulgaris, Mathematics.
Riga, d. 1796, Lyrics, Natural Philosophy.
Ducas, Translation of Thucydides.
1809 N. Piccolo, Tragedy. 1800 D. Philippides, d. 1827, 1800 Psalidas, Metaphysics.
Christopulus, Anacreon- Hist. of Wallachia, &c. Coray, Commentaries, Lex.
tics, Opera. Paliuris, Hist. of Greece. icon.
Calvos, Lyrics. Perrevos, History of Suli Cumas, Dictionary.
Ilarion, Translation of So- and Parga. Neophitus, Bamba, Ethics.
phocles. Gr. Demetrius, Geography.
LATIN AND ITALIAN.
[The Latin ceased to be a spoken language about the sixth century, but was in almost universal
use throughout Europe as the language of composition until the thirteenth century, when the
modern languages began to appear.
As long as the literature of the West was almost exclusively confined to Italy we have arranged
all authors who wrote in Latin under the same head; but about the sixth century they will be
found under those countries where their works were published, whatever the language in which,-hey wrote.]
IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
B. r. s. C. B. C.
200 M. A. Plautus, Comedies. 200 200
Q. Ennius, Epics (Fragts).
P. Terentius, Comedies. M. P. Cato, De Re Rustica.
o00 100 T. Pomponius Atticus, 110- 100 Varro, 115-28, De Re Rusti
33, Letters. ca Lingua Latina.
Vitruvius, Architecture.
Verrius Flaccus, d. 4, Fasti
Capitolini.
T. Lucretius, b. 95, De Re- MI. T. Cicero, 107-43, Orator
rum Natura. and Philosopher.
Catullus, 86-40, Lyrics. Julius Caesar, 98-46, Commentaries.
Hirtius Pansa, Gallic War.
C. Sallustius, 85-35, Jugurthine War.
Corn. Nepos, Biography.
P. Virgilius, 70-19, Eneid.
Q. Horatius, 65-8, Odes, Satires.
Propertius, 59-16, Elegies. T. Livius, 59 B. o.-19 A. D.,
A. Tibullus, 43 B. C.-17 History of Rome.
A. D., Elegies.
Ovid, 43 B. c. —17 A. D., Metamorph. Fasti, &c.
Hyginus, Poeticon Astronomicon.
616 THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
A. D. A. D. A. D.
0 0 Vel Paterculus, 19 B. c.-30 0
A. D., Hist. of Rome.
Pomp. Mela, Geography.
Valerius Maximus, Anecdotes of Great Men.
Phzedrus, Fables. C. Celsus, De Medicina.
Quintus Curtius, History of Columella, Agriculture.
Alexander.
Persius, 34-62, Satires. L. A. Seneca, 12-65, PhilosLucan, 38-65,' Pharsalia.' opher, Tragic Poet.
Petronius Arbiter, d. 67, Sa- Pliny the Elder, 23-79, Nax;
tyricon. ral History.
Valerius Flaccus, Argonau- Quintilian Criticism.
tics.
Silius Italicus,' Punic
War.'
Sulpicia, Satires, &c.
Statius, d. 99,'Thebais,''Achilleis.'
Martial, 29-104, Epigrams.
Juvenal, 48-128, Satires.
Pliny the Younger, 61-113,
Epistles.
100 100 Tacitus, History. 100 Valer, Probus, Grammar.
Suetonius, Biography. Frontinus, Strategy.
Florus, History of Rome.
Terentianus Maurus, De Ar.
Aulus Gellius, Noctes At- te MetricS.
L. Apuleis, Gohlen Ass. ticTe.
(. Jul. Solinus, Polyhistor.
Justin, History. Pompei. Festus, Grammar.
200 200 200 Ulpian, d. 228, Law.
Tertullian, d. 220,' Apology
for Christianity.'
Minutius Felix, Dialogue in
favor of Christianity.
Julius Obsequens,'De P'odigiis.'
Censorinus,'De Die Na.
tali.'
Cyprian, d. 258, Theology.
Nemesianus, Cynegetica.
Jul. Calpurnius, Eclogues.
300 300 El Spartianus, IIistory. 300 Arnobius,'Adversus genJut. Capitolinus, History. tes.'
EIl. Lampridus, History. Lactantius, d. 325, Defence
Vul. Gallicanus, History. of Christianity.'
Trebellius, Pollio, History.
Aquilinus Juvencus, Gospel F. Vopiscus, History. 2El. Donatus, Grammar.
in Verse. Aurelius Victor, History. F. Maternus, Astronomy
Theology.
M. Victorinus, Hymns.
Ambrosius, Theology.
F. Eutropius, History of
Festus Avienus, Geographi- Rome.
cal Poem. Amm. Marcellinus, History Jerom. 329-420, Version of
D. M. Ausonius, Idyls. of Rome. Bible.
Rufinus, d. 410, Ecclesiastical History.
T. Vegetius Renatus, De Re
Militari.
A. T. Macrobius, Satur- Augustin, 354-430, Theolnalia. ogy.
Symmachus, Epistles.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY —LATIN AND ITALIAN. 617
IMAGINA'TION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENT1FIP
300 C. Claudianus, Poems. 300 300
A. Prudentius Clemens,
Christian Poems.
400 400 Vib. Sequester, Geography. 400
Sulpitius, Severus, d. 420,
Sacred History.
Sedulius, Poetical Life of Orosius, Ilist. of World.
Christ.
Martianus Capella, De Nuptius Phil. et Mere.
Paulin. Pretocorius, Poem, on
Martin of Tours.
Sidonius Apollinaris, d. 488,
Poems. Victoius, History of Church
in Africa.
Ennodius, d. 521, Christian Idacius, Chronicles to 468.
Poems.
500 Boethius, Poet and Philo- 500 Cassiodorus, 481-562, His- 500 Priscianus, Grammar.
sopher. tory. Fulgentius, 468-533, Theology.
Dionysius Exiguus, d. 536,
Christian Era.
Non. Marcellus, Grammar.
Arator, 490-556, Acts of
Apostles in VTerse.
Jornandes, Hist. of Goths.
Evagrius, Eccl. History.
600 600 Secundus, d. 615, History 600
of Lombards.
700 700 700 Cresconius, Collection
Paul Warnefrid, History Canons, Verses.
of Lombards.
800 800 Erchempert, History of 800
Lombards.
Anastasius, Lives of Popes.
900 900 Luitprand, History of his 900
Times.
1000 1000 1000 Papias, Grammar.
Lanfranc, d. 1089, Theol.
1100 Donizo, Latin Poe'ry. 1100 1100
Falcandus, Hist. of Sicily. Gratian, Canonist.
Campanus, Mathematics.
Ciullod' Alcamo, Sicilian
Poetry.
1200 1200 Pietro dalle Vigne, d. 1249, 1200 Accursius, 1182-1260, Law
Guido of Colonna, Poetry, History. Thomas Aquinas, 1224History. 1274, Theology.
Brunetto Latina, d. 1294, Bonaventura, Scholastic.' I1 Tesora.'
Guido Cavalcanti, d. 1300,
Poems. Marco Polo, Travels.
John XXII., Poem on Medicine. G. Durand, Law.
G. de Voragine, d. 1298, Pietro d'Albano, 1250-1r -,
Legends of Saints. Astrology, Physics.
Torregiano Rustechelli,
Commentaries.
618 THE WORLD)S PROGRESS.
IMAGCINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
130C Dante, 1265-1321, La Di- 1300 1300 Mon. de Luzzi, Anatomy.
vina Commedia. Ar. Villanovan, d. 1313,
Alchemy.
Cecco d'Ascoli, d. 1327,
F. Barberino, 1264-1348, Astronomy.
Poems. G. Andreas, d. 1348, CaPetrarca, 1304-1374, Son- nons.
nets, Epic, Literature. Bartolus, Law.
Boccacio, 1313-1375, I1Decamerone.'
Ferreti, 1356-1429, History
of his Times.
1400 1400 Leonardo Bruni, History of 1400 Leonard of Pisa, Algebra.
Florence. Nicholas Tedeschi, Law.
A. Beccadelli, 1374-1471,' Hermaphroditus.' Guarino, 1370-1460, TransPoggio, 1380-1459, Litera- lation of Plutarch.
ture. Mich. Savonarola, d. 1462,
Lorenzo Valla, 1407-1457, Medicine.
Literature. Bar. Montagnana, d. 1460C
D. Burchiello, Sonnets. B. Accolti, 1415-1466, His- Baraterius, Law.
tory of IHoly War. Gianozzo, Manetti, 139r.Flav. Blondus, 1388-1463, 1479, Orier.talist.
thistory of Venice, &c. Paul Toscanello, d. 1482.,En. Sylvius, 140-1464, His- Astronomy..tory, Poetry, &c.
John Gobelin, History.
Beccat. Panormita, 1393Pulci, 1432-1487,' Mor- 1471, Biography.
gante Maggiore.' Bart. Platina, 1421-1481,
Franc. Philelphus, 1398- Lives of Popes.
1481, Poetry and Ethics. F. Buonaccorsi, 1437-1496,
Loren. de'Medici, d. 1492, Biography.
Poetry, Literature. Pomp. Lnetus, 1425-1495,
Angelo Poliziano, 1454- Lives of Caesars, &c.
1494, Poetry, Drama. Franc. Berlinghieri, GeoMarsilius Ficinus, 1433- graphy. Pico Ae Mirandola, 14631499, Translat. Plato. G. Pontano,1426-1563,Wars 1494, Metaphysics.
of Ferdinand I. Luca di Burgo, Mathem.
Bonfinius, d. 1502, IIistory
of Hungary.
1500 1500 R. Accolti, 1455-1532, His- 1500 Ant. della Torre, d. 1512,
tory. Anatomy.
L. da Vinci, 1452-1520,'Treatise on Painting.'
G. Abrosi, Astronomy.
G. Ruccellai, 1475-1526,' Le A. Acchillini, 1472-1512,
Apt.' Medicine.
Alexander ab Alexandro, B. Castigilione, 1478-1529,
1461-1523, Dies Geni-'The Courtier.'
tales.
M. Boiardo,' Orlando innamorato.'
Sanazar, 1458-1530, Arcadia. Machiavelli, 1482-1528, HisBerni, d. 1530, Satires. tory of Florence, &c.
Ariosto, 1474-1533,' Orlando Furioso.'
F. M. Molza, d. 1544, Po- Guicciardini, 1482-1540,
ems. History of Italy.
Bembo, 1470-1547, History
Trissino, 1478-1550,'Italy of Venice. G. Fracastoro, 1483-1533,
Delivered,' Epic Trage- L. Alberti, cd. 1552, History Medicine.
dy. of Bologna. And. Alciato, 1492-1550,
Law.
Nic. Tartaglia, Mathem.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY —— LATIN AND ITALIAN. 619
IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
1500 Hier. Vida, d. 1566, Latin 1500 1500 F. Commandido, 1509-1575,.Poetry. B. Cellini, 1500-1570, Auto- Mathematics.
Mic. Angelo Buonaroti, d. biography. Angelo Caninio, d. 1557,
1564, Poems. B. Varchi 1503-1566, His- Orientalist.
Giovanni della Casa. 1503- tory of his Times.
1556, 11 Galateo, &c.
G. Anguillara, b. 1517, Tragedy.
L. Dolce, 1508-1568, Tragedy, Epic, History.
Bernardo Tasso, 1493-1575, V. Borgh.ni, 1515-1580, His- And. Vesalio, 1514-1564,' Amadis.' tory. Anatomy.
Greg. Giraldi, 1504-1573, G. Vasari, 1514-1578, Lives Falopius, 1523-1563, MediTragedy. of Painters, &dc. cine.
Sperone Speroni, 1500-1588, Eustachi, d. 1576, Do.
Orations. P. Manut Aldus, 512-1574,
S. Ammirato, 1531-1600, Commentaries.
History of Florence. Cardano, 1501-1576, MatheG. Adriani, 1511-1579, His- matics.
A. F. Grazzini, d. 1583, tory of his Times. P. Launcelloti, 1511-1591,
Comedies.- B. Davanzati, 1529-1606, Law.
Torq. Tasso, 1544-1595, Hist. Eng. Reformation.'Gerusalemme Liberata.' C. Baronius, 1538-1607, EcG. Bagnioli, d. 1600, Tra- clesiastical Annals.
ged.y. P. Paruta, 1540-1598, HistoGuarini, 1538-1613,'I1Pas- ry of Venice. Andrlea Cmesalpino, 1519tor Fido.' Possevini, 1533-1611, De- 1603, Botany.
scription of Muscovy,&c. U. Aldrovandi, 1522-1605,
P. R. Sarpi, 1552-1623, His- Natural Ilistory.
tory of Coun. of Trent. Orazio Torsellino, 15451609, Grammar.
Ottavio Rinuccini, Opera.
F. Braccilolini, 1566-1605,'La Croce Racquistata.'
Oraz.Vecchi, Comic Opera E. C. Davila, 1576-1631,
G. Marini,1569-1625,Poems. Hist. Civil Wars France.
C. Achillini, 1577-1640, Poems.
A.Tassoni,1561-1635,'Sechchia Rapita.'
1600 G. Chiabrera, 1552-1637, 1600 G. Bentivoglio, 1579-1644, 1600 J. Fabricius, d. 1619, ComrnPoems. History Civil Wars Flan- parative Anatomy.
ders. Bellarmino, 1542-1621, Polemics.
Galileo, 1564-1642, Astron.
T. A. Campanella, 15681693, Philosophy.
L. Vanini, 1585-1619, Theology.
B. Castelli, d. 1644, Mathematics.
B. Cavalieri, d. 1647, Do.
Fabio Colonna, 1567-1647,
Botany, &c.
P. della Valle, 1586-1652,
Travels.
F. Strada, 1571-1649, Hist.
Laur. Lippi, 1606-1664, Co- of Wars of Flanders.
mic Poems. G. B. Nani, 1616-1678, HisG. Marini, Romances. tory of Venice.
Oderic Rainaldi, EcclesiasSalvator Rosa, 1615-1673, tical Annals.
Satires. F. Redi, 1626-1697, Natural
C. M. Maggi, 1630-1699, Villani, Iist. of Florence. History.
Poems. M. Malpighi, 1628-1694,
Anatomy.
620 THE WORLD)S PROGRESS.
IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
1600 Ben. Manzina, 1646-1704, 1600 V. Viviani, 1621-1703, MaArt of Poetry Satires. thematics.
V. Filicaja, 1642-1707, Po- A. Magliabecchi, 1633-1714.
ems. Literature.
G. D. Cassini, 1625-1712,
Mathematics, Astron.
D. Guglielmini, 1655-1710,
Mathematics.
1700 Aless. Guidi, 1650-1712, Ly- 1700 1700 G. Baglivi, 1668-1706, Merics. dicine.
A. Marchetti,1633-1714, Po- G. V. Gravina, 1564-1718,
ems, Philosophy. Law.
N. Forteguerra, 1674-1735.
Ricciardetto.
G. M. Crescembini, 16631728, Poetry. L. Muratori, 1672-1750,
Apostolo Zeno, 1669-1750, Annals of Itality.
Operas. B. Giannone, 1680-1748,
S. Maffei, 1675-1755, Tra- History of Naples.
gedy.
G. Cassini, 1677-1756,
Astronomy.
F. X. Quadrio, 1695-1756, G. Morgagni, 1681-1771,
History of the Valteline. Anatomy.
M. Metastasio, 1698-1782,
Dramas, Operas. A. Genovesi, 1712-1769,
Metaphysics.
B. Buonamici, 1710-1761, F. Algarotti,, 1712-1764;
History.'Newtonianism.'
G.R. Boscowich, 1711-1787,
Mathematics, Pbilology.
F. M. Zanotti, 1692-1777,
C. Goldoni, 1707-1772, Co- Philosophy.
medies. C. Beccaria, 1720-1795,
C. 1. Frugoni, 1692-1768,'Crimes & Punishments.'
Poems. A. Fabroni, 1732-1802, BioG. Gozzi, 1713-1786, Sa- graphy.
tires, Odes. G. Tiraboschi, 1731-1794, L. Spallanzani, 1729-1799.
Hist. of Italian Literature. Natural HIistory.
L. Galvani, 1737-1798, GalV. Alfieri, 1749-1803, Tra- vanism.
gedies. Volta, 1745-1827, Do.
G. Filangieri, 1751-1798,
Legislation.
1800 Pindemonte, Poems. 1800 1800
Monti. Poems.
Ugo Foscolo, Drama, Poems. Botta, History of Italy, &c.
Denina, History of Italian Scarpa, Anatomy.
Revolutions.
I. da Ponte, Poems, Operas. Silvio Pellico, Memoirs.
Manzoni, Novels.
anoi NovelsM. Gioja, 1767-1839, Poli,
Economy.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY-BRITISH. 621
BRITISH, &c.
IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.. D. A. D. A. D.
500 500 Gildas, Conquest of Britain. 500
600 Ceadmon, Saxon Poems. 600 Nennius, Origin of Britons. 600
Aldhelme, d. 709, Latin Poems.
700 700 Bede, 673-735, Eccl. Histo- 700
ry of England. Alcuin, d. 804, Theology,
IHistory, Poetry.
800 Alfred, 849-901, Saxon Po- 800 800 J. Scot Erigena, d. 83,' Of
ems, Tranlslations, &c. the Nature of Things.'
Asser, d. 909, Life of Alfred,
History of England.
900 900 Ethelwerd, History of Great 900
Britain.
1000 1000 Ingulphus, 1030-1109, His- 1000
tory of Croyland.
Eadmer, Chronicle.
1100 1100 Order. Vitalis, 1075-1132, 1100
History of England.
Florence of Worcester, d.
1118, Chron. of England.
Geoffiry of Monmouth, History of Britain. Robert Pulleyn, d. 1150,
William of Malmsbury, d. Theology.
1143, Hist. of Britain.
Henry of Huntingdon,
Chronicles of England.
Simeon of Durham, Chronicles of England. Richard of St. Victor, d.
John of Salisbury, d. 1181, 1173, Theology.'Life of Becket,' &c.
Layamon, Saxon Poetry. Ralph Glanville, Collection
Nigellus, Speculum Stulto- G. Cambrensis, Conq. of of Laws.
rum. Ireland, Itin. of Wales.
Walter Mapes, Satires, Wm. of Newbury, b. 1136,
~Soags.~~ ~ Chron. of England.
Jos. of Exeter, Troi. War.
War of Antioch, Epics.
1200 1200 Roger Hoveden, Chron. of 1200
England.
Gervase of Canterbury, Alex. Neckham, d. 1227,
History of England. Theology.
Roger of Wendover, Hist.
of England. Robert Grosteste, Natural
Philosophy.
Alexander Hales, d. 1245,
Aristotelian.
John Peckham, Theology.
John Holiwood, d. 1258,
Matthew Paris, d. 1259, Astron., Mathematics.
History of England.
622 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFI0.
Robert ofGlocester, Chron- William Rishanger, His- Roger Bacon, 1214-1292.
icle in verse. tory of England. Chemistry, Optics, &c.
T. Lermont, the Rhymer, Rich. Middleton, Theology
Sir Tristem, Romance.
1300 1300 1300 Albricus, Theology.
Duns Scotus, d. 1308, Philosophy.
Walter Burleigh, Philosophy.
Gilb. Anghllcus, Medicine.
Adam Davie, Metr. Ro- Nicholas Trivetlh, d. 1328, R. Aungervile, 1281-1345,
mance, Life of Alex. Hist. Physic, Theology. Philobiblion.
Richard of Chichester,
Lawrence Minot, d. 1352, Chron. of England. J. Wicliffe, 1324-1384,
Historical Poems. Ralph Higden, d. 1360, Theology, Translation of
Chron. of England. Bible.
Henry Knighton, d. 1370,
Chron. of England.
Matthew of Westminster,
John Barbour, 1326-1396,'Flowers of History.'' The Bruce.' John Maundeville, d. 1372, 11. de Bractoi, Law.
R. Langlande,' Pierce Travels.
Plowman,' a Satire. John Fordun, Chron. of
Geof. Chaucer, 1328-1400, Scotland.' Canterbury Tales,' &c.
John Gower, d. 1402, Elegies, Romances, &c.'400 1400 Andrew of Wyntoun, 1400
Chron. of Scotland.
John Lydgate, 13380-1440,
Poems.
T. Walsingham, d. 1440,
History of Normandy.
James I. of Scotland, 1395- John Fortescue, Laws of
1437,'King's Quhair,' England.
&c.
Harry the Minstrel,'Sir
W. Wallace.' John Hardyng, Chron. of Thomas Littleton, d. 14875
Enaland. Law.
Lord Berners, Trans. of
Froissart.
Stephen Hawes,'Passe- W. Caxton, Translations.
tyme of Pleasure.'
John Skelton, d.4529, Douglas of Glastonbury,
Satires, Odes. Chron. of England.
1500 Wm. Dunbar, 1465-1530, 1500 R. Fabyan, d. 1512, Chron. 1500 Thos. Linacre, 1460-1524,'Thistle and Rose.' of England and France. Philology, Medicine.
Gawin Douglas, 1475-1522,
Trans. Virgil.
Thomas More, 1480-1535, Anth. Fitzherbert, Hus-' Utopia.' bandry.
Thomas Wyatt, d. 1541,
Sonnets. T. Halls, d. 1547, Hist. of
John Heywood, d. 1565, Houses of York and Lan- Thomas Elyot, Philology.
Drama. caster. 11. Latimer, 1475-1555,
Earl of Surrey, d. 1.546-7, John Leland, d. 1552, Eng- Sermons.
Poems. lish Antiquities.
Geo. Gascoigne, d. 1577, W. Cavendish, 1505-1557,
DraLma.'Life of Wolsey.'
J. Ball, 1495-1563,' Lives Roger Ascham, 1515-1568,
of British Writers.'' The Schoolmaster.'
Ralph Hollingshed, d. 1581, Thomas Wilson, d. 1581,
Chronicles. Logic and Rhetoric.
Geo. Buchanan, 1506-1582, Thomas Tusser, d. 1580,
History of Scotland. I -usbandry.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY —BRITISH. 623
IBIAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
Philip Sidney, 1554-1586, J. Fox, 1517-1587, Book' Arcadia.' of Martyrs.
Christ. Marlowe, d. 1593,
Drama.
Edm. Spenser, 1553-1598,'Faery Queen." J. Jewel, 1522-1570, DiW. Shakspeare, 1564- vinily.
1616, Drama. N. Fitzherbert, 1550-1612, R. Hooker, 1553-1600, Ec.
John Lylie, 1550-1600, Biography. clesiastical Polity.'Euphues. John Stowe, 1527-1605, W. Gilbert, 1540-1603,
Chronicles, Topography.' On the Loadstone,'
Sir T. North, Translations L. Andrews, 1565-1626,
John Fletcher, 1576-1625, of Plutarch. Sermons.
Drama.
F. Beaumont, 1586-1615,
Drama.
1660 John Owen, d. 1612, Latin 1600 J. Pitts, 1560-1616, Biog. 1600 Edward Colte, 550-1634,
Epigrams. ofKings, Bishops, &c. Law.
Sir H. Wotton, 1568-1639, Richard Knolles, d. 1610, John Napier, 1550-1617,
Poet. History of the Turks. Logarithms.
Winm. Camden, 1551-1623,
Antiquities.
R. Hackluyt, 1553-1616,
Naval Histories.
W. Raleigh, 1552-1617,
History of the World.
Samuel Daniel, 1567-1619,
History of England.
John Hayward, d. 1627,
J. Ford, b. 1586, Drama. English History.
Ben Jonson, 1574-1637, J. Speed, 1555-1629, HIist.
Drama. of Great Britain. Robert Burytcr, 1576-1-639,
P. Massenger, 1585-1639. Henry Spelman, 1562-1641,'Anat. of Melancholy.;
Drama.' Antiquities. Francis Bacon, 1560-1626,
J. Harrington, 1561-1612, R. B. Cotton, 1570-1631, Philosophy, History.
Trans. Ariosto. Antiquities. Win. Harvey, 1578-1657,
E. Fairfax, d. 1632, Trans. S. Purchas, 1577-1628, Circulation of Blood.
Tasso. Collection of Voyages.
M. Drayton, 1563-1631,
Poems.
G. Sandys, 1577-1643, Thomas Roe, 1580-1641, John Selden, 1584-1654,
Translations, Poems. Travels in the East. Antiquities, Law, Hist.
J. Daniel, 1562-1619, E. (Lord) Herbert, 1581- J. Harrington, 1611-1677,
Poems. 1648, History of Henry'Oceana.'
W. Drummond, 1585-1649, VIII. James Usher, 1580.-1656,
Poems. R. Baker, d. 1645, Chron. Divinity, Sermons, Hist.
John Donne, 1573-1662, of England. Thos. Hobbes, 1588-1679,
Satires, Essays. Metaphysics
Geo. Wither, 1588-1667, W. Dugdale, 1605-1686,
Satires. Thomas Fuller, 1608-1661, Antiquities, History.
James Shirley, 1594-1666, History, Biography. W. Chillingworth, 1602Drama. Clarendon, 1608-1673, His- 1644, Theology.
Sir J. Suckling, 1609-1641, tory of Rebellion. Isaac Barrow, 1630-1677,
Poems. Thomas May, d. 1650, IIis- Divinity, Mathematics.
John Denham, 1615-1668, tory of Parliament. J. Pearson, 1612-1686,
Tragedies, Cooper's Hill. Izaak Walton, 1593-1683, Divinity.
Samuel Butler, 1612-1688, Biography. Brian Walton, 1600-1661,
Hudibras. B. Whitlocke, 1605-1676, Polyglot Bible.
John Milton, 1608-1674, History. Jeremy Taylor, d. 1667,' Paradise Lost.' iMrs. Hutchinson, Biogra- Divinity.
Edm. Waller, 1605-1687, phy. Alger. Sydney, 1617 —1683,
Poems. W. Prynne, 1660-1667,'Discourse on GovernA. Cowley, 1618-1667, History, Politics. ment.'
Poems. Thos. Browne, 1605-1682,
A. Maxwell 1620-1678,' On Vulgar Errors.'
Poems. Edmund Castell, d. 1685,
Lexicon Heptaglotton.
R. Cudworth, 1617-1688,
Metaphysics.'
624 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
1600 1600 1600 J. Evelyn, 1620-1706,'Sylva.'
H. More, 1614-1687, The.
ology.
Rochester, 1648-1680, Wm. Temple, 1629-1710, T. Sydenham, 1624-1689,
Satires. History. Medicine.
Roscommon, 1633-1684, W. Sherlock, d. 1689, DiPoems. vinity.
N. Lee, 1656-1691, Drama. J. Tillotson, 1630-1694,
John Bunyan, 1628-1688, Sermons.' Pilgrim's Progress.' Archbishop Leighton,
John Dryden, 1631-1701, 1613-1684, Divinity.
Tragedy, Satire,' Virgil.' R. Baxter, 1615-1691,
Thos. Otway, 1651-1685,'Saint's Everlasting
Tragedy. R. Brady, d. 1700, History Rest.'
of England. R. Boyle, 1627-1691,
Theology, Chemistry.
1700 John Pomfret, 1667-1703, 1700 Thomas Rymer, d. 1713, 1700'The Choice.' Faedera.
John Ray, 1628-b1705, Bot.
any, Natural History.
John Locke, 1632 —1704,
Metaphysics.
R. South, 1633-1716, Di.
vinity.
John Philips, 1676-l708,' Splendid Shilling.'
Thos. Parnell, 1679-1718, S. Ockley, 1678-1720,' The Hermit.' Oriental History. Isaac Newton, 1642-1719,
Geo. Farquhar, 1678-1707, Thos. Hearne, 1678-1735, Principia.'
Comedies. History and Antiquities. J. Flamsteed, 1642-1719,
John Strype, 1643-1737, Astronomy.
Eccl. History, Biog. R. Hooke, 1635-1702, PhilGilbert Burnet, 1643-1715, osophy.'History of his Times.' B. de Mandeville, 16'/oMatthew Prior, 1664-1721, L. Echard, 1671-1730, 1733,' Fab. of the Bees.'
Poems. History of England. Edm. Halley, 1656-1742,
R. Steele, d. 1729, Drama, Thos. Carte, 1686-1754, Astronomy.
Essays. History of England. Hans Sloane, 1660 —1753,
Daniel Defoe, 1660-1731, John Potter, 1674-1747, Natural History.' Robinson Crusoe.' Antiquities.
Jos. Addison, 1672-1719, Sir W. Petty, 1623-1682,'Spectator,'' Cato.' Statistics.
Nich. R owe, 1673-1718,
Tragedy.
J. Vanbrugh, d. 1726, Comedy. A. Clark, 1696-1742, DiW. Congreve 1672-1728, vinity, Philosophy.
Comedy. D. Waterland, 1683-1740,
John Gay, 1688-1732, Divinity.'Beggar's Opera,' Fab. Nathanael Ilooke, d. 1763, R. Bentley, 1661-1740,
M. W. Montague, 1690- History of Rome. Divinity, Philology.
1762, Letters. C. Middleton, 1683-1750, A. Baxter, 1687-1750, MetRobert Blair, 1699-1746, Life of Cicero, &c. aphysics.'The Grave.' Lord Bolingbroke, 1672S. Richardson, 1689-1761, 1751, Politics, Literatura
Clarissa,'' Pamela,' &c. G. Berkeley, 1684-1753,
Metaphysics, Ethics
P. Doddrhge, 1701-1751.
Divinity.
Jas. Bradley, 1692-1762,
Astronomy.
F. Hutcheson, 1694-1747,
Moral Philosophy.
D. Garrick, 1716-1779, T. Sherlock, 1678-1761,
Drama. Divinity.
S. Foote, 1720-1771, C. Maclaurin, 1696-1746,
Drama. Mathematics.
LITERPARY CHRONOLOGY-BRITISI-. 625
IMAGINATION. PACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
1700 R. Rodsley, 1703-1764, 1700 John Swinton, 1703 —1767, 1700 Earl of Chesterfield, 1694Drama. History, Antiquity. 1773, Letters.
Jona. Swift, 1667-1745, Eph. Chambers, d. 1740,
Satires, Tales, &C. Cyclopsedia.
1. Watts, 1674-1748, B. HIoadley, 1676-1761,
Hymns. Polemics.
Edw. Young, 1681-1765, Bishop Butler, 1692-1752,'Night Thoughts.' Divinity
Alex. Pope, 1688-1744,
Poetry.
W. Somerville, 1692-1743,' The Chase.'
Allan Ramsay, 1696 -1758,' The Gentle Shepherd.'
Rich'd Savage, 1698-1743,
Poems.
Jas. Thomson, 1700-1748, J. V esley, /703-1791, Di-'Seasons.' Lord Lyttleton, 1709-1778, vinIity.
John Dyer, 1700-1758, History, Poems, Divin- D. Hartley, 1704-1757,
Poems. ity.' Observations on Man.'
1. Fielding, 1707-1754, James Granger, d. 1776, Soame Jenyns, 1704-1787,'Tom Jones,' &c. Biog. Hist. of England. Theology.
James Hammond, 1710- W. Warburton, 1709-1779,
1742, Elegies. Theology, Criticism.
Lawr. Sterne, 1713-1768, J. Jortin, 1698-1770, Di-' Tristram Shandy.' vinity, Criticism.
W. Shenstone, 1714-1763, Sam. Johnson, 1709-1784, Lord Kaimes, 1696 —1782,
Pastorals, &c. Lives of Poets, Diet., &c. Elements of Criticism.
W. Collins, 1720-1756, Jonas Hanway, 1712-1786, R. Lowth. 1710-1787, DiOdes. Travels in the East. vinity, Philology.
H. Brooke, 1706-1783, John Blair, d. 1782, Chro- W. Blackstone, 1723 —1780,' Fool of Quality.' nology. Laws of England.
M. Akenside, 1721-1770, David Hume, 1711-1776, "Junius."'Pleasures of Imagina- History of England,
tion.' Essays, &c.
Thos. Gray, 1716-1771,
Odes, Elegies. W. Robertson, 1721-1793, Adam Smith, 1723-1790,
T. Smollet, 1720-1771, Hist. of Charles V., &c.'VWealth of Nations.'
Novels. Thomas Warton, 1728- J. harris, 1709-1780, PhiR. Glover, 1712-1789,' Le- 1790, History of England, lology.
onid.-s.' Poetry, Poems. John Hunter, 1728-1793,
O. Goldsmitlh, 1731-1774, Medicine.'Traveller,''Vicar of F. Balguy, 1716-1795, DiWalkefield.' vinity.
W. Mason, 1725 —1797, Poems, Biography. H. Walpole, d. 1797,'HisT. Chatterton, 1752-1770, toric Doubts,''Royal
Poems. and Noble Authors.'
Ar. Murphy, 1727-1805, J. Moore, 1730-1802, T. Reid, 1710-1796, MetaDrama.'Views of Society and physics.
Wm. Cowper, 1731-1800, Manners.' Sir J. Reynolds, 1723-1792,
Poems. James Bruce, 1730-1794, Art.
R.Cumberland, 1732-1811, Travels. S. Ilorsley, d. 1806, TheoDrama. W. Gilpin, 1724-1804, Bio- logy.
Eras. Darwin, 1732-1802, graphy, Divinity. Jos. Priestley, 1733-1804,'Botanic Garden.' E. Gibbon, 1737-1794, Metaphysics, Chemistry.
James Beattie, 1735-1803, Decline and Fall of Ro- Hugh Blair, 1719-1800,
Poems. man Empire. Sermons.
R. Ferguson, 1750-1774, J. Whitaker, 1735-1808, J. Horne Tooke, 1736-1812,
Poems. Hist. of Manchester, &c. Philology.
Geo. Colman, 1733-1794, Edmd. Burke, 1730-1797, Win. Jones, 1747-1794,
Comedies. Oratory. Orientalist.
J. Wolcot (Peter Pindar), J. Boswell, 1740-1795, Bio- R. Price, 1723-1791, Meta1738-1819, Com. Po- graphy. physics, Divinity.
enls. J. Milner, 1744-1797, Wm. Paley, 17413-1805,
Jas. Macpherson, 1738- Church History. Theology.
1796,' Ossian's Poems.' Joseph Strutt, 1748-1802, Ricd. Porson, 1759 —18081
Robert Burns, 1759-1796, Chronology, Antiquities. Philology.
Poems. Ths. Beddoes, 1760-1808,
J. Home, d. 1808, Drama. Medicine.
27
626 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
1700 1700 N. Maskelvne d. 1811,
Ricd. B. Sheridan, 1751- Astronomy.
18.6, Drama. G. L. Staunton, d. 1801,
Chinese Code.
Ann Radcliffie, 1764-1823, Charles Burney, d. 1841, W. Herschell, 1738-1822,
Novels.'History of Music. Astronomy.
1300 Rob. Bloomfield, d. 1823, 1800 J. Macdiarmid, 1779-1808, 1800 Arthur Young, 1741-1820,' Farmer's Boy.' Biography. Agriculture.
Mrs. Barbauld, Poems, A. Rees, 1743-1825, CycloTales. paedia.
Joseph Banks, 1743-1820O
Natural History.
E. D. Clarke, d. 1822, Dr. Parr, d. 1825, Philo.
Travels. logy.
C. J. Fox, d. 1796, History. D. Ricardo, d. 1823, Politi.
Lord Byron, 1788-1824, cal Econo.my.
Poems. C. Hutton, d, 1823, Mathe.
John Keats, Poems. matics.
P. B. Shelley, d. 1822, John Playfair, d. 1819.
Poems. W. Mitford, History of PI Elmsley, Philology.
R. C. Maturin, d. 1824, Greece. T. Wollaston, Chemistry
Drama. Thomas Young, Hierc%-'
Miss Austin, Novels. phics, &c.
Wm. Godwin, 1755-1836, T. Scott, d. 1821, I)lvinity.
Novels, Metaphysics. D. Stewart, d. 1821, MetaWalter Scott, 1771-1832, physics.
Novels, Poems. Vicessimus Knox, 1752R. Heber, Travels, &c. 1821, Essays.
Major Rennel, Geography. Malthus, Polit. Economy.
Wm. Rosco, 1751-1831, Wm. Hazlit, Critic and
Life of Leo X., &c. Essayist.
Robt. Pollok, 1798-1827, Walter Scott, -1832, Francis Jeffrey, 1773-1849,'Course of Time.' History, Biography. Essays, Criticism.
Geo. Crabbe, d. 1832,'The Archbish. Magee, d. 1331,
Borough,' &c. Divinity.
Fanny Burney, -1840, Sir Humph. Davy, d. 1829,
Novels. Chemistry.
Wm. Beckford, 1760-1844, Jer. Bentllam, d. 1832
Novels.'Principles of LegislaThos. Haines Baily, 1797- tion.'
1839. Lyrics. Sir Jas. Mackintosh, 1766- Adam Clarke, 1763-1832,
Thos. Hamilton, 1789- 1832. Hist. of England. Divinity, Criticism.
1842, Novels, Travels. Geo. Chalmers, 1742-1825, Arch. Alison, 1757-1839,
Felicia Hemans, 1794- Political Annals. Essays on Taste.
1835, Poems. Marsden, 1755-1836, Ori- Francis Baily, 1774-1844,
Barbara Hofland, Novels. ental Hist. and Travels. Astronomy, &c.
Jas. Hogg, -1835, Po- Jas. Mill, -1836, Hist. Bp. Burgess, 1756-1837,
ems and Tales. British India. Theology.
Theo. E. Hook, 1788-1841, Robt. Morrison, -1834, Herbert Marsh, 1758-1839,
Novels. Travels, Philology. Theology.
Thos. Hood, Poems, No- Jas. Grahame, History of Thos. Mitchell, 1783-1845,
vels, &c. United States. Classic. Critic.
Hannah More, 1744-1833, John Gillies, 1747-1836, Robert Mudie, 1777-1842,
Poems, Tales. History of Greece. Scient. Miscellanies.
Jane Porter, -1849, Basil Hall, 1788-1844, Sir E. Brydges, 1762-1837,
Novels. Travels and Voyages. Miscellanies.
S. T. Coleridge, -1834, Win. Cobbett, -1J83r
Poems. Politics, &c.
Wm. Wordsworth, - J. Dalton, -1844, Che1850, Poems. Wm. Hone, -1842, mist.
Robt. Southey, — 1843, Every Day Book. J. F. Daniell, -1845,
Poems. Chemist.
Marg. Blessington, - Sydney Smith, — ).845,
1849, Novels. Theology, Essays.
Chas. Lamb, 1775-1834, Chas. Bonnycastle,
Poems, Essays. R. & J. Lander, 1834, 1840, Mathematics.
Thos. H. Lister, 1801-1842, Travels in Africa. Thos. Chalmers, Theology,
Novels. and Political Economy.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY — GERMAN. 627
IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
1800 S. T. Coleridge, 1773-1834, 1800 1800 John Leslie, -1832,
Ethics. Mathematician.
L. E. Landon Maclean, Southey, 1774-1843, Bio- J. C. Loudon, 1783-1843,
1804-1838, Novels and graphy. Botany, Agricul., Archit.
Poems. Wnm. Beckford, 1769-1844, John Bell, 1763-1825,
Winm. Maginn, 1793-1842, Travels. Anatomy & Physiology.
Poems, Arch. Alison, History of Olinthus Gregory, 1774Marryatt, -1847, Nov- Europe. 1841, Mathematics and
els. Thos. Arnold, 1795-1842, Religion.
John Galt, 1779-1839, History of Rome. Robert Hall, 1764-1831,
Novels. Thos. D. Fosbrooke, 1770- Sermons.
Wmin. H. Ireland, Shaks. 1842, Archaeology. Sir Chas. Bell, 1781 —1824,
Forgeries. Thos. McCrie, 1772-1835, Anatomy and PhysioLady Morgan, -184-, Life of Knox. 1( gy.
Novels. Sir John Malcolm, History
Jas. Morier, 1780-, Persia and India.
Novels. I. D'Israeli, 1766-1848, CuThos. Campbell, 1777- riosities of Literature.
1844, Poems. Basil Hall, 1788 —1844 VoyThos. Banim, 1800-1842, ages and Travels.
Novels.
Henry F. Cary, 1772-1844,
Trans. Dante, &c.
GERMAN.
IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
800 800 Eginhard, d. 839, Life of' 800
Charlernagne, Annals.
Walafrid Strabo, d. 840, Rabanus Maurus, 776-856,
Poems, Theology. Theology.
Nithard, d. 853, Ilistory of,
Wars of France.
Gottschallk, d. 869,'On
Predestination.'
Otfried, Harmony of Gospels in rhyme.
900 900 Regino, d. 915, Chronicles. 900
HIroswitha, Let. Comedies. Batherius, d. 974, TheoloNotger, Trans. of Psalms. gy, Grammar.
Witikind, Hist. of Saxons.
1000 1000 Dithmar, d. 1018, Chron. 1000
Witpo, I Praise of Henry' of Saxon Emperors.
IIL.,' Biography.
Hermannus Contractus,
Willeram, Francic Poems. Universal History.
Mar. Scotus, 1028-1086,
Chronicles.
Adam of Bremen, Ecclesiastical History.
Lambert, General History.
Sigebert, d. 1113, Chron.
Kosmas, 1045-1126, History of Bohemia.
1100 1100 Berthold Constantiensis, 1100 Mangold, Theology.
Universal History.
Otto, d. 1158, Chronicle.
Henry of Veldeck, Minne- Helmold, d. 1170, Chron.
singer. of Slavi.
628 THE WOR1LD'S PROGRESS.
IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC,
1200 Gunther, Poems. 1200 1200
Arnold of Lubeck, Chronicle of Slavi.
Frederic II., 1196-1254, Epko of Repgow,'Saxon'De Arte Venandi.' Mirror,' (Law).
John Semeca, Law.
Alb. Magnus, 1193-1280,
Natural Philosophy.
Freydank, Poems.
1300 Riidger of Manesse, Collec- 1300 1300
tion of Ballads.
Henry Frauenlob, Songs.
Boner, Fables. John Tauler, Sermons.
Henrich von Rebdorf,
Chronicle.
Heinrich von Hervorden,
Chronicle.
Jacob von KIbnigshofen,
Chronicle.
John Schildberger, History John Huss, 138-1415,
of Timour. Theology.
1400 1400 Gobelin Persona, General 1400
Felix Hlimmerlein, Satires. History.
Windeclr, Life of Sigis- John von GmUnden, Astromund. h nomy.
John Stadweg, Chronicle.
Hans von Rosenplut, Peter von Andlo, de lm- Geo. von. Peurbach, 1423Poems. perio Romano. 1461, Theory of Planets
Regiomontanus, 1436-1476
Astron., Mathemat.
Nic. von Cuss, Mathemat.
Thomas h Kempis, 1380Heinrich von Alkmaar. 1471, Theology.'Reinke de Voss.' Mar. Behhaim. Geography. Gabriel Brie, d. 1495, TheBreydenbach, Topogy. ology.
Conrad Botho Chronicle. John Geyler, 1445-1510,
Conrad Celtes, 1459-1508. Theology.
Latin Poems, History of John Trithemius, 1462 —
Nuremburg. 1516, Nat. Philosophy.
Thos. Murner, 1475-1536, Reuchlin, 1454 —1522, Phil-' Rogues' Guild.' ology.
1500 1500 Maximilian, d. 1508, Auto- 1500 J. Wimpfelingen, 1452 —
biography. 1528, Theol., Poems.
Grunbeck, Lives of Emperors.
Melc. Pfinzing, 1481-1535, Albert Kranz, d. 1517, His- Holoander, d. 1531, Law.'Theuerdank.' tory of Saxons, &c. Corn. Agrippa, 1486 —1535,
B. Pirkheimer, 1480-1530, Physics, Theology.
History, Poetry. M. Luther, 1483-1546,
John Aventin, 1466-1534, Theology.
Anals of Bavaria.. Zwingle, 1484-1531, Theology.
Glareanus (H. L.) 1488- Con. Peutinger, 1465 —1547, IMelancthon, 1497-1560,
1563, Classics. History and Geography. Theology.
John Carion, 1499-1538, Paracelsus, 1493-1541,
Comp. of History. Chemistry.
Joac. Camerarius, 15001574, Philology.
John Sleidan, 1506-1556, Conrad Gesner, 1516 —1565,
Universal History. Natural History.
Hans Sachs, 1494-1574, G. Tschudi, d. 1572, Hel- Basil Faber, 1520-1576,
Poems. vetic Chronicle. Thes. Erud. Schol.
John Fischart, 1511-1581, Gerard Mercator, 1512- Mar. Chemnitz, 1522-1586,
Satires, 1594, Geography. I Theology.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY-GERMAN. 629
IMAGINATION. FACT, SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
1500 G. Fabricius, 1516-1571, 1500 Simon Schardl, 1535-1573, 1500 Wm.Xylander, 1532-1576,
Lat. Pms. Topography. Collec. German Hist. Philology.
Wesenbeck, 1531-1586,
I.aw.
Fred. Sylberg, 1531-1596,
Philology.
Theocl. Beza, 1519-1609,
Theology,.Philology.
Rollenhagen, I542-1609, John Pistorius, 1544-1607, S
Froschmaiiusler. Collec. German Hist.
Fr. Taubman, 1565-1613, Marq. Freher, 1565-1614, C. Ritterhuis, 1560-1613,
Latin Poems. Hist. Germy. & France. Law.
1600 1600 1600 C. Schwenkfeld, d. 1616,
Natural History.
P. Cluvier, 1580-1623, J. Buxtorf, 1555-1621,
Geography. Philology.
M. Goldast, 1576-1635, John Kepler, 1571-1631,
History. Astronomy.
B. von Helmont, 15771644, Chemistry.
C. Scioppius, 1576-1649,
Ars Critica.
Martin Opitz, 1597-1639, John Bayer, Uranometria.
Poems. G. Barth, 1587-1658, PhilJames Balde, 1603-1668, G. Calixtus, 1586-1656, ology.
Poems. Ecclesiastical History. Sol. Glass, 1593-1656,
A. Gryphius, 1616-1664, Olearius, 1604-1685, Philol. Sacra.
Tragedies. Travels. Otto Guerikle, 1602-1686,
Air-Pump, &c.
Paul Fleming, 1609-1640, Her. Conring, 1606-1681,
Poems. Antiquities.
S. von Puffendorf, 1631- Ez. Spanheim, 1629-1702,
1694, History, Law. Numismatology.
Lohenstein, 1638-1683, D. G. Morhoff, 1639-1691, John Schilter, d. 1705, An-'Poems. Biography, Iistory. tiquities.
1700 C. Gryphius, 1649 —1706, 1700 H. iMeibomius, 1638-1700,1700 Ludolph, 1649-1711, PhilPoems, Hist., Philology. History. ology.
C. Cellarius, 1638-1707, Leibnitz, 1646-1716, MaGeography, Antiq. thematics, Metaphysics.
Von Canitz, -1654-1699, C. Frankenstein, 1661- C. Thomasius, 1655-1728,
Poems. 1717, History, Biog. Law.
J. Arnold, 1665-1714, Ec- F. Budceus, 1667-1729,
clesiastical History. Divinity.
J. G. von Eccard, 1670- G. E. Stahl, 1660-1734,
1730, General History. Chemistry.
J. A. Fabricius, 1668-1736, F. Hoffman, 1660-1742,
Bibliography. Medicine.
J. Bernouilli, 1667-1747,
Mathematics.
Gunther, 1695-1724, Poems. H. Freyer, Gen. History. B. Hederick, 1675 —1748,
B. G. Struve, 1671-1738, Philology.
History of Germany.
J. L. Mosheim, 1695-1755,
Liscov, Satires. Ecclesiastical History. J. M. Gessner, 1691-1761,
Philology.
J. C. Gottsched, 1700-1766, A. G. Baumgarten, 1714Poems, Trag., Criticism. 1751, Ethics, Metaph.
Hagedorn, 1708-1754, J. J. Gessner, 1707-1787,
Fables. Numismatology.
Haller, 1708-1777,'The G. F. Meyer, 1711-1777,
Alps.' Philosophy.
J. E. Schlegel, d. 1759, F. W. von GeIicken, 1714Drama. 1783, Nat. History.
E. C. Kleist, 1715-1759, J. Winkelmann, 1718-1768
Idylls. Antiquity.
Gellert, 1715-1769, Fables. A. F. Bisching, 1724-1793 Leon. Euler, 1707-1783,
Rabener, 1714-1770, Satir. Geography. Mathematics.
630 THE WTORLD'S PROGRESS.
IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
1700 Gleim, d. 1803, Songs. 1700 Frank, d. 1784, Chronol. 1700 G. J. Zollikofer, 1730 —
Walch, d. 1784, Ecclesias- 1780, Setrmons.
tical History. J. A. E. Gtitze, 1731-1786
Klopstock, 1724-1.803, Entomology.
I'Tie. Messiah.' Im. Kant, 1724-1804,
Zachariae, 1727-1777, Metaphysics.
Comic Poems.
C. F. Weisse, Drama.
J. G. Zimmerman, 17281795,'On Solitude.'
Gotz, 1721-1781, Pastorals.
Ramler, 1725-1798. Odes.
Dusch, 1727-1788, Poems.
G. E. Lessing, 1729-1781,
Drama, Fables.
S. Gessner, 1730-1788,' Death of Abel.'
Wieland, 1733-1813, Ro- C. Gatterer, d. 1799, Hist.
mances, Poems.
Pfeffel, 1736-1809, Fables. Seoler, d. 1791, Thhology.
G. A. Biirger, 1748-1794, J. W. von Archenholz,
Poems. 1745-1812,' Seven Years'
I. H. Voss, 1751-1S26, WVar.' PUtter, Law of Nations.
Novels.
F. Schiller, 1750 —105,
Di'ama. Scurokh, d. 1808, Eccle- Adelung, dc. 1807, PhilKotzebue, 1761-1819, siastical History. ology.
Drama. Forster, d. 1798, Geogra- Lavater 1741-1801, Phy.
Goethe, 1749-1832, Drama, phy. siognomy.
Tales, Poems. A. 1. von Sc.hlzer, d. 1809, Werner, Geology.
Hlistory.
1800 F. Schlegel, 1773-1829, 1800 J. von Muller, d. 1809, Uni- 1800 Herder, 1741-1803, PhiloNovels, Poetry, IFist..&c. versal History. sophy of History.
Ernst Schultze, 1787-1817, J. G. Eichhorn, d. 1827, Fichte, d. 1819, MetaphyElegies. History. sics.
E. T. W. Hoffmnan, d. 1822, F. H Jacobi, d. 1819, MeTales. taphysics.
A. G. II. Lafontaine, 1760- Blumenbach, Physiology.
1831, Tales. Schelling, Metaphysics.
Kbrner, Poems.
Thaer, -1828, Agri.
culture.
Rosenmuller, — 1855,
Theology, Criticism.
Von Hammer, Orien. Hist. Gail, -1829, Philology.
B. G. Niebuhr, hIistory. Griesbach, -181.%f PIhilology.
Grotefend, -1836, PhiL. von Arnim, -1831, lology.
Poems, Novels. II. J. Klaproth, 1784-1835,
Philology.
F. Passow, -1833, Philology.
Scholl, -1833, History.
C. O. Muller, -1840, Hegel, -1831, MetaHistory, Archweology. physics.
F. Accum, -1838, Chcmistry.
Mohs, -1839, MiaeraSchopenhauei, -1838, logy.
Novels.
F. Rotteck, -1849, His- G. A. Fatt, -1841, Phitory. lology
H. Hase, -1812, His- E. Bekker, Philology.
tory, Antiquities. Buttmann, -1841, Philology.
C. T. Follen, — 1840,
Theology, Essays.
LITERARY CHR ONOLOGY' —FRENC H. 631
IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
1800 1800 Augt. Neander, 1850, 1800 Olbers, -1840, AstroEcclesiastical History. h orny.
Tieck, Poems, Novels. J. L. C. Heeren,'-1842,
History. Hahnemann, -1843,
H. Berghaus, Geography. IIomceopathy.
A. von Humboldt, Travels, A. W. Schlegel, -1845,
History. Criticism, Essays.
Humboldt, Science.
Liebig, Chemistry.
FRENCH.
IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
500 Venan. JFortunatus, Latin 500 500
Poetry.
Gregory of Tours, 554-595,
History.
600 600 Marculfe,' Charta Re- 600
gales,' &c.
700 700 Fredegaire, Chronicle. 700
800 Theodulph, d. 821, Hymns, 800 800
Theology.
Agobard, d. 840 Theology
Servatus Lupus, d. 862,
Epistles.
Paschasius Radbert,'Tran
Hinemar, d. 882, Epistles. substantiation.'
Abbon,'Siege of Paris.' Ado, d. 875, Chronicle.
900 900 Flodoard, 896-966, Chron. 900
Dudon, History of Norman
Conquest in France.
Adalberon, d. 1030, Poetry.
1000 1000 Aimoin, d. 1008, History of 1000 Gerbert, d. 1003, Geometry,
France. Mathematics, &c.
Abon, d. 1004, Arithmetic,
and Astronomy.
Fulbert, d. 1029, Epistles. Berengarius, d. 1088, Theology.
1100 1100 Guibert, 1058-1124, Histo- 1000 Anselm, 1033-1109, Schory of First Crusade. lastic.
Pierre Theutbode, HIistory
of Crusades.
Marbodaeus, d. 1123, Bio- Pierre Abelard, 1079-1142,
Wm. of Poictiers, 1071- graphy. Theology.
1126, First Troubadour.
Hildebert, 1067-1133, Poetry.
Bechada, Norman Poetry, Suger, 1082-1152, Life of'Bernard of Clairvaux,' Gestes de Godefroi.' Louis le Gros. 1091-1153. Mystic.
632 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
IMAGINATION. 5 FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIPIO,
1100 1100 Hugh de St.Victoire, 1097- 1100
1140, Geography, HIistory, and Theology. Peter Lombardus, d. 1164,
Geoffroi Galmar, Anglo- Theology.
Norm. Chron. in verse.
Rob. Wace,' Roman de
Rou.' Alain de l'Isle, d. 1202,
Theology, Ethics.
Fouque, a Troubadour.
Alexander of Bernai, Poetry, Fables.
1200 1200 Pierre de Poictiers, Sacred 1200
Hlistory.
John 2Egidius, Poem on Geoffrey de Villehardouin,
Medicine. Conq. of Constantinople.
William le Breton,'Deeds
of Philip,' in verse.
P. Gautier,'Alexandrieda.' Phil. Mouskes, d. 1283, His- Vincentius of BIt emuvais,
tory of France in verse. Encyclopwedia.
William de Lorris,'Roman W. Rubruquis, Traveller. Rob. of Sorbonne, d. 1271,
de la Rose.' Theology.
Jean de Meun, Contin. of Jean de Joinville, 1260 —' Roman de la Rose.' 1318, Hist. of Louis IX.
Esteve de Bezier, Last
Troubadour.
1300 Peter Langtoft, Anglo-Nor- 1300 1300 Bernard Gordon, Medicine.
man Chronicles. John of Paris, d. 1306, Theology.
W. Durand, d. 1333, Law.
W. Occam, d. 1347, Law.
Philippe of Vitri, Translation of Ovid.
John Froissart, 1337-1402,
Chronicles.
1400 1400 1400 Peter d'Ailly, 1350-1425,
Astronomy.
John Gerson, 1363-1429,
Scholastic.
Raymund de Sebunda, d.
1432, Theology.
Henry of Balma, d 1439,
Alain Chartier, d. 1458, Mystic.
Poetry.
Corbeil, Satire.
D'Auvergne, d. 1458, Po- James Lefevre, 1436-_-537,
ems. Theology.
Wm. Budaus, 1467-1540,
Clement Marot, 1463-1525, Philip de Comines, 1445- Jurist.
Poems. 1509, Hist. of his Times.
1500 1500 1500 J. C. Scaliger, 1484-1558,
Philology.
Du Bois, 1478-1555, Anat.
F. Rabelals, 1483-1553, Guill. du Bellay, d. 1543,
Satires. History of his Times. Rob. Stephens, 1503-1559,
J. du Bellay, 1492-1560, Philology.
Poems. P.Ramus,]515-1572, Logic
Seb. Castellio, 1515-1563,
Steph. Jodelle, 1532-1573, Philology.
Odes, Tragedies, &c. Jas. Cujacius, 1520-1590,
Jaques Amyot, 1514-1593, Law.
Translations. Lambinus, 1516-1572,
Commentaries.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY-FRENCH. 633
IAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIE!LTIFIC.
i00 5I. A. Muret, 1526-1585, 1500 1500 Hen. Stephens, 1528-1590,
Poems, Criticisms. Philology.
Mich. de Montaigne, 1533- J. J. Scaliger, 1540-1609, F. Vieta, 1540-1603, Al1592, Essays. History, Criticism, &c. gebra.
Pierre Charon, 1543-1603,
Theology.
Isaac Casaubon, 15591604, Philology.
Fran. Malherbe,1556-1628, J. A. ce Thou, 1553-1617,
Odes. History of France.
1100 MI. Reignier, 1573-1613, 1600 P. Matthieu, 1544-1621, 1600
Satires. IHistory of France.
An. Du. Chesne, 1584-1640, C. Salmasius, 1596-1652,
Collections of histories. HIistory and Criticism.
Dennis Petau, 1583-1652,
Ch. rUology.
P. Gassendi, 1592-1655,
J. Chapelain, 1595-1674, Bochart, 1599-1667,' Geo- Philosophy.
La Pucelle.' graphia Sacra.' Des Cartes, 1596 1650,
Henry Spondanus, 1568- Metaphysics, Malhem.
1643, History.
P. Corneille, 1606-1684, S. Gulicheron, 1607-1664,
Drama. Hist. of House of Savoy.
Henri Valesius, 1603-1696,
Ecclesiastical History.
St. Evremond, 1613-1703,
Literature. B. Pascal, 1623-1662,
Divinity.
D'Ilerbelot, 1626 —1695,
Rochefoucault, 1603-1680, Adr. Valesius, 1607-1692, Orientalist.
Reflections.'Deeds of the Franks.' Cassini, 1625-1712, Astron.
Moli re, 1620-1673, Drama.
La Fontaine, 1621-1696,
Fables, Tales.
Segrais, 1624-1701 Idyls.
T. Corneille, 1625-1709,
Drama.
M. de Sevigne, 1626-1694,
Letters.
J. Racine, 1639-1699, L. Moreri, 1643-1680, Huet, 1630-1721, Philos'phy
Drama. Historical Dictionary. Bourdaloue, 1632-1704,
Tillbmont, 1637 —1698, Ec- Sermons.
clrsiastical History. La Bruyere, 1636-1696,'Characters.Malbranche, 1633-1715,
Boileau, 1636-1711, Satires. _'Search after Truth.'
1700 Regnard, 1647-1709, 1700 1700 P. Bayle, 1647-1706,
(,omedies. Dictionary.
Galland, 1646-1715, Tran. Hardouin, 1646-1729,
of Arabian, Nights. Criticism.
And. Dacier, 1651-1722,
Philology.
Arine Dacier, 1651-1720,
Philology.
Fenelon, 1651-1715,' Telemachus,' &c.
Deshoulieres, 1638-1694,
Elegies.
J. Marsollier, 1647-1724, Tournefort, 1656-1708,
History, various. Botany.
Fleuiry, 1653-1723, Eccle- Fontenelle, 1657-1756,
siastical History.' Plurality of Worlds.'
G. Daniel, 1649-1728, His- Montfaucon, 1655-1741,
tory of France. Antiquities.
Vatincourt, 1653-1730, Massillon, 1663-1742,
Biography. Sermons.
217*
634 THE WORL)'S PROGRESS.
IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
1700 1700 Vertot,1655-1735. History. 1700
Paul Rapin, 1661-1725,
History of England.
Bossuet, 1662-1704, HisJ. B. Rousseau, 1671-1741, tory, Sermons.
Odes. C. Rollin, 1661-1741,
Crebillon, 1674-1762, Ancient History. Folard, 1669-1752, StraTragedies. tegy.
Ren. Le Sage, 1677-1747, Saurin, 1677-1730, Ser-'Gil Blas.' mons.
P. N. Destouches, 16801754, Comedies.
J. B. Gr6court, 1683-1743,
Odes, Tales, &c.
Marivaux, 16E8-1763, &.Montesquieu, 1698-1755,
Novels. C. I. P. Henault, 1685-1770,'Esprit des Loix.'
Voltaire, 1695-1778, Tra- Chronicles, History. R6aumur, 1683-1757,
gedy, Poetry, Hist., &c. Natural History.
Houbigant, 1686-1783,
Criticism, Philology.
C. Villaret, 1715-1766, Girard, d. 1748,'Synony.
History of France. mes.'
L. P. Anquetil, 1723-1808,
History.
J. J. ousseau, 1712-1778, Mart. Bouquet, d. 1754, Buffon, 1707-1788, Natural' Emile,''Heloise,' &c. Recueil d'Histoireks. History.
Diderot, 1713-1784,'En- A. Goguet d. 1758,'Origin De Brosses, 1709-1777,
cyclopedie,' Novels. of Laws, Arts, &c.' Philology, EHistory.
Bernis, 1715-1794, Poems. Larcher, 1726-1812, Trans.
Favart, d. 1762, Comic of Herodotus.
Operas. Crevier, d. 1765, Ancient
Louis Racine, d. 1763, History.
Poems. Guyot, d. 1771, Ecclesias- Helvetius, 1715-1771,
J. J. Barthelemy, 1716-1795, tical History.' De l'Esprit.'' Anacharsis.' D'Aubenton, 1716-1799,
Marmontel, 1719-1799, Natural IIistory.
Tales. N. Vattel, d. 1770,'Law
Gresset, d. 1777, Elegies. of Nations.'
Dorat, d. 1780, Novels. J. De Guignes, 1721-1800, D'Alembert, d. 1783,' EnHistory of the Huns. cyclopedie.'
D'Anville, 1702-1782, La Grange, Mathematics.
Geography.
G. Raynal, 1711-1796, His. Bailly, 1736 —1793,' Hist.,
of East and West Indies. Astronomy.
C. F. X. Millot, 1726 —1785, Lavoisier, 1743-1794,
History. Chemistry.
Montucla, 1725-1799,
Mathematics:
Turgot, Polit. Economy.
Florian, 1755-1794, Tales. Mirabeau, Politics.
Beaumarchais, d. 1799, Fourcroi, d. 1809, Chem.
Comedies. J. Lalande, d. 1807, Astron.
1800 B. St. Pierre,'Paul and 1800 1800 Volney, 1755-1820, Travels,
Virginia.' Philology, &c.
Madme. de Genlis, Novels. Hauy, d. 182, Crystallo
graphy.
Mdme. Cottin, 1772-1807, La Place, d. 1827, MatNhTales. matics.
Delille, d. 1813,'L'Homme Guyton Morveau Chem.
des Champs.' Cuvier, d. 1832, kat. Hist.
Madame de Stall, 1768- Denon, d. 1825, Travels in Dumont, Legislation.
1817,' Corinne,' &c. Egypt. P. L. Courier, Politics.
H. de Balzac, 1799-1850, J. P. F. Ancillon, 1767- J. F. Audoin, 1797-1841,
Novels. 1837, History. Zoology.
J. J. Boissaid, 1743-1831, Louis E. Bignon, -1841, J. E. D. Esquirol, 1772Fables. History. D 1840 on Insanity.
J. J. Jacotot, 1770-1840, Chas. iourier, 1772-1837,
Education. Socialism.
LITERAlRY CHRONOLOGY-SPANISHI AND PORTUGUESE. 635
IMAGINATION. FACT- SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
1800 1800 Mad. Junot, 1784-1839, 1800 T. S. Jouffroy, 1796 —1842,
Biography. Metaphysics.
A. L. G. Laborde, -1842, A. L. de Jussieu, 1748-1836,
Travels. Botany.
Las Cases, -1842, Biog- S. F. Lacroix, 1765-1843,
raphy. Mathematics.
J. Michaud, -1839, His- Lamlarck, -1829, Natural
tory. History.
Bourrienne, -1834' Life Legendre, 1753 —1833, Ma.
of Napoleon.' thematics.
A. Coille, -1838, Voyage Louis, -1837, Surgery.
k Tembuctou, &c. Broussais, -1838, MediChampollion le Jeune, cine, Physiol.
1832, Antiq. Egypt. Chaptal, -1832, ChemJ. P. A. Reimusat, -1832, istry.
History.
SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE.
P. is plrefixedfor Portuguese.
liMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
500 500 500 Anian, Law.
Fulgentius Ferrandus,
Canon Law.
Martin, d. 580, Ethics.
*00 600 John of Biclair, d. 620 600
Chronicle.
Isidore, d. 636, Chron. de
Goth. Ildefonso, d. 667, Polemics.
~300 800 Eulogius, d. 859, Martyr- 800
ology.
Alvarez, Biog. of Eulogius.
P. 1100 Egaz Monez, Songs. 1100 1100
P. Gonzalo Hermiguez,
Songs. ___
1200 1200 Rodrigo Ximenez, d. 1245, 1200
History of Spain. R. de Penafort, 1175-1275,
Decretals.
Gonzalo Berceo, Rhymes. Alphonso X., d. 1284,
Astronomy, Alchemy.
Raimund Lullo, 12361315, Theology, Chem.
istry, &c.
3O00 Juan Manuel, d. 1362, Ro- 1300 1300
mances.
1400 Villena, d. 1434, Trans. 1400 Diez de Games, Biography. 1400
Virgil and Dante.
E. de Villena, 1434, Moral
Drama.
Juan de Mena, 1412-1456 J. de Torquemada, d. 1468,
Poems. Sermons, Criticism.
L. de Mendoza, 1393-1458,
Poems.
636 THE WORLD7S PROGRESS.
ISMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
1400 Perez de Guzman, Lyrics. 1400 R. de Zamora, 1407-1470, 1400
History of Spain.
Fern. del Pulgas, Biog. of
Juan de la Enzina, Pastoral Ferdinand and Isabella. Fras. Ximenez, 1437-1517,
Drama. Polyglot Bible.
1500 Lope de Rueda, Comedies. 1500 1500 Perez de Oliva, d. 1533,
Torres Naharro, Comedy. Ethics.
Juan Boscan, d. 1544, Son- J. Luis Vives, 1492-1540,
nets. Philosophy, Theology.
P. Ber. Ribeyro, Eclogues.
Garcilaso de la Vega,
1503-1536, Poems.
P. San de Miranda, 1495-1558, P. Damian Goez, History, Ant. de Guevara, d. 1544,
Lyrics. Travels. Ethics, Epistles.
Juan de la Cueva, Art of P. A. Govea, 1505-1565, Law.
Poetry.
P. Gil Vicente, d. 1557,
Comedy. Ant. Agostino, 1516-1586,
J. de Montemayor, 1520 —P. Joao de Barros, d. 1570, Theology, Law.
1561, Romance.' Hist. Portugu. in India.'
Ant. Ferreira, 1528-1569, A. Zarate,'Discov. of S. des Brosses, 1523-1600,
Elegies. Peru.' Grammar.
A. de Morales, 1513-1590, P. D. de Andrada, 1528-1535,
History of Spain. rheology.
Luis Molina, 1535-1600,
Metaphysics.
Diego de Mendoza, d. 1575, J. Acosta, 1547-1600, Hist.
Poems, History. of the West Indies.
P. Camoens, 1524-1579,'The Gonsalvo Illescas, d. 1590,
Lusiad.' Lives of the Popes.
Luis de Leon, 1527-1591, Luis Martcol, Description
Lyric Poems. of Africa.
Fern. de Herrera, d. 1578, Jeron. Zurita, 1513-1580,
Classical Poems. History of Arragon.
P. Rodriguez Lobo, Ro- Estevan Garibay, History
mances, Pastorals, &c. of Spain.'
P. P. de A. Caminha, d. 1595,
Epigrams, Pastorals.
C. de Castillejo, d. 1596,
Romantic Poems.
A. de Ercilla, 1533-1600, Juan Mariana, 1537-1624,' Araucana.' Hist., Chronology, &c.
Geron. Bermudez, d. 15S9, Blanca, History of Spain. J. Guevara, 1541-1622,
Tragedy. Publicist.
L. de Argensola, 15651613, Tragedy, History.
P. Jeron. Cortereal, Poems. J. G. de Mendoza, Hist. of J. Valverda, Anatomy.
Cervantes, 1549-1616, China.' Don Quixote.'
1600 1600 Her. y Tordesillas, 15651625, History of Spain.
P. A. de Meneses, d. 1617,
History of Augustilles.
Bart. de Argensola, 1566- P. F. Andrada, Chronicle of
1631, Tragedy, History. John III.
F. Quevedo, 1570-1645, P. B. de Brito, 1570-1617,
Tales, Satires. History of Portugal.
L. Congora, 1585-1638,
Poems.
Lope de Vega, 1562-1635,
Drama. P. A. de Andrada, d. 1633,
J. P. de Montalvan. d. 1639, Travels in Thibet and
Tragedy. Cathay.
M. de Madrigal, Romances. Pru. de Sandoval, History
P. Man. de Faria e Sousa, d. Jayme Bleda, History of I
1649, Pastoral Poems. Moors in Spain.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY-SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE. 637
IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
1600 L. V. de Guevara, d. 1646, 1600 1600'El Diablo Coxuelo.'
Vic. Espinel, 1545-1634,
Elegies. C. Acuna, 1597-1641, 1 Descrip. of River Amazon.
P. E. de Almeyda, d. 1646,
History of Ethiopia.
Calderon, 1601-1667, P. J. F. de Andrada, 1597Drama. 1657, Life of John de
L. Ulloa, d. 1660, Poems. Castro, Comic Poetry.
P A. B. Bacellar, d. 1663,
Sonnets.
P. Mlatheo Ribeiro, Romance.
Nic. Antonio, 1617-1672,
Bibliotheca Hispanica.
P. Alb. Coelho, d. 1658,
M. de Villegas, 1595-1669,'Wars of Brazil.'
Anacreontics.
P. F. de Vasconcellos, Poems.
P. R. doe Macedo, d. 1682,
Poems.
P. Viol. do Ceo, 1601-1693, Ant. de Solis, 1611-1686,
Poems. Hist. of Conq. Mexico.
P. F. da Castanheira, Novel.
P. A. Nunhes da Sylva, Sonnets.
1700 Fran. Candarno, d. 1709, 1700 J. Ferreras, 1652-1735, 1700
Drama. History of Spain.
Ant. de Zamora, Comedy.
P. Xav. de Meneses, 16731743,' Henriqueide,' Feyjoo, 1765, Ethics, CritiEpic Poem. cism.
Ignacio de Luzan, d. 1754, A. Itlloa, 1716-1795, MathArt of Poetry. P. Barbosa Maehado, Diction- ematician.
ary of Learned Men.
Velasquez, d. 1772, Hist.
of Castilian Poetry.
P. Figoeireda, Eccl. History.
Tomas de Yriarte, d. 1771,
Fables, &c.
P. A. de Barros Pereira,
Poems.
P Manoel da Coste, Poems. Munoz, Hist. of America.
V. Garcia de la Huerta,
Tragedy.
P. P. Correo Garcao Lyric Ruiz, Botany.
Poems. Pavon, Flora Peruvians.
Leon de Arroyal, Odes. Cavanilles, Annals. P. J. H. Magalhaens, d. 1790,
P. Paulino de Vasconcellos, Natural Philosophy.
Sonnets. Felix de Azara, Zoology.
Mel. Valdez, Odes, Lyrics. J. N. de Azara, 1731-1804,
P. Cathar. de Sousa, Tragedy. Antiquity.
1800 G. Jovellanos, 1744-1811, 1S00 J. A. Llorente, History of 1800' Agrarian Law.' Inquisition.
P. Tol. da Almeida, Satires.
Fern. de Moratin, d. 1828, Jose Antonio Conde, HisComedies. tory of Moors in Spain.
M. Garcia de Villanueva,' On the Theatre.'
J. H1. Davila, General Literature.
638 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
DUTCH.
IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIO
1200 J. Van Maerlant, 1235- 1200 1200
1300, Poems,'Rymbybel.'
Melis Stoke, Poetic Chron.
1300 Jan van Helen, Poems, 1300 1300
Chronicles.
Heij. van Holland, Poems.
Claes Willems, Poems.
Gerard Groot, Theology.
1400 J. Wilt, Trans. Bcethius. 1400 Edmund Dinter, d. 1448, 1400
Chronicles of Brabant.
p. vander Heyden, 1393-
1473, Chronicles.
J. W. Gransfc~t, Theo.
Dirk van Munster,' Christian Mirror.'
Rud. Agricola, 1442-1485,
Lambert, Goetman,'Mir- Philosophy, Hist., &c.
ror of Youth.'
[500 1500 1500 Erasmus, 1467-1536, The.
ology, Literature, &c
A. Byns, Religious Poems.
Jan. Fruitiers, Poems and
Prose.
J. Secundus, 1511-1536,
Amatory Poems.
Dirk Koornhert, 1522- S. Pighius, 1520-1604,
1590, Transl. Homer.'Roman Almals.'
P. van Marnix, Odes,
Songs. J. Heurnius, 1543-1601
R. Visscher, Epigrams. Medicine.
Ilendrick Spieghel, Didac- C. Kiliaan, d. 1607, Dic.
tic Poems. tionary.
Justus Lipsius, 1547-1606,
Philology.
Sim. Stevinus, d. 1633,
Hydrostatlcs, Mathem.
A. Schott, 1552-1629, His- H. Erpenius, 1584-1624,
tory of Spain. Orientalist.
1600 G. Brederode, 1585-1637, 1600 1600
Comedies, &c.
D. R. Kamphuizen, 15861626, Religious Poems.
Daniel Heins, 1580-1655,
Poems, Philology.
J. Cats, 1577-1660, Drama.
P. C. Hooft, 1587-1647, H. de Groot (Grotius),
Tragedy, Odes, Hist. of 1583-1645i Hist., Theolthe Netherlands. ogy, Poetry, &c.
G. van Baerle (Barlaeus),
1584-1648, Latin Poems. J. Golius, 1596-1667, Ori.
Just van Vondel, 1587- entalist.
1679, Tragedies. Voetius, 1589-1676.
M. Visscher, Trans. Tasso. Polemics.
Jan van Heemskerk;'Ar- Beverwylr, 1594-1647,
cadia.' Medicine.
J. Westerbaen, 1599-1669, Diemerbroek, 1609-1674,
Epigrams. Anatomy.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY-DUTCH. 639
IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
Cons. Huygens, 1596-1687, J. F. Gronovius, 1611Epigrams. 1671, Philology.
Jer. Declker, 1610-16066, J. Leusden, 1614-1699,
Elegies. Philology.
D. Joncktijs, d. 1654, Amatory Poems.
Nicholas Heins, 1620-1681, F. Burman, 1628-1679,
Poems, Philology. Theology.
Jan de Brune,' Whetstone Chr. Huygens, 1629-1695,
of Wit.' Mathem., Mechanics.
Jan Vos, Drama, Epi- B. Spinoza, 1632-1677,
grams. Theology.
Reinier Anslo, 1622-1669,' Plague of Naples.' Ger. Brandt, 1626-1685,
Hist. of Reformation.
Cau, Collect. of Batavian
History.
J. G. Graevius, 1632-1703, Swammerdam, 1637-1680,
Roman Antiquities. Natural History.
J. Perizonius, 1631-1715, A. Leuwenhoek, 1632History. 1723, Natural History.'700 P. Francius, 1645-1704, 1700 1700 F. Ruysch, 1639-1731,
Latin Poetry. Anat.
J. A. Vander Goes, 16471648, Drama.
J. Gronovius, 1645-1716,
Greek Antiquities. G. Bidloo, 1649-1713,
P. Bondam, Collection of Anat.
Batavian History. C. Vitringa, 1659-1722,
Simon Styl, History of Theology.
Netherlands. Binkerschoek, 1663-1743,
Law.
H. Boerhaave, 1668-1738,
Medicine.
Hemsterhuis, 1685-1766,
Philology.
A. Schultens, 1686-1750,
Philology.
Glavesande, 1688-1742,
Mathematics.
Chr. Hecht, 1696-1748,
Philology.
B. S. Albinus, 1683-1771,
Anatomy.
Oudendorp, 1696-1761,
Philology.
W. Otto Reiz, 1702-1768,
Law.
D. Gaubius, 1705-1780,
Medicine.
Hoogeveen, 1712-1794,
Philology.
Eliz. Wolff Novels. G. van SWieten, 1700Loosjes, Novels. 1772, Medicine.
P. Camper, 1722-1789,
Bellamy, 1757-1786, Odes. Anatomy.
Klein, Lyrics. D. Ruhnken, 1723-1798,
Van Alphen, Odes. Philology.
Valckenaer, Philology.
1800 1800 1800 D. Wyttenbach, d. 1808,
Hincopen Odes. Philology.
Helmers, d. 1831, Poems
Nieuwland, Poems.
Borger, Odes. Te Water, History.
Engelberts, Ancient IIist.
Bilderdyk, Dramas, Odes, of Netherlands. Van Kampen, Statistics.
&c.
640 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
Tollens, Poems. Kluits, Hist. of Holland. De Jonge, Antiquities.
Da Costa, Sacred Poems. Westendorp, History. Hamaker, Orientalist.
Wilderbosch, Odes. Ypey, Ecclesiastical Hist. Vander Palm, Literature.
SWEDEN, DENMARK AND ICELAND.
S.,,Sweden; D., Desnmzark; Ic., Iceiand.
IIMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
Ic. 900 Hjalti, Poems. 900 900
Ic. 1100 Thorwald, Ballads. 1100 1100
Ic. Aro, d. 1148, Annals of Iceland.
D. Saxo, Grammaticus, d. D. Sunesen, Jurist.
1204, Iist. of Northern D. Axel, Theology.
Nations.
Ic. Smemund, b. 1156, The D. Sueno, list. of Denmark.
Elder Edda.
Ic. 1200 Snor. Sturleson, d. 1241, 1200 1200
Younger Edda, Hist.
of Norway.
Ic. Suerron, Tales.
D. Sturla Thoridsen, History
of Norway.
1400 1400 1400
S. Eric Olai, History of Goths S. Bryn. Karlsson, d. 1430,
and Swedes. Instruction to Kings and
Princes.
1500 1500 1500
S. John Magnus, d. 1544,
Hist. of Sweden.
S. Olaus Magnus, Customs of
Northern Nations.
S. P. Lagerloof, 1538-1599,
History North of Europe.
Ic. Arn. Jonas, 1545-1640, D. Tycho Brahe, 1546-1601,
Hist. of Iceland, &c. Astronomy.
D. Ursus, a. 1600, Astronomy.
1600 1600 1600
S. P. Kirsten, 1577-1640,
Orientalist.
D. G. Bartholine, 1585-1629,
D. Anders Arrebo, b. 1587, Anatomy, Theology.
Religious Poetry. D. Ole Worm, 1588-1654, An.
D. J. J. Pontanus, 1591-1640, tiquities, Philo.
DT)nislh Hist_
D. Anders Bording, b. 1619,
Poems.
S. Stiernhjelm, Epic Poem,' Hercules.'
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY-SWEDEN) DENMARK) AND ICELAND. 641
IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
Ic. Torfeeus, 1639-1720, Hist. S. O1. Rudbeck, 1630-1702,
of Norway. Botany, Anat., &c.
D. 1700 Thos. Kingo, b. 1634. 1700
IHymns. 1700
S. John Perngskiold, 1654- D. J. C. Sturmius, 1635-1703,
1720, History. Phys., Mathem. -
D. Arne Magnussen, b. 1663,
Collec. Hist.
D. Albert Thura, Hist.
L. HIolberg, 1684-1754, D. Hans Gram, d. 1748, HisDrama, Satire; Hist. tory.
D. Ch. Falster, 1690-
1752, Satirist.
D. Langebek, d. 1775, Collec. S. Linnaeus, 1707-1778,
Danish History. Botany.
S. Olof Dalin, 1708-1763, D. Pontoppidan, d. 1764, OriPoetry, History. gines Havnienses.
S. Lagerbring, d. 1781, tIistory..D. Sneedorf, 1724-1764,
Poems. S. Wallerius, d. 1785,
Mineralogy.
D. P. T. Suhm, 1720-1798, D. Oeder, Flora Danica.
D. Tullin, Lyrics. Hist. of Denmark. S. Ihre, Dictionary.
DI. John Ewald, 17431781, Tragedy, Lyrics.
D. J. H. Wessel, Humorous Poems.
S. Bellerman, 1741-1796,
Lyrics.
T). H. Tode, 1736-1806,
Dramas, Fables.
D. Samsoe, 1759-1796,
Tragedies.
D. P. A.: Heiberg, b. 1758,
Drama.
i~. S. Elgstrim, d. 1810,
Poems.
Ic. 1800 Thorlacksen, d. 1819, 1800 1800
Transl. Milton D. Malte Brun, d. 1826, GeogD. C. L. Sander, Dramas. raphy.
D. Jens. Baggesen, d.
1826, Lyrics. S. Thorild Travels.
D. Oehlenschlager. S. Berzelius, Chemistry.
Poems. D. Rask, Orientalist.
D. B. S. Ingermann, S. Wodderstadt,' On Yellow
Lyrics. S. Afzelius, Iceland Records. Fever.'
S. Atterbone, Poems. S. Hallenberg, History. S. Liliegren. Northern AnS. Tegner, Romances, &c. S. Granberg, Statistics. tiquities.
S. F. Bremer Novels, 5. Blexell, Topography. S. Norberg, Orientalist.
J. F. Blumenbach,
1840, Naturalist.
642 THE WORLDIS PROGRESS.
POLISH.
IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
1200 1200 Vine. Kadlubek, d. 1226, 1200
History of Poland.
Boguphalus, d. 1253,
Chronicle of Poland.
Martin Polonus, d. 1278,
Chronicle of Popes and
Emperors. Vltellio, Optics.
1400 1400 Dluglossus, 1415-1480, 1400
History of Poland.
1500 1500 1500
N. Copernicus, 1472-1543,
Astronomy.
Cawalezewski, Chronicles. Lucas Gornicki, Ethics.
Bielski, Chronicles. Rey of Naglowic, 1515 —
1568, Ethics.
Kochanowski, 1530-1584
Stryjkowski, Chron. of Poland and Russia.
1600 1600 Ab. Bzovius, 1567-1637, 1600
Ecclesiastical Annals.
Sarbiewski, 1595-1640, John Maccov, d. 1644, TheLatin Poetry. ology.
Przipcov, 1590-1670, TheLubienetski, 1623-1675, ology.
History of Reformation.
1700 1700 Dogiel, Coell. Hist. Poland. 1700
Mizler, Do.
Naruszewicz, d. 1796, Poetry and History.
1g00 Krasicki, Poems, - Roman- 1800 1800
ces.
Boguslawski, Drama.
Bronikowski, Novels.
Bernatowicz, Novels.
Bulgarin, Novels.
Mickiewicz, Poems. Lach Szmyrna, Travels.
Odyniec, Drama. Potocki, Travels. Linde, Lexicon.
RUSSIAN.
[The Russian has been in use as the language of literature scarcely more than a century. Almost
ell books used in Russia were written in the ancient Sclavonic tongue, which does not greatly
differ from Russian, but more closely resembles the languages spoken in Servia, and in the
other provinces near the Save and Danube. The first printing-office in Russia was established
in 1553.]
IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
1000 1000 1000 Yaroslaf, Code of Laws.
Nestorof iew, 10of Russ-1115a.
Chronicles of Russia.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY —— USSIAN. 643
IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
1100 1100 Theodosius, d.1120, Annals. 1100
Sylvester, d. 1l 23, Chronicles of Russia.
The Expedition of Ighor, a
celebrated Poem, author
Unknown. Simeon of Susdal, d. 1206,
Chronicles of Russia...1200 1200 John of Novgorod, HIistory 1200
of Russia.
[The blank of nearly four centuries arises from the oppression of the Mongols, who held Russia
from 1.223 to 1477. They destroyed almost all ancient books, and repressed the rising spirit of
knowledge which a close connection with the Greeks was then introducing into Russia.].1500 1500 1500 Sudebuek, Code of Laws.
1600 1600 1600 Demetrius of Rostoff Theology, Spiritual Dramas.
Simeon of Polotsk, Poems,
Spiritual Dramas.
1700 1700 Khilkoff, History of Russia. 1700 Theophanes, Setmons.
V. Tatischeff, d. 1750,
Chronicles of Russia.
Cantemir, 1708-1744, Satirical Poems.
Lomonosoff, 1711-1765,
Poetry, History, Science.
Tredianoffski, Poems. Cherbatoff, History.
Popofski, Transl. Pope. Golikoff, History.
Sumarokoff, 1718 —1777,
Drama.
Kheraskoff, 1733-1807,' The Russiad.' Plato, 1737-1812, Sermons.
Kostroff, d. 1796, Transl.
the Iliad. P. S. Pallas, 1741-1811,
Petroff, 1736-1799, Transl. Natural History.
the Eneid.
Kniajuin, 1742-1794,
Drama.
J. Khemnitzer, 1744-1784,
Fables.
Klushin, Comedies.
Ephimieff, Comedies.
Ablesimoff, Operas.
G. R. Dellavin, 1743-1816, Muravieff, 1757-1816, HisLyric Poetry. tory, Didactics.
H. Bogdanovitch, 1743- Eugenius, History.
1803,' D ushenka,' Poems.
Vizin, 1745-1792, Comedies, Tales.
Nicoleff, Tragedies.
1800 Maikoff, Comic Poems. 1800 Karamsin, b. 1765, History 1800 Shishkoff, Criticism.
Dmitrieff, Lyrics. Fables. of Russia.
Ozeroff, d. 1816. Tragedies. Kachenofski, History.
P. Sumarokoff, Poems, G. Glinka, History.
Tales.
V. A. Jukofski, b. 1783,
Poems. Augustin, Sermons.
Milonoff, d. 1821, Satires. Kotzebue, Voyage of DisBatiushkoff, Transl. Tibul- covery.
lus. Gretch, History of Russian
Gneditch, Transl. Iliad, Literature.
Odes. Timkowski, Journey to
Kryloff, Fables. China.
644 THE WORLDSS PROGRESS.
ARABIAN, PERSIAN, AND TURKISH.
P. Persian. T. Turkish. Those unmarked are Arabian.
IMAGINATION. SACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIF,.
600 Mahomet Koran. 600 600
Lebid, 62 —757, Poems.
Zohair, Poems.
Aharun, Medicine.
Kais' El Ameri, or Amrulkais, Poems.
700 700 700 Jafar, Chemistry.
Abu Hanifah, 699-767, Theology.
Abun Massab, Poems.
Abunowas,762 —810, Poems.
Rehashi, Poems.
Au Obeid, d. 838, Fables. Muham. ben Omar, History.
800 800 800 Asmai, 740-830, Theology.
Kendi, Philosophy.
J. ben Serapion, Medicine.
Almamon, Astronomical
Tables.
Bahali, d. 835, Etymology.
Alfragan, Astronomy.
Nasir Khosru, Metaphys.
A.Temain, 801 —845, Poems. Albumazar, 805-885, Mathematics, Astronomy.
Wahab, Travels. Bochari, 810-870,' The
Abuzeid, Travels. Sahih,' Traditions.
I. Kotaibah, d. 889. History.
Abu Jafar, 838-922, Hist.
Bochteri, 821-882, Anthol. Honain ben Isaac, d. 874, Geber, Chemistry.
Translations from Greek.
Abu Mohammed Abdallah,
Literature.
900 Ibn Doraid, d. 931, Poems. 900 900 Albategni, Astronomy.
Rases, d; 922, Medicine.
Ben Musa, Mathematics
Almotanabbi, d. 95, Azophi, Astronomy.
Poems
Said ben Batrik, 876-937,
General History.
Eutychius, History.
Massudi, d. 957, History
and Geography. Alfarabi, d. 954, Aristotelian Philosophy.
Geuhari, d. 998, Aristotelian Philosophy.
Ibn Haukal, Geography.
P. 1000 Ferdusi, 932-1020, 1000 Almuyadad, History of 1000 Achmet, Treatise on
Shalh Nameh' Epic Saracens in Sicily. Dreams.
Poem. Ibn Mesua, Medicine.
Avicenna, 980-1038,
Philosophy, Medicine.
Abul Ola, 973-1057,
Poems.
Abulcasis, Medicine.
Jelaleddin, Correction of
Calendar.
Arzachel, Astronomy.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY —ARABIAN PERSIAN, AND TU~RKISH. 6j45
IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
1100 Tograi, d. 1119, Poems. 1100 1100 Gazali, 1058-1112, Aristotelian Philosophy.
Alhazin, Optics.
Tabrizi, d. 1136, Commen.
IIairi, 1054-1121, Moral taries.
Poems.
Algazel, Antiquities, &c. Alchabit, Optics, Astron.
P. Feleki, d. 1181, Poems. Ben Idris, b. 1099, Geog. A Zohar, d. 1168, Medic.
P. Khakani, d. 1186, Poems.
P. Anwari, d. 1200, Poems. Averroes, d. 1206, AristoJaafar ebn Tofail, cd. 1198, telian Philosophy.'Hai ben Yokdan,' a
Novel.
1. Elfaredih, d. 1234, Poems.
1200 1200 Bohadin, Life of Saladin. 1200 A. Baca, d. 1219, Arithm.
Abdollatif, Topography of
Egypt.
Abuldem, d. 1244, History.
E1 Harawi, Travels.
P. Saadi, 1193-1291,'Gulis- Caswin, d. 1274, Natural
tan,'' Bostan.' History.
Beithar, d. 1246, Botany,
Medicine.
Elfaragi, Poems. Abulfarage, 1226-1286,
Universal History.
Elmacin, d. 1302, History
of Saracens.
P. Nasireddin, 1201-1273,
Astronomy.
P. Fadlallah, History of Moguls.
1300 1300 Abulfeda, 1273-1333, 1300 E. Hajan, d. 1344, Gran.
Geography, History.
Novairi, d. 1331, Universal
History.
Mohammed Ibn Batuta,
Travels.
Ibn al Wardi, d. 1358,
Geography.
Abu Shameh, b. 1299, Hist.
P. Turan Shah, d. 1377, Hist.
P. Hafix, d 1395, Odes. Jafei, d. 1368, Biography. Firuzabadi, 1329-1414,'The Camoos.'
1400 P. 1400 Ali Yezdi Sherifeddin, 1400 Zeineddin Abulhassan,
Life of Tamerlane. Dictionary.
Makrizi, 1367-1438, Hist.
Ulug Beg, 1393-1444,
Arabshah, d. 1450, Life of Astronomy, Chronology.
Timur.
Babacushi, d. 1481,
Baccai, d. 1480, Biography. Politics.
P. Khondemir, or Mirkhond,
P. Jami, d. 14386, Poems. CGen. Hist. to A. D. 1474.
T. Baber, d. 1530, Autobiography.
1500 Alhassan, Description of 1500
Africa.
Babacushi, d. 1566, Morals.
A1 Jannali, di 1590, Universal History.
646 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
1600 1600 Ferishta, Hist. of India. P. 1600 Nured. Shirazi, Metaph.
Abulgazi, 1605 —1663, Hist. Moham. Ilossain,' Borhani
of Tartars. Kata,' Dictionary.
T. Haji Khalifleh, d. 1675,
History.
1700 P. 1700 Gholam Hussein, An- 1700 Gholam Ali, Grammar.
nals of IIindostan.
UNITED STATES OF NORTH AMERICA.
IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC,.
1600 1600 1600 Thomas IIooker, d. 1627,
Sermons, &c.
Wm. Hubbard, 170-1, Hist. John Cotton, d. 1652, Theol.
of Massachusetts. Cotton Mather, 1662-1728,
Sermtons,' Magnalia,'&c.
1700 John Adams, 1705-1740, 1700 Inc. Mather, 1723,'History 1700 Benj. Colnan, d. 1747,
Poems. of War with Indians.' Theology.
Benj. Church, 1739-1776, Thos. Prince, d. 1757 Hist. Jona. Edwards, d. 1757,
Poems. of New England. Theology.
Wm. Livingston, 1723- Samuel Davies, d. 1761,
1790, Poems. Sermons.
John Trumbull, 1750-1831, John Clayton, d. 1773,'McFingal,' &c. Botany.
Joel Barlow, 1755-1812, Cadwallader Colden, 1688-'The Columbiad.' 1776, History of the Five
Nations of Indians.
John Blair Linn, 1777- John Bartram, d. 1777,
1804, Poems. Botany, Travels.
Thos. Hutchinson, d. 1780, Jos. Bellamy, d. 1790,
Ilist. of Massachusetts. Theology.
Benjamin Franklin, 17061790,Natural Philosophy,
Politics, &c.
Jas. Otis, d. 1783, Politics
John Hancock, 1793,
Politics.
John Witherspoon, d. 1794,
Theology, Politics.
Patrick Henry, d. 1796,
David Rittenhouse, d. 1796, Politics.
Astronomy. Samuel Adams, 1803,
Jeremy Belknap, 1798, His- Politics.
tory of N. hIampshire. Samuel Hopkins, 1721Amer. Biog. &c. 1803, Theology.
Geo. R. Minot, 1802,' Hist. Fisher Ames, d. 1808,
of Massachusetts Bay.' Politics.
Isaac Backus, 1806, Church
History of N. England.
1800 Clas. B. Brown, d. 1810, 1800 Jas. Sullivan, d. 1809, Hist. 1800 Thos. Paine, 1737-1809.
Novels. of Maine. Politics,'Age of Reason
Robt. Treat Paine, 1773-'Rights of Man,' &c.
1811,'Invention of Let- David Ramsay, d. 1812, Jos. S. Buckminster, d.
ters,''The Ruling Pas-'Life of Washington,' 1812, Theology.
sion,' and other Poems.'American Revolution,' Alex. Hamilton, 1757-'Universal History.' 1804, Politics.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY-U. S. OF NORTH AMERICA. 647
IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC,
1800 Paul Allen, 1775-1826, 1800 Alexander Wilson, d. 1813, 1800'Noah,' (a poem,) LHist.'American Ornithology.'
of Am. Revol.] Hugh Wtilliamnson, d. 1318,
Hist. of N. Carolina.
Benj. S. Barton, d. 1815,
Botany.
Gouverneur Morris, 17521816, Politics.
Timothy Dwight, 17521817,'Theology Explained and Defended.'
Levi Frisbie, 1784-1822,
Moral Philosophy.
Wm. Pinckney, 1764-1822,
Wm. Bartram, d. 1823, Law, Politics.
Botany, Travels. Jno. Marshall, 1755-1835,
Jedediah Morse, d. 1826, Law.
Geog., Statistics, &c. W. E. Channing, 1780J. G. C. Brainard, cd. 1826, 1842, Sermons, Criticism.
Poems.
Nathl. H. Carter, 1788- Thomas Jefferson, 1743 —
1830,'Letters from Eu- 1826, Potitics, Philos.
rope.' John Adams. 1735-1826,
Wm. Wirt, 1772-1834, Edmund D. Griffin, 1804- Politics.
British Spy.' 1830, Travels in Europe, John MI. Mason, D.D.,
Lectures on Literature, 1770-1829, Divinity,
&c. Sermons, &c.
John D. Godman, d. 1830, John H. Hobart, D. D.,
Anatomy, Natural Hist., 1776-1830, Sermons, &c.
&c. Jos. Story, 1779-1845,
Robt. C. Sands, d. 1832, John Marshall, 1755-1835, Law.
Poems. Life of Washington, &c. Henry Wheaton, 1782J. Q. Adams, 1767-1847, Jno. Armstrong 1758-1843, 1848, Law.
Poems.'War of 1812. Edw. Livingston, 1764Washington Allston, 1779- Abiel Holmes, 1763-1837, 1836, Criminal Code, &c.
1843, Painter, Poet, and Annals of America. David Hosack, 1769-1835,
Novelist. Timothy Flint, 1780-1840, Medicine.
Timothy Flint, 1780-1840 -list. of Mississ. Valley. Jas. Madison, 1751-1836,
Novels. A. S. Mackenzie, -1849, Politics.
Jas. A. Hillhouse, 1789- Travels in Spain, &c.
1841, Poems.
Wm. Leggett, 1802-1840, Alex. H. Everett, 1790Poems, Miscellan., Polit. 1847, Essays.
R. II. Wilde, 1789-1840, R. Harlan, 1796-1813,
Poems, Researches on Natural History.
Tasto, &c. James Kent, 1763-1847,
Comment. on.Am. Law.
Htugh S. Legar6, 17971843, Miscellanies.
Jas. Marsh, 1794-1642, Metaphysics.
E. A. Poe, 1811-1849,Poems, Albert Gallatin, 1761-1849,
Tales. Ethnology, Philology.
J. C. Calhoun, 1782-1850,
Politics, Speeches.
HEATHEN DEITIES, AND OTHER FABULOUS PERSONS,
WITH THE
HEROES AND HEROINES OF ANTIQUITY.
A ZiuEofs, one of the four horses of ths sun..Escsclt'szsus, a Roman god of riches.
Abtaris, a Scythian, priest of Apollo. A_/scuzlal'pis, the god o' physic.
Abeotna, a goddess of voyages, &c..zEthaltides, a son of mercury.
Abreta'nsss, a surname of Jupiter.. EA'fthon, one of the four horses of the sun.
Albron, a very voluptuous Grecian.. ttneuts, a title of Vulcan.
Abyfla, a famous mountain in Africa. Etollos, a son of Endymion aud Diana.
Acanttha, a nymph beloved by Apollo. Agamemtnon, a brother of Menelaus, chosen
Acasftus, the name of a famous hunter. captain-general of the Greeks at the sieg.
Acetus, one of the priests of Bacchus. of Troy.
Achaz'msenes, the first king of Persia. Aganipipe, daughter of the river Permessus,
Achattes, a trusty friend of AEneas. which flows fiom mount Ilelicon.
Achleron, a son of Titan and Terra, changed into Agetnosr, the first king of Argos.
a river of hell fbr assisting the Titans in their Agenot'sia, the goddess of industry.
war against Jupiter. Ag-elas'tus and Agesitlaus, names of Pluto.
Achil'les, son of Peletus, king of Thrace, and Aglatia, one of the three Graces.
Thetis, a goddess of the sea, who, being dip- A[jax, one of the most distinguished princes and
ped by his mother in the river Styx, was in- heroes at the siege of Troy.
vulnerable in every part except his right Albhunea, a famous sybil of Tripoli.
heel, by which she held him; after signaliz- Alcildes, a title of Hercules.
ing himself at the siege of Troy, for his valor, Alcitnous, a ling of Corcyra.
as well as cruelty, he was at length killed by Alcilonezus, a giant slain by Hercules.
Paris with an arrow. Alcilope, a favorite mistress of Neptune.
Acidtalia and Arnoatta, names of Venus. Alc?7zetna, the wife of Amphitryon.
Acidatlus, a famous fountain of Baeotia. Alec'to, one of the three Furies.
Atcis, a Sicilian shepherd, killed by Polyphemus, Alecti'yon, or Gallhts, a favorite of Mars.
because he rivalled him in the affections of Altmus, and Alum'nus, titles of Jupiter.
Galetea. Alola, a festival of BaJcchus and Ceres..Alc!9,onz, a famous king of the Titans. Alcezsss, a giant who warred with Jupiter.
Actratus, the genius of drunkards at Athens. Anstalth'ta, the goat that suckled Jupiter.
A] -ttceon, a celebrated hunter, who, accidentally Amzbarvatle, a spring sacrifice to Ceres.
discovering Diana bathing, was by her turned Arzbrolsia, the food of the gods.
into a stag, and devoured by his own hounds. Auzuzon, a title of Jupiter.
Admettus, a king of Thessaly. Assphiarartis, son of Apollo and Hypermnestra,
Adolnis, the incestuous offspring of Cinyras and a very famous augur.
Myrrha, remarkably beautiful, beloved by Amphimet'don, one of the suitors of Penelope.
Venus and Proserpine. Alsphilon, a famous musician.
Adrasttea, the goddess Nemesis. Amlzhitri'te, the wife of Neptune..Itacus, one of the infernal judges. Amyntor, a king of Epirus..Elga, Jupiter's nurse, daughter of Olenus. Analtis, the goddess of prostitution.
/get'zs, a king of Attica, giving name to the Ancao'us, a king of Arcadia..Egean sea by drowning himself in it. Androsgels, the son of Minos..giltna, a particular favorite of Jupiter. Andclrolache, the wife of Hector.'tgis. a Gorgon, whom Pallas slew. Aundro7oneda, the daughter of Cepheus and Cas-,lgle. one of the three Hesperides. siope,who, contending for the prize of beauty./Elgoe, a wrestler famous for strength. with the Nereides, was by them bound to a.,gyplltus, son of Neptune and Lybia. rock and exposed to be devoured by a sea
/elilo, one of the three Harpies. monster; but Perseus slew the monster. and
XEnelas, son of Anchises and Venus. married her.,zOllotis, the god of the winds. Angeeroza, the goddess of silence.
HEATHEN DEITIES1 ETC. 6 4
AnatA, the sister of Pygmalion and Ditdo. Bellero'phosn, son of Glaucus, king of Ephyra,
sAntes'as, a giant son of Neptune and Terra; lhe who underwent numlberless hardships for
was squeezed to death by Hercllies. relhsing an intimacy with Schenobwea, thle
Ant'teros, one of the names of Cupid. wife of Pretua, king of' Argos.
Anteverlta, a goddess of wome n in labor. Bellona. the noddess of war.
An'tlZia, and Argitva, titles of.Juno. Berecyns"z/hiu IarLt/er, a title of Cybele.
Anlzubis, an Egyptian god with a dog's head. Be- reniuce, a Grecian lady, who was the only
Aojrides, a namne of tle Muses. person of her sex permitted to see the ClvymAonatutiria, and Aplhrodiltis, titles of Venus. pic games.
Atpis, son of Jupiter and Niobe, called also, Bertgion, a giant, slain by Jupiter.
Serapis, and Osiris: he first taught the Bitl2io, the wile of Duillius, who first instituted
Egyptians to sow corn and plant vines; a triumph fbr naval victory.
after his death they worshipped him in the Bi'cejps and EBiyions, names of Janus.
form of an ox, a symbol of husbandry. Bisult'ors- a name of Mars.
A,.ach'ne, a Lydian princess, turned by Minerva Bilthon, a remnarkably strong Grecian.
inlto a spider, flbr presuming to vie with her Bolitrso, a nymiph rendered imirlrtal for her
at spinning. modesty and resistance of Apollo.
Arethlu'sar, the daughter of Nereus. Bona Dela, a title of Cybele. and Fortuna.
Argentilnus, and AEsculannus, gods of wealth. Bolnus Daslzorn, a title of Priapus.
Ar?'go, the ship that conveyed Jason and his com- Botreas, son of 2Estrwus and Heribeia, generally
panions to Colchis, and reported to have been put for the north wind.
the first man-of war. Brelvis, a title of Fortuna.
Artgosznauts, the companions of Jason. Brilareus, a monstrous giant, son of Titan and
Ar'tgus, son of Aristor, said to have had a hun- Terra: the poets feign him to have had a
dred eyes; also an architect, who built the hundred arms and fifty heads.
ship Argo. Briiszo, and Bulbastis, names of Hecate..,f-ioad'ne, daughter of Minos, who, from love, Brise'is, daughter of Brises, priest of Jupiter,
gave Theseus a clue of thread to guide him given to Achilles upon the taking of Lyrout of the Cretan labyrinth: being after- nessus, a ciiy of Troas, by the Greeks.
wards deserted by him, she was married to Bron'tes, a maker of Jupiter's thunder.
Bacchus, and made his priestess. Bro'theus, a son of Vulcan, who threw himself
Arizaslpi, a warlike people of Scythia. into mount ALEtna, on account of his deAiri'on, a lyric poet of MeLhymna. formity.
Aristc'lus, son of Apollo and Cyrene. Br1unallia, feasts of Bacchus.
Aristosne'nes, a cruel Titan. Bubolzna, the goddess of oxen.
Aristophlanes, a comic poet, born at Lindus, a Bus1ilriS, a son of Neptune, and a most cruel
town of Rhodes. tyrant; he was slain by Hercules,
A?rte'zsis, the Delphic sybil; also Diana. Bybtlis, the daughter of Miletus.
Ascletpia, festivals of.Esculapius.
Ascotlra, feasts of Bacchus, celebrated in Attica. v
Aste'ria, daughter of Ceus.
Astrapoatues, and Ataby'rus, Jupiter. Cabartni, priests of Ceres.
Astr'ao, the goddess of' justice. Cabilri, priests of Cybele.
Astroltogus, a title of Hercules. Ca'bruszs, a god of the P'laselitm.
Alstyranx., the only son of Hector., Carczs, a son of Vulcan.
Astypaloa,,a daughter of Phoenix. Coadl'sus, son of Agenor and Telephessa, who,
Atte,-the goddess of revenge. searching in vain for his sister, built the city
Atlan'tes, a savage people of Ethiopia. of Thebes, and invented 16 letters of the
AtIlos, a king of Mauritania. Greek alphabet.,t1'-opos, one of the three Fates. Cadulceus, Mercury's golden rod or wand.
A'ver'nus, a lake on the borders of hell. Cwtca, and Conservaltrix, titles of Fortuna.
Averr2uncnC s. a god of' the Romans. Cctulus, a robber, son of Vulcan.
Augetas, a kling of Elis, whose stable of 3000 Ce'szeas, a title of Jupiter.
oxen was not cleansed for 30 years, yet Her- Callchas, a famous Greek soothsayer.
cules cleansed it in one day. Calis'to, the daughter of Lycaon.
Alvistnper, a title of Priapus. Callilope, the muse of heroic poetry.
Azs'rea, a name of Fortuna. Calyp'so, daughter of Oceanus and Thetis, who
AuZoira, the goddess of morning. reigned in the island of Ogygia, where she
Autolleon, a general of the Crotonians. entertained and became enamored of UlysAutltzutneus, the god of fruits. ses, on his return from Troy.
Cam'bles, a gluttonous king of Lydia.
g CcsanDby'ses, the son of Cyrus, and king of the
Medes and Persians.
Bactchus, the god of wine. Cazct'rzna, and Caona, goddess of infants.
iBaptta, the godldess of shame. GCasies, a title of the Furies.
Barbaotta, a title of Venus and Fortuna. Canospus, an Egypiian god.
Bas'sar-es, a title of Bacchus. Catdclua, a household goddess.
Eoat'tzs, a herdsnlan, turned by Mercury into a Carmeneia, a name of Themis.
loadstone. Cay-rna, a Roman goddess.
Bauocis, an old woman, who, with her husband Coryatlis, a title of Diana.
Philemon, entertained Jupiter and Mercury, Cas'pii, a people of Hyrcania, who were said to
travelling over Phrygia, when all others re- starve their parents to death when 70 years
fused. old, and to train up dogs for war.
28
650 THE WVORLD S PROGRESS.
Cassanrrdra, a dtaughter of Priam and Hecuba, D
endowed with the gift of prophecy by Apollo.
C!astal'ides, the Muses, fiom the fountain Cas- Dcedatlion, tile son of Lucifer.
talius, at the foot of Parnassus. Dceda'lus, an artificer of Athens, who formed the
Castto-, son of.1lupiter anid Leda, between whom Cretan labyrinth, and invented the auger,
and his brother Pollux immortality was al- axe, glue, plumb-line, saw, and mlasts and
ternately shared. sails lor ships.
Catltius, a tutelar god to grown persons. DaCt7n0s, the silcere fiiend of Pythias.
Celcreops, the first cing of Athens. Detoe.et, Botles, Dithyall/1tbus, antd Dionss'Celast'o, one of the three Harpies. ius, titles of Bacchtus.
Cen'taurs, children of Ixion, half men, half Dcat'sae, the daughter of Acrisius, king of Argos,
horses, inhabiting Thessaly. seduced by Jupiter in the formn of a golden
Cephat'ltls, the son of Mercury and Hersa. shower.
CeIaheous, a prince of Arcadia and Ethiopia Dcana'iles, or Bellides, the fifty daughters )f
Ce? azinius, a title of Jupiter. Danaus, cing of Argos, all of whom, except
C'e. tberus, a dog with three heads and necks, Hypermnestra, killed their husbalcls, the solls
who e-ouarded the gates of hell. of their uncle'Egyptus, on the marriage
C oersealia, testivals in honor of Ceres. night: they were therefore condemned to
0C'roes, the goddess of agriculture. draw water out of a deep well with sieves.
Ceotrus, or Sb'etrus, the god of opportunity. so that their labor was without end or sucChalllea, lestivals in honor of Vulcan. cess.
Chatrites, a name of the Graces. D)aphtne, a nymph beloved by Apollo.
Chalton, the flrrymaln of hell. Dardca'ns, the founder of Troy.
Chtiloeic, a strange monster of Lycia, which Dalres, a very ancient historian who wrote an
was killed by Bellerophon. account of the Trojan war.
Chitronn, the preceptor of Achilles. Deloa Syrlia, a title of Venus.
Chot'inis, a cruel son of Hercules. Dec'ilzta, a title of Laclhesis.
C]hssaoter'lts, a surname of Jupiter. Deioszic-a, the wife of Hercules.
Chlysis, a priestess of Juno and Argos. Deildactmia, a daughter of Lycomedes, king of
Csitce, a fthmous enchantress. Scyros, by whom Achilles had Pyrrhus,
Ci-rhoa, a cavern of Phocis, near Delphi, whence while he lay concealed in woman's apparel
the winds issued which caused a divine r]age;, in the court of Lycomedes, to avoid going to
and produced oracular responses. the Trojan war.
Cithwtrides, a title of the Muses. Deiapeta, a beautifiul attendant on Juno.
Clausia, a name of Venus. fDeip/t'obe, the Culsean sybil.
Clatt'sius, or CGlutsizts, a namne of Janus. Doeiphlobts, a son of Priam and liecuba.
Cleotmnedes, a famous wrestler. Detlia, Deliuzts, Diana and Apollo.
Cli'o, the Mluse presiding over history, and pa- De'las, the island where Apollo was born.
troness of heroic poets. Del'phi, a city of Phocis, flamous for a tetmple
Clostho, one of the three Fates. and an oracle of Apollo.
Clytennes'ira, daughter of Jupiter and Leda, Delfphicus, DidclynaJus, titles of Apollo.
killed by her son, Orestes, on account of her DeeLtades an Athenian orator.
adultery with ~Egisthus. Der'hices, a people near the Caspian Sea, who
Cocyllus, a river of hell, flowing from Styx. punished all crimes with death.
Colli'na, the goddess of hills. Deuca'lion, son of Prometheus, and king of TilesCozpilallia, games of the household gods. saly, who, with his wife Pyrrha, was pre.
C'orsous. the god of festivals and merriment. served frotom the general deluge, and re-peoConcorldia, the goddess of peace. pled the world.
Consservato'r, and Custtos, titles of Jupiter. Devertoa, the goddess of breeding women.
Con'sus, a title of Neptune. Diag'toras, a Rhodian, who died ibr joy, because
C0ortilna, the covering of Apollo's tripos. his three sons had on the same day gailied
Ceorybatles,.antd Cur.'le -riests o' Cvbele. prizes at the Olympic games.
Creton, a king of Thebes. Dialna, the goddess of hunting, &c.
Cs-itnis, a priest of Apollo..Di'lo, daughter of Belus, the lounder and queen
Crinis'szus, a Trojan prince, who could change of Carthage, whom Virgil fables to have
himself into any shape. burnt herself through despair, because E.neC?-cersus, a rich king of Lydia. as left her.
Crotznia, festivals in honor of Saturn. Dites, and Diestpiter, titles of Jupiter.
Ctes'ibus, a famous Athernian parasite. Din'lyze, Ditzdysoe'ee, titles of Cybele.
Cu'nia, the goddess of new-born infants. Diost'ecdes, a king of 2Etolia, who gained great
Cutpid, son of Mars and Venus, the god of love, reputation at Troy, and, accompanied by
smiles, &c. Ulysses, carried off the Palladium; also a
Cy'clops, Vulcan's workmen, with only one eye tyrant of Thrace.
in the middle of' their forehead. Ditone, one of Jupiter's mistresses.
Cybiele, the wife of Saturn. Dionystia, feasts in honor of Bacchus.
Cyt'nus, a kin,g of Liguria; also a son of Nep- Dioscuhi, a title of Castor and Pollux.
tune, who was invulnerable. Diilrce, a title of the Furies.
(,pilelnists, and Cartsililus, names of Mercury. Dis, a title of Pluto.
C'ynocephlah, a people of India, said to have Discor'dia, the gocddess of contention.
heads resemblinlg those of dogs. D.Douidutca, a title of' Juno.
Cyn'thia, and Cynstlhits, Diana, and Apollo. DsDotidu'lcus, and Dos7stizitts, nuptial gods.
Cyporissaoa, a title of Minerva. Dognuitza, a title of Proserpine.
Cyptria, Cythere a, titles of Venus. lDrylades, nymphs of the woods and forests.
HEATHEN DEITIES, ETC. 651
Febrdta, Flor ida, Fluco'nia, titles of Juno,
Fetr ta,o a goddess of purification.,'i.chifon, a companion of Cadmus. PFeblrtzis, a title of Pluto.
tk'c io, daushter of Aer andt Tellus, who pined lFePtcitas, the goddess of happiness.
away for love of Nalcissus. FePrlcu6ts, a household god.
Edo;i'das, priestesses of Bacchus. Fet e'tr is, and FTzulinauor, titles of Jupiter.
Ed',lca. a gc- 4dess o' new born infants. Fe'o'nzia, a goddess of woods.
Le'ietroia, a title.f Juno; also a goddess. Pissoio, a goddess of wearied persons.
l-kecCft ra the dau-hter of Agalmelanon and Cly- idcl'itus, the god of treaties.
temnestra. who insitiated Orestes to revenge Flaotinles, priests of' Jupiter, Marls, &c.
their lather's death on their mother and her Flo/ra, the goddess of flowers.
adulterer IEtgisthus. Fiuviatles, or PocaiLides, nymphs of rivers.
E'leas, and Eleiuthe't ise, titles of Bacchus. Fo rtnax, the godtless of corn and bakers.
tIets. i7,ti t febasts in honor of Ceres and Proser- F rt'fona, or oert tizne, the goddess of happiness,
pine. &c.. saidt to be blind.
Elo'ides, nymphs of Bacchus. FuPt1ties, or Eztuoelztides, the three daughters of
EJpnz)u'sc., a name of the Gorgons..Nox and Acheron, named Alecto, Megera,
lEndlly7itionl, a shepherd of Carla, who, for inso- and Tisiphone, with hair composed ofsnakes,
lently soliciting Juno, was condemned to a and armed with whips, chains, &c.
sleep of 30 years; Luna visited him by night
in a cave of mount,atimus.
Eniallius, a title of Mars. G
Eniyo, the same as Bellona.
Epelues, the arList of the Trojan horse. Galateta, daughter of Nereus and Doris, passionEpig'ones, the sons of the seven worthies who ately beloved by Polyphtemus.
besieged Thebes, a second time. Galtii, castrated priests of Cybele.'pil'tnea, sacrifices to Bacchus. Gatlzis, or Alectlrion, a f:vorite of Mars: and
tEpistrotphlia, and Eryrcizna, titles of Venus. changed by him into a cock.
E,'pizephtrii, a people of Loclis, wvho punished CGazeliz, a title of Juno.
those with death that dranlk moie wine than Gantl-es, a famous river of India.
physicians prescribed. Ganyiernede, the cup-bearer of Jupiter.
ral'to, the muse of love-poetry. Gelasitnus, lthe god of' mirth and smiles..er'ebus, an infernal deity, son of Chaos and Nox, Gelotzi, a people oft Scythia, who used to paint
a river of hell. themselves in order to appear more terrible
Erteane, a river whose waters inebriated to their enemies.
Eriotltotnizs, a kin, of' Athens, who, being lame Geniit. guardian angels.
and very deformed in his feet, invented Gerntis, a name of Priapus.
coaches to conceal his lameness. Ger yon, a king of Spain, who fed his oxen with
Erintnys, a conmmon name of the furies. human flesh, and was therefore killed by
-Eros, one of the names of Cupid. Hercules.
Eos'tratus, the person who, to perpetuate his Glaucotpis, a name of Minerva.
name, set fire to the celebrated temple of Glaucus, a fishemtnan made a sea god by eating
Diana at Ephesus. a certain herb: also the son of Hippolochus,
Plte'ocles, and Poly'tnices, sons of (Edipus, who who exchanged his arms of gold for the braviolently hated, and at last killed each other. zen ones of Diomede.
EJvadtne, dauhter of Mars and Thebhe, who Gnostsis, a name of Ariadne.
threw herself on the funeral pile of her hus- Gortldiuts, a husbandman, but afterwards king of
band Cataneus, fronom affection. Phrygia, remarkable for tying a knot of cords.luctrates, a person rebmarkable fb. shuffling, du- on wliich the empire of Asia depended, in so
picity, and dissimulation. very intricate a manner, that Alexander the
Eusnntides, a nan.oe' the Furies. Great, unable to unravel it, cut it to pieces.
Euplhrostyne, one of the three Graces. Gol-'oszs, the three daughters of Phorcys and
Eurotp)a, the daughter of Agenor, wlho, it is said, Ceta, Medusa, Euryale, and Stheno, who
was carried by Jupiter, in. the form ofa white coull change into stone those whorn they
bull, into Crete. looked on; Perseus slew Meduss, the prinEt'rytale, one of the three Gorgons. cipal of them.
Euotd'ice, the wife of Orpheus. Gso-gsoophftorus, a title of Pallas.
Etuyp'7sttee, an infernal deity. Gtaoces, Aglaia, Thalia, and Euphrosyne, the
E'htserlpe, the muse presiding over music. daughters of Jupiter and Eurynomb; attenuitlhyipnus, a very famous wrestler. dants on Venus and the Muses.
Graditvus, a title of Mars.
Gyfies. a Lydian, to whom Candaules, kinG of
Lydia, showed his queen naked, wlich so
incensed her that she slew Candaules, and
oh')iula, the goddess of lies. married Gyges; also a shepherd, who by
To'ahdit'snus, a god of infants. means of a ring could render himself invi-,o'atsza the goddess of report, &c. sible.
Ths'tcinuion, a title of Priapus.
Fates, the three daughters of Nox and Erebus.
Clothos, I,achesis, and Atropos, intrusted
with the lives of mortals, &c. Ih'atdes, a title of Pluto.
oazmtna, and Ftatua, names of Cybele. Hamaxotbii, a people of Scythla, who lived in
Fautnus, the son of Mercury and Nox, and fa. carts, and removed from place to place as
ther of the Faluns, rural gods. necessity required.
652 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
Htarnotznis, a famous artist of Troy. Hy'dra, a serpent,'which had seven heads, or as
Hrsspualycsa, a very beautiful maid of Argos. some say nine, others fifty, killed by lIercuHaltpies, three monsters, Aello, Ceiceno, and les in the lakle Lerna.
Ocypete, with the faces of virgins, bodies of Iy:ygetia, the goddess ot health.
vultures, and hands armned with monstrous Ryl/lus, the son of HTercules and Dejanire.
claws. llylt.en, the god of marriage.
Ila poct rates, the Egyptian god of silence. Ilypetrisos, a son of Celus and Terra.
He'be, the goddess ot youth. Nypsil'lyle, a queen of Lemnos, who was banHe'brus. a river in Thrace. ished for preserving her fatither when all tle
He'calius, a title given to Jupiter by Theseus. othex men of the island were murdered by
Hecrate, Diana's name in hell. their kindred.
Hec'lor, a son of Priam and Hecuba, and the
most valiant of all the Trojans.
Hec'uba, the wife of Priam. 1[
Hegetsius, a philosopher of Cyrene, who described the miseries of life with such a Iactchus, a name of Bacchus.
gloomy eloquence, that many of his auditors Ianlhte, the beautiful wibfe of Iphis.
killed themselves through despair. Lapeltus, a son of Ccelem andt Terra.
Heretena, the wife of' Menelaus, the most beauti- lar fbas, a cruel icing of Mauritanlia.
ful womas.. in the world, who, running away Icdr'ius, the son of Oebalus, who, Laving rewith Paris, occasioned the Trojan war. ceived from Bacchus a bottle of wine, went
teltenuss, a son of Priam and tHecuba. into Attica, to show men the use of it; but,
lellicon, a famous mountain of Bceotia, dedi- maling some shepherds drunrk, they thought
cated to Apollo and the Muses. he had given them poison, andt therefore
Hera'ia, sacrifices to Juno. threw him into a well.
7llertcules, the soil of Jupiter and Alemena, re- Icetesns, the son of Dzedalus, who, flying with his
markable for his numerous exploits and father out of Crete into Sicily, antl soaring
dangerous enterprises. too high, melted the wax of his wings, and
leleribetia, the wiile of Astleus. fell into the sea, thence called the Icarian
flerolztce, statutes of Merlcury. sea.
irelernes, a name of Mlercury. Itda, a mountain near Troy.
Liersmmtone, a daughter of Mars and Venus, mar- Idata 3:later, a name of Cybele.
1ied to Cadmus; also a dauighter of sMene- Iclrati Dclettyli, a priestof Cybele.
laus anld Helena, married to Pyrrhus. Idallia.c a name of Venus.
~Ietro, a beaultiful woman of Sestos, in Thrace, Idnto2tn, a famous soothsayer.
priestess of Venus; Leander, of Abydos, Idolthea, Jupiter's nurse.
loved her so tenderly that lhe swam over the llirone, the eldest daughter of Priam.
ITellespont every night to see her; but being lis'suzs, a river in Attica.
at lenith unfortunately drowned, she threw ltPts, tsle son of Tros and Callirrhoe, from whom
herself' into the sea, through despair. Troy was called Ilium.
Herod'ot/us, a very famous historian of Ialicar- Imperl/ator, a nairne of Jupiter.
nassus. Ivstachis and Itses, names of Io.
Herophli/a, the Erythrman sybil. I'no, daughter of Cadmus and Hermiones, and
Hersili'a, the wife of Romulus. wife of Athamnas.:Iestpertes, or Vesper, the evening star. Istercidotna, a godless of breedint women.
Hestpericles, the daughters of lIesperus; *Egle, Intertduica, and J.t.ga, names of' Juno.
Arethusa, and HesperethuLsa, who had a gar- Intluus, and Inc'ubhs, names of Pan.
den bearing golden apples, watched by a Ito, daughter of Inachus, transformed by Jupldragon, which Hercules slew, and bore away ter into a white heifer; but afterwards rethe fiuit, suming her former shape, was worshipp'd
He'sus, a name of Mars among the Gautls. as a goddess by the Egyptians, under the
Iiiptpias, a philosopher of Elis. name of Isis.
I-IFjppocanL1tpi, Neptune's horses. Iphric/ls, the twin brother of Hercules.
ifpipocene, a fountain at the botton' )f mount Iphzig'etzia, daughter of Agaamemn on and ClyHelicon, dedicated to Apollo. temnestra, who, standing as a victim readly
Hippol'ytus, the son of Theseus and Antiope or to be sacrificed to appease the rage of Diana,
Hyppolite, who refused intimacies with his was, by that goddess, transformed into a
steptmother Phlsedro. At the request of white hart, carried to Tauris, and made her
Diana, oEsculapius restored him to life, priestess.
after he had been thrown fiom his chariot, ILp/his, a prince of Cyprus, who hanged himnself
and dragged through the woods till he was for love; also a daughter of Lygodas.
torn in pieces. Ipl'it/us, son of Praxonicles, who instiliuteil
HIippotna, the goddess of horses and stables. Olympic games to Hercules.
iLlisto'ria, the goddess of history. Itris, the claughter of Thautnas; she was Juno's
lort/enstis, a name of Venus. favorite companion, and her messenger on
rittus, a title of the sun. affairs of discord, &c.
ftoslilitna, a goddess of corn. Ilys, thle son of Tereus and Progne, murdered
1ty'ades, the seven daughters of Atlas and and served up by his mother at a banquet
Ethra; Ambrosia, Eudora, Coronis, Pasi- before Tereus, in revenge for hil having viothoe, Pl'lexaris, Pytho, and Tyche. They lated her sister Philomela.
were changed by Jupiter into seven stars. Ixitron, the son of Phlegyas, who was fastened in
gyt'bla, a mountain in Sicily, universally famous hell to a wheel perpetually turning round,
for its tlhyme and bees. for boasting that he had lain with Juno.
HEATHEN DEITIES1 ETC. 653
dJ MNlausolus, a king of Caria, who had a most
magnificent tomb erected to him by his wife
Janritor, and Junoenints, titles of Janus. Artenmisia..J'anus, the first king of Italy, son of Apollo and ilIede'a, daughter of hEtes, king of Colchis, a
Creusa. famous sorceress, who assisted Jason to obJarfson, a Thessalian prince, son of.Eson, wh.o tain the golden fleece.
by Medea's hellp brought away the golden lseditrina, a goddess of grown pe-:wons.
fleece liom Cotchis. iiediztsa, thle chief of' the three Gorgons.
Ttolcaslua, the diaughter of Creon, who unwittingly J lIegce'nra, one of the three Furies.
ilmarried her own son, UEdipus. lMegalentsic, festivals in honor of Cybele.,Jul'so, the sister and wile of Jupiter. lllIegar ia, the wife of IHercules.
fn(.'7U, Jy n ienao, a lmnne of PLoselpine. iMelelazi'ra, a namle of Venus.
sitn-oless, guardian angels of women. leA'lice, nymphs of the fields.
Jn1fifter, a son of Saturn and Ops-the supreme l'le'lius, a namle of Hercules.
teity of the heathen. Tlelotna, the goddess of honey.
Jlpiterl- Seczndifus, a name of Neptune. l31elponi'enie, the muse of' tragedy.
Jn'piter 7Terllius, InJe'nrous, or Sty'gius, seve- ilIelnon, a king of Abydos.
ral appellations given to Pluto. llenoaal'ns, a famous Centaur.
Juvlen'tn, a goddess of youth. ll2eenelaelus, the husband of Helena.
ilentlha, a mistress of Pluto.
ll1entolor, the governor of Telemachus.
L 3tfile'rrcufFy. the messenger of the gods, inventor of
letters, and god of eloquence, merchandise,
La'tchesis, one of the three Fates. and robbers.
Lacinstia, and Lucillia, titles of Juno...lle7or1pe, one of the seven Pleiades.
Lacttul'ra, or Lactucitna, a goddless of corn. llil'das, a king of' Phrygia, who entertained BacLt-estrigtones, cannibals of Italy, who roasted chus, or, as some say, Silenus, had the power
and ate the companions of Ulysses. given him of turning whatever he touched
Lasiuss, a king of Thebes, killedt unwittingly by into goltd.
his own son, gndipus. Mitlo, a wrestler of remarklable strength.
Lationice, a name of the Gorgons. ilinsailIones, attendants on Bacchus.
Laroctoon, a son of Priatm and hligll-priest of ilinertva, the goddess of wisdom.,Apollo: he and his two sons were killed by i_3ltnos, a king of Crete, nmade, for his extriaordi.
serpents for opposing the reception of the nary justice, a judge of' hell.
wooilen horse into Troy. Minllotarsn, a monster, half man, half beast.
Latpis, or Lapid'eus, titles of Jupiter. l _iss'yme, a name of the Argonauts.
Lat'res, sons of Mercury and I ara., worshipped ilneenosl'ynne, the goddess of memory.
as household gods. 2Itosns, the god of' raillery, wit, &c.
ateraltnus, a household god. illonelta, a title of Juno.
Latsvertna, a goddess of thieves. iMorlpheuls, the god of sleep, dreamls, &c.
Leant'der, see IHero. llor s, the goddess of death.
Le'da, daughter of Thestias, and wife of Tyn- ilultlciber, a title of' Vulcan.
darus, seduced by Jupiter in thle shape of a Multses, nine daughters of Jupiter and Tnemo.
swan. syne, born on mount Pierilus, mistresses of
L'emonitades, nymphs of meadows, &c. alt the sciences, presidents of musicians and
Le'ne, priestesses of Bacchus. poets, andt governesses of tile fleasts of the
Lert'na, a marsh of Argos, famous for a HIydra, gods; Calliope, Clio, Erato, Euterpe, Melkilled there by Hercules, pomene, Polyhymnia, Terpsichore, Thalia,
Letlhe, a river of hell, whose waters causetl a and Urania.
total forgetfulness of things past. li:srla, the goddess of silence.
Lservatla, a goddess of new born inlants.
Libitili'a, tile goddess of funerals.
Linus, son of Apollo and Terpsichore. N
Lnbfsens'ia, the goddess of pleasurse.
Luscifer, son of Jupiter and Aurora, tmade the XNenia, the goddess of funeral songs.
miorning star. Na'iades, nymphs of the rivers, &c.
uLrizna, Diana's name in heaven. arcis'susn. a very beautifuil youth, who, falling
L~upe'tctalia, feasts in honor of Pan. in love with his own shadow in the water,
LyJper'ci, priests of Pan. pined away into a dalffodil.
Lyc'lon, a king of Arcadia, turned by Jupiier i altio, and NTslnditnC, godTdess of infants.
into a wolf. A~cYnneaa, a country of Elis, fil-sed for a terrible
lion killed there by HIercules.
ATemnesis, the cgoddess of revenge.
312 Arepttune, the rnd of the sea.
Nereildes, sea nhymphs.
Ilimtia, loved by Jupiter, and by him turnel into Nelt io, the wife ol Mars.
a star to avoid Juno's rage. iV.iceuh torns, a title ol'Jupiter.
ik.fo.Escngese'ta, a goiidess of women in laboo. stsTnns tine fst lin of the Assyrians.
ialolsd'ra, na godddess of coln..,s!'obe, (lalhllter of Tantalus, and wife of AmiMra,zro?.tnna, and -le'nza, nuptial goddesses. phion. who, preferring herself to Latona,
aricfon-ar,:ielta'nis, ilVeretlrix, hisgonistisl and lad ter 114 children killed by Diana and.l3zlt'cia, titles of Venus. Apollo, and wept herself into a statue.
MIsars, the god of war. Irotrnizus, a n sne of Apollo.
654 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS..Nox, thcl most ancient of the deities; she was Peneltope, daughter of Icarus, celebrated for her
even reckoned older than Chaos. chastity and fidelity during the long absence
of Ulysses.
Persseus, son of Jupiter ardl Danae, who pesi0 folrmled many extraordinary exploits by
means of Medusa's head.
Obtsequens, a title of Fortuna. Phcecaslarni, ancient gods of Greece.
Occaulor, the god of harrowing. Phatelto, son of Sol (Apollo) and Climene, who
Oce'taozs, an ancient sea god. asked the guidance of his father's chariot
Ocyp'ete, one of the three Harpies. for one day, as a proof of his divine descent;
(Edtipus, son of Laius and Jocasta, and king of but unable to manage the horses, set tlhe
Thebes, who solved the riddle of the Sphinx, world on fire, and was therefore struck by
unwittingly klled his father, married his Jupiter with a thunderbolt into tile river Pi.
mother. and at last ran mad, and tore out Phasltlica, feasts of Bacchus..his eyes. Philazit.znon, a skilfi ll musician.
Omelphale, a queen of Lydia, with whom Her- Pailonse'la, daughter of Pandion, Iking of Athe's,
cutles was so enamored, that she miade him who was ravished by lher brother-in-law,
submit to spinning and other unbecoming Tereus, and was changed into a nigrhtinoffices. gale.
01, erttcss, a nanme of Pluto. P/hinteas, son of Agenor, and king of Paph!;Opi'gena, a name of Juno. gonia, who had his eyes tcrn out by Borea',
Ops, a name of Cybele. but was recompensed with the klnowvlesge
Or'bonea, a goddess of grown persons. of futurity; also a king of Thrace, turned
Oresttes, the son of Agamemnon. into a stone by Perseus, by the help of MeOrilos,, a great and mighty hunter. dusa's head.
Oripheusss, son of Jupiter and Calliope, who had Phlefgethoen, a boiling river of hell.
great skill in music, and was torn in pieces P/hle/gon, one of the iour horses of Sol.
by the Menades, for disiliing the company Phl1etfyae, a people of Boeotia, destroyed by
of women after the death of Iris wife Eury- Neptune, on account of their piracies and
dice. other crimes.
Orythi'a, a queen of the Amazons. Phcsrbas, the priestess of Apollo.
Osi'ris, see Apis. PhcDtbus. a title of Apollo.
Phcacni.c, son of Amyntor, wiho being falsely accused of having attemptedl the honor of one
of his father's concubines, was cocndemned
to have his eyes torn out; but was cured by
PactloElss, a river of Lydia, vith golden sands Chtiron, and went with Achilles to the siege
and metlical waters. of Troy.
Pcsaan, and Phot'lbcs, names of Apollo. Picnitnu's, a rural god.
Patles, the goddess of shepherds..Ptinztnus, a god of breeding womlel,.
Paliltia, feasts in honor of Pales. Pin/cdus, a mountainr in Thessaly.
Pallut'liumz, a statue of Mtinerva, which the Piltho, ca goddess of eloqsuence.
Trojans imagined fell firon heaven, aind that Ple'iles, the seven daughters of' Atlas and
their city could not be taken whilst that re- Pleione; Mala, Electra,'l'aygete, Asterope,
mained in it. Merope, l1alcyone, and Celeno; they were
Paltlas, and Pyllolis, names of Minerva. chansed into stars.
Pan, the god of shepllerds. Plut/o, the god of hell.
Pandlotra, the first woman madle by VTulcan, and Plul2cs, the god of riches.
endoweft with gifts by all the deities; Jupi- Po1lltec. See Castor.
ter gave her a box containinu all manner of Polydc7-tracs, a Ilmous wlrestler.
evils, war, famline, &c., with hope at the Poliydtrits, a fa-eous prophet and physician.
bottonm. Polyhyp7/tnia, the muse of rhetoric.
Pantope, one of the Nereids. Polyph/etr uses a monstrous giant, son of NepPatphlia, a title of Venus. tune, with but one eye in the n-liddle of his
Par?'ct, a name of the Fates. forehead.
Parlis, or Al'exandcer, son. of Priam and He- Poensrs'ca, the goddess of fruits and autumn
cuba, a most beautiful youth, who ran away Posetidoz, a name of Neptune.
with Helena, and occasioned the Trojan Prcenestitna, a name of Fortuna.
war. Praestles, a title of Jupiter and Minerva.
Parnaszsus, a mountain of Phocis, famous for Prraxitleles, a famous statuary.
a temple of Apollo, and being the favorite Pritfac,? son of Laomedon, and flather of Pa-ris.
residence of the Muses. tHector, &c.; he was the last king of' Trloy.
Parttcsnda, a nuptial goddess. Pro-'tle, wife of Tereus, Icing of TIhrace, aMl
Pastoph'ori, priests of Isis. sister of Philomela; she was turned ilto a
Pal'arreus, a title of Apollo. swallow.
Patelitez, a goddess of' corn. Prometlhezts, son of Iapetus, who animatedc a
Patulatcisss, a name of Janlus. man that he had fuormed of clay, with fire,
Patsletius, a namse of.Jpiter. which, by the assistance of Minerva, lie sto'e
Pavesntlia, antd Polilc.r. goddesses of' infants. fromnl heaven, and was therefore chainel by
Peg'tasus, a wingredl horse belonging to Apollo.Jupiter to mount Caucasus, with a vlllture
andt the Muses. continually preying upon his liver.
Pellotnia, a goddess of grown persons. Propy'lasa, a name of HIecate.
Pena'ltes, small statues or household gods. Psosserpine, the wife of Pluto.
HEATHEN DEITIES5 ETC. 655
PJrotteus, a sea god, who could transform himnse.Tf Stalt, a goddess of grown persons.
into any shape. Sles'tior, a Grecian, whose voice is reported to
P.y'rlche, a goddess of pleasure. have. been as strong and as loud as tile voices
Pl'radls, the constant friend of Orestes. of 50 men together.
Pyrtanztus, and T/is'be, two lovers of Babylon, S'the'rso, onle of tle three Gorgons.
who killed themselves with the same swordc, Styx, a river of hell.
and occasioned the turnings the berries of the Sla'clcda, a nuptial goddess.
mulberry-tree, under which they died, fiiom ts2ttnrctqisll, a name of Pluto.
white to red. Sfyivaol'us, a god of woods and forests.
Pr1;ycrteis, one of the four horses of the sun. Sy'renls, sea monsters
Pyrlrhus, son. of Achilles, remarkable for his
cruelty at the siege of Troy.
Pytth/on, a huge serpent, produiced fromll the mild
ofl the deluge, which Apollo killed, and in
memnory thereof, instittuted the Pythisau gatmLes. T7'cila, at goddess of' silence.
FPtlhonistsa, the priestess of Apollo. Tanrtarllte-s, a k;in of Paphllagonia, who, serv.
ing utip to table the limbs of his son, Pelops.
to try the divinity of the gods, was plungedl
to the chin in a. lake of hell, anti doomned to
everlasting thirst andl hunger, as a punishQuladrrifronss, a title of Janlus. ient for his barbarity antd impiety.
Quiles, a goddess of grown persons. Taraftrus. the place of the wicked in hell.
Qts.ielatlis, and Quie'tlss, names of Pluto. Taurlus. the bull, undler wvhose lfon Jupiter
Qtitsquastreria, feasts of Pallas. carried away Luropa.
TelchiItnes, priests of' Cybele.
Telet'atchzts, the only son of Ulysses.
El i2'eimp'e, a most beautiful valley in Thessaly, the
resort of the gods.
Reclzss, a sitle of Bacchrus. 7'erlnizzs, the god of bouncdaries.
Reid-cxt, and Re'gia, titles of Fortune. Tetysicholre, thie muse of music, &c.
Regitna, a title of Juno. Ter1ror, the god of dreal and fear.
Rhadamn anthues, one of the three inferlnal T7halria, the muse of comedy.
judges. Thelstmis, the daughter of Ccelum and Terra, the
Rhe'a, a title of Cybele. goddess of laws, oracles, &c..Rhela-sylviatu the mother of Romulus. Thles'pis, the first tragic poet.
2Robil-us, a got of corn. Theltis, daughter of Nereus and Doris, and godRooisulshs, the first king of Rome. dess of the sea.
G2.emitna, a goddess of new-born infants. Thyr'tsus, the.rod of Bacchus..u2lUncitra, the go:ldess of weeding. Tilphys, the pilot of the ship Argo.
Russitna, a rural deity. Tisipltlone, one of the three Furies.
Ti'tcan, son of Ccelum alnd Terra, and the elder
brother of Saturnus. or Saturn.
Tnrmarius, a title of Jupiter.
cSabatzia, feasts of Proserpine. Tri'ton, Neptune's trumpeter.,S'alii, the 12 frantic priests of Mars. Trilonizia, a nane of' Milerva.
~Saltshsonefzs, a kiing of Eiis, struck by a thunder- Trotilus, a son of Priam and Hecuba.
bolt to hell fobr itnitating Jupiter's thunder. Troy, a city of Phrygia, famious for iholding out
athlts, the goddess of healtth a siege of ten years against the Greeks, but
Sanctus, a god of the Sabines they at last captured and destroyed it.'ator, and So'rritlor, rural gods. Teuteli'na, a goddess of corn.
S'aturnallia, feasts of Saturn. lTytro, one of the Nereids.
S'atusrtnus, or Salttzfn, the son of Celus and
Terra.
S'atl'yrs the attendants of Bacchus, horned mon- U
sters, half men, half goats.
Scytrlon, a hamous robber of Attica. Ulystses, son of Laertes and Anticlea, and king
S'e'ia, and Segeltia, goddesses of corn. of Ithaca, who, by his subtlety and eloquence,
Seltli, priests of Jupiter. was eminently serviceable to the Greeks in
Senrla, a goddess of married women. the Trojan war.
Sereapis. See Apis. Unxtia, a title of Juno.,S'iletnus, the loster-father and companion of Bac- Ue-alnia, the muse of astronomny.
chus, who lived in Arcadia, rode on an ass,
and was drunk every day.
S'i'tzis, a famous robber, killed by Helrcules.
Sistyphzs, the son of A'olus, killed by Theseus,
and doomed incessantly to roll a huge stone Flacurna, the goddess of idle persons.
up a mountain in hell for his perfidy and Vagitatnus, a god of little inifants.
numerous robberies. Vallonia, a goddess of valleys.
Sol, a name of Apollo. Venitlia, a wife of Neptune.
So'?stznus, the god of sleep. Tetnus, the goddess of love, and beauty.
Sphinx, a monster, born of Syphon, and Echidna, Vergiltlc, a namne of the Pleiades.
who destroyed herself because cEdipus Verticortclia, a namne of Venus.
solved the enigma she proposed. VTertumistns s, the god of spring.
656 THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
Yestra, the goddess of fire. the harpy Celceno, a river near Troy, called
Finales, deities of the highways. also Scamander.
Vibiltia, the goddess of wanderers.
VirgnmenIsis, a nuptial goddess.
Vi?' go, a name of Astrea and Fortune. z
Viritis. and ViscaCta, titles of Fortune.
Viritplaca, an inferior nuptial goddess, who re- Zatgreus, a title of Bacchus.
conciled husbands to their wives; a temple, Zephlyrus, son of Aolus and Aurora, wi:o pasat Rome, was dedicated to her, whither the sionately loved the goddess Flora, and is put
married couple repaired after a quarrel, and for the west wind.
returned together firiendly. Ze'tes, and Ca'lais, sons of Boreas and Orythia,
Vitu'la, the goddess of mirth. who accompanied the Argonauts, and drove
Vo>lu'sia, a goddess of corn. the Harpies ifrom Thrace.
Vtl'can, the god of subterraneous fire. Ze'tus, a son of Jupiter and Antiope, very expert
in music.
J1 Zetus, a title of Jupiter.
Xanttlhus, one of the horses of Achilles, born of
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
N. B. This list of remarkable persons, from the earliest period to the present time, is not of
courlse intended to include every name mentioned in history, but merely the most important in
dheir several departments. The names of Sovereigns are referred to occasionally only, as full lists
aie given in their proper place.
This list may be useful in two ways, viz:
First, as an Index to the names mentioned in the Chronological Tables in this volume; and
Secondly, to indicate, by reference to those tables, the chief political events and contemporary
public characters during the life of each person in the list.
Thus: SOCRATES, the Greek philosopher, was born 470, and died 400 B. ".. The tables on
page 20 to 24, show who lived, and what happened, during the seventy years of Socrates' life.
MISITON was born A. D. 1608, one year after the first settlement at Jamestown, Virginia; six:years after the East India Company was founded; five years after James I. ascended the throne;
the same year that the Protestant Union was formed in Germany; one year before Gustavus
Adolphus became king of Sweden; two years before Louis XIII. became king of France. Ile
was 12 years old when the Puritans first landed at Plymouth; he was 17 whens Charles I. succeeded James, and he was 41 years old when Charles was beheaded. Among his contemporaries
were Lord Bacon, Inigo Jones, Jeremy Taylor, Algernon Sydney, Sir C. Wren, Butler, Waller,
Dryden, Henly More, Baxter, and Boyle, in England: Peter Stuyvesant, Winthrop, Cotton, and
Eliot, in America: Richelieu, Mazarine, Colbert, Rubens, Kepler, Des Cartes, toli,.re, Corneille,
Racine, Pascal, on the Continent. -IHe died A. D. 1674, nine years after the great plague in London,
14 years after Charles II. was restored, and 7 years after New-York was ceded to the English.
And thus of any person mentioned in the Index-a great variety of particulars may be found
at a glance, on referring to the tables.
*%* No living persons are mentioned, except some of the most noted in Europe.
ABBREVIATIONS.-See List in the Introduction. Bar. (Barbaria7n), includes several different
natioiss, some not entirely civilized. f: is used for loturished. The dates before Christ
are indicated by B. c.-all others are A. D.-I-n some cases the dates are nzecessari y left blank.
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED.
Dan. Aagesend, Svind, historian... 1188
Jew. Aaron, the first high-priest a... 1570 1453
Gr. Aaron, of Aloandria, physician... f. 622
Eng. Abbot, George, Archbishop of Canterbury and author 1562 1623
Arab. Abd'el Kad{er, distinguished warrior. 1806
Fr. Abelard, Peter. a celebrated scholastic divine. 1079 1142
Nor. Abe[, Nicholas II., mathematician... 1802
Sp. Abenezra, an astron., philos., poet, philologist, &c.. 1119 1174
Eng. Aberdeen. Earl of, statesman and antiquary
Eng. Abercronmby, Sir Ralph, military commander.. 1738 1801
Eng. Abernethy, John, eminent physician and medical writer. 1764 1831
Fr. Ablancourt, N. P. D., translator of the classics.. 1606 1664
Jew. Abraham, the great progenitor of the Jewish nation B. c. 1995 B. C. 1821
Pyan. Absalom (real name Axel), archbishop of Den., Sw., and Nor.. 1128 1203
Ara. Abubetker, father-itl-law anti successor of Mahonmet.. 561 624
Syr. Abulfeda, the geographer.. 1273 1345
Roem. Accius, or Attius, a tragic poet (works not extant). B. O. 171
Ital. Accursius, or Accorso, an eminent critic.. 1229
Gee. Accum., Fredl, operative chemist (in Eng.). 1769 1838
Prnss. Ackerman, Rudolph, introduced gas lighting and lithog. in London 1764 1834
Gr. Achilles, one of the leaders in the Trojan war f. 1184
Gr. Achilles ratiis (of Alexandria), Christian bp. and author.. 3d cent.
Gr. Acropolita, of Constantinople, statesman and historian 1220 1282
Eng. Adam, Alexander, schoolmaster and author.. 17t11 1809
28*
658 THE WVORLD'S PROGRESS.
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED.
Eng. Adam, Robert, an architectural author..172 1728 1794
Amcr. Adams, John Quincy, diplomatist, poet, Pres. I1. S.. 1767 1848
Amer. -, Samuel, one of the patriotic founders of the republic 1726 180&:
Alner., John, patriot and statesman-2d Pres. U. S.. 1735 1826
Eng. Addison, Joseph, one of the ornaments of English literature. 1672 1719
Rom. Adrian, the 15th Emp. (born in Spain). 76 138
Ire. Adrain. Robert. mathematician (at New-York, &c.). 1775 1843
Gr. iElian, the historian and rhetorician... 160
Gr. yEneas, son of Priam, king of Troy.. f. B. C. 1183
Gr. 2Eschines, of Athens, philos.-disciple of Socrates
Gr. -- orator B. C. 393 B. c. 323
Gr. oEschylus, of Athens, the great tragic writer B... 468 B. o. 400
Gr. Esop, of Phrygia, the prince of fabulists. f. B. C. 600
Rom. Etius, lnil. corn. (defeated Atilla) 4... 54
Rom. Africanus, Julius, historian... 22
Gr. Agamemnon, "the Icing of' kings" B... 904
Gr. Agathius, historian and poet f. 565
Swiss. Agassiz, Louis, naturalist. 1807
Gr. Agesilaus II., king of Sparta; (defeats the Per., Egypt., and Greekls) B. C. 361
Gr. Agis IV., the greatest of the Spartan kings B. C. 251.
Eng. Aglionby, one of the translators of the Bible. 1610
Rom. Agricola, Cneius Julius, military commander. 4t 93
Ger. Agricola, John, a divine *-founder of the Antiilomians 490 1566
Ruom. Agrippa, military commander, governor of Judea.. 0 94
Fr. -—, Cornelius, philosopher, &c.. 486 1535'Eng. Aikin, John, M. D., an elegant writer; editor of poets, &c. 1747 1821
Eng. Ainsworth, grammarian and lexicographer. 1660 1743
Tartar. Akbar, Mohamnmed, a great Mogul sovereign,.. 1555 1605
En;i. Akenside, Mark, a popular poet.. 1721 1770
Swe. Akerblad, philologist... 1819
Bar. Alaric I., king of the Visigoths. 411
Span. Alberoni, Julius (cardinal), statesman. 1664 1752Ital. Alberti, an eminent writer, paint., sculp.,... 1398 1490
Ger. Albertus Magnus, philosophic writer; tutor of Aquinas 1205 1.280
Bar. Alboin, the Lombard conqueror. 574
Port. Albuquerque (the great), military commander 1452
Gr. AlcaMus, of Lesbos, a lyric poet. B... 606
Ital. Alciati, of Milan, an eminent civilian aud author.. ^. 1492 155G.
Gr. Alcibiades, a famous Athenian general and statesman B... 450 B. C. 404
En-. Alcuinus (founder of schools at Paris, &c.) 732 804
Eng. Aldhelm, St., an eminent scholar and poet. 709
Fr. Alembert, John le Rond d', math., hist., and philosopher.. 1717 1783
Bar. Alexander. the Great, founeder of the Macedonian empire B... 356 B. C. 323
PRom. ~, Severus, emperor... 209 235
Rus u Nevskoi, a saint and hero; —def: of the Tartars, &c., 1218 1262
Rus. —, I., emperor (coalition against Napoleon) 1777 1825
Gr. Alexius Cornmenus, emperor of the East... 1118
Ital. Alfieri, Victor, an eminent tragic poet. 1749 1803
Eng. Alfred, justly called the Great, Iing... 849 900
Ital. Algarotti, a general sch/tlar and critic.. 1712 1764
Bar Ali Bey, gov. of Egypt, -revolted against the Turks 1728 1773
Bar. -- Tepelini, pacha of Jannina... 1744 1822
Scot. Alison, Archibald Rev.,' Essays on Taste'. 1757 1839
Scot. Alison, Archibald,'IHistory of Europe,''Essays'
Amer. Allen, EIthan, an intrepid officer in the Revolution.. 1789
Amer. Allston, Washington, painter and poet. 1779 1843
Sar. Almamon, Caliph, patron of learning. 833
Sar. Almansor, Caliph, patron of learning... 775
Span. Alphonso X., Icing of Castile, Leon-and author. 1203 1284
Port. --- I., Henriquez, founder of the Portuguese monarchy 1094 1185
Span. Alva, duke of, celebrated and barbarous rail. com.. 1508 1582
Jew. Amaziah, king of Judah B.. B.. 809
Ital. Ambrose, St., bishop of Milan-author. 340 387
Ital. Americus Vespucius (of Florence)-explored the S. Amer. coast 1451 1512
Anmer. Ames, Fisher, a statesman and orator.. 1750 1808
Eng. Amherst, Jeffrey, lord, mil. corn. in America, &c... 1717 1797
Rom. Ammianus, Marcellinus, historian... 300
Gr. Ammonius, a peripatetic philosopher B... 24
Fr. Ampere, Jean Marie, mathematician and nat. philos... 1775 1836
Fr. Amyot, Jalmes, bp. of Auxerre-translator of Plutarch. 1513 1593
Bar. Anacharsis, a Scythian philosopher, and disciple of Solon f. B. C. 592
Gr. Anacreon, a celebrated poet.. B. a. 474
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 659
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED.
Gr. Anastaslus I., emperor of the East. 518
Gr. Anaxagoras, a philosopher... B. c. 500 B. c. 428
Gr. Anraxarchus, a philosopher, companion of Alexander the Great f B. c. 340
r. Anaximander of Miletus, an Ionsc philosopher. 611 B. o. 547
Gr. Anaximenes ".. B.C. 504
F'. Ancelot, J. A. P. F., poet and novelist.. 1794
Pruss. Anclon, J.. P. F., historian and statesman.. 1767 1837
Dan. Andersen, lHans Chris., poet and novelist
En. Anderson, Sir Edmund, a judge and author... 1605
Scotch. - -, Adam, commercial writer.. 1692 1765
E nn. Andrews, Lancelot, bishop of Winchester. 1555 1626
F. Andral, G. A., writer on anatomy and medicine. 1797
Gr. Andronicus of Rhodes, a peripatetic philosopher, flourished B. c. 63
Ital. Anielo, Thomas (commonly called MIasiniello), a fisherman of Naples
who rose to great power.. 1623 1646
Anna Cominena, daughter of the Emperor Alexis I., historian. i113 2148
Eng. Annet, Peter, a deistical writer... 1703 1778
Car. Annibal, or Hannibal, a celebrated Carthaginian general a. o. 247 B.c. 153
Fr. Anluetil du Perron, a classic scholar, and author 1731 1805
Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury —a learned divine 1033 1109
Eng. Anson, George, lord, celebrated naval commander 1697 1762
Egypt. Anthony, St., the founder of monastic institutions 251 356
Ital. - -, of Padua, a divine. 1195 1231
Mace. Antigonus, one of the generals of Alexander the Great B. c. 301
Antiochus V....... 164
Mace. Antipater, one of the generals of Alexander the Great.. 0. 319
Dr. Antisthenes, a philos. —lbunder of the sect of Cynics, before Christ. 423
Rom. Antoninus, Pius, emperor... 86 161
Rom. —, Marcus Aurelius, emperor-surnamed the philosopher 121 180
Rom. Antony, Mark, mil. commander and statesman B. c. 86 a. c. 30
Pets. Anveri, a celebrated poet.... 1201
Egypt. Apion, a grammarian, and bitter enemy of the Jews, flourisled 80
Gr. Apollonius, surnamed Rodius, a poet.. B. c. 194
Gr., Pergamensis, a geomnetrician, flourished.. B.. 242
Gr., Tyaneus, a Pythagorean philosoplher.. 97
Gr. Appian, an historian, flourished.. 143
Ital. Aquinas, St. Thomas, a celebrated theologian.. 1224 1274
Fr. Arago, astron., nat. philos., and statesman.
Eng. Aram, Eugene, a learned schoolmaster, executed for murder 1705 1759
r. Aratus, of Sicyon, mil. con. and statesman B. a. 273 a. a. 216
Scotch. Arbuthnot, John, Dr., a poet 1735
Gr. Archelaus, Ionic philosopher, flourished B. aC. 450
Ge. Archius, a poet, flourished.... c. 719
GCr. Archilochus, a poet, flourished.... c. 685
Gr. Archidemes, a celebrated mathematician B. a. 287 B. o. 212
Gr. Archytas, a mathematician.. B. a. 408 B. a. 360
Ital. Aretino, Guido, inventor of the ganrut of music 995
Ital., Leonard, an historian.. 1369 1414
Ital., Peter, satirist.... 1492 1556
Pruss. Argelander, F. W. A., astronomer. 1799
Span. Argensola, Lupercio, historian and poet... 1565 1613
Span. ---, Bartholomew, historian.. 1566 1631.
Ital. Ariosto, Lewis, a celebrated poet.. 1474 1533.r. Aristarchus, of Samos, mathematician and philosopher I. i. c. 280
Gr. -, grammarian and critic..... 160
Gr. Aristides, an Athenian statesman B.... c. 467
Gr. -, _ /lius, an oratorand sophist. 129 185
Gr. -, one of the fathers of the church, flourished. 127
Gr. Aristippus, of Cyrene, philosopher-founder of the Cyreniacs f. B. C. 392
Gr. Aristonomenes, a warrior and patriot, flourished B. a. 662
Gr. Aristophanes, an Athenian comic poet... B.C. 389
Gr. Aristotle, philosopher —founder of the Peripatetics a. a. 384 B. c. 381
Ir. Arius, of Alexandria, the founder of the Arian sect. 336
Span., Montanus, Benedict.-orientalist.. 1527 1598
Eng. Arkwright, Sir Richard, inventor of spinning jennies 1732 1792
Fr. Arlincourt, Victor, vicompte de, novelist.. 1789
Ger. Arminius, the deliverer of Germany.. 20
Dutch. —, James, a celebrated divine-founder of a sect 1560 1610
Eng. Armstrong, John, M. D., poet... 1709 1779
Amer. --—, John, general, statesman, military com., and historian 1758 1843
Ital. Arnaud, Daniel, troubadour... 1220
Fr. -—, Francis Baculard d', thamatist and poet 1718 1805
660 THE WORLDS PROGRESS.
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED.
Eng. Arne, Thomas Augustus, musical composer. 1710 1778
Gr. Arnobius, a defender of Christianity.. f. 303
Prtus. Arnirn, L. A. von, poet and novelist.. 1781 1831
Ital. Arnold, of Brescia, a learned monk —disciple of Abelard. 1156
Eng., Thos., D. D., theologian, historian and philologist 1795 1842
Amer. -, Benedict, major general-the traitor to his country. 1801
Gr. Arrian, historian-disciple of Epictetus.. f. 140
Eng. Arrowsmith, Aaron, constructor of maps and charts.. 1823
Bar. Arsaces I., the founder of the Parthian monarchy. B. f. 250
Bar. Artaxerxes I., king of Persia.... B. 425
Bar. —, founder of the new Persian kingdom... 242
Brit. Arthur, a prince celebrated in fable 472 542
Eng. Arundel, Thomas H., earl of. importer of the Arundelian marbles. 1686
Eng. Ascham, Roger, a learned writer.. 1515 1568
Bar. Asdrubal, a Carthaginian general B. c. 22(
Amer. Ashmun, John H., jurist-professor of law.. 1800 1833
Eng. Asser, John, historian... 909
Ger. Ast, Geo. A. F., philologist,' Lexicon Platonicu'.. 1778 1841
Ger. Astor, John Jacob, wealthy merchant at New York.. 1763 1848
Gr. Athanasius, St., one of the fathers of the church. 296 371
Gr. Athenagoras, philosopher... f. 177
Gr. Athenais, Emp. of the West, and authoress (called also Eudoxia) 460
Gr. Athenreus, a celebrated grammarian-the Greek Varro. f. 190
Bar. Attalus, founder of the monarchy of Pergamus-inv. of parchment B. C. 198
Gr., Rhodius, mathematlician f. 3B.. 173
Eng. Atterbury, Francis, bp. of Rochester, exiled for conspiracy. 1662 1731
iom. Atticus, a knight, and author (works lost)..... 109 B. C. 0
Bar. Attila, king of the Huns, "the Scourge of God"... 453
Fr. Auber, D. F. E., famous musical composer.. 1784
Eng. Auckland, XVilliam, lord, statesman. 1814
Fr. Audoin, J. F., zoologist..... 1797 1841
Fr. Augereau, duke of Castiglione, mil. corn. 1757 1816
Augustine, St., a celebrated father of the church 354 430
the Apostle of the English —lst archbishop of Canterbury 604
Rom. Augustul-ls, Romulus, the last emperor of the W'est 476
Tom. Augustus, Caitis Julius Cresar Octavius-lst emperor B... 63 14
Tom. Ausonius, Decimus Magnus, poet.... 39
Fr. Auvergne, Theophilus —rel.sbiicasn-military commander.. 1743 1800
Ara. Averroes, philosopher, physician, and author... 1197
Ara. Avicenna, philosopher, physician, and autllor... 980 1037
Eng. Ayscough, Samuel, Compiler of Index to Sihakspeare, &c.. 1804
Ena. Babbage, Clharles, o.tllaerlmatiian antld acllinist. 1790
Gr. Ilacchylides, lyric poet... o. 450
Port. Bacceilar, a civili;an, hitorian, and lyric poet... 1610 1663
Ame, Backus, Isaac, a divine and historian.. 1724 1806
Eng. Back, Geo., Capt. R. N., Polar navigator and author
Eng. Bacon, Roger, a tmonk, celebrated for his scientific knowledge. 1214 1292
Eng. -, Francis, lord Verulam, the celebrated philosopher and statesman 1561 1626
Danl. Baden, James, one of thlle founders of Danish literature. 1735 1804
Ger. Blhr, Jno. C. F., classical philologist.... 1798
Eng. Bailey, Nathan, a grammarian asc lexicographer. 1742
Fr. Baillet, a learned theolo-gian, historian, and miscellaneous writer. 1649 1706
Scot. Baillie, Matthew, physician and anatonmist... 1761 1823
Eng. Baily, Francis, astronomer and mathematician.. 1774 1844
Fr. Bailly, John Silvain, a learned author, and a leader in the revolution. 1736 1793
Amer. Bainbridge, Wm., naval commander.. Princeton 1774 1833
Scot. Baird, Sir David, military commanader.. 1757 1829
Turk. Bajazet. sultan-conquered by Tamoerlane. 1453
Ital. Batbi, Adrian, geographer and ethnographer. Venice 1782
Fr. Baldwin, who became emperor of the East. 1206
Fr. Balzac, Honorl de, novelist.... Tours 1799 1850
Swe. Banier, or Banner, a celebrated military commander. 1596 1641
Irish. Banim, John, novelist.. 1800 1842
Eng. Banks. Sir Joseph, navigator-President Royal Society. 1743 1820
Pruss. Baratier, a Hebrew lexicographer before ten years of age. 1721 1740
Eng. Barbauld, Anna Letitia, a popular miscellaneous writer. 1743 1825
Turk. Barbarossa, the celibrated corsair-usurper of Algiers. 1518
Fr. Barbeyrac, John, miscellaneous writer. 1674 1729
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 661
NIATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED.
Amer. Barbour, James, statesman and diplomatist. Va. 1775 1842
Amer. Barbour, P. P., statesman, and Judge of Sup. Court Va. 1783 1841
Eng. Barclay, Robert, the celebrated vindicator of the Quakers.. 1648 1690
Ital. Barertti, Joseph, lexicographer-author of Travels, &c.. 1716 1789
En. Baring, Alex. (lord Ashburton), statesman
Amer. Barlow, Joel, a statesman, and poet... 1756 1812
En. Barnes, Joshua, an eminent GCreek scholar... 1654 1712
Amer -, Daniel H., a distinguished conchologist.. 1818
I)1utcl. Barneveldt, John, statesman (beheaded)... 1547 1619
Amer Barney, Joshua, a distinguished naval comin ander.. 1759 1818
r. Barras, Paul, count de, mem. of the direct..in the revolution. 1755 1829
Enag. Barrow, Isaac, a divine, and mathematician. 1630 1677
Amer. Barry, W. T., statesman and diplomatist.. Va. 1785 1835
Pr. Barthelemy, John James, author of'Anacharsis,' &c.,.. 1716 1795
Anmer Barton, Benj. Smith, lI. D., a learned physician and botanist 1766 1815
AnheIr. Bartram. John, an eminent botanist... 1701 1777
r. Basil, St., a celebrated father of the Creek church.. 326 379
Fr. Basnage De Beaval. James, histofian.. 1653 1723
Fr. Bassano, H. B. M., duke of; political writer andi statesman.. 1758 1839
Lng. Bath, William Pulteney, earl of, statesman. 1682 1764
En. Bathurst, earl of, statesman-friend of Pope, &c. 1684 1775
F t. Batteux, Charles, rhetorician, and miscellaneous writer. 1793 1780
Eng. Baxter, Richard, an eminent divine, and author.. 1615 1691
Fr. Bayard, Peter, military commander.. 1476 1524
Amer. - -, James A., a distinguished statesman, and lawyer.. 1767 1815
Ger. Bayer, John, astronomner... 1627
Oer. —, Theophilus, chronologist, and historian 1694 1738
Fr. Bayle, Peter, an eminent philosopher, and critic [Bayle's Dictionary] 1647 1706
Eng. Bayly, Thos. Haines, poet... 1797 1839
En. Beattie, James, IL.D., poet... 1735 1803
Fr. Beauharnois, Eugene Hortense, ex-queen of Rolland.. 1753 1837
Fr. Beanharnois, Eugene, son of the empress Josephine, mil. com. —viceroy of Italy, &c........ 1780 1824
Fr. Beautnarchais, P. A. C. dle, an eminent dramatist.. 1732 1799
Fr. Beaumont, Elie de, mineralogist and geologist... 1798
Eng. Beaumont, Francis, dramatic writer. 1555 1616
Fr. Beauzee, Nicholas. an eminent grammarian... 1714 1789!tal. Beccaria, John Baptist, an ecclesiastic and philosopher. 1716 1781
ital. --—, Marquis, professor of political economy, and author. 1735 1793
Eng. Becket, Thomas 1, celebrated prelate and statesman.. 1119 1170
Eno. Beckford, Win., traveller and novelist... 1760 1844
lrit. Bede, styled the Venerable, a learned Saxon monk, and historian. 672 735
Lng. Bedford, John, duke of, military commander.. 14315.Pruss. Beer, Michael, dramatic poet (bro. of' IMeyerbeer').. 1800 1833
Ger. Beethoven, Ludwig von, celebrated musical composer. 1770 1827
Ger. Bekker, Emmanuel, philologist.
orn. Belisarius, a celebrated general and conqueror... 56
Scot. Bell. Jolen, surgeon, anatomist, and physiologist.. 1763 1821
Scot. Bell, Sir Charles, anatomist and physiologist... 1781 1842
inier. Bellamy, Joseph, D. D., a learned divine and author. 1719 1790
Ital. Bellarmin, cardinal, the champion of the Roman Catholic church 1542 1626
Fr. Bellau, Remi, poet.... 1528 1577
Fr. Belleisle, Count de, military commander... 1684 1761
Ital. Bellini, Vincenzo, musical composer. 1808 1835
Eng. Betoe, Wn., a divine and critic-translator of Ierodotus, &c.
Fr. Belon, William, naturalist and traveller.... 1518 1564
ELn. Belsham, William, historical, political, and miscellaneous writer 1752 1827
Ital. Belzoni, the celebrated traveller in Egypt... 1823
Ital. Bembo, cardinal, one of the restorers of literature.. 1470 1542
Eng. Benbow, John, a gallant admiral... 1650 1702
Ital. Benedict, St., one of the originators of monasteries.. 480 547
Ital. --- XIII., pope-theological writer... 1649 1728
[tal. - XIV., pope-theological writer. 1675 1758
Fr. Benezet, Anthony, philanthropist and historian (died in America). 1713 1784
Bar. Benhadad, Iking of Syria.o. 895
Fr. Benserade, Isaac, a wit and poet. 1612 1691
Eng. Bentham, Jeremy, political and philosophical writer.. 1832
Eng. Bentley, Richard, an eminent critic and scholar... 1662 1742
Fr. Beranger, Pierre Jean de, lyrical poet.
Fr. Berenger, A. M. M. T., statesman and jurist... 1785
Ger. Berghaus, Henry, mathematician and geographer.. 1797
Swe. Bergman, professor of chemistry at Upsal.. 1735 1784
662 TIlE WORLDBS PROGRESS.
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN DIED,
Dan. Behring, a navigator, from whom the strait dividing Asia and America
was named...... f. 1730
Bel. Beriot, Chas. A. de, violinist and composer. 1802
Irish. Berkely, George, bp., an eminent prelate and philosopher. t 1684 1753
Amer. -, William, governor of Virginia... 16567
Fr. Berlioz, Ilector, musical composer. 1803
Fr. Bernadotte.l. B. J., elected king of Sweden, as Charles XIV. 1764 1844
Fr. Bernard, Simon, engineer and mnil. commander.. 1779. 1839
Fr.,St., preacher of crusades, and author.. 1091 1153
En. Edward, a divine, astronomer, and author. 1638 1697
Dutch l,John Frederick, a boolkseller, editor and author. 1751
Amr. --—,F rancis, governor of Massachusetts.. 1779
Fr. Bernardin, Ie Sainte Pierre, author of'Studies of Nature,' &c.. 1737' 1814
Ital. elrni, poet (poisoned).... 1536
Swiss. Bernotlli, James, mathematician.... 1654 1705
Bar. Berosus, the Chaldean historian f. B.C. 268
Fr. Berruyer, a Jesuit, author of a' History of the People of God,' in 11
vols. 4to...... 1681 751
Fr. Berryer, Pierre A., statesman. 1790
Fr. Betlhier, Alexander, a distinguished military commander. 1753 1815
Fr. Berthollet, Claude Louis, an eminent chemist. 1748 1822
r. Bertrand, Henri G., gen. in Napoleon's army..1778 1844
Ena. Berwick, dulke of; military comnmander (kI. at Phillipsburg). 1670 1734
Swe. Berzelius, John Janies, chemist... 1779
Fr. Bessieres, duke of Istria, military comnmalnder (k. at Lutzen). 1769
Ger. Bessel, Fred. Wm., astronomer.... 1784
Ital. Bettinelli, Xavier, an elegant miscellaneous writer.. 1718 180i
Fr. Beudant, Francois S., mineralogist and naturalist.. 1787
Eng. Beveridge, William, an emninent theologian, and orientalist]. 1638 1708
Beza, Theodore, an eminent reformer.. 1519 1605
Fr. Bezout, mathematician..... 1730 1783
Ital. Bianchini, Francis, inathemratician and author.. 1662 1725
Gr. Bias, one of the seven sages. f. f... 606
Fr. Bichat, an eminent anatomist atnd physiologist.. 1771 1802
Eng. Biddle, John, an eminent Sociniau wlriter... 161.5 1662
Amer., Nicholas, financier and lilterafeur... 1786 1844
Amer. -, Nicholas, a captain in the U. S. navy.. 1750 1778
Anier. --- James, commodore, in U. S. navy... 1783 1848
Fr. Bignon, Louis E., historian.. 1771 1841
Gr. Bion, pastoral poet......300
Gr. - of Borysthenes, philosopher (Cyreniac).. B. c. 240
Fr. liot, Jean B., mathematician
En-. Birbecl, Geo., M. D., founder of mechanics' institutions 1776 1841
Fr. Biron, duke of, military comnimander (beheaded for conspiracy). 1561 1602
Scotch. Bisset, Robert, historian and biographer... 1759 1805
Span. Bivar, Don Rodrigo, known in history and romance under the name of
the Cid...... 040 1099
Eng. Blackstone, Sir William, an eminent lawyer and author. 1723 1780
Scotch. Blair, Robert, a divine and poet.. 1699 1777
Scotch. -, John, a chronologist... 178.
Scotch., Dr. Hulh a divine and rhetorician 1718 1800
Scotch. - -,James, founder of William andl Mary's college in Virginia. 1660 1743
Eng. Blake, Robert, a celebrated admiral.. 1599 1657
Irish. Blessington, Marguerite, Countess, novelist, and liteateur. 1849
Eng. Bloonifield, Robert, a poet... 1766 1823
Pruss. Blucher, a celebrated military commander.. 1742 1819
Swe. Blumenbach, John Fred., naturalist.... 1752 1840
Brit. Boadicea, the warlilke queen of the Iceni... 61
Ital. Boccacio, John, one of the great classic writers of modern Italty. 1313 1373
Ital. Boccalina, a satirist.. 1556 1613
Fr. Bochart, Samuel, an eminent divine, and orientalist 1509 1567
Fr. Bodin, John, a lawyer and author. 1530 1596
Ger. Bwehnen, Jacob, a fanatic and author. 1575 1624
Dutch. Boerhaave, one of the nlost eminent of modern physicians.. 1668 1738
Rom. Boethius, a statesman and philosopher... 455 526
Fr. Bohemond, a Norman adventurer.... 1111
Ger. Boekh, Augustus, classical philologist
Fr. Boileau, Nicholas, an eminent poet... 636 1711
S'r. Boissard, Jean J., fabulist... 1743 1831
Fr. Boissy, louis de, a!thor of comedies.... 1694 1758
Fr. -—, D'Angles, F. A., count of, statesman and revolutionist. 1756 1826
Eng. Bollnbroke, Henry St. John, lord, political and deistical writer. 1678 1751
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 663
NATION NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED.
Cololm. Bolivar, Simon, the heroic deliverer of his country 1785 1831
Fr. Bonaparte, Napoleon, emnp. of France.. 1769 1821
F'. -, Maria Letitia, mother of Napoleon 1750 1836
Fr. --, Joseph, ex-king of Naples and Spain 1768 1844
Fr., Lucien, prince of Canino 1775 1840
Fr. —, Louis, ex-king of Holland. 1778 1846
Fr., Jerome, ex-king of Westphalia. 1784
Fr., Louis Napoleon, 1st pres. Republic of France 1808
n18g. Bonner, bishop, the persecutor of Protestants 1569
Swiss. Bonnet, Charles, a celebrated naturalist 1720 1793
Eng. Bonnycastle, John, mathenatician 1821
En. -, Charles, mathematician 1840
Amner. Boone, Daniel, tlie first settler of Kentucky 1730 1823
Ger. Bopp? Francis, sanscrit scholar 1791
FI I3Bonpland, Annti, traveller and botanist. 1840
Ital. Boregli, philosopher and mathematician 1507
Ital. Botrghesi, Bartolomeo, count, antiquarian. 1781
Ital. Borgia, Caesar, the infamous pope, Alexander VI... 1608 1679
Ital. Borromeo, cardinal, theological writer. 1538 1584
Fr. Bose, Louis A. W., naturalist.. 1759 1828
Eng. Boscawen, Edward, a brave and siilful adcliral 1711 1711 176
Ital. Boscovitch, mathematical and philosophical writer 1711 1787
Fr. Bossuet, Jaitles B., a divine and historian 1627 170)4
Fr. Bossut, Charles, mathematician. 1730 1814
Scotch. B1oston, Thomas, a divine and author. 1676 1732
E!g. oslwell, James, the biographer of Dr. Johnson. 1710 1795
Bottiger, archwologist anti antiquarian.. 1835
Gr. Botzarris, Marco, a gallant leader in the modern revolution 1780 1823
Amer. Boudinot, Elias, a statesman and philanthropist 1740 1821
Fr. Bouners, duke of, military commander. 1644 1711
Fr. Bourgainville, Louis A., lnilitary commander, and author 1729 1811
Fr. Bourguer, Peter, mnathematician and hydrographer 1698 1758
Fr. Bourtlailnvilliers, Henry, count de, historian... 1658 1752
Eng. Boulton, Matthew, an eminent engineer 1728 1809
Fr. Bourcet, Peter J. de, an officer and topographer 1700 1780
Fr. Bourdaloue, Louis, a noted preacher. 1632 1704
Fr. Bourignon, Antoinette, a fanatical author 1616 1680
Fr. Bournmont, L. A. V., count of, marshal of France 1773
Eirg. Bourne, Vincent, an elegant Latin poet.. 1747
Fr. Bourrienne, biographer of Napoleon. 1834
Fr. Bousmard. M. de, a military engineer.. 1807
Amer. Bowditch, Nath., astronomer, mathematician, &c. 1773 1838
Eng. Bowdler, Thomas, editor Shakspeare, &c. 1754 1825
Aml er. Bowdoin, James, IL. D., philosopher and statesman. 1727 1790
Amer. - -, James (son of the last), ambassador to Spain. 1752 1811
Eng. Bowring, John, statesman, poet, and linguist. 1792
Fr. Boyer, Jean Pierre, president of Hayti (died at Paris) 1776 1850
Amer. Boylston, Zabdiel, an eminent physician. 1680 1776
Scotch. Boyd, Mark Alexander, a poet.. 1562 1601
Ir -h. Boyle, Robert, an eminent philosopher 1626 1691
Enff. Bradley, Dr. James, astronomer and mathematician. 1692 1762
Eng. Bradwardine, Thomas, mathematician and theologian 1319
Eng. Brady, Robert, physician and historian. 1700
Anmer. Bradifrd, William, second governor of Plymouth colony 1588 1657
Amer. -, William, attorney general of the United States. 1755 1795
Da n. Brahe, Tycho, a celebrated astronomer. 1546 1601
Ger. Brandes, Henry Win., mathematician and astronomer. 1777
Ger. -, John Christian, actor and dramatist. 1735 1799
Amer. Brainard, David, missionary to'the Indians. 1718 1747
Amer. -, J. G. C., a poet.. 1797 18t6
Ger. Breitkopf, John G. E., an eminent printer and type-founder 1719 1794
L.;-e., Bremer, Fredrika, novelist... 1802
Bar. Brennus, the leader of the Gauls,. f. B. o. 390
Scotch. Brewster, Sir David, natural philosopher.. 1785
Eng. Bridgewater, duke of, introducer of canals in England. 1736 1803
Eng. Briggs, Henry, mathematician... 1536 1630
Fr. Brisson, Mathurin James, naturalist... 1723 1806
Fm. Bissot, John, a revolutionist and author.. 1757 1793
Fr. Broglio, duCe de, statesma... 1785
Irish. Brooke, Hlenry, miscellaneous writer 1.. 1706 1783
Amer Brooks, John, LL. D., governor of Massachusetts. 1752 1825
Fr. )Brotier, G., a Jesuit-editor of Tacitus... 1723 1789
664 THE WVORLD'S PROGRESS.
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED,
Fr. Brougniart, Alex., mineralogist and geologist.. 1770
Fr. -- -—, Adolphe T., botanist.. 1801
Eng. Broughamn, Henry, lordi, statesman and jmurist. 1779
Ft. Broussais, F. J. V., medical and physiological writer. 1772 1b83
Amer. Brown, Arthur, a distinguished scholar and barrister.. 1805
Amer. -, Charles Brockden. a novelist.. 1771 1810
E1ng. --, John, D D., a miscellaneous writer... 1715 1766
Scotch., John, a divine and author. 1722 1787
Scotch. -, Dr. Thomas, metaphysician and poet... 1777 1820
Amer., Maj. Gen. Jacob, general in war of 1812. 1828
Amer. -, James, senator, minister to France. 1766 1835
Eng. --, Robert, emninent botanist. 1781
En. Browne, Sir Thomas, a physician and philos. writer.. 1605 1682
Irish., George, count de, an officer in the Russian service. 1698 1792
Eng. --, William George, a traveller in Afirica, &c. 1I1
Scotch. Bruce, Robert, the deliverer of his country. 1329
Scotch. 1,James, a celebrated traveller. 1730 1794
F1'. Brueys, Francis Paul, admiral.. 1750 1798
Ft. Brumoy, Peter, a jesuit andl author 1688 1742
Ft. Brune, William Mary Ann, mnarshal and revolutionist 1763 1815
Ft. Brunel, Sir M. J., engineer of Thames Tunnel, &c.. 1769 l s.1
Ft. Brunet, Jacques Charles,' Bibliographer's Manual'
Bruno, St., founder of the Carthusian order. 1377 1444
Ger. Brunswick, Ferdinandl, duke of, military commander 1721 1792
Ger. Lunenburg, Charles Win. Fer., duke of, mil. commander 1735 1806
iom. Brutus, Lucius Junius, founder of the republican government. 0. 505
Rom. -, Marcus Junius, conspirator against Cmsar E. o..2
Ft. Bruyere, John de la, a celebrated writer. 1644 1697
Duttch. Bruyn, Cornelius le, traveller. 1652
Eng. Bryant, Jacob, a philologist and antiquary.. 1715 180-4
Eng. Brydges, Sir Egerton, eccentric literatecur... 1762 1837
Fr. Buat, Nancay, Louis G., count de, a learned writer
Fr. Bucer, Martin, one of the fathers of the reformation. 1491 1551
Scotch. Buchan, William, a physician and author.. 1729 1791
Scotch. Buchanan, George, an eminent writer.. 1506 1582
Scotch. ----, Claudius, a divine.... 1766 1805
Eng. Buclkingham, George Villiers, duke of, statesman. 1592 1628
Eng. --- -, George Villiers, son of the former 1627 1;C,
Amer. Buel, Jesse, agricultural writer.. 1778 lbh9
Polish. Buffier, Claude, a Jesuit, and miscellaneous writer.. 1661 1737
Fr. Buffon, George L. le Clerc, count of; celebrated naturalist. 1.707 1788
Fr. Buoeaud, T. R., marshal of France. 1784
Ger. Buhle, J. G., hist. of philosophy, &c. 1763
Nor. Bull, Ole, famous violinist.. 1810
Swiss. Bullinger, Henry, reformer and author. 1504 1575
Eng. Bulwer, (now Sir Edward Lytton,) novelist andi dramatist.. 1803
Eng., Sir Henry L., diplomatist and pol. writer
Pruss. Bunsen, C. C. J., chevalier de, diplomatist and historian.. 1791
Erg. Bunyan, John, author of' Pilgrim's Progress'.. 1628 1688
Swiss. Burckhardt, John Louis, oriental traveller... 1784 J.' 5
Ger. _-, John Charles, mathematician.. 1773 1815
Eng. Burdett, Sir Francis, politician.. 1770 1844
Eng. Burgess, Thomas, bp. of Salisbury, classicaland theological writer 1756 1837
Eng. Burgoyne. John, military commander and author.. 1792
Irish. Burke, Edmund, a great statesman and writer... 1730 1797
Eng. Burleigh, William Cecil, lord, eminentstatesman.. 1520 1598
Dutch. Burman, Peter, critic and editor... 1668 1741
Scotch. Burnes. Sir Alex., travels in Bolkkara-' Cabool,' &c... 1805 1841
Scotch. Burnet, Gilbert, a divine and historian... 1643 1715
Eng. Burney, James, admiral and author... 1739 1820
ng. —, Charles, a doctor of music... 1726 1814
Scotch. Burns, Robert, a popular and national poet. 1759 17..~
Amer. Burr, Col. Aaron, vice-pres. U.S... 1756 1836
Eng. Burton, Robert, author of the' Anatomy of Melancholy'. 1576 1639
Ger. Busching, Anthony Fredericlk, philosopher and geological writer. 1721 1793
Eng. Bute, John Stuart, earl of, statesman... 1738 1792
Eng. Butler, Samuel, a humorous poet... 1612 1680
Eng., Joseph, bishop, an eminent prelate and author. 1692 1762
Eng. --, Samuel, bp. of Litchfield, editor of I X schyles,' &c. 1774 1840
Amer. -, Richard, colonel, an officer in the revolution. 1791
Ger. Buttman, Philip C., philolozist... 1764 1829
Ger. Buxtorf, John, a Hebrew and Chaldaic-]exicographer.. 1564 1629
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 665
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED.
Ger. BItlxtorf, John, (son of the preceding) lexicographer.. 1599 1644
Eng. ByIng, honorable John, admiral... 1704 1757
Eng. Byron, honorable John, admiral... 1723 1786
Eng. -, George Gordon, lord, a popular poet.. 1788 1824
"Ital. Cabot, Sebastian (son of John) navigator... 1477
Port. Cabral, Pedro Alvarez, navigator.. f. 1500
Span. Cabrera, don Ramon, military commander for Don Carlos.. 1810
Fr. Cadet De Grassicourt, Charles L., chemist and philosopher. 1769 1821
Ital. Cadamosta, Louis da, navigator. f. 1456
Fr. Caille, Rene,' Voyage at Tembouctou,' &c... 1838
Rom. Cmsar, Caius Julius, warrior, statesman, and author. c. 100:s. c. 44
Ital. Cajetan, Cardinal, diplomatist and author... 1510 1593
Gr. Calaber, Quintus, poet... f. 250
Span. Calderon de la Barca, don Pedro, dramatist. 1600 1687
Ital. Calepino, Ambrose, author of a Lexicon in 11 languages.. 1435 1511
tAmer. Calhoun, John C., senator of the U. S. 1782 1850
Gr. Calippus, astronomer and mathematician.. f. B. C. 330
Gr. Callimachus, a poet.. f. B. B. 150
Gr. Callisthenes, philosopher and historian... B.. 328
Fr. Calmet, Augfustine, an erudite divine and author o. 1672 1757!tal. Calogera, Angelo, a learned monkl and author... 1699 1768
lFr. Calonne, Charles Alex. de, minister of state... 1734 1802
Ft. Calvin, John, one of the apostles of the Reformation. 1509 1564
Amer. Calvert, Leonard, first governor of Maryland [See Baltimore]. 1676
Fr. Cambaceres, John J. R., distinguished revolutionist.. 1753 1824
Eng. Cambridge, duke of, sixth son of George 1II... 1774 1850
Eng. Camden, William, an eminent antiqutary and historian.. 1551 1623
IRom. Camillus, Marcus Furius, a distinguished dictator. B. C. 365
Port. Camoens, Louis, the most eminent poet of his country. 1517 1579
Scotch. Campbell, George, a divine and author... 1709 1796
Scotch. John, a multifarious writer... 1775
Scotch., Thos., poet-' Life of Petrarch,& &e.. 1777 1844
Scotch. - -, Lord, jurist-' Lives of Chancellors'.. 1778'Ger. Camper, Peter, an eminent naturalist... 1722 1789
Fr. Campiston, John G. de, dramatist.... 1656 1723
Fr. Cange, Charles Dufresne, Sieur du, historian., 1610 1688
Eng. Canning, George, statesman, orator, and poet.. 1770 1827
Fr. Capefigue, B. H. R., historian... 1799
Span. Capmany, Don Antonio, historian... 1754 1810'CRom. Caracalla, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, emperor.. 188 217
Brit. Caractacus, prince of the Silures, a brave warrior (ab.) 100
Ital. Cardan, Jerom, philosopher, mathematician, and physician. 1501 1576
Fr. Cardonne, Dennls D., an eminent orientalist... 1720 1783
Eng. Carey, Henry, Earl of Monmouth, translator.. 1596 1661
Amer., Matthew, philanthropist, publisher, and politician.. 1760 1839
Eng. W, William, missionary to India.... 1761 1822
Ital. Carissimi, James, musical composer. 1600
Irish. Carleton, Sir Guy, military commander, and governor of Canada. 1724 1808
Ital. Carli, John Rinaldo, count de, author.... 1720 1795
Eng. Carlisle. Sir Anth., physician and medical writer.. 1768 1840
Span. Carlos, don, son of Philip II. (hero of Schiller's tragedy).. 1545 1568
Port. -, don M. J.
Scoteld. Carlyle, Thomas, historian and metaphysician.. 1795
Gr. Carneades, philosopher, founder of the 3d Academy. B. C. 218 B. c. 128
Fr. Carnot, Lazarus Nicholas, revolutionist.. 1753 1823
Fr. Carrel, Armand, historian and metaphysician... 1800 1836
Eng. Carter, Elizabeth, a learned translatress, &c,.. 1717 1806
Amer. -, Nathaniel H., a scholar and traveller. 183C
Eng. Cartwright, Majoa. John, parliament reformer.. 1740 1824
Ger. Carus, C. G., writer on anatomy and physiology... 1789
Amer. Carver, Jonathan, traveller aaid author.. 1732 1780
Amer. -, John, first governor of Plymouth colony.. 1621
Eng. Cary, Henry F., poet-translator of' Dante'.. 1772 1844
Span. Casas, Bartholomew de las, philanthropist and historian. 1474 1554
Fr. Cassini, John Dominic, astronomer. 1625 1712
Tjal. Cassiodorns, Marcus Aur., statesman and historian.. 470 516
RIem. Cassius, Longinus Caius, conspira.tor against CMasar.. a. a. 42
Eng. Castell, Edmund, divine and lexicographer... 1606 1685
f66'ITHE WORtLD'S PROGRESS.
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORIN. DIED
Ital. Castiglione, Balthasar, statesman and author.. 1468 1529
Ital. Catalini, Madame, eminent vocalist... 1782 18i
Eng. Catesby, Mark, naturalist... 1680 1749
Russ. Catherine 11., a powerful. and profligate empress.. 1729 1796
Rom. Catiline, Lucius Sergius, patrician conspirator. c. 62
Fr. Catinat: Nicholas, military commander.. 1637 1712
Rom. Cato, Marcus Portius, the Censor, statesman and author..c. 232 a. c. 147
Rout. -, Marco Porcius,'of Utica,' statesman B... 95 a. c. 46
Rom. Catullus, Caius Valerius, poet a. C. 86
Fr. Cauchy, Aug. L., mathematician. 1780
Fr. Caussin, Nicholas, a Jesuit, author of'The Holy Court'.. 1583 1651
Fr. Cavaignac, Gen., military commander and statesman
Enug. Cavendish, Sir William, courtier and writer... 1505 1.557
Eng. ~, Thomas, navigator.. 1591
g. Caxton, William, the introducer of printing into England.. 1410 1492
Cazales, James A. lI. de. an eloquent orator. 1752 1805
FP. Caylus, A. C. P., count de, miscellaneous writer... 1720 1765
R )m. Ceisus, Aurelius Cornelius, a celebrated physician. f. 30
Gr. -, an Epicurean philosopher... f. 50
Roim. Censorius, a critic and grammarian.. f. 240
Irish. Centlivre, Susanna, a dramatic writer. 1667 1723
Span. Cervantes, Saavedra Michael, author of' D)on Quixotte' 1547 1616
Ital. Cesarotti, Melchior, a voluminous author.. 1730 1808
Scotch. Chalmers, George, miscellaneous writer.. 1744 1825
Eno. —, Alex.,'General Biographical Dictionary,' &c.. 1759 1834
Scotch. -, Thomas, D. D., theologian and political economist. 1770 1846
Eng. Chambers, Sir William, an architect.. 1796
Fr. Champollion, the younger,' Monuments d'IEgypte,' &c.. 1790 1832
Fr. Champollion-Figeac, historian and antiquary. 1779
Amer. Channing, William Ellery, D. D., theologian and philanthropist. 1780 1842
Eng. Chantry, Sir Francis sculptor... 1781 1841
Eng. Chapman, George, poetical translator... 1557 1634
Eng. Chapone, Hester, miscellaneous writer... 1727 1801
Fr. Chaptal, J. A. C., chemist. 1756 1832
Fr. Charles Martel, statesman and warrior... 741
Fr. Charles, J. A. C., natural philosopher... 1746 1825
Fr. -, V. E. P., historian and literatesur
Fr. Charlemagne, emperor of the West, and king of France 742 814
Swe. Charles XII., king, a celebrated warrior.... 1682 1718
Fr. Charlevoix, Peter F. X. de, a Jesuit historian.. 1682 1761
Dutch. Chass6, David II., baron, military commander.. 1765
Fr. Chateaubriand, poet, statesman, and traveller.. 1769 1848
Fr. Chatel, Abbd Fer. F., theological reformer.. 1795
Eng. Chatham, VWm. Pitt, earl of, statesman.. 1708 1778
Etng. Chatterton, Thomas. famed for precocious talent. 1752 1770
Eng. Chaucer, Geoffrey, the fatlher of English poetry.. 1328 1400
Amer. Chauncey, Charles, D. D., president of Harvard College 1671
Amner, -, Commodore Isaac, naval commander.. 1840
Eng. Cheselden, William, an eminent anatomist. 1688 1752
Eng. Chesterfield, Philip D. Stanhope, earl of, statesman and writer. 1694 1773
Ital. Cherubini, musical composer... 1842
Fr. Chevalier, Michael, engineer, traveller, and statesman.. 1806
Fr. Chevreul, M. E., chemist. 1786
Gr. Chilo, Euphorus of Sparta-one of the seven wise men. f. B. C. 598
Amer. Chipman, Nathaniel, jurist and statesman.. 1752 1843
Eng. Chitty, Joseph, author of numerous works on law... 1776 1841
Poi. Chlopicki. J., military commander-dictator of Poland 1772
Fr. Choiseul-Stainville, C. A. G., duke of, statesman and author. 1762
Swe. Christina, queen (daughter of G. Adolphus).. 1626 1689
A fric. ('hristophe, a slave —alterwards king of Hayti 1767 1820
Gr. Chrysiphus, a stoic philosopher... c. 280 a. C. 207
Gr. Chrysostom, John, Christian father and orator... 344 407
Eng. Churchill, Charles, a satirical poet. 1731 1764
Ames Church, Benjamin, military commander... 1639 1718
Eng. Cibber, Colley, tragic and comic actor and poet. 1671 1557
Rum. Cicero, Marcus Tullius, one of the greatest of orators. B. C. 105 a. c. 43
Ital. Cimarosa, Dominic, dramatic and music composer. 1754 1801
Gr. Cimon, an Athenian general...... 449
Rom. Cincinnatus, Lucius Quinctius, the patriot, flourished. C. 456
Rom. Cinna, Lucius Cornelius, partisan of Marius, flourished...a. 87
Ital. Cirillo, Dominic, a botanist and physician.. 1734 1799
13IOGRAPHCAL INDEX. 667
NATION. NAMIU AND PROPESSION. BORN. DIED.
Amer. Clair, Arthur St., a distinguished officer in the revolution. 1818
Pr. Clairaut, Alexis Claude, geometrician.. 1713 1765
Amcr. Clap, Thomas, president of Yale College. 1703 1767
Scotch. Clapperton, Hugh, traveller in Alifica.. 1788 1827
Eng. Clarendon, Edward Hyde, earl of, statesman and historian. 1608 1674
Eng. Clarke, Samuel, Dr., theologian and philosopher. 1675 1729
n., Dr. Edward Daniel, traveller and mineralogist. 1767 1821
lnt. 1, Dr. Adam, a celebrated theologian and commentator 1760 1832
En, Sir James, medical author
Amer. Clark, Willis Gaylord, poet and essayist. 1810 1841
En. Clarkson, Thomas, philanthropist.. 1761
Anme r. Clayton, John, an eminent physician and botanist. 1705 1773
Q'. Cleanthes, a Stoic philosopher, flourished.. 3. o. 260
ital. Clementi, Mazio, musical composer.. 1832
Gr. Cleobolus, one of the seven wise men, flourished B.C. 559
Egypt. Cleopatra, a voluptuous queen.. C0. 30
Amer. Clinton, George, governor of New-Yorlk, and vice-president of U. S.. 1739 1812
Amer. -, Dewitt, governor and benefactor of Nevw-York.. 1769 1828
drug. Clive, Robert, lord, military commander... 1725 1774
Fr. Cloquet, Ilypolite (brother of Jules), anatomist. 1787
Fr. Clot, or CUlot Bey, surgeon and medical writer (in Egypt).. 1795
Eng. Cobbett, William, political writer... 1835
Enl. Cogan, Thomas, physician, and miscellaneous writer.. 1736 1818
Eng. Coke, Sir Edward, a learned judge.. 1549 1634
r. Colbert, John Baptist, an eminent statesman.. 1619 1683
Amer. Colburn, Zerah, precocious arithmetician.. 1804 1840
Amer. Colden, Cadwallader, an eminent botanist, astronomer, &c.. 1688 1776
Amer. -, Cadwallader D., statesman, biographer of Fulton, &c.. 1769 1834
Eng. Coleridge, Henry N., i'terateur.. (ab.) 1800 1843
E -ng -, Samuel T., poet and metaphysician.. 1834
Eng. Collingwood. Cuthbert, lord, admiral.... 1748 1810
Eng. Collins, William, a popular poet.. 1720 1756
Eng. Coleman, George, dramnatic writer... 1733 1784
Amer. -—, Benjamniin, a learned divine (in Boston). 1673 1747
Eng. Colman, George, the younger, dramatist 1762 1836
Fr. Colombat, de 1'Isre, medical writer (ab.) 1800
ital. Columbus, Christopher, the discoverer of America.. 1441 1506
Engr. Cotton, C. C., author of' Lacon'.. 1773 1832
Scotch. Combe, George, phrenologist and philosopher.. 1788
Scotch. —, Andrew, medical and physiological writer 1797
Ft. Conde, Louis II. of Bourbon, Protestant military commander 1621 1680
F C. Condillac, Stephen Bonnot de, metaphysical writer.1715 1780'Chinese Confucius, a celebrated philosopher n..... 550
Eng. Congreve, William, a comic drmatnatist.. 1670 1728
r. Conon, an Athenian general B. c. 390
Fr. Constant, Benjamrnin, statesman and metaphysician 1767 1830
Gr. Constantine (the Great), the first Christian emperor. 274 337
Gr. ---- - VII. (Porphyrogenitus), emperor and author. 905 959.r1. --—.-~- (Paleologus), the last of the Greek emperors 1403 1453
Eng. Cook, James, a celebrated circumnavigator.. 1728 1776
Cooke, Thomas, editor and translator.. 1702 1756
Enug.,' — George F., an eminent actor. 1756 1812
Aner. Cooper, Satnuel, D. D., a divine and political writer. 1725 1783
JEng., Sir Astley Paxton, physician and tmedical writer. 1768 1841
Eng., Thomas, chemtist, jurist, and politician (in Anmer.). 1759 1840
Itish., Coote, Sir Eyre, military commander in India. 1726 1783
Pruss. Copernicus, Nicholas, a celebrated astronomer-the reviver of the Pythagorean system of the universe.. 1473 1543
Gr. Corinna, a poetess, flourished in the fifteenth century, before Christ.
Itom. Coriolanus, Caius Marcius, a warrior... c. 488
Fr. Corminenin, L. M. de la Haye, vic. de, political writer 1788
Ital. Cornaro, Lewis, a noble-author of a book on temperance. 1467 1565
Fr. Corneille, Peter, an eminent dramnatic writer... 1606 1684
Fr., Thomnas (brother of' Peter), poet and dramatist.. 1625 1709
Gee. Cornelius, Peter, painter (in fresco, &c.)
Fr. Cornelli, Mark Vincent, a Venetian geographer and hiistorian. 1718
Eng. Cornwalis, Charles, marquis; nmilitary commander. 1738 1805
Port. Cortes, Fecdinand, the brutal conqueror of Mexico.. 1485 1554
hItal. Cosla, Paola, litelraetecu.. 1771 1836
Dutch. Coster, John Lavwrence, one of the supposed inventors of printing 1370
Ger. Cotta, Baron F., publisher and statesman.... 183
Fr. Cottin, Sophia, madame, a novelist.. 1773 18Cl
668 THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED.
Amer. Cotton, John (of Boston), a lealrned divine... 1585 1652
Fr. Coulomb, Charles, Augustine de, philosopher... 1736 1806.
Fr. Courier, Paul Louis, poet and satirist... 1772 1'25
Fr. -—, Paul Louis, political writer.. 1774 1825
Fr. Court de Gebelin. Anthony, an antiquarian and author.. 1725 1784
Fr. Cousin, Louis, historian... 1627 1707
Fr. -, Victor, statesman and metaphysician
Eug. Cowley, Abraham, poet.... 1618 1667
Eng. Cowper, William, poet..... 1731 1800
Eng. Coxe, William, traveller and historian... 1747 1828
En. Crabbe, Rev. George, poet..... 1754 1832
Ger. Cramer, John Andrew, miscellaneous writer.. 1723 1788
Eng. Cranmer, Thomas, a celebrated reformer.. 1489 1556
Rtom. Crassus, Marcus Lucinius (the Rich), military commander. B. O. 53
Amer. Crawford, William H., statesman and jurist... 1772 1834
Fr. Crebillon, Prosper Jolyott de, tragic poet... 1674 1762
Fr. Crevier, John Baptist Lewis, historian.... 1693 1765
Amer. Crockett, David, eccentric statesman... 1836
Eng. Croly, Rev. George, poet and novelist
Eng. Cromwell, Thomas, earl of Essex, successor of Wolsey.. 1490 1540
Eng., Oliver, military comsmander and statesman.. 1599 1658
Scotch. Cruden, Alexander, author of a Concordance to the Bible. 1701
Eng. Cruikshank, George, artist, chiefly caricature... 1780
Eng. Cudworth, Ralph, philosopher.... 1617 1688
Scotch. Cullen, William, an eminent physician. 1712 1790
Eng. Cumberland, William Augustus, duke of, military commander. 1721 1765
Eng., Richard, a multifarious writer... 1732 1811
Scotch. Cunningham', Allan, poet, biographer, &c. 1763 1842
Irish. Curran, John Philpot, a celebrated barrister and orator. 1750 1817
Reom. Curtius, Rufus Quintus, history.
Fr. Cuvier, baron, one of the greatest of naturalists... 1769 1832
Fr. ~, Fred. (brother of the baron), naturalist... 1773 1838
Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, an eminent lIther of the church. 258
Cyril, St., the apostle of the Sclavi.... 822
D
Fr. Dacler, Anne, a celebrated classical scholar... 1651 1720
Swe. Dalin, Olaus Von, the father of Swedish poetry.. 1708 1753
Amer. Dallas, Jamnes Alexander, secretary treasury U. S... 1759 1817
Amer., Commodore A. J., naval commander.. 1791 1844
Eng. Dalton, John, chemist and mathematician... 1766 1844
Ger. Damin, Christian Tobias, Greek lexicographer.. 1699 1778
Eng. Dampier, William, an eminent navigator... 1652 1711
Eng. Daniell, John F., chemist... 1790 1845
Eng., W., R. A., Author of pictorial works on India.. 1837
Ger. Dannecker, sculptor (' Ariadne,' &c.).. 1758 1841
Ital. Dante Alighieri,' the sublimest of the Italian poets'.. 1265 1321
Eng.' D'Arblay, Madame (Fanny Burney), novelist.. 1752 1840
Eng. Darwin, Erasmus, a poet, physician, and botanist... 1721 1802
Aust. Daun, Leopold Joseph Mary, count de, military commander. 1705 1765
Fr. Daunou, P. C. F., statesman and literateur.. 1761 1840
Amer. Davidson, Lucretia M., a youthf'ul poetess of uncommon genius. 1808 1825
Amer. Davies, Samuel, president of Princeton College-theol. writer. 1724 1761
Ital. Davila, Henry Catharine, an historian.. 1576 1631
EnL. Davis, John, a navigator-discoverer of'Davis' Straits'.. 1605
Eng. Davy, Sir Humphrey, eminent chemist... 1778 1829
Amer. Deane, Silas, minister of the U. S. to France... 1758 1789
Amer. Dearborn, Henry, a distinguished officer of the two American wars 1751 1829
Fr. Debrue, William Francis, a bookseller and bibliographer. 1731 1782
Swiss. Decandolle, A. P., botanist,.. 1778 1841
Amer. Decatur, Stephen, a gallant commodore in the IJ. S. navy.. 1779 1820
Eng. Defoe, Daniel, miscellaneous writer.... 1661 1731
Fr. Delambre, John Baptist Joseph, astronomer... 1749 1822
Fr. Delavigne, Casimir, dramatist.... 1794 1843
Fr. Delille, James, a celebrated poet.... 1738 1813
F1. Delisle, Joseph Nicholas, an eminent astronomer.. 1683 1768
Gr. Democritus, a celebrated philosopher..... 46,0
Gr. Demosthenes, one of the greatest of orators.a. 8. 1, C. 322
ErE. Denham, lieut. colonel Dixon, an enterprising traveller.. 1786 1828
Ital. Denina, Charles John Maria, an historian... 1731 1813
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 669
WATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN DIED.
Russ. Derzhavine, Gabriel R., a poet and statesman.. 1743 1816
Fr. Desaix, Louis Charles Anthony, military commander.. 1768 1800
Fr. Descartes, IRen6, an eminent philosopher.. 1596 1650
Fr. Dessaix, J. AM., count, marshal of France.. 1768
Afl. Dessalines, John.James, emperor of Hayti.. 1806
Fr. Destouches, Philip Nericault, dramatic writer.. 1680 1754
Dutch. Deurhoff; William, founder of a sect, and an author. 1650 1717
Amer. Dewees, W. P., medical writer.... 1841
Dutch. De Witt, John, an eminent statesman.... 1625 1672
Port. Diaz. Bartholomew, discoverer of the Cape of Good Hope 1500
Eng. Dibdin, Charles, a dramatic and musical composer. 1748 1814
Eng., Thomas, dramatist and song writer (son of Charles). 1841
Eng. --, Rev. Thomas F., bibliographer... 1849
CEl. Dick, Thomas, author of 6 Christian Philosopher'
Eng. Dickens, Charles, novelist
Fr. Diderot, Denis, first editor of' Encycloptedie Methocique'. 1713 1784
Fr. Didot, Francis A., a celebrated printer and type-fbunder.. 1730 1804
Fr. -—, Firmin, publisher, and member of Deputies. 1764 1836
Ft. —, Amb. Firmin, publisher and traveller.. 1790'Eypt. Didymus, who wrote from 3000 to 6000 works f. B. o. 30
IPruss. Ditsbitsch-Sabalkanski, count, military commander. 1785 1831
Pruss. Dieffenbach, J. F., surgeon.... 95
Ger. Dindorf, William, philologist. 1802
Span. Diez, John Martin, a patriotic military commander 1775 1825
Mace. Dinocrates, an architect-(built Alexandria, &c.) f. B. C. 350'Gr. Dion Cassius, author of Roman history.. 155
Gr. Dio Chrysostom, a rhetorician and philosopher. f. 30
Gr. Diodorus Siculus, a historian.f... 10
Gr. Diogenes, the Cynic, a philosopher B. c. 413 B. C. 323
Gr. Diogenes l.aertius, biographer
Gr. Dionysius, of Halicarnassus, critic and historian.. 52
Gr. -- a, a geographer.. f. 140
Eng. Dodd, Dr. William, miscellaneous writer. 1729 1777
Eng. Doddridge, Philip, a gifted and pious divine and writer 1702 1756
Ger. Doebereiner, J. W., chemist.... 1780
Ital. Donizetti, Gaetano, musical composer
Ttal. Doria, Andrew, the deliverer of his country (Genoa) 1468 1560
Scotch. Douglas, Gawin, a poet and translator. 1474 1521
Gr. Draco, an Athenian legislator... f. 623
Eng. Drake, Sir Francis, a celebrated circumnavigator 1545 1596
Dutch. Drebbel, Cornelius Van, inventor of the thermometer. 1572 1634
Fr. Droz, Joseph, historical and political writer
Eng. Dryden, John, an eminent poet... 1631 1700
Fr. Duchatel, C. M. T., count, statesman and author 1.. 03
Fr. Duchesne, Andrew, an historian. 1584 1640
Fr. Duclos, Charles Pineau, an historian.. 1704 1772
Fr. Duguescland, Bertrand, military commander. 1314 1380
Fr. DPumas, Alex., novelist, traveller, &c. 1803
Fr. -, J. B., chemist. 1800
Fr. Dumont, John, traveller and political writer... 1726
Fr. - d'Urville, J. S. C., circumnavigator... 1790 1842
Fr. Dumourier, Charles Francis Duperier, military commander 1739 1823
Scotch. Dunbar, William, a poet. 1465 1535
Scotch. Duncan, William, logician and translator. 1717 1760
Scotch --, Adam, viscount, a successful admiral 1731 1804
Amer. Dunlap, William, painter and historian... 1766 1839
Fr. Dupin, Louis Ellies, an ecclesiastical historian.. 1637 1719
Fr., A. M. J. J., jurist anti statesman... 1783
Fr., Charles, baron, jurist and statesman... 1784
Fr. Duponceau, P. S., philologist, jurist, &c. (at Philadelphia) 1760 1844
Fr. Dupuytren surgeon and anatomist. 1778 1835
Fr. Duiquesne, Abraham, a gallant admiral. 1610 1688
Eng. Durham, J. G. Lambton, earl of, governor general of Canada. 1792 1840
Fr. Duroc, Michael, duke of Friuli, military commander.. 1772 1813
Amer. Dwight, Dr. Timothy, an eminent divine and writer 1752 1817
E
Ger. Eckhard, John George, an antiquary and historian. 1674 1730
Irish. Edgeworth, Maria, novelist.. (about) 1770
Eno. Edward, the Black Prince, a warrior.. 1330 1376
6"70 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. )MED,
Amer. Edwards, Jonathan, an able divine and metaphysician. 1703 1757
Eng. - B, Bryan, an historian. 1743 18"-—, W. F., anatomist and physioloogist (born at Jamaica) 1777,Milne (son of the last), naturalist
Gr. Eginhard, an historian..... 339
Ger. Ehreoberg, C. J., naturalist. 1795
Ger. Eichborn, F. C., theologian and jurist
EL. Eldon, Lord lord chancellor of England 1750 1823
Scotch. Elgin, T. Booce, earl of, diplomatist-remover of' Elgin narbles' 1771 1841
Eng. Elizabeth, queen..... 1533 1603
Amer. Elliot, John,' the apostle to the Indians'... 1604 1690
Amer. Elliott, J. D., commodore in American navy. 1785 1815
Amner Ellsworth, Oliver, a distinguished chief justice of the U. S... 1745 1807
LEg. Enmerson, William, an eminent mathematician. 1701 1781
lirish. Emnmet, Thomas Addis, an eminent lawyer and orator. 1764 1827
elr. Empedocles, a Pythagorean philosopher
Elg. Enfield, William, miscellaneous writer.. 1741 1797
Fr. Eon De Beaumont, Chevalier, an eccentric writer. 1728 1810
Gr. Epaminondas, an illustrious Theban general.. B. C. 363
Gr. Epictetus, a Stoic philosopher.... f. 40
Gr. Epicurus, founder of the Epicurean sect of philosophers. B. C. 342 B. c. 371
Dutch. Erasmus, Desiderius, a celebrated scholar and author.. 1467 1536
Span. Ercilla, Don Alonzo, a poet.. 1525 1595
Span. Ericeira, Ferdinand, a statesman and historian. 1614 1699
Eng. Erigena, John Scotus, a learned writer of the ninth century
Pruss. Erman, A. G.,'Travels in Siberia,' &c... 1806
Ger. Ernesti, John, Augustus, an eminent critic.. 1707 1781
Scotch. Erskine, Thomas, lored, a celebrated forensic orator.. 1750 1823
Span. Escobar, Y. Mendoza Anthony, a celebrated casuist.. 1589 1669
Fr. Esquirol, J. E. D., writer on insanity.. 1772 1840
Ger. Ess, L. Van, theological writer... 1770
Eng. Essex. Robert Devereux, earl of, a warrior... 1567 160,
Aust. Esterhazy, Prince Paul, wealthy statesman
Afric. Euclid, an eminent geometrician.. f... 300
Fr. Eugene, Francis, prince, a great warrior (in the German service) 1663 1736
Swiss. Euler, Leonard, an eminent mathematician. 1707 1783
Gr. Euripides. a celebrated tragic poet. B. c. 480
Gr. Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea, a learned father of the church, and
ecclesiastical historian... 340
Romn. Eutropius, an historian. f. 360
Rlom. Eutyches, an ecclesiastic, founder of a sect
Eng. Evelyn, John, miscellaneous writer... 1620 1651
Amer. Everett, Alex. 11., essayist and diplomatist... 1790 1847
Eng. Faber, George Stanley, theological writer
Rtem. Fabius, Quintus M. V., a skililll warrior... B.. 204
Ger. Fabricius, John Albert, a critic and bibliographer.. 1668 173i
Ital. -, John Christian, a celebrated entomologist.. 1742 1807
Ital. Fabroni, Angelo. a learned biographer.. 1732 1803
Pruss. Fahrenheit, Gabriel Daniel, an experimental philosopher. 1686 1736
Eng Fairfax, Thomas, lord, a general in the civil war.. 1611 1671
Eng. Falconer, Williamn, a poet..... 1730 1769
Ital. Faliero, MIarino, doge of Venice (beheaded).. 1355
Irish. Faraday, Michael, chemist... 1790
P'ort. Faria Y. Souza, Manuel, an historian and poet.. 1588 1647
Irish. Farquhar, George, a dramatist.... 1678 1707
Ger. Faust, John, one of the inventors of printing.. 1466
Eng. Fawkes, Francis, a poet and translator.. 1721 1777
Fr. Fayette, Mary M., countess of, miscelianeous writer 1632 1693
Fr. Fenelon, Francis de Salignac de la Motte, an able writer, and one of
the most virtuous of men 1651 1715
Swe Fer ber, John James, an eminent mineralogist 1743 1790(
L,n0,. Ferguson, James, a self-educated astronomer, philosopher, &c. 1710 1776
5LD --—, Adam, an historian and moral philosopher. 1724 1816
Span. Fesreras, John de, a celebrated historian. 1652 1735
Fr. Fesch, Joseph, senior, priest-cardinal, archbishop of Lyons 1763 1.839
Ger. Feurbach, Paul John A. von, statesman and jurist 1775 1833
Span Feyjoo Y. Montenegro, an able miscellaneous writer 1701 1764
ltai. Ficino, Mtarsilius, a Platonic philosopher. 1433 1499
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 671
NATION' NAME AND PROFESSIO0T!. BORN. DIED.
Elgy. Fieldinv, Henry, a humorous novelist and dramatist. - 1707 1754
Ital. Fiesco, John Louis, the conspirator against Doria.. 1547
Eng. Flavel, John, an eminent nonconformist divine.1627 1691
Fr. Flechier, Esprit, a celebrated prelate... 1632 1710
Ger. Fleischer. -I. L., orientalist.... 1801
Eng. Fletcher, John, a dramatist..... 1576 1625
Fr. Fleury, Clautde, a divine and historian. 1640 1722
r. —, Andrew HIercules de, a cardinal and statesman. 1653 1743
A inr. Flint, 1Rev. Timothy, novelist and historian... 1780 1840
Florian, John Peter Claris de, miscellaneous writer.. 1755 1794
GeV Fliigel, G. L., philologist and historian.. 1802
Ger. Follen, C. T. C., theologian and philologist (in U. S.. 1796 1840
FtF. Fontenelle, Bernard le Bovier de, miscellaneous writer.. 1657 1757
Eng,. Foote, Samuel, a comic writer and actor... 1721 1771!tal. Forcellini, Giles, a Latin lexicographer.... 1688
Ent. Ford, John, an early dramatic writer 15.. 86 1639
Amer. Forsyth, John, diplomatist and statesman... 1780 1841
Eng. Fosbroolke, RIev. T. D., archleologist (Ency. Antiq.).. 1770 1842
Eng. Foster, John, essayist
Fr. Fouche, Joseph, duke of Otranto, a brutal revolutionist.. 1763 1820
Fr. Fourier, Charles, founder of the' social' system.. 1772 1837
Eng. Fox, John, a divine, author of the' Book of Martyrs'. 1517 1587
Eng. —, George, the founder of the Society of Friends, or Quakers. 1624 1690
Eng., Charles James, one of the greatest of statesmen and orators. 1748 1806
Irish. Francis, Sir Philip, political writer... 1740 Ik 2S
Amer. Franklin, Benjamnin, a celebrated philosopher and statesman 1706 1790
Pruss. Frederick II., the Great, king —a able general and author.. 1712 1786
Ger. Freytag, G. WV. F., Arabic Dictionary, &c. 1778
Eng. Frobisher, Sir Martin, a celebrated nlavigator.. 1594
Fr. Froissart, John, a chronicler and poet... 1333 1400
Eng. Fry, Elizabeth, philanthropist.... 1780 1845
Eng. Fuller, Thomas, a divine and historian... 160 1661
Eng. Fuller, Andrew, an eminent Baptist minister... 1754 1815
Amer. Fulton, Robert, the introducer of steamboats in America. 1767 1815
Fr. Furitiere, Antony, a philologist.... 1620 1683
G
Fr. Gagnier, John, an orientalist and author... 1670 1740
Fr. Gail, J. B., philologist..... 1755 1829
Fr. Gaillard, Gabriel HIenry, miscellaneous writer and historian 1728 1806
Amer. Gaines, Maj. Gen. E. P., military commander... 1777 1849
Gr. Galen, Claudius, a celebrated physician.. 131
Ital. Galileo, an illustrious philosopher and astronomer.. 1564 1642
Ger. Gall, Join Joseph, a celebrated physiologist, and founder of the science
of phrenology.. 1758 1828
Swiss-Amer. Gallatin, Albert, statesman, diplomatist, philologist, and ethnol. 1761 1849
Scotch. Gait, John, novelist.... 1779 1839
Ital. Galvani, Louis, a physician and experimental philosopher-discoverer
of galvanic electricity 1737 1798
Port. Gama, Vasco de, navigator, first who doubled the Cape of Good Hope 1524
Ger. Gans, Edward, jurist.. 1798 1841
Span. Garcia, Manuel, musical composer.... 1779 1832
Span. Garcias Lasso, de la Vega,' the Prince of Spanish poetry'.. 1503 1536
Fr. Garlier, Count Germain, jurist.... 1754 1821
Eng. Garriclk, David, a celebrated actor and dramatist. 1716 1779
Eng. Gascoigne, Sir William, the judge who imprisoned Henry Prince of
Wales for a misdemeanor.. 1350 1413
Fr. Gassendi, Peter, a celebrated philosopher. 1592 1655
Amer. Gates, Horatio, a distinguished officer in the revolution. 1728 1806
Eng. Gay, John, a popular poet..... 1688 1732
Fr. Gay-Lussac, N. F., chemist 1778 1850
Ger. Gellert, Christian Furchtegott, a poet and miscellaneous writer 1715 1769
Bar. Genghis Khan, a celebratedl conqueror... 1164 1227
Fr. Genlis, Stephania FelicitO, countess de, miscellaneous writer. 1746 1830
Eng. Geoffrey of Monmouth, an historian of the 12th century
Fr. Gerando, Baron de, writer on education, &c... 1770
Rom. Germanicus, Tiberius Drusus Cresar, military commander. 19
Fr. Gerson, John Charlier de, an ecclesiastic and author. 1363 1429
Swiss Gesner, Conrad, an eminent naturalist.. 1516 1f6C5
Ger.,John Matthias, a philologist.. 1691 1761
Amer. Gerry, Elbridge, a distinguished patriot, vice-president U. S. 1811
671;.a.THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
NA.TION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN DIED.
ItPal. Giannone, Peter, an historian. 1676 1758
Ellg. Gibbon, Edward, one of the greatest of English historians. 1737 179'1.
Amer. Gibson, Col. John and Col. George, both officers in the Revolution
Eng. Gitford, William, a critic and poet. 1757 1826
Eng., John, an historical and political writer 1758 1818
Eng. Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, one of the earliest adventurers in America. 15183
Eng. Gill, John, a divine, oriental scholar, and author. 1697 1771
Scotch. Gillies, John, h Iistory of Greece,' &c... 1747 183(6
Ital. Gioja, Melchior, writer on economical sciences 1767 1829
Swe. Gmelin, John Fredericlk, a chemist.... 1748 1S05
Fr. Godfrey of Bouillon, or Boulogne, a celebrated leader in the crusades 1100
Amer. Godman, John, M. D., a distinguished naturalist, &c.. 1830
Eng. Godwin, William, novelist and metaphysician 1755 1836
Gel:. Goethe, a celebrated dramatist... 1749 1831
Itay. Goldoni, Charles,'the Italian Moliere'. 1707 1793
Irisl Goldsmith, Oliver, a celebrated poet and miscellaneous writer 1731 1774
Dutch. Golius, James, an orientalist and lexicographer.. 1596 1667
Span. Gonsalvo of Cordova, a celebrated warrior. 1443 1515
Gr. Gorgias, an orator and sophist, f. B. C. 5th century
Fr. Gourgaud, Gen., military commander under Napoleon
Eng. Gower, John. one of the earliest English poets. 1402
Rom. Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius, a celebrated democrat.. 133
Rom. - -- Caius Sempronius...B.. 121
Ger. Greefe, or Graevius, an erudite classic writer. 1632 1703
Scotch. Grahame, James, author of' History of the United States'
Scotch. Grahatne, James, a poet. 1765 181
Scotch. Grant, Anne (of Laggan), novelist, essayist, &c.. 1755 1838
Eng. Granville, John Carteret, earl, a statesman.. 1690 1763
Ital. Gratian, a monkt, compiler of the canon law, f. 12th century
Irish. Grattan, Henry, a distinguished orator and statesman. 1750 1820
Dutch. Gravesande, Win. Jacob, a geometrician and philosopher 1688 1742
Eng. Gray, Thomas, a poet. 1716 1771
Gregory Nazianzen, St., Christian writer 328 389
Gregory of Nyssa, St., do. 331 396
Fr. Gregory (of Tours), St., an historian.. 544 593
Fr. Gregory I., the Great, pope, an author.. 544 604
Ital. Gregory VII., the Great, pope (EIildebrand), a celebrated despot 1085
Scotch. Gregory, James, a philosopher and mathematician 1648 1618Scotch. Gregory, David, do. do. 1661 1710
Irish. Gregory, George, D. D., a miscellaneous writer. 1754 1808
Eng. Gregory, Olinthus, mathematician and religious writer. 1774 1841
Amer. Greene, Nathaniel, maj. gen., distinguished in the Revolution. 1741 1786
Eng. Grey, lady Jane, the accomplished victim of another's ambition. 1537 1554
Eng. Grey, Earl, statesman-whig premier for William IV... 1764 1845
Ger Griesbach, John James, an eminent theologian and philologist. 1745 1812
Amer. Griomke, Thomas S., jurist.... 1786 1834
Ger. Grimm. J. L. C., miscellaneous writer.. 1785
Dutch. Gronovius, James, an erudite critic. 1645 1716
Ger. Grotefend, G. F., p. lologist... 1775 1836
Dutch. Grotius, or De Groot, Hugh, an eminent scholar. 1583 1645
Fr. Grouchy, Emanuel, count, marshal of France.. 1766
Amer. Grundy, Felix, senator of the U. S. (Tenn.).. 1777 1840
Ger. Gryph, Andrew, a dramatist.... 1616 1664
Ital. Guarini, John Baptist, a poet.. 1537 1612
Ger. Guericlke. Otto, exp. philos.-inventor of the air-pump. 1602 16%
Ital. Guicciardini, Francis, an historian... 1482 1540t
Nor. Guiscard, Robert, a Norman warrior... 1015 1085
Fr. Guise, Francis of Lorraine. duke of, a celebrated warrior 1519 1563
Fr. Guise, Charles of, Caidinal, a bigoted and ambitious statesman. 1525 1574
Fr. Guise, Henry, of Lorraine, duke of. an ambitious warrior 1550 1588
Fr. Guizot, Francis, statesman, historian, and metaphysician. 1787
Eng. Gunter, Edmund, a mathematician-inventor of the' Gunter's scale,' &c. 1581 1619
Swe. Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, an able warrior. 1594 1633
Scotch. Guthrie. William, author of a history of England, Scotland, &c. 1708 1770
Ger. Guttemberg, John, one of the inventors of printing.. 1400 1468
Pruss. G utzlaff, Charles, traveller and historian of China. 1803
Pers. Hafiz, Mohammed, a poet-the Anacreon of Persia. 1.389
Ger. Hahn, Simon Frederick, an historian. 1692 17.?'
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 673
NUATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. onamA. DIED.
Ger. lahnesann, founder of' Hommeopathy' in medicine. 1755 1843
Ger. Ilahn-Iahn, Ida, countess of, traveller and'novelist 1805
Eng. IHakluyt, Richard, autlhor of voyages, &c. of the English. 1553 1616
Eng. iHale, Sir Matthew, an eminent and incorruptible judge. 1609 1676
Eng. Halford, Sir IHenry. physician and medical writer.. 1766 1844
Scotch. Hall, Capt. Basil, author of Travels, &c.. 1788 1844
Eng. Hall, Rev. Robert, thieologian and pulpit orator. 1764 1831
Eng. Hallam, Ilenry, historian.
"wiss. Hailer, Albert Von, miscellaneous writer 1708 1777
Eng. Halley, Edmund, an eminent astronomer and mathematician 1656 1741
Amer. Hamilton, Alexander, a statesman-first secretary of treasury, U. S. 1757 1804
Irish. Hamilton, Elizabeth, a talented mniscellaneous writer. 1758 1816
EnB. Hamilton, Thomas, Captain, novelist,'Men and Manners in America 1789 1842
Ger. Hammer, Von, baron, historian and orientalist.. 1774'Lng. Hampden, John, a celebrated patriot... 1594 1643
Amer. Hancock, John, a distinguished patriot-president of Congress 1737 1793
Ger. HIandel, Geo. Frederick, one of the greatest nmusical composers. 1684 17'58
Nor. Hansteen, C., mathematician and astronomer... 1784
Eng. Harley, Robert, earl of Oxford, a celebrated statesman.. 1661 1724
Sa. Hiaroun Al Raschid, caliph, a patron of learning. 808
Amer. Harlan, Richard, M.., naturalist.... 1796 1843
Bng. Harris, James, compiler of the first Cyclopedia, &c.... _670 1719
Amer. Harrison, Gen. W. H., military commander, and pres. U. S.. 1773 1841
Amer. Harvard, John, founder of Harvard College... 1688
Eng. Harvey, William, discoverer of the circulation of the blood.. 1569 1658
~ er. Lase, Henry, classical antiquarian... 1789 1842
fsig. Haslam, John, writer on insanity.1764 1844
Eng. Hastings, Warren, governor-general of British India. 1733 1816
Eng. Hastings, marquis of, military commander... 1754 1825
Ger. Hauser, Casper, a mysterious' wild-boy'.. 1833
Fr. IHaussez, Baron, minister of Charles X.-traveller.. 1778
Fr. Hauy, Renatus Justus, mineralogist... 1742 1822
ing. Hawke, Edward, lord, a brave and successful admiral.. 1713 1781
Eng. Hawkesworth, Dr. John, miscellaneous writer.. 1715 1773
gEn. Hawkins, Sir John, a navigator-originator of the slave trade. 1520 1595
Ger. Haydn, Joseph, a celebrated musical composer.. 1732 1809
Ena., Hayley, William, a poet and miscellaneotil writer.. 1745 1820
Agmer. Hayne, Robert V., governor of South Carolina, and senator of U. S. 1791 1835
Eig. Hazlitt, William, essayist and critic....1830
Eng. Heber, Reginald, a divine, and poet... 1783 1826
Ger. Hedlerich, Benjamin, a lexicographer... 1675 1748
Ger. Hedwig, John, a physician and botanist... 1730 1799
Ger. Heeren, A. H. L., historian.... 1760 1842
G er. legel, G. W. F., metaphysician. 1770 1831
Ger. Heine, Henry, poet and literateur... 1799
Gr. Heliodorus (of Emessa), the first romance writer, flourished in the 4th century.
Ger. Helvicus, Christopher, a chronologist... 1581 1617
Eng. Iemans, Felicia D., poetess. 1794 1835
Ger. Hengstenberg, E. W., metaphysician, antiquarian, and theologian 1802
l:' Henry IV., an able and popular monarch... 1553 1610
Eng. Henry, Robert, an historian... 1718 1790
Amer. Henry, Patrick, an orator and patriot... 1736 1799
Gr. IHeraclitus, a philosopher, flourished before Christ. 504
Ger. Herder, John Godfrey, a philosophical writer.. 1744 1803
Ger. Hermann, J. G. J., philologist.. 1772
(Ler. Hermann, Ch. F., philologist,' History of Philosophy,' &c. 1804
Gr. Hermogenes, a rhetorician, flourished.. 180
Gr. Herodian, an historian... f. 230
Gr. Herodotus, the earliest of the Greek historians whose works are extant, B. o. 484
Ft. Herold, L. G. P., musical composer.. 1792 i833
Span i Herrera, Anthony, an historian... 1559 1625
T.g Herrick, Robert, a poet... 1591
En. IHerschel, Sir William, one of the greatest of astronomers. 1738 1822
Jew. IHerschel, Dr. Solomon, Chief Rabbi of the Jews in England 1760 1842
Eng. Iterschlell, Sir J. F. W., astronomer and natural philosopher
En'. Itervey, Janmes, a pious and amiable divine and writer. 1713 1758
Gr. Hiesiod' a poet, contemporary of Homer, flourished. o. a. 907
ier. Heyne, C. G., a learned critic and writer.. 1729 1812
Eng. Ihickes, Georg e, a theologian and philologist.. 1642 1715
Fr. Hilaire, Geof. St., naturalist. 1772
Eng. Hill, viscount, miilitary commander (Peninsula and Waterloo). 1772 1842
Eng Hill, sir John, a botanist and multifarious writer... 1716 1775
29
674 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIEB
Jew. IIlllel, thle elder, one of the compilers of the Talmud. B. C. 112
Amer. Hillhouse,.James A.. poet.. 1789 1841
Gr. Hippocrates, the fatlher of medicine. B.. 460
Eng. Iloadley, William, a celebrated prelate antd author.. 1676 1761
Amer. hobart, tolln Henry, bishop of New York. 1776 1833
EnI. Hobbes, Thomas, a philosopher and translator.. 1588 1679
F'r. Hoche, Lazarus, a military commander.. 1768 1797
Swiss Hofer, Andrew, a Tyrolian patriot... 1765 181.0
Eng. ITofland, Barbara, novelist.... 1844
Ger. Hloffnann, E. T. A., novelist. 1776 1822
Sotchl. 1Iogg, James,'The Ettrick Shepherd'... 1772 1835
Dan. Ilolberg, Louis, baron de, an historian... 1685 1754
Eng. Holc'oft, Thomas, a dramatist and miscellaneous writer. 1744 1809
Eiln. Holingshed, a chronicler.. 15182
Eng. Holland, Lord, statesman and literateur.. 1773 184G
Eng. Holland, Philemon, a translator.... 1551 1636
Amer. Holmes, Abiel, D. D.,' Annals of America'.. 1763 1837
Scotch. Home, John, a divine, dramatist, and historian. 1724 1808
Gr. Homer, the " greatest of poets," [supposed to have] flourished. B. c. 907
Eng. Hone, William, author of' Every Day Book' and political works 18412
Eng. Hood, Samuel, viscount, a naval officer..... 1724 1816
Eng. hIood, Thomas, poet and humorist.... 1778 1815
Dutch. Hoogvliet, Arnold, a poet. 1687 1763
Eng. Hook, Robert, a mathematician... 1635 1702
Eng. Hook Theo. E., novelist and humorist. 1788 1841
En. Hooke, Nathaniel, author of a Roman History.. 17j
Eng. Hoolrer, Sir W. J., botanist
Enl. Hooker, RIichard, an eminent divtne. 1553 1600
Eng. Hoole, John, a poet and translator... 1717 1803
Eng. Hooper, John, one of the first Protestant martyrs... 1495 1555
Eng. Hope, Thomas, a miscellaneous writer... 1831
Amer. Hopkins, Samuel, an eminent divine and author... 1721 1803
Amer. Hopkinson, Joseph, jurist and statesman... 1770 1842
Rom. Horace, Quintus Flaccus, an eminent poet.. B. C. 65 B.C. 8
Eng. Horne, George, a learned prelate. 1730 1792
Eng. Horsley, Samuel, a prelate and mathematician. 1731 1806
Amer. Hossack, David, M. i)., medical and scientific writer. 1769 1835
Eng. Howard, John, a celebrated philanthropist.. 1726 1701
Eng. dItdson, Henry, discoverer of" Hudson river".. f. 1600
Fr. Huet, Peter Daniel, an erudite prelate and author... 1630 1.721
Fr. Hugo, Victor M., novelist, poet, and statesman.. 1802
Amer. IIull, Commodore Isaac. naval commander (Const. and Guer., &c.) 1775 1845
Pruss. hIumboldt, F. H A., baron, traveller —geog. and nat. philosopher. 1769
Scotch. Hume, David, an historian and philosopher.. 1711 1776
Hunmlades, John, a celebrated warrior.. 1456
Eng. HIutt, Leigh, poet and essayist
Eng. Husklsson, Rt. hon. William, an able statesman. 1769 1830
Ger. Huss, John, the great Bohemian reformer.... 1376 1416
Irish. Hutcheson, Francis, a philosophical writer... 1694 1747
Amer. Hutchinson, Thos., a distinguished gov. of Massachusetts, and historian 1711 1733
Scotch. Hutton, James, a geologist and philosopher... 1726 1797
Eng. Hutton, Charles, an eminent mathematician.. 1737 1823
Dutch. Huygens, Christian, a scientific author... 1629 1705
Ind. Hyder A]i, a celebrated warrior..... 1782
Gr. Ibycus, a lyric poet..f. B. C. 550
Span. Ignatius De Loyola, the iounder of the Jesuits.. 1491 1556
Eng. Inchbald, Elizabeth, a dramatist and.novelist.. 1756 1821
Amer. Inman, Henry, portrait and landscape painter. 1801 1846
Eng. Ireland, W. H., author of the' Shakspeare Forgeries'
Eng. Irving, Rev. Edward, theological writer. 1792 1834
Gr. Ismus, an orator..... 418
Gr. Isocrates, an orator... B. 436
Spas. Iturbide, emperor of Mexico.... 1784 1S81
Amer, Jackson, Gen. Andrew, military commander, Pres. U. S. 1767 1845
Ger. Jacobi, Fred. H., philosopher, novelist, &c.. 1743 1819
Ger. Jacobs, Fred., classical philologist... 1764
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 675
NATION NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED.
Fr. Jacotot, Jean J., educational writer. 1770 1840
Dutch. Jacqnin, Nicholas Joseph, a botanist... 1727 1817
Ger. Jahn, John, an eminent oriental scholar. 1750 1817
Eng. James, G. P. It., novelist and historian.
r. Janin, Jules, literate... 1804
Dutch. Jansen, Cornelius, founder of a sect. 1585 1638. Jasmin, Jacques, a barber-poet.. 1798
Anelr..lay, John, a distinguished patriot and statesman 1745 1829
Amer..JelTlrson, Thomas, a patriotic statesman, 3d president of the United States 1743 1826
Scotch. Jefihey, Francis, lord, essayist and critic.. 1773 1850
Eng. Jenner, Edward, introducer of the vaccine inoculation 1749 1823
Et. Jenyns, Soame, a poet and miscellaneous writer 1704 1787
Jerome, St., one otf the fathers of the church... 420
Ger. Jerome, of Prague, a reformer, companion of Huss 1416
Elng. Jewel, John, a learned prelate ancl author.5.. 1571
Fr. Joan of Arc, " the greatest of heroines". 1410 1431
Eng. Johnson, Satnuel, a divine and writer in the cause of liberty. 1649 1703
Eng. Johnson, Samuel,' the colossus of English literature" 1709 1784
Ital. Jomnelli, Nicholas, a dramatic and musical composer.. 1714 1774'SwyiSs. Jomlii. Henry, baron, military writer.. 1775
Eng. Jones, inigo, an eminent archlitect. 1572 1652
Eng. Jones, William, a divine and author. 1726 1S00
ELg. Jones, Sir William, an eminent poet, scholar, and lawyer 1746 1794
Scotch. Jones, John Paul, a captain in the navy of the United States. 736 1792
Eng. Jonson, Benjamin, a celebrated poet and dramatist.. 574 1637
E3ng. Jortin, Dr. John, a learned theologian and author. 1698 1770
Josephine, emnpress of the French (born in Martinico) 1761 1814
Jew. Josephus, a celebrated historian and warrior. 37 95
Fr. Jouffroy, Theo. S., metaphysician and statesman. 1796 1842
Fr. Jourdan, J. B., marshal of France. 1762 1833
Ger. Juan, or John, of Austria, don. a warrior.... 1546 1578
Jew. Judah,. Ialkkadosh, a famous rabbi, and Talmudist 129 194
Dan. Juel, Nicholas, a celebrated admniral... 1629 1697
Julian, Flavius Claudlius, a Roman emperor and author 331 363
Fr. Julien, A. J., orientalist. 1799
Ger. Junge, Joachiln, philosopher. 1587 1657
Dutch. Junius, Adrian, a voluminous writer. 1512 1575
Fr. Junot, Andoche, dukle d'Abrantes, military officer 1771 1813
Fr. Junot, Madame, duchess dl'Abrantes, biography, &c. 1784 1839
Fr. Jussieu, A. L. rde, botanist. 1748 1836
Gr. Justin Martyr, one of the fathers of the church. 91 165
Rom. Justin. Latin historian. f. B.C. 200
Rom. Juvenal, Decius Junius, tile itr Ot vehement of satirists 128
Ger. KCmpfer, a naturalist, traveller, and historian.. 1651 1716
Qer. IKestner, Abrahamn Gothelf, a mathematician and astronomer 1719 1799
Fr. Kalb, baron de, who generously aided the American cause. 1717 1780
Scotch. Rames, Henry Home, lord, a judge and author.. 1696 1782
Ger. Kant, Emanuel, metaphysician.. 1724 1804
ItRuss. Karamsin, Nicholas M., historiographer of the empire 1765 1826
Eng. Kean, Edlmund, tragedian.... 1787 1833
Eng. Keats, John, a poet. 1796 L820
Scotch. Keith, James, an officer in the Russian and Prussian service. 1696 1758
Irish. Kelly., Michael, a composer and singer... 1762 L826
Eng. Kemble, John Pllilip, a celebrated tragedian 1757 1823
Fr. Kempis, Thomas 1, supposed author of the " Imitation of Christ" 1380 1471
Erng. Kennet, White, a learned prelate and author... 660 1728
Eng. Kennicott, Benjamin, a divine and biblical critic.. 1718 1783
Amer. Kent, James, jurist-chancellor of N. Y. 1763 1847
Ger. Kepler. John, an eminent astronomer.... 1571 1630
Scotch. Kerr. Robert, a miscellaneous writer. 1814
Ag elt. King, Itufus. statesman and diplomatist... 1755 1827
htish. Kingsborough, Lord, patron of great work on Mexican Anticluities 1795 1837
En r. Kitchiner, William, writer on coolkery. 1827
Pruss. Klaproth, I-enry J., philologist and ethnologist. 1784 1835
F K. Kleber, John Baptist, military officer... 1754 L800
Ger. Klopstock, "I the Milton o' Germany"... 1724 1803
Scotre:. Knox, John, the great champion of the reformation.. 1505 1572
Eng. Knox, Dr. Vicesimus, a divine and miscellaneous writer 1752 1821
676 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED,
Amer. Knox, HIenry, military officer and statesman... 1750 1806
Gert. Koch, Christopher William, an historian.. 1737 1813
Fr. Kock, Charles Paul de, novelist and dramatist.. 1794
Polish. Kosciusko, Thaddeus, a warrior and patriot. 1746 1817
(Served in the American army during the revolution.)
Ger. Kotzebue, Augustus Frederick, Per. Von, an historian, &c. 1761 1819
Ger. Kunth, Charles S., botanist. 1788
Russ. Kutosoff; Michael L. G., field marshal.. 1745 181.3
L
Fr. Laborde, Alex. L. C., comte de, traveller, &c.. 1842
Fr. Lacepede, Bernard G. S. de la Ville, count de, naturalist.. 1756 1825
Fr. Lacretelle, Charles, traveller and literateur
Lactantius, L. C., a father of the church; styled the Christian Cicero 325
Fr Lacroix, Silvestre F., mathematician. 1765 1843
Fr. Laennec, R. T. H., an eminent physician... 1781 1826
Fr. La Fayette, G. M., marquis, &c., military commander and statesman 1757 k834
Fr. La Fayette, George W., statesman
Fr. Laforitaine, "an inimitable fabulist". 1621 1695
Ger. La Fontaine, Aug. H. J., author of 200 volumes, miscellaneous. 1756 1831
Fr. Lafitte, Jacques, wealthy banker and statesman.. 1768 1844
Ital. Lagrange, Joseph Lotis, an able mathematician. 1736 1813
Fr. La Harpe, John Francis de, a dramatist, critic, &c.. 1739 1793
Swiss. La IHarpe, F. C., statesman and author... 1754 183
Fr. Lalande, Joseph J. le Francis de, astronomer.. 1732 1807
Fr. Lamarck, J. B. A. P., naturalist. 1745 1829
Fr. Lamarque, Maxim., a general of the revolution of 1789. 1770 1832
Fr. Lamartinle, poet, historian, traveller, and statesman. 18(12
Eng. Lambert, A. B., botanist..... 1761 1842
Eng. Lamb, Charles. poet and essayist... 1775 1834
Fr. Lamnmenais, F. R., abbe de, theological and political writer. 1782
Eng. Lancaster, Joseph, founder of system of Education.. 1771 1839
Eng. Lander, Richard anti John, travellers in Africa.. 1834
Fr. Landon, C. P., author of works on the fine arts 1826
Eng. Lane, Edward William, orientalist-author of Modern Egyptians, &c.
Ital. Langfranc, a learned archbishop of Canterbury.. 1005 16g;
Eng. Langton, Stephen, cardinal, and archbishop of Canterbury. 1228
Eng. Lansdowne, Win. Petty, marquis of-premier.., 1737 1805
Eng. Lansdowne, Henry Petty, marquis of, Pres. of Council. 1780
Fr. Laplace, marquis Peter Simon, an eminent astronomer alnd geometrician 1749 1827
Eng. Lardner, Nathaniel, a learned dissenting divine... 1684 1768
Fr. Las Casas, biographer of Napoleon, &c... 1763 1842
Nor. Lassen, Chris., oriental philologist and historian... 1800
Eng. Latimer, Hugh, a prelate —martyred for beirg a reformer. 1470 1555
Eng. Laud, William, a prelate, famed for his tyranny and superstition 1573 1645
Amer. Laurens, Henry, a patriot and statesman... 1724 1792
Fr Lavalette, M. C., count de, military commander... 1769 1830
Swlss. I,avater, John Caspar, a celebrated physiognomist.. 1741 I8so
Fr. Lavoisier, Anthony L., a celebrated chemist.. 1743
FHng. Layard, Austen H., traveller and explorer of Nineveh
Fr. Lebrun, Pontius D. E., a poet..... 1729 1807
Swiss. Leclerc, John, an eminent critic... 1657 i736
Amer. Ledyard, John, an intrepid and enterprising traveller.. 1788
Amer. Lee, CharJes, an officer in the revolution... 1782
Amer. Lee, Richard Henry, president of congress.. 1732 1794
Amer. Lee, Arthur, TI. D., a statesman... 1740 1782
Amer. Legar6, Hugh S., jurist, statesman, and literateu.. 1797 1843
Fr. Legendre, mathematician... 1753 1833
Amer. Leggett, William, political and miscellaneous writer.. 1802 1840
Ger. Leibnitz, Godfirey William, an able and learned philosopher. 1646 17li
Elng. Leicester, T. W. Cole, earl of, agriculturist... 1752 1842
Scotch. Leighton, Robert, an able prelate.... 1613 1684
Eng. Leland, John, an eminent divine and author... 1691 1766
Irish. Leland, Thomas, an eminent divine and author.. 1772 1785
EnHg. Lempriere. John, a biographer and lexicographer... 1824
Dutch. Lennep, David J. von., jurist and poet.. 1774
Ital. Leo X., pope (John de Medici), a patron of injustice and the arts. 1475 1521
Ger. Leo, Henry, historian.. 1799
Gr. Leonidas I., king of Sparta-the hero of Thermopyle f. B. f. 491
Fr. Lesage, A-laulB Rones a novelist and dramatist... 1668 1747
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 677
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED.
Scotch. Leslie, John,,mathematician and natural philosopher.. 1832
F'r. Levizac, John P. B. L. de, a grammarian. 1813
Amer. Lewis, Maj. Gen. Morgan, military commander, jurist, &c... 1754 1832
Eng. Lewis, Matthew Gregory, miscellaneous writer.. 1773 1818
Ger. Iiclhtenberg, Geolge C., experimental philosopher.. 1742 1790
Ger. Liebig, Justus, baron, chemist. 1803
Eng. Lihtlltoot, John, a learned divine and author.. 1602 1675
Dutnch. Li-ne, Charles Joseph, military officer, and author.. 1735 1814
Dutch. Limborch, Philip, a theologian and author... 1633 1712
Eng. Lingad, Johlln, author of I History of England'
Fr. Lingueet, Simon N. H., political writer, and historian.. 1736 1794
S Wed. Linaceus, Charles Von, the most celebrated of naturalists 1707 1778
iung. Liszt, Francis, performer on piano. 1811
ntg, Lister, Thomas Henry, novelist, and biograplher of Clarendon. 1801 1842
Ger. Littrow, John J., writer on mathematics and astronomy.. 1781
Eng. Liverpool, Robert Banks Jenklinson, earl of; premier.. 1770 1828
Amer. Livingston, Edward, jurist, diplomatist, and statesman.. 1764 1836
Amer. Livingston, William, a poet.... 1723 1790
Rom. Livius. or Livy, Titus, a celebrated historian... 17
Fr. Lobau, Count, marshal of France. 1770 1838
Eng. Locke, John, an eminent philosopher and metaphysician.. 1632 1704
Scotch. Lockhart, J. G., critic and novelist-editor of' Quarterly'. 1794
Russ. Lomonozoff, Michael V., a poet and historian.. 1711 1765
Irish. Londonderry, Robert Stewart, marquis of, a statesman 1769 1822
Gr. Longinus, Dionysius Cassius, a critic and philosopher. f. B. 0.250;-pan. Lope, De Vega Carpio, Felix, a poet and dramatist. 1562 1635
Scotch. Loudon, J. C., voluminous writer on horticulture, agricult., and architect. 1783 1843
Fr. Louis, Baron, eminent surgeon... 1837
Eng. Lowth. Roberlt, an eminent divine and author... 1710 1787
Lucan, Marcus Anneaus, a Latin poet... 37
Gr. Lucian, a celebrated writer.. 120 210.tom. Lucilius, the earliest Rotnan satirist.. 0..148 B. c. 191
ltom. Lucretius, Caius Titus, ant emlinent poet....B. o. 95
Rom. Lucullus. a wealthy warrior... B.. 1 15 B. C. 49
Ger. Luther, Martin, the parent of the Protestant reformation.. 1484 1546
Fr. Luxemburg, duke of; a military officer.. 1628 1695
Or. Lycurgus, the Spartan legislator.... B. C. 898
S[;otch. Lyell, Sir Charles, geologist and traveller... 1797
Gr. Lysander, a Ifamous Spartan general B. a. 395
Gr. Lysias, an orator..... 459
Eng. Lyttleton, George, lord, a poet and historian.. 1709 1763
Eng. Macaulay, T. Babington, essayist, historian, critic, and statesman.
Scotch. McCrie, Thomas, D. D., biographer of Knox... 1772 1835
Eng. McCulloch, John, M. D., geologist, &c.. 1773 1835
Jcptch. Macculloch, political economist and statistician
Fr. Mac Donald, marshal of France.. 1765 1840
Amer. Mac Donough, Thomas, commodore, victor on Lake Champlain. 1773 1825
ital. Machiavel, Nicholas, a celebrated writer on-politics, &c.. 1469 1527
Scotch. Mackenzie, Henry, " the Addison' of the North". 1745 1831
Amer. Mackenzie, A. Slidell, naval commander, author of Travels. 1849
ng-. Mackintosh, Sir James, a celebrated literary character. 1766 1832
Scotch. Macknight,.ames, a divine and author.. 1721 1800
Scotch. Maclaurin, Colin, a mathematician. 1698 1746
Enu. Mac Lean, L. E. L. (Miss Landon), poet and novelist.. 1804 1838
Scotch. Maclure, William, geologist, &c. 1763 1840
Amer. Macomb, Maj. Gen. Alex., military commander.. 1782 1811
>uotch. Macpherson, James, a miscellarneous writer. 1738 1796
Rontn. Mecenas, Caius C., the minister of Augustus, and patron of literature B. C. 9
Atner. Madison, James, 4th President of United States... 174l 1836
Port. Magellan, Ferdinand. a celebrated navigator... 1521
IFr. Magendie. Francois, physiologist... 783
Ir ish. Maeginn, WViliat,t classical and miscellaneous writer and critic. 1793 1842
Sar. M tlhomlet, or Mohammed, the founder of the religion which bears his name 569 63'2
Turk. Mahomet II, 7th Turkish sultan-conqueror Of Constantinople. 1430 1481
Ital. Maio, An1elo, discoverer anti editor of Latin classics
Fr. Maimbourg, Louis, an historian... 1610 1686
Jew. Maimonides, Moses, a celebrated rabbi.... 1131.120Pr Maintenon, Frances d'Aubigne, queen. 1635 1719
678 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED.
Eng. Maittaire, Michael, a bibliographer, &c. 1668 1747
Eng. Malcolm, Sir John, History of' Persia and India
Ital. Malibran, M. F. Madame, vocalist. 1808 1836
Eng. Malmesbury, William of, an historian.. 1143
Eng. Malone, Edward, a dramatic conmmentator... 1741 1812
Ital. Malpighi, Marcellus, a naturalist and anatomist... 1628 1694
Ger. Malte-Brun, Conrad. a poet and geographer... 1775 1826
Ger. IMalte-Brun, M., geographer..
Eng. MalLhus, T. R., political economist... 1834
Pers. Manes, or Manichaeus, founder of the Manichtean sect.. 239 274
Ger. Mansfield, Ernest of, a warrior.1585 16826
Eng. Mantell, G. A., geologist
Ital. Manutius, Aldus, a celebrated pi;inter and author.. 1447 1515
Ital. Manzoni, author of' I Promessi Sposi I
Fr. Marat, John Paul, an infamous revolutionist. 1754 1793
Aust. Maria Louisa, Empress of France, afterwards Duchess of Parma. 1787
Span. Mariana, John, a celebrated historian... 1537 1624
Auser. Marion, Francis, a distinguished officer in the revolution. 1795
Rom. Marius, Caius, a famous general and demagogue.. B. a. 153 B. C. 86
Eng. Marlborough, John Churchill, duke of, an able warrior.. 1650 1722
Fr. Marmont, marshal of France, and traveller
Fr. Marmontel, John Francis, a celebrated writer... 1723 1799
Eng. Marryatt, Captain, novelist and traveller... 1847
Eng. Marsdten, oriental traveller and historian.... 1755 1836
Amer. Marsh, James, metaphysician.. 1794
Eng. Marsh, Herbert, bishop of' Peterborough, theological writer. 1758 1839
Fr. Mars, Madenloiselle, actress
Amer. Marshall, John, chief justice of U. S., biographer.. 1755 1835
onom. Martial, Marcus Valerius, an epigrammatist.. 40 100
Span. Martinez, de la Rosa, don F., statesman and literateur.. 1786
Ger. Martius, C. F. P. von, botanist and traveller
Prus. Martos, Ivan P., sculptor.... 1753 1835
Ital. Martyr, Peter, a reformer and theologian.... 1500 1561
Eng. Mason, John, a divine andl author.... 1706 1763
Eng. Mason, Williarn, a divine and poet.... 1725 1797
Amer. Mason, John M., an eminent divine.. 1770 1829
Fr. Massena, Andrew, one of the ablest of Napoleon's marshals.. 1758 1817
Fr. Masillon, John Baptist, an eloquent divine... 1663 1742.
tng. Massinger, Philip, a dramatist..... 1584 1639
Amer. Mather, Cotton, a divine..... 1663 1728
Irish. Maturin, Charles Robert, a divine, dramatist, novelist, and poet. 1782 1825
Eng. Matthews, Charles, actor and humorist. 1776 1835
Fr. MauperLius, Peter L. M., a geometrician and astronomer.. 1698 1759
Fr. Maury, John Sifirein, a cardinal and statesman... 1746 1817
Eng. Mawe, Joseph, a mineralogist..... 1755 1829
Fr. Mazarin, Julius, cardinal, an able statesman... 1602 1661
Mazeppa, John, prince of the Cossacks 1709
Ital. Medici, Lorenzo d', a poet —governor of Florence, and patron of the arts 1448 1492
Ger. Meiners, Christopher, an historian.... 1747 18J0
Ger. Melancthon, Philip, a celebrated reformer... 1497 1560
Gr. MIenander, a conlic poet...B... 342 e. o 298
Ger. Meninski, Francis M., a learned orientalist.. 1623 1698
Dutch. Mercator, Gerard, a geographer... 1512 159-4
Fr. Merimle, Prosper, novelist... 1800
Ital.'Metastasio, Peter B., a celebrated poet.... 1698 178'.
Aust. Metternich, Prince, statesman and diplomatist... 1773
Dutch. Meursius, John, an erudite critic.... 1579 1639
Ger. Meyerbeer, musical composer.. 1791
Fr. Mezerai, Francis Eudes de, an historian... 1610 1683
Ital. Mezzolanti, Cardinal, celebrated linguist.... 18-1
Gr. Miaulis, naval commander.... 1772 18pq
Ital. Micari, Guiseppe, historian..... 183'
Ger. Michaelis, John David, a learned orientalist and critic.. 1717 1791
Fr. Michaud, Joseph, historian... 1839
Fr. Michelet, Jules, historian... 1798
Eng. Middleton, Conyers, a divine and an elegant writer.. 1683 1750
Fr. Mignet, F. A., historian 1796
Port. Miguel, Don, rival of Don Carlos for the throne of Portugal
Scot. Mill, Jas., historian of' British India and political economist' 1775 1836
Fr. Millevoye, Charles Hubert, a poet.... 1782 1816
Fr. Millin, Aubin Louis, a naturalist, &c.... 1759
Eng. Millman, Rev. H. H. poet and historian
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 679
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED
F'. Millot, Claude Francis Xavier, historian... 1726 1785
Eng. Mills, Charles, historian.. 1788 1826
_~g'. Milner, Joseph, author of Church History... 1744 1797
r. Miltiades, an illustrious Athenian general.... 2. C89
~ng. Milton, John, the Homer df Britain 1608 1674
1r. iMirabeau, 11, G. Riquetti, count de, a celebrated eltaracter in the Revolution, and author...... 1749 1791
Span. Miranda, Francis, a revolutionary general. 1750 1816
Aimer. Mitchell, Samuel L., celebrated physician and naturalist.. 176 18.31
Eng. Mitchell, Thomas, classical scholar and critic. 1783 1845
EL. Mibrd, Mary Russell, novelist and essayist
Eng. Mitford, William, an historian and philologist... 1734 1827
Mithridates, king of Pontus, a warrior... B.. 123 B. c.;-i
Cer. Mitscherlich, E., chemist. 1794
"Sar. Mohammed Ben AbdAl Wahab, Shiek, founderof the sect ofWahabites, f. 1650
Turk. Mohammed All, Pacha of Egypt.... 1769
Ger. Mohs, Frederick, mineralogist.... 4 1839
IF. Moli, M. L. comte. statesman... 1781
Ft. Moleville, Anthony F. de Bertrand, count de, an historian. 17i4 1817
Fr. Moliere, John Baptist, a celebrated dmramatist... 1622 167'3
Fr. Monse, Gaspar, an eminent geomnietrician.. 1746 1l18
EnI. Monk, George, du)e of Albemarle, military officer.. 1608 186;
Amer. Monroe, James, a statesman, 5Ith president of the United States. 1759 1831
Fr Monstrelet, Enguerrandl de, a chronicler... 1390 153
Eng. Montagu, Lady MIary Wortley, an elegant writer.. 1690 762
l, ontaigne, Milchael de, an eminent essayist... 1533 1592
Fr. Montebello, John Lannes, duke of; marshal... 1769 1809
Ger. Montecuculi, Ilaymond, a warrior... 1609 1C12
Fr. Montesqu/eu, Charles, baron de, an able writer.. 1689 1755
Amner. Montgomnery, Richard, an intrepid military officer.. 1737 1775
Eng. Montgomery, James, poet.. 1771
Fr. Montholon, comte, secretary and biographer of N'apo]eon. 783
ital. Monti, Vincent, a poet... 1753 1828
Fr. Montmnorenci, Anne de, nmarshal.. 1493 157
Fr. Montpensier, Madame, author of Memoirs, &c.. 1627 1693
Scotch. Moore, Sir John, general... 1761 1809
Eng. More, Sir Thomas, chancellor,.. 1480 1535.sh. Moore, Thomas, poet, biographer, and historian... 178C
Eng. More, Hannah, poet, essayist, and moralist... 1744 1833
Fr. Moreau, John Victor, a celebrated general.. 1763 1813
Irish. Morgan, lady Charles, author of novels, travels, &c.
Eng. Morier, Jamnes novelist, "HItajji Baba," &c. 1780
Amer. Morris, Robert, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, and a financier 1703 1806
Aimer. Morris, Gouverneur, a distinguishedl statesman.. 1752 1816
Eng. Morrison, Robert, Chinese traveller and philologist.. 1834
Amer. Morse, Jedediah, a geographer and statistical writer.. 1761 1827
Fr. Mortier, marshal of France, killed by Fieschi... 1768 1835
Gr. Moschus, a bucolic poet... B. C. 160
Gec. Mosheim, John Laurence, an ecclesiastical historian.. 1695 1755
Sc'ot. Motherwell, William, poet.
Mouradgea, D'Ohason, an Armenian historian.. 1740 1807
Ger. Mozart, John C. W. T., an eminent composer. 1756 1792
Eng. Mudie, Robert, author of various works on Natural History, &c.. 1777 1842
Swiss. Muller, John Von, a celebrated historian... 1752 1809
Ger. Muller, C. 0., historian, archwologist, classic. 1797 1840
Fr. Murat, Joachim, an intrepid marshal, and king of Naples. 1771 1815
Ital. Maratori, Louis Anthony, an historian.. 1672 17150
Irish. Murphy, Arthur, a dramatist and translator.. 1727 1805
Amer. Murray, Lindley, a grammarian.. 1745 1.826
Scotch. Murray, Alexander, a self taught linguist.... 1775 18113.mer. iutrray, William Vans, a statesman... 1761 103
Ehg. Mcurray, John (the elder), eminent publisher.. 1778 18-13
Gr. Musmus, an Athenian poet.... f... 1243
Pers. Nadir Shah, or Thamas Rouli Khan, a warrior and king.. 1688 17417
Scotch. Napier, John, baron, inventor of logarithmns... 1550 1617
Fr. Napoleon I., (Bonaparte,).... 1769 1821
Pers. Narses, a warrior, in the service of Justinian I., the emperor. 567
P)utch. Nassau, prince Maurice of,; an able general.. 1567 1621
680 THE WORLD7S PROGRESS.
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED.
Pers. Nassir Edcldyn, a celebrated astronomer.. 1201 1274
Enlg. Neal, Daniel, author of History of the Puritans, &c.. 1678 174'
Ger. Neander, J. W. Augustus, ecclesiastical historian 1789 1850
Fr. Necker, James, an eminent financier and statesman. 1732 1804
Eng. Neele, tleny, a poet and miscellaneous writer.. 1798 128
lEnrr. Nelson, Horatio, viscount, a celebrated admiral... 1758 1805
Roin. Nepos, Cornelius, an historian... C. 30
tnuss. Nesselrode, count Clharles R., statesman and diplomatist. 1755
(e'r. Neuwied, Maxinilian, prince of, traveller in North America, &c. 1782
Eng. Newton, Sir Isaac, the greatest of philosophers... 1642 1727. Newton, Thomaas, a learnedl prlelate. 170-t 1782
En". Newton, John, a Calvinistic divine and writer 1725 1807
Fr. Ney, M1ichael, marshal, " the bravest of the brave" 1769 1815
EnI. Nicholson, William, a writer on natural philosophy and chemistry. 1753 1815
Eng. Nicholson, Peter, architect and practical mechanic
Amer. Nicklin, P. H., bookseller and miscellaneous writer.. 1786 1842
Ger. Nicolai, Chris. Fred., a bookseller and author.. 1733 1811
Ger. Niebuhr, Garsten, a celebrated traveller.. 173S 1815
Gee. Niebuhr, B. G., a statesman and historian. 1776 1830
Pol. Nienlcewicz Julius U., mil. com. and author.. 1756 1841
Swe. Nilston, Sven, zoologist. 1787
Fr. Nodier, Charles, novelist. 1783
Eng. Normanby, C. G. Phipps, marquis of, novelist and statesman. 1797
Eng. North, Frederick, lord, prime minister of Geo. III.. 1732 1792
Eng. Northcote, James, artist and biographer. 1746 1837
Eng. Nott, John, a poet and translator. 1751 1826
Eng. Oates, Titus, the infamous pretender of the "Popish Plot". 1619 1705
Eng. Ocleley, Simon, an orientalist.. 1678 1720
Arab. Odenatus, a warrior, the husband of Zenobia. 267
Fr. Odillon-Barrot C. H., statesman. 1791
Ger. Oken, Louist...... 1758
Ger. Olbers, H. W. M., astronomer.. 8410
Eng. Opie, Mrs. Anmelia, writer on morals and education 1771
Gr. Oppian, a poet...... f. 150
Dutch. Orange, William of Nassau, prince of, the founder of the Dutch republic 1533 1534
Span. Orfila, M. J. B., chemist and toxicologist. 1787
Dutch. Origen, one of the fathers of the church.. 185 253
Ena. Orole, Robert, an historian... 1728 1801
L1ug. Ormoud, James Butler, dulke of, a statesman.. 1610 1688
G1. Orpheus, a poet, sometimes styled " the father of poetry"
Port. Osorio, Jerome, a philosopher, historian, and theological writer. 1506 1580
Amer. Otis, James, a patriot and statesman. 1725 1772
Amer. Otis, Harrison Gray, statesman and jurist. 1767 1848
Eng. Otway, Thomas, a celebrated dramatist... 1651 1685
Fr. Oudinot, Charles N., marshal of France... 1767
Rom. Ovid, Publius Naso, a poet.. 43 1/
Eng. Owen, John, an eminent divine... 1765 1822
Eng. Paine, Thomas, a political and deistical writer.. 1736 1809
Ven. Paez, military commander, and president ofVenezuela 1787
Ital. Paganini, Nicolo, a famous violinist. 1784 1835
Eng. Paley, William, an eminent divine and author.. 1745 1S05
Fr. Palisset de Montenoy, Charles, a satirist... 1730 1815
Pruss. Pallas, Peter Simon, traveller and naturalist.. 1741 1811
Paoli, Pascal, a Corsican patriot and general.. 1726 1807
Can. Papineau, L. J., politician and " patriot".. 1789
IRom. Papinian, Xrmilius, a civil lawyer. 145 212
Swiss. Paracelsus, A. P. T. B. de 11., an alchemist... 1493 1541
Eng. Paris, Matthew, an historian..... 1259
Scotch. Park, Mungo, a celebrated traveller. 1771 1804
Eng. Parkes, Samuel, a chemist and author. 1759 1825
Ical. Parma, Alexandler Farnese, dulke of, a warrior 15. 92:Eng. Parry, captain Edward, arctic navigator.. 1790
FP. Pascal, Blaize, eminent as a geometrician and writer. 1623 1662
Pruss. Paskewitch, Ivan F., prince and military commander
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 681
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED.
Fr. Pasquier, Etienne D., count, chancellor of France. 1767._er. Passow, Francis L. C. F., )hilologist and lexicographer. 1786 1833
Rom. Paterculus, Caius Velleius, an historian.. about B. o. 20
Gr. Pausanias, a topographical writer. f. about 120
Port. Pedro, don, clailnant of the throne of Portugal... 1834
Eng. Peel, sir Robert, statesman.... 1788 16850
Brit. Pelagius, a monk, f;ounder of a sect... 354
ital. Pellico, Silvio, poet and patriot... 1789
Gr. Pelopidas, an illustrious Theban general.. 0. 364
Eng. Penn, William, tile founder and legislator of Pennsylvania.. 1644 1718
Fr. Perefixe, Hardouin de Beaumont de, historian... 1605 1670
Gr. Pericles, an able Athenian orator and statesman.. B.c. 490 B.c. 429
Fr Perrier, M. Casimir, a statesman... 1777 1832
F. Perouse, John F. Galaup, de la, a navigator... 1741 1788
Rom., Persius Flaccus, Aulus, a satirist. 34 62
Swiss, Pestalozzi, Henry, introducer of a new system of education.. 1745 1527
Fr. Peter the Hermit, the first mover of tile Crusades. 1115
RIuss Peter I., the Great, a warrior and statesman... 1672 1725
Eng. Peterborough, Charles Mordaunt, earl of' a warrior. 1658 1735
Petion, Alexander, a mulatto, president of Hayti... 1770 1818
Ital. Petrarch, Francis, one of the four greatest of Italian poets 1304 1374
Fr. Peyronnet, Pierre D., count de, minister of Charles X. and historian 1778
Rom. Phedrus, a fabulist... f. 30
Philip II., king of Macedon, a warrior... B. o. 383 P. o. 936
ng. Phillips, sir Richard, boolkseller and compiler
r. Philopmen, a celebrated general... B.o. 253 N. c. 183
Gr. Phocion, an eminent Athenian.. B. o. 400 B. c. 318
Photius, a learned patriarch of Constantinople... 891
Amer. Physic, Philip Syng, M... 1768 1837
Fr. Picard, Louis Benedict, a dramatist and novelist.. 1769 1824
Fr. Pichegru, Charles, an eminent general... 1761 180-4
Amer. Pickering, Timothy, a distinguished statesman. 1746 1829
Amer. Pickering, John, philologist... 1772 1846
Gr. Pindar, the greatest of lyric poets B. c. 522 N. c. 142
Scotch Pinkerton, John, a fertile and eccentric author.. 1758 1826
Amer. Pinckney, William, a distinguished orator and diplomatist. 1765 1822
Span. Pinzon, Vincent Yanez, a navigator, discovered Brazil.. f. 1500
Fr. Piron, Alexis, a poet, dramatist, and wit... 1689 1773
sr. Piisstratus, sovereign of Athens.... C. 527
Amer. Pitkin, Timothy, historian and statistician. 1765 1847
Eng. Pitt, Christopher, a poet and translator.. 1699 1748
Eng. Pitt, William, a celebrated statesman 1759 1806
Dr. Pittacus, of Mitylene, one of the seven sages. B. a. 650 a. c. 570
Span. Pizarro Francis, the conqueror of Pertu... 1475 1541
Gr. Plato, an illustrious philosopher-founder of the academic sect N. c. 430 e. c. 347
Rom. Plautus, a comic poet.... c. 227 B. c. 184
Scotch. Playfair, John, an eminent mathematician and natural philosopher 1749 1819
Roum. Pliny, tle elder, or C. P. Secundus, author of Natural History. 23 79
tom. Pliny, the younger, a warrior and author.. 61 115
Egypt. Plotinus, a Platonic philosopher... 203 270
Gr. Plutarch, a celebrated biographer... 50 120
Fr. Poisson, D. S., mathematician... 1781
Eng, Pole, Reginald, a cardinal and statesman.15.. 00 1558
Fr. Polignac Melchior de, a cardinal and statesman.. 1611 1741
Pr. Polignac,,; A. 8M., prince, minister of Charles X. 1780
Amer. Polk, James K., president of the United States.. 1795 1849
Ital. Polo, Mark, a celebrated Venetian traveller.. 1250 1523
Gr. Polybius, an eminent historian... B.. 205 N. 0. 123
Rom. Pompey, Cneus, a statesman and warrior... B.. 106 a. C. 48
Pot. Poniatowski, Joseph, prince, an able general... 1763 1814
ung. Pool, Matthew, an able divine and author... 1624 1379
Eng- Pope, Alexander, a celebrated poet.. 1688 1744
Porphyry, a Platonic philosopher.... 233 301
Eag. Porson, Richard, an eninent hellenist and critic.. 1759 1.803
Isal. Porta, John Baptist, a natural philosopher. 1540 1616
ug. Porter, Anna Maria, novelist.... 1832
dung. Porter, sir Robert Ker, author of travels, &c.. 1780 1842
ug Porter, Jane, novelist... 1776 1850
Eng. Porteus, Beilby, an eminent prelate... 1731 1808
Eg. Potter, Robert, a divine, poet, and translator... 1721 1804
Russ. Pozzo di Borgo, diplomatist... 1768 1842
Prideaux. IHumphry. a loearned divine. 1648 1724
2 9:'t
682 THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BO0RN. DIED.
Eng. Priestley, Joseph, an eminent philosopher and writer.. 1733 1804
Eng. Prior, Matthew, a poet and statesman.. 1664 1721
Gr. Proclus, a Platonic philosopher 410 487
Gr. Procopius, an historian.... 410 487
Rom. Propertius. Sextus Aurelius, a poet... B. C. 52 B.C. 12
Egypt. Ptolemy, Claudius, an eminent astronomer and geographer. 70
Ger. Puckler-Muskau, H. L. 1H., prince of, author of travels, &c., 1785
Ger. Puffendorf, Samuel, a publicist and historian. 1632 1694
Ital. Pulci, Louis, a poet... 1432 1417
Amer. Putnam, Israel, a distinguished officer in the revolution 1718 17'90
Or. Pyrrho, a philosopher, founder of the Skeptic sect.. f. 3. c. 300
Gr. Pythagoras, a celebrated philosopher..... 586 B. C. 497
Fr. Quatremere, E. MI., orientalist. 1782
BeIg. Quetelet, L. A., mathematician and statistician. f796
Span. Quevedo De Villegas, Francis, a poet.. 1580 1645
Fr. Quinault, Philip, a lyrical dramatist... 1635 1668
Fr. Quinet, Edgar, literateur.. 1
Span. Quintana, M. J. poet.. 772
Romn. Quinltiiian, Marcus Fabius, a celebrated orator 42 122
Fr. Racine, John, an eminent dramatist.. 16 1699
Eong. Radcliffe, Anne, a celebrated romance writer... 1764 1823
Dan. Rafin C. C., historian and antiquary. 1795
Amer. Raguet, Condy, political economist... 1784 1842
Eng. Raleigh, or Ralegh, sir Walter, " a man illustrious in arms and literature" 1552 161.9
Hind. Rammohun, Roy. philanthropist.. 1776 1833
Scotch. Ramsay, Allan, a poet..... 1685 1758
Amer. Ramsay, David, an historian... 1749 1812
Amer. Randolph, Peyton, first president of Congress. 1723 1775
Amer. Randolph, John, eccentric statesman. 1773 1833
Pruss. Ranke, Leopold, historian... 1795
Fr. RIaoul, Rochette, arche ologist and traveller. 1790
Dan. Raslk, E. C., philologist and lexicographer... 1784 1832
Fr. Raspail, F. V., chemist and radical statesman... 1794
Pruss. Rauch. metaphysician...
Pruss. Raumer, Frederick Von, historian and traveller
Amer. Rawle, William, jurist...... 1759 1836
Eng. Ray, John, a naturalist and author. 1628 1705
Fr Raynal, William Thomas Francis, an hlistorian and philosopher. 1713 1796
Eng. Reed, Isaac, a critic and editor. 1742 1807
Eng. Rees, Dr. Abraham, editor of an encyclopedia, &c... 1743 1825
Eng. Reeve, Clara, a novelist..... 1723 1803
Fr. Regnard, John Francis, a comic writer.... 1647 170)9
Scotch. Reid, Thomas, a celebrated metaphysician... 1710 1796
Fr. Remusat, J. P. A., historian and linguist... 1788 1832
Eng. Rennie. John, an eminent engineer 1761 1821
Fr. Retz, John F. P. de Gondi, cardinal de, minister of Louis XV.. 1614 1679
Eng. Ricatt, sir Paul, a traveller and historian. 1700
En R. Richardson, SaWluel, an eminent novelist. 1689 1761
F R. Richelieu. A. J.- du Plessis, cardinal and dulke, a statesman. 1585
Ger. Richter, John Paul Fredericl, a novelist, &c... 1763 1825
Span. Riego Y Nunez, Raphael de, a patriot.. 1783 1825
Ital. Rienzi, Nicholas Gabrino de, a political reformer... 1354
Amner. Rittenhouse, David, a philosopher and astronomer.. 1731 1796
Ger. Ritter, Aug. H., history of philosophy.... 1791
Ger. Ritter, Charles, Geographer... 1779
Eng. Robertson, William, a celebrated historian.. 1721 1793
Fr. Robespierre, F. M. J. I., the: "terrorist" of' the Revolution 1759 1794
F R. Rochef;)ucauld, L.iancourt, F. A. i, dulke de la.. 1747 1827
Ft. Rochej.tqlelin, It. de la, a royalist leader... 1773 1794
Amer. Rodgers,.lohn, comrmodore in the American navy 1771 98183
Eng. Rodney, George Brydges, lord, an able admiral.. 1717 1792
lEng. Rogers, Samuel, poet
lFr. Roland de la Platriere, J. IM., a revolutionist and author. 1733 1793.
Fr. Rollin, Charles, a celebrated historian... 1661 1741
B;IOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 68;
NA'TION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED.
Eng. Romaine, William, a divine and author. 1714 1795
0.om. Romulus, the founder and first king of Rome B. C. 716
Eng. Rooke, sir George, an admiral. 1650 1708
Ronm. Roscius, Quintus, an actor of proverbial talent. B.C. 61
Eng. Roscoe, William, a biographer and miscellaneous writer. 1751 1831
ital. Rosellini, Ippolit.o, author of "Monuments of Egypt," &c.. 1800
Ger. Rosenmiuller, E.F.C., orientalist. 1768 1835
er. Rosseau, John Baptist, a poet... 1670 1741
Fr. Rosseau, Johp James, an eloquent and paradoxical writer. 1712 1778
ital. Rossini, mueical composer. 1792
Ger. Rottec.k, historian. 1775 1840
EnL. Rowe, Nicholas, a poet and dramatist 1673 1718
Amer. Rumford. Benjamin Thompson, count, an officer (in foreign service) and
philosopher. 1753 1814
Gce. Rupert, prince, a warrior... 1619 1682
Amer. Rush, Benjamin, an eminent physician and author 1745 1813
Eng. R ussel, lord William, one of the martyrs of liberty. 1641 t683
Eng. Russel, Lady Rachel (wife of the last), author of' Letters. 1723
Eing. Russell, William, an historian... 1746 1794
Fr. Sacy, Sylvester, baron de, orientalist.. 1758 1838
Pers. Sadi, or Saadi, a poet...... 1296
Ital. Saint Real, Cwesar Vichard, abbe de, an historian. 639 1693
ng. Saint Vincent, John Jervis, earl of, admiral... 1734 1823
Saladin, Sutltan of Egypt and Syria, a celebrated warrior. 1137 1193
Eng. Salisbury, Robert Cecil, earl of, a statesman... 1550 1612
Roin. Sallust, Caius Crispus, an historian... f. B. c. 86 B. c. 35
ir. Salmasius, Claudius, a scholar and author... 1588 1653
Fr. Setlvandy, N. A., comte de, statesman... 1795
Fr. Salverte. miscellaneous writer... 1771 1839
Fr. Sand, George (Madame Dudevant), novelist... 1804
Amer. Sanderson, John, lieteteur.... 1785 1844
Amer. Sands, R. C., poet and literateraz.... 1790 1832
iing. Sandwich, Edward Montague. eail of, naval officer... 1623 1672
Fr. Sanson, Nicholas, a geographer and engineer... 1600 1667
Gr. Sappho, a poetess..... o. 606
Ital. Sarpi, Peter, known as father Paul, a patriot and historian. 1552 1623
Fr. Saurin, James, a divine and sermon writer.. 1677 1730
Ger. Savi-ny, Fred. C. von, historian of Roman law. 1779?Oruss. Saxe, Maurice, count de, a celebrated general in the French service 1696 1750
Ger. Saxe-Weimar, Bernard, duke of, a warrior.. 1600 1639
Amer. Say, Thomas, naturalist.... 1737 1834
Ital. Scaliger, Julius CGesar, a learned critic.. 1484 1558
Scantlenberg (real name George Castriot), an Albanian prince and warrior 1404 1467
Ger. Scapula, John, a lexicographer... 1600
Swe. Scheele, Charles William, an eminent chemist.. 1742 1786
Ger. Schelling, F. W. J. von, metaphysician.. 1775
Pruss. Schill, Ferclinand Von, an intrepid and patriotic officer. 1773 1809
Gex. Schiller, John Frederic C., an eminent historian and dramatist. 1759 1805
Ger. Schlegel, A. W. von, critic and essayist. 1767 1845
Ger. Schliermacher, F. D. E., classical philologist and theologian.. 1768 1834
Ger. Schlosser, M. S. F., historian.. 1776
Ger. Schmidt, Michael Ignatius, an historian.... 1736 1794
Ger. Scholl, historian. 1766 1833
Dutch. Schomberg, Armand Frederick, a warrior.. 1619 1690
Ger. Schopenhauer, J. F, novelist... 1770 1838
Dutch. Schrevelius, Cornelius, a lexicographer.... 1615 1667
Ger. Schulembourg, John Matthias, a warrior... 1661 1747
Ger. Schumacher, H. C., astronomer.... 1780
Ger. Schiitz, C. G., critic and literateur... 1747
Amer. Schuyler, Philip, anofficer in the revolution... 1731 1804
Ger. Scioppius, Gaspar, a philologist and grammarian.. 1576 1649
Roin. Sciplo, Publius Cornelius, surnamed Africanus, an able warrior. B. C. 189
Rom. Scipio, 2Emilianus Publius, an able warrior s. c. 128
Scotch. Scott, Michael, a philosopher-supposed magician... 1291
Eng. Scott, Thomas, a divine, and biblical commentator 1747 1821
Scotch. Scott, sir Walter, one of the most eminent, voluminous, and popular writers of miodern times... 1771 1832
Fr. Scribe, A. E., dramatist.... 1791
684 IITHE WVOIRLD'S PROGRESS.
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN DIlD..
Fr. Sebastiani, marshal of France, stlatesman. 1775
Eng. Seeker, Thomas, an eminent prelate... 1693 1768
Amer. Sedgwick, Theodore, statesman and political economist.. 1780 1839
Fr. Segur, count ILouis de, a diplomatist and writer.. 1753 1830
Fr. Segur, P. P. de. historian..
Iom. Seneca, Lucius Anneus, a celebrated philosopher, statesman, and moralist, n. o. 2 85
Ger. Sennefelder, inventor of lithography.. 1834
Span. Sepulveda, John Ginez de, an historian 1490 1572
Rorn. Sertorius, Quintus, a warrior B. c. 73
Fr. Sevigne, Mary de, marchioness of, an epistolary writer.. 1.627 1696
Enr. Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, earl of, a statesman 1621 1683
Eng. Shakspeare, William, the greatest of dramatic poets. 1564 1616
Eng. Sharpe, Granville, a philanthropist.. 1734 1813
Eng. Shiaw,'George, a naturalist... 1751 1813
Enog. Shelley, Percy Bysshe, an eminent poet and atheist 1792 1822
Eng. Shenstone, William, a poet... 1714 1763
Eng. Sheridan, Thomas, an actor and author 5725 1788
Eng. Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, a dramatist and orator. 1751 1816
Eng. Sherlock, Thomas, a prelate... 1678 1761
Amer. Sherman, Roger, a patriot and self-taug~ht statesman 1721 1793
Eng. Shovel, sir Cloudesley, an able naval officer 1610 1705
Eng. Siddons, Sarah, the most eminent of tragic actresses 1755 1831
Eng. Sidmouth, viscount (H. Addtlington), statesman. 1757 1844
Eng. Sidney, sir Philip, an accomplished officer and author. 1554 1586
Eng. Sidney, Algernon, a martyr of liberty and an author 1620 1683
Ger. Siebold, Ph. F. Von, botanist and naturalist.. 1796
Eng. Simpson, Thomas, a mathematician.. 1710 1761
Eng. Simpson, Robert, mathematician... 1687 1768
Hind. S1ng, ~I. rajah Runjeet, chief of Lahore and Cashemire.. 1779 1839
Swiss. Sismondi, J. C.'L., historian... 1773 18-12
Ger. Sleidan, John Philipson. an historian... 1506 1556
tng. Sloane, sir Hans, an eminent naturalist. 1660 1752
Eng. Smart,Christopher, a poet and translator 1722 1770
Etg. Steaton, John, an eminent civil engineer. 1724 1792
Scotch. Smellie, William, a naturalist. 1740 1795
Eng. Smith, William, a divine and translator..1711 1787
Scotch. Smith, Adam, a celebrated writer on morals and political economy 1723 1790
Eng. Smith, Charlotte, a poetess. 1749 1806
Eng. Smith, sir Janmes E., botanist and naturalist.. 179 1828
Amer. Smfth, general Samuel, military commander and statesman. 1752 1839
Eng. Smith, rev. Sidney, essayist, critic, and moralist. 1768 1845
Eong. Smith, sir William Sydney, military commander 1764 1840
Eng. Smithson, James, founder of the Smithsonian Institution, United States 1835
Etg. Smollett, Dr. Tobias, a novelist and historian... 1721 1771
Pol. Sobiesli, John III., king of Poland, a warrior.. 1629 1696
tal. Socinus, Faustus, founder of the Socinian sect. 15319 1594
Gr. Socrates, one of the greatest of ancient philosophers B. o c. 470 a. c. 400
Gr. Solon, thie illustrious legislator of Athefis f. n. c. 598
Gr. Sophocles, an eminent tragic poet... o. 495 404
Fr. Souli6, M. F., novelist.. 1800
Fr. Soult, marshal of France, and statesman.1769
Enog. South, Robert, an eminent divine... 1638
Amer. Soutlhard, Samuel L. secretary of the navy and senator of U.S., N.J. 1787 1842
Eng. Southcott, Joanna, a fanatic (her sect not yet extinct). 1750 1814
Eng. Southey, Robert, poet, historian, biographer. 1775 1843
Eng. Spenser, Edmund, an eminent poet. 1553 1598
Eng. Spencer, earl of, statesman. 1758 1835
Amer. Spencer, Ambrose, chiefjustice of New Yorkl. 1765 1848
Span. Spinola, Ambrose, marquis de, a warrior. 1571 1630
Ger. Spurzheim, Dr., a celebrated phrenologist (died at Boston). 1776 1832
Fr. Stael, Madame de, a talented writer... 1693 1750
Eng. Stackhouse, Thomas, a divine and author.. 1680 1752
Fr. Stael-Holstein, Anne L. G., baroness de, an authoress. 1766 1817
Eng. Stanhope, Charles, earl, a politician and inventor. 1753 1816
]ng. Staithope. lady Hester, eccentric traveller.. 1776 1839
Amer. Starlk,John, a distirliguished officer in the revolution 1728 1822
Irish. Steel, sir Richard, an essayist and dramatist.. 1671 1729
Irish. Sterns, Lawrence, a miscellaneous writer. 1713 1768
Pruss. Steuben, Fred. W. A., baron, who generously aided the American cause 1764
Scotch. Stewart, Dugyald, an eminent philosopher and writer 1753 1828
Amer. Stone, Wo. L., historian of" Six Nations," "Brandt," and "'Redjacket' 1793 1844
Russ. Storch, Ienry F. political economist. 1766 185
BIOGRAPHIICAL INDEX. 685
NATION. NAM'E AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED.
Amer. Story, Joseph, jurist and writer on jurisprudence.. 1779 1845'ng. Stowell, lord, jurist. 1746 1836
Gr. Strabo, an eminent geographer. 19
Eng. Snraflbod, Thomas WVentworth, earl of, a statesman... 1593 1611
Ger. Strauss, David F., author of skeptical LiLfe of Christ".. 1808
Eng. Stuart, James, an architect and author.. 1713 1788
Scotch. Stuart, Gilbert, an historian... 1742 1786
r. SuIchet, Louis Gabriel, a celebrated marshal.. 1772 1826
Fr. Sue, Eugene, novelist.. 1804
Iom. Suetonius, Tranquillus Caius, an historian. f. 100
tom. Suetonius, Paulnus, a warrior... 37
Dan. Suhm, Peter Frederick, an eminent historian.. 1728 1798
Suidas, a Greek lexicographer. f. about 1000
FPr. Sully, Maximilian de Bethune, a warrior and statesman. 1560 1641
Eng. Surrey, H-Ieny Howard, earl of, a poet. 1515 1547
Russ. Suvaroff, or Suwarrow, prince Alexander, a celebrated and cruel warrior 1730 1800
Swe. Swedenborg, Emanuel, fbunder of a sect. 1689 1772
Irish. Swift, Jonathan, a celebrated satirist.. 1667 1745
Eng. Sydenham, C. W. Poulett, lord, governor-general of Canada, &c. 1793 1841
Riom. Sylla, Lucius Cornelius, a warrior, and a brutal usurper.. c. 137 n.c. 78
Rom. Tacitus, Caius Cornelius, an eminent historian.. 56 135
Fr. Talleyrand, prince, statesman and diplomatist. 754 1838
Fr. Talmna, Francis Joseph, one of the greatest of'actors. 763 1826
Tamerlane, Timur Beg, or Titnour, a celebrated Tartar prince and conqueror 1336 1405
Itat. Tasso, Bernardo, a poet —author of Amadis de Gaul. 1493 1569
Ital. Tasso, Torquato, one of the greatest of Italian poets. 1544 1595
Ger. Tauchnmtz, Karl, an eminent publisher at Leipsic.. 1836
Eng. Taylor, Jeremy, a prelate and eloquent writer... 1613 1667
Eng. Taylor, Thomas, editor of Plate and other classics. 1758 1835
A mer. Taylor, Zachary, maj.-gen. U. S. army, victor in Mexico, president of U. S. 1784 1850
Eng. Telford, Thomias, civil engineer... 1757 1834
Swiss Tell, William, one of the champions of Swiss liberty.. 1354
Eng. Tempsle, sir William, a statesman and writer. 1628 1698
Eng. Tenterden, Charles Abbott, lord, jurist, chiefjustice, K. B. 1762'1832
Eng. Tennyson, Alfired, poet.
Rom. Terence, or Terrentius, a comic writer a.c. 192
Tertullian, Q. S. F., one of the most learned of the fathers of the church 160 245
Ger. Thaer, Albert, writer on agriculture. 1752 1828
COr. Thales, one of the seven sages —lbunder of the Ionic school ofphilosophy, a. c. 639 a. c. 543
Gr. Theministocles, an illustrious Athenian.... o. 535 B. C. 470
Fr. Thenard, chemist and statesman.
Gr. Theocritus, a pastoral poet...... f. Ca. 285
Rom. Theodosius, Flavius, a Roman emperor and warrior. 346 395
Gr. Theophrastus, a celebrated philosopher... C. 371
r. Thespis, a poet, said to be the inventor of tragedy B. C. 576
Fr. Thibaudeau, A. C., count, historian
Fr. Thierry, Jacques N. A., historian... 1795
Fr. Thiers, Adolphe, hisc )rian and statesman. 1797
Ger. Thiersch, F. W., Gree. philologist, &c.. 1784
Eng. Thomson, James, a popular poet.. 1700 1748
Scotch. Thomson, Dr. Thomas, chemist
Dan. Thorwaldsen, Albert, sculptor.. 771 1844
Gr. Thucydides, an historian.B. c. 469 B. o. 400
Rom.n Tiberius, Claudius Drusus Nero, a warrior and emperor.. C. 34 37
Rom. Tibullus, Aulus Atbius, an elegiac poet.f B. C. 30
Ger. Tieck, Louis, a poet and novelist. 1773
Len. Tillotson, John, an eminent prelate... 1630 1694
Iind. Tippoo Saib, Sultan of Mysore, India, a warrior 1739 1799
item. Titus, Sabinus Vespasianus Flavius, an emperor, the father of his people 40 81
Eng. Tonline, George, a prelate and writer... 1750 1787
amer. Tomnplkins, Daniel D., vice-president of the United States. 1774 1825
nog. Toole, John Horne, a politician and philologist. 1736 1812. Tooke, WVilliam, a miscellaneous writer.. 1744 1820
Eng. Toplady, Augustus M., an eminent divine... 1740 1778
Irish. Torrens, colonel, novelist and political economist.. 1783 1840
W. Ind. Toussaint I'Ouiverture, negro president of Hayti. 1745 1803
Fr. Tracy, A. L. C. D., comte de,,Writer on education and philosophy 1754 1836
Rom. Trajan, Marcus U. C., an able emperor and warrior.. 52 117
686 THE WVORLD'S PROGRESS.
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED.
Pruss. Trenck, Frederick, baron de, celebrated for his adventures 1726 1794
Dutch. Tromp, Martin HI., a celebratedl adiral... 1597 1653
Amer. Trutmbull, Jonathan, a statesman.... 1809
Amer. Trumbull, John, a poet; born in Connecticut.. 1750 1831
Amer. Trumbull, col. John, statesman and historical painter. 1756 1843
Eng. Tucker, Abraham, a metaphysical writer... 1705 1774
Fr.0 Turenne, Viscount de, an eminent warrior... 1611 1675
Fr. Turgot, Anne Robert James, a statesman.. 1727 1781
Eng. Tyrrell, James, an historian..... 1642 1718
Gr. Tyrtmeus, a poet
Scotch. Tytler, William, an historical and miscellaneous writer.. 1711 1792
Scotch. Tytler, Alexander Fraser, an historical and miscellaneous writer. 1747 1813
Span. Ulloa, don Anthony de, a navigator and author 1716 179[:
Irish. Usher, James, a learned divine and historian 1580 1656
Fr. Vaillant, Sebastian, an eminent botanist.. 1669 1722
Dutch. Valckenaer, Louis Gaspar, an able philologist and critic 1715 1785
Fr. Valdo, Peter, founder of the sect of Waldenses, f. in 12th century.
IRom. Valerius Maximus, an historian.. f. 30
Ital. Valla, Laurence, an eminent philologist.. 1406 1457
Eng. Vancouver. George, a navigator.... 1750 1798
Eng. Vane, Sir Henry, an advocate of republicanism... 1612 1662
Rom. Varro, Marcus T., "the most learned of the Romans".. B.C. 116 B.c. 27
Ger. Vater, John Severinus, an eminent philoldgist.. 1771 1826
Fr. Vauban, S. le P. de, marshal, a military engineer.. 1633 1707
Fr. Vendome, Louis Joseph, dulke of, a warrior... 1654 1712
Fr. Vernet, Horace, historical painter... 1789
Eng. Vernon, Edward, admiral... 1684 1759
Fr. Vertot, Rene IHubert, abbe de, an historian.. 1655 1735
Rom. Vespasian, Titus Flavius, a warrior and emperor. 79
Ital. Vespucius Americus, a navigator whose name was unjustly given to the
new world. 1451 1516
Eng. Victoria Alexandrina, queen of Great Britain.. 1819
Ital. Vida, Mark Jerome, a Latin poet 1490 1566
Fr. Villars, Louis Hlector, duke of, an able general... 1653 1734
Fr. Villemain, minister of public instruction, and historian.. 1791
Eng. Vince, Samuel, an eminent mathematician. 1821
Rom. Virgil, or Publius Virgilius Maro, the greatest of the Roman poets. B.c. 70 B J. 19
Fr. Volney, count de, a celebrated writer.... 177 1820
Fr. Voltaire, Francis Marie Arouet de, a celebrated poet, philos., and historian 1694 1778
W
Eng. Wakefield, Gil.ert, a scholar and critic.. 1756 1801
Eng. Walker, John, a lexicographer. 1732 1807
Scotch. Wallace, William, a patriot and hero... 1276 1305
Ger. Wallenstein, A. V. E., a celebrated general... 1583 1634
Eng. Waller. sir William, a parliamentary general.. 1597 1668
Eng. Waller, Edmund, an elegant poet.1603 1687
Eng. Walpole, Robert, earl of Olford, a statesman.. 1676 1745
Eng. WValpole, Horace, earl of Orford, an author.. 1718 1797
Eng. Walsingham, sir Francis, a statesman... 1536 1590
Eng, Walton Izaak, an angler and biographer... 1593 1683
Eng. Valton, Brian, a divine and orientalist.. 1600 166'
Eng. Warburton, William. an eminent prelate and writer. 1698 1779
Anler. Ward, Artemas, an officer in the revolution. 1748 18(00
Eng. Warren, sir John Borlase, a naval officer.. 1754 1822
Eng. Warton. Joseph, a poet and critic..... 1722 180o
Eng. Warton, Thomas, poet and critic.... 1728 1790
Amer. Washington, George, the father of his country.. 1732 1799
Amer. Washington, Bushrod, justice of Supreme Court of the United States 1759 1829
Scotch. Watson, Robert, an historian.. 1730 1780
Eng. Watson, IRichard, an eminent prelate and writer... 1737 1816
Scotch. Watt, James, a celebrated natural philosopher and engineer. 1736 1819
------- ~ —-~ —------ ----------------- ~~~I~~~~LIJ LY-C V-C
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 687
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED.
Scotch. Watt, Robert, a bibliographer.. 1774 1819
Eig. VWatts, Dr. Isaac, a divine, poet, and miscellaneous Wvriter. 1674 1748
Get. seber, Carl Maria Von, an eminent composer.. 1786 1826
Amer. WVebster, Noah, author of English Dictionary.. 1758 1843
Irisx. W/ellesley. narquis of, gov.-gen. of India and lord lieutenant of Ireiand 1760 1.82
hish. Wellington, duke of, military commander and statesman.. 1769
Eng. Wells, Edward, a theologian and scholar.. 1663 1727
Gee. Werner, Abraham Theophilus, a mineralogist... 1750 1817
Gec. e Werner, Fred. L. Z., a poet and dramatist. 1768 18213
Eng. Wesley, John, the founder of the Methodist Society.. 1703 1791
lEnm XVestall, Richard, historical painter... 1765 1837
Amer. WVheaton, Henry, jurist, diplomatist and law commentator. 1785 1848
lns. WVhiston, William, a divine, mathematician, and translator.. 1667 1752
E'i. i Whitby, David, a learned divine... 1638 1726
Elg. White, Henry Kirke, a poet 1785 1806
Amer. White, William, one of the two first bishops of the P. E. church in U.' S. 1747 1836
Esl. Vlhitefield, George, founder of the Calvinistic Methodists.. 1714 1770
En". Wickliffe, or Wiclif, John, the morning star of the reformation. 1324 1384
Ger. Wieland, Christopher M.. an able.and fertile writer.. 1733 1813
Es. Wifien, J. IH., poet and historian.. 1792 1836
Eng. Wilberforce, William, statesman and philanthropist.. 1750 1830
Aioer. Wilde, Richard Hfenry, a poet and literateur. i789 1847
Es. Wilkes, John, a celebrated political character... 1717 1797
Scotch. Wilktie, sir David, historical painter... 1785 1841
Fag. Wilkins, sir Charles, oriental philologist.. 1836
sen. Wiltinson, sir J. G., historian of Egypt and archeologist
En'. WVilliams, Helen Maria, a miscellaneous writer.. 1762 1827
Amer. WViliamson, Hugh, physician and historian of North Carolina. 1735 1819
Ames. Wilson, Alexander, a celebrated naturalist... 1766 1813
Eng. Windham, Villiam, a statesman 1750 1810
Amer. Wirt, William, attorney-general of the United Slates, and biographer. 1772 1835
Amner. Wistar, Caspar, an eminent physician and anatomist.. 1761 1818
Amer. XVitherspoon, John, an able divine and patriot. 1722 1794
Amer. Wolcott, Oliver, a patriot-signer of the Declaration of Independence 1727 1797
En". Wolcott, John, known as Peter Pindar, a poet... 1738 1818
En. Wolfe, James, a distinguished general... 1726 1759
ecr. WVolff, John Christian, a philosopher and mathematician.. 1679 1754
Eln" Wollaston. William Hyde, an experimental philosopher. 1766 1828
En". Wolsey, Thomas, cardinal, a celebrated statesman... 1471 1530
Eng. Wordsworth, William, poet... 1770 1850
Ames. Worth, W. J. major-general, United States army... 1794 1849
Eng. Wren, sir Christopher, a celebrated architect.. 1632 1723
Aust. Wurnmser, D. S., field-marshal, Austrian army... 1717 1797
Eng. Wyatt, sir Thomas, poet and statesman... 1503 1540
Eng. Wycherley, William, dramatic poet.. 1640 1715
Eng. Wykeham, lM., bishop of Winchester, statesman and philanthropist 1324 1404
Anser. Wythe, George, an eminent lawyer, statesman and patriot.. 1806
x
Fr. Xavier, St. Francis, "Apostle to the Indies"... 1506 1552
Gr. Xenocrates, a philosopher... 406 B. 0. 314
Gr. Xenophenes, a philosopher-founder of the Eleatics. f.
Gr. Xenophon, a celebrated philosopher, historian, and general B. o. 446 B. c. 360
Span. Ximenes, Francis, cardinal, an eminent statesman... 1457 1517
Eig. Young, Edward, a poet and miscellaneous writer.. 1681 1765
Eng. Young, Arthur, an agricultural writer. 1741 1820
Eng. Young, Thomas, a physician and philosopher. 1774 1829
Ypsilanti, prince Alexander, a leader in the modern Greek revolution 1792 1828
Span Yriarte, don Thomas de, an eminent poet... 1750 1790
Z
Ital. Zaccaria, Francis A., a voluminous writer.. 1714 1795
Gr. Zeno, of Elea, a philosopher..... B.C. 463
Gr. Zeno, the founder of the sect of Stoics.. B.. 362 B. a. 264
688 TIIE WORLD7S PROGRESS.
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BOPrN. DIED.
Ital. Zeno, Apostolo, an eminent writer 1668 1750
Zenobia, Septimia, queen of Palmyra, a conqueror, and patroness of the arts 30)
Swiss. Zimmntermean, John George, a tniscellaneous writer. 1728 1795
Ger. Zimmerman, E. A. W. von. naturalist... 1743 181I5
Ger. Ziazendorf, N. L., count, chief of the Moravians... 1700 1760
Swiss. Zolikofer, G. J., theologian.. 1730
Zoroaster, a famous Eastern philosopher
Swiss. Zuingliuis, Ulric, an enlightened reformer.'. 1481 1531
PAINTERS, ENGRAV ERS, SCULPTORS, ETC.
THE SMOST EMINENT IN THEIR DEPARTMENTS.
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED.
Gr. Agatharcus, the inventor of perspective scenery
in theatres - - Pinter - - -.. 480
Gr. Ageldas - - - clptor - f. B. o. 5th cent.
Gr. Agesander (sculptor of "Laocoon and his Children ") - - - Sculptor - B. C. 5th cent.
Ital. Albano, Francis (" the painter of the (.;ac,es ")Painter. - 1578 165i6
Ital. Alberti, Leo Baptist, a Florentine - - Pa. Sc. c Archit. 1400 141)0
Ital. Albertinelli, Mariotto - - Painter - - 1520:r. Alcamenes (pupil of' Phidias) S - Sculptor f. B. C. 450
Scotch. Allan, Sir William - P- - - aie - 1781 1850
Amer. Allston, Washington - - - Poet Haistor. Paizter 1779 1843
Ital. Angelo, Michael (Buonarotti), a pre-eminent Pa. Sc.' AArchitect 1474 1563
Ital. Angelo, Michael (Caravaggio) - - Painzter - 1569 1609
Gr. Apelles, the most celebrated of ancient painters Painte - f. B. C. 330
Gr. Apollocdornts, an Athenian - - Painter f. B. c. 4083
Ital. Appiani, of Milan - Painte - 1754 1817
Gr. Aristides, of Thebes - - - Painter f. Bf. c. 240
Fr. Audllan, Gerard, a celebrated - Htsior. EEngraver 1640 1703
Ital. Baccio, Della Porta (cknown as San Marco) -Painter 1469 1517
Eng. Bacon, John - - - Sculptor - 1740 1791)
Flem. Ilalen, Henry Van - - - - Painter. 1560 1632
Ital. Bandinelli, Baccio - -.. Sculptor - 1487 1559
Enrg. Banks, Thomas - - - S'zculptor - 1745 1805
Irish. Barry, James - - - Painter - 1741 1805
Ital. Bartolini - -.?sEl raver
Ital. Bartolomeo, Fra, di St. Marco - - Painter - 1469 1517
Ital. Batloni, Pompey - - - Paiznter 1708 1787
Eng. Beechy, Sir Win..- - Landscape Paitnter - 1753 1893
Ital. Bella, Stepha~'o Della, a Florentine - tEnraver - 1610 168Flem. Berchem, Nicolas.zEnraver - 1624 1689
Do. Bird, Edlward. - P zter - 1772 1819
Eng. Blake, William, - Painter 4- Esngraver 1757 1826
Dutch. Both, John and Andrew -Painters - 1610 1650 & 56
Fr. Bouldon, Sebastian - - - iainteier 4 Engraver 1616 1671
Swiss. Bourgeoise, Sir Francis (born'in London) Painter - 1756 1815L
Eng. Boydell, John (a printseller, and lord mayor of
London) - -.. Engraver - 1719 1804
Ital. Bramante D'Urbino, Francis L. (Ist of t. Peter's
Church) - - Architect - 1444 1514
1)utch. Brentel, Francis - - - Painter- - f. 1635
T)nutcl. Br ill, Ma!thew - - Painlter - 1550 158:J
Flem. Brtuges, John of, or John Van Eyc - Painter - 1370 1441
Itl. Buionarotti, see Angelo.
}'tl, Burlnett, Jmes. Lan dsctpe Painter 1788 1816
Ital. Cagliari, Paul (known as Paul Veronese), a celeatel - - - - - Paibter - - 1532 1588
Ital Cagliari, Benedict, Carletto, and Gabriel, brotierts andl sons of Paul.
En, Caler.tt, Sir A. W. - - Landscape Painter 1779 1844
Gr. Calliin-chus - - - Sculsptor ~ Arczhitect f. B.c. 540
Ital. Cnttlbiaso. Lucus, a Genoese - Painter 1527 1585
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 689
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED.
htal. Canaletto, Anthony, a Venetian -. Landscape Painter - 1697 1718
Ital. Canova, Antonio, Sculptor 1757 1822
lhd. Caravaggio see Angelo.
hal. Caracci Lodovico - Painter - 1555 1619
Ital. A- gostino - - Painter - 1588 1601
Iat. Annibale - - - Painter - - 1560 1609
Ital. Carpi, Ugo da, discoverer of the art of printing
il Chiaro-oscuro-with three plates-to imi- About 1700
tale dlrawings. 1846
Ft. Casas, Louis, Francis -
Pr. Casas, IoutYSv Francis -Pai.nter d Architect - 1756 1827
1 ~~~~~~Painater - I 603 6;
Span. Castillo Y Saavedra, Anthony. Pai nter - - 1603 1667
Ital. Cavendone, James - - Fresco Painter - 1577 1606
Ital. Cellini, Benvenuto, a Florentine o B.ngraver d Sculptor 1500 1570
Flem. Champas e, Philip de - Painter - 1604 1674
Gr. Chares P - Painter f. B.c. 300
Eng. Cosway, Richard - Painter 1740 1826
Eng. Chantry, sir Francis Sctlptor 1781 1841
Fr. Chaudet, Anthony Denis Painter - 1763 1810
Ital. Cimabue, Giovanni, a Florentine - Painter -. 1240 1300
Ital. Claude Geld —called Claude Lorraine - Painter 1600 1682
Or. Cleomenes, an Athenian (The Medicean Venus) Scutlptor f.:B.C. 180
Amer. Clevenger -Sculptor 1844
Amer. Cole, Thomas - Land. - Ilist. Painter 1802 1848
Eng. Collins, William - - Land. 4.Fays. Life Pa. 1788
Eng. Constable, John - - - Painter 1776 1837
aT:g. Cooper, Samuel M..iliniatutre Painter 1689 1776
nmer. Copley, John Singleton (born in Boston) - Painter 1737 1815
Ital. Corregio, Ant. (founder of the Lombard school) Painter 1493 1534
Ital. Cortona, Pietro de, a Tuscan - ainter 1596 1669
Fr. Courtois, James (known as 11 Borgognone) Painter 1621 1673
Fr. Couston Nicholas (also his brother William) Scultptor - 1658 1731
Iutch. Cuyp, Jacob G., - - - Landscape 4 Cattle Pa. 1568 1649
Dutch. Cuyp, Albert (son of above) Landscape c~ Cattle Pa. 1606 1667!)utch. Cuyp, Benjamin. flistorical Painter - 1650
Eng. Daniel, Thomas - - Landscape Painter 1840
Ger. Dannecker, John lienry-(Adriadne, &c.). - Sculptor - 1758 1841
Fr. David, James Louis, a celebrated - Painter 1750 1825
Fr. David (Founder of recent French school) - Sculptor - 1780
Fr. Delaroche, Paul. listorical Painter
Ger. Denner, Balthaser - Portrait Painter - 1685 1747
Gr. Dinocrates, a Macedonian'(builder of Alexandria, &c.) - Architect - f.. C. 330
Ital. Dolci, Carlo - - Scriptuire Painter 1616 1686
Lal. Domenichino (excelled in expression) P ainter - 1581 1641
Ital. Donatello, or Donato, a Florentine Sculptor - 1383 1466
Dutch. Douw, Gerard.. Faeziliar Life Painter 1613 1674
Fr. Dubufe - - Historical Painter
Fr. Duifresnoy, Charles Alphonso - Painter
Amer. Dunlap, William - - - Historical Painter - 1766.3er. Durer, Albert (and author) Pa. Eng. Sc. mf Arch. 1471 1528
Ger. Eberhardt - Sculptor
Eng. Eginton, Francis (restorer of the art of painting on glass) - - - Painter 1737 1805
Eng Etty, William Hlistorical Painter 1789 2849
Gr. Einompus (fol:,der of school at Sicyon) Painter
Dutch. Eyclk, John Van (said to have invented paiiting in oil) - -ainter - 1370 1441
Ens. Flaxman, John - Sculptor 1755 1826
Swiss. Fuseli, Henry (resided in England) - - Painter - 1741 1825
Eng. Gainsborough, Thomnas - Landscape Painter - 1727 1788
Ital. Ghiberti, Laurence, a Florentine - Sculptor 1378 1456
Ing. Gibson.. Sculptor
Ital Giordani, Luke (The Proteus of painting) Painter - 1629 1704
Ital. Giorgione, Barbarelli - - Painter 1477 111
Ital. Giotto (one of the earliest modern) Painter, Scalp. 4Aich. 1276 1336
Fr. Giraldon, Francis - Sculptor - 1630 1715
Fr. Girodet-Trioson. Aime Louis - ainter 1767 1824'Fr. Gougon. John (" The French Phidias ") - Sculptor - 1572
Ital. Guercino (real name Francis Barbieri) Painter 1590 1606
Ital. Guido Reni (excelled in beauty of expression
and grace) - Painter. 1574 642
690 TILE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
NATION. NAIME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED.
Eng. Harlow, George IIenry - Painter - 1787 1819
Eng. Ilaydon, It. B. Htistorical Painter - 1786 1846
ing. Heath, Cha rieos J-'-en-raer -849
E. Hiiton, William - Isisioricial Painter 1786 1839
Flen. Htobbema. lMyrlerhout - - Lalzdscape Painter - 1611 1699
Enfg. Wogarth, ~illiam - - ainter - 197 1764
Swiss. Ilolbein, Hans - - - Portrait c5 fHistorical Pa. 1498 1514
GeiV. It ollar, Wenceslaus (executed 2400 plates) Engoraver - 1607 1677
Fler. Itonthorst, Gerard (called Gherarda dal Notoe) Painter 1592 i60
D)utch. Iloubracen, Jacob (600 portraits) - - E-_ngraver. 1698 1780
F r. Itoudon (executed statue of Franllin) - ScLdptor 1746 18
Fr. Iouel, John (Picturesque Travels, &c.) - Painter E E.ng'raver' 1736 1813
iier. Inman, Henry - - Portrait ~ Landsc. Pa. 1801 1846
i>idch. Huysum, Johun Van (flowers and fruit) - Painter - 1682 1749
Jones, Inigo - - Architect - 1572 1~59
c, Jodaens, Jacob - - - Painter - 1595 1670
it al. Julio, Romano Painter 4 Architect 1492 1546
Swiss. Kauffman, M. A. Angelica C. (in England) - Poetical Painter. - 1747 187
C -. Kneller, Sir Godlfrey (resided in England) Painter - 1648 1723
rie. ILandseer, Edwin... Animal Historical Pa.
)Dutch. Lairesse, Gerard (excelled in expedition) Painzter i' Esngraver 1640 1711
Ftr. Lanmon. C. P. (more eminent as an author of
works on the fine arts) - - Painter 1826!one. Lawrence, sir Thomas - - Porirait i' Hst. Painter 1769 1830
IF. Lebrun, Charles (painter to Louis XIV ) Painter 119 1699
Ger. Lely, sir Peter(painter to Charles II. of Englahd) Pnainter 1618 1680
Fc.,e Sieur, Eustace (the French Raphael) - Painster 117 1611
ltr. Leyden, Lucas, Damnmesz - - -.Paitnter En graver 1494 1513
Eng. Liverseege, Ilenry a -Pintter 1803 1832
Gr. Lysippus (made 600 statues) - Sculptor - f I. a. 3-24
Amer. Malbone. Edward. l - - liniatire Paisnter - 1777 1807
0lemr. Matsys, Quintin - - Painter - 1460 1529;al Masaccio - Paintler 1402 1427
Get. Mayer Su - ScUlptor,tal. Mazzuolo, Francis - - - Painter - 1503 1540
CGer. Mlengs, Anthony It. (the Raphael of Germany) Painter 1729 1779
1ir. Mignard, Peter - - - Painter 1610 1695
Swiss. Mind, Gottfried -- Painter 1768 114
Ei-. Morelandt, George - - Painter - 1764 1884
Span. iurillo, Bartholomew S. - Painier - i613 1683
uE. Newton, Gilbert Stuart H istorical Painter 1785 1835
Eng. Nollekins, Joseph -culptor - 1737 1623
En. Northcote, James - - Painter 1746 1831
tEng. Opi, John Painter - 1761 1807
Dutch. Ostad.e Adrian Van (interiors) - Faailiar Life Painter 1610 188
Dutch. Otsde Isaac (winter scena) Paite - 1617 1671
EIg. Owen, VWilliam - - - - Painter - 1769 1825
Fr. Pajou, Augustin - - Sctltor 1730 1809
hal. Palladio, Andrew - A- Architect - 1518 180
Span. Palonmino de Castro Y Velasco, A. A. Paintler I 1653 126
Cr. Parrhasius, of Ephesus Painster f. B. a. 420
Aner. Peale, Charlea W...Histor. 4 Portrait Pa. 174L 1827
Fr. Perrault, Claudius (designed the Front of the
Louvre) -... Architect 1613 1689
Ital. Petrutino, Peter (the master of Raphael) -Painter 1446 1524
Swiss. Petitot,.ohn (excelled in enamel) Painter - 1607 1691
Gr. Phidias (the most famous of ancient sculptors) scsletOr - B. O. 498 i. c. 431
Fr. Picart, Bernard - Engraver. 1663 1733
Fr. Pialle, John Baptiste. - clptolr 1714 1783
F. Piles, Roger de (an author and painter) P ainter - - 1635 1709
lil. Piranesi, John Baptiste (16 vols. folio). Engraver 1707 1778
(r. Polycletus (statue of Juno at Argos) Sculptor. C. 430
lai. Pordenone, Regillo da - - Painter - 1584
)uitch. Potter, Paul (tunequalled in anisnal painting) Painter 1625 1654
Fr. Poussin, Nicholas (excelled in landsc. lainting) Painter - 1594 1665
lial. Poussin, Gaspar (Dughet) landscape Painter - - 1613 1675
Gr. Praxiteles iS'culptor - f. B. C. 350
Amer. Pratt, Matthew -. - Painter - - 1734 1805
Ft. Prudhon, of Cluny - Painter - 1760 1823
Fr. Puget, Peter - Sculp. Pa. Arch. 1622 1894
Gr Pythagoras. -Cu-)tor
BIOG'RAPI-CAL INDEX. 691
RATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED.
Ital. Ralphael (real name Sanzio) a pre-eminent Painter - - 1483 1520
Ital. Rembrandt, Paul Painter - 1606 1647,in. Reynolds, sir Joshua - - - Painter - 1723 1792
F. Rolaeld, Philip L. (Hoomer in the Louvre) Sculptor 1746 1816
En. Romney, George - - - Painter - - 1734 1802
iii.l. Rosa, Salvator (scenes of gloom) - Painter - 1614 1673
F n. Rowlandson, Th. (caricature-Dr. Syntax, &c.) Painter et Engraver 1756 1827
iulem. Rubens, Peter Paul, a celebrated - Painter - 1577 1646
uotrch. Runciman, Alexander - Painter - 1736 1785
cl-h. Ituyscdael,Jacob - - Landscape Painter 1636 1684
l).itc. ituysodael, Solomon - - - Painter - 1616 1670
itl"g. Rysbrach, John Michael (works in Westminster Abbey) - - S'cultptor - 1694 1770
[tio. Sanulicheli, Michael - - - Architect - 1484 1559
ill. Sarto, Andrea del-see Vanuzcchi
Sal. Scanmozzi, Vincent - Architect - 1550 1616
Ger. Schadow Rudolf - - - Sculptor - 1786 1822
Dutch. Schalklen, Godfrey (candlelight scenes) - Painter. 1643 1706
GCr. Scopas - - - Sclptor -. c. 460 e. c. 353
EnR. Sharp, William - Engraver - - 1740 1824
to. Sherwin, John Keyse - Engraver - 1790U
Amer. Smybert, John - - - - Painter 1728 1751
Fiem. Snyders. Francis (landscape and animal) Painter - 1579 1657
Fr. Soufflot, J. G. (church of St.Genevieve at Paris) Architect - - 1714 1781
Dutch. Spaendonck, Gerradvan (flower) - Painter - 1746 1822
Scotch. Strane. Robert - - - Engraver - 1721 1722
lngo. Strutt, Joseph (an author and painter) - Painter 1749 1749 1802
In". Stuart, James (author of the " Antiquities of
Athens ") - - - Architect - 1713 1788
Amer. Stuart, Gilbert (pupil of Benjamin West) portrait Painter 1756 1828
Flem. Teniers, David, the elder (pupil of Rubens) Painster - 1582 1649
Flem. Teniers, David, the younger (pupil of Rubens) Painter - - 1610 1694
Dan. Thorwaldsen Albert - - - Sculptor 1772 1844
Gr. Timanthes (contemporary with Parrhasius) Painter f. B. c. 42()
Ital. Tintoretto (a Venetian-pupil of Titian) - Painter 1512 1594
Ital. Titian (the greatest painter of Venetian school) Painter - - 1480 1579
Amer. Trumbull, John - - - - istorical Painter - 1756 184
lni. Vanbrughs, sir.Jn. (Blenheim and Castle ttoward)Architect - 1672 1726
Dutch. Vanderrelde. William (marine and battle) - Painter - 1610 1693
Dutch. Vandervelle, the younger - Painter - 1633 1707
IDutch. Vandervelde, Adrian Landscape Painter - 1639 1672
1)utch. Vanderwerf, Adrian - - listorical Painter 1654 1718
Flem. Vandylke, sir Anthony (the greatest of portrait
painters) - - - - Portrait Painter - 1598 1641
Ital. Vannucchi, or Andrea del Sarto - - Painter - 1488 1530
Ital. Van Vitelli, Louis, a Neapolitan - - Architect - 1700 1773
Ital. Vasari, Geore (a biographer of artists) - Architect c4 Painter 1512 1574
Sic. Vasi, Joseph, a designer and -. Engraver - 1710 1782
Span. Velasquez, James R. de Sylvia Y Painter 1599 1660
Pr. Vernet, Joseph - - Painter - - 1714 1789
Fr. Vernet, Hlorace - - - istorical Painter
Am. Ver Bryck C. - - - - Landscape Painter - 1313 1844
Ital. Verrochio, Andrew (inventor of the method of
talring the features in a plaster mould) - Sculpto'r 1422 1488
Ital. Veronese, Paul (see Cagliari)
Eng. Vertue, George (500 plates) -. En-?aver - - 1684 1756
Ital. Vienola, James (Caprarola palace and St. Peter's)Architect - 1507 1573
Ital. Vinci, Leonardo da -Painter 1452 1519
Gr. Vitruvius (temp. Augustus) - Architect f. B. C. 30
Ital. Volpato, John - - - - Engraver 1733 1802
Fr. Vouet, Simon, founder of Fr. sch, (temp. Chas. I.) Painter 1582 1649
Fr. WVailly, Charles de - - - Architect 1729 1795
Eng. WVarren, Charles (perfecter of engraving on steel) Eng raver - - 1823
Amer. West, Benjamin - - - Painter - 1733 1820
Scotch. WVilkie, David - - - - Failiar Life Painter 1785 1841
Eng. WVilson, Richard - Landscape Painter - 1713 1782
JEn. Woollet, William -Eng-raver. - 1735 1785
butch. Wouvermans, Philip -.- Painter - 1620 1668
Eng. Wren, Sir Christopher (St. Paul's, &c.) - Architect 1632 1723
Eno. WVyatt, James (Pantheon, Kew Palace, &c.) Architect - 1743 1813
etal. Zablia, Nicholas -. - Architect 1674 1750
6912 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
NATION NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED.
Gr. Zeuxis, a celebrated ancient - - Painter - B. c. 490 B c. 400
Ger. Zine-ke Ea el Portrait Pa. 1684 1767
Ital. Zuccaro. or Zucchero, Taddeo - Painte - - 1529 156,
Ital. Zuccaro, or Zucchero, Frederigo - Painter - 1539 1619
Ital Zuccarelli - - Painter - 1710 1786
TO
TIlE WORLD' S PROGRESS.
(DECEMBER, 1851.)
[In addition to a brief record of the mrore important occurrences and statistics of the years 1850
-and 1851, the followinng pages contain some corrections of errors in the previous editions. Some
other inaccuracies have been corrected in the body of the work. In selecting the names for the
Biographical Index, it was difficult to draw the line. While it was desirable to include those
aames which the general reader would be likely to look for, there was still no space for all those
to be found in a biographical dictionary: in endeavoring to condense the list, however, many
names were omitted (some from mere oversighlt) which, on a further collation, are now added to
-this appendix.
It will be obvieus, however, that whatever care and diligence lnay'be bestowed upon a volume
of this rkiad, eatire perfectiona and completeness cannot reasonably be expected; and, in acknowledging the gratifying reception so promptly given to the book, the editor begs to say, that he will
be greatly obliged by any essential additions or corrections which may be cotributed for future
editions.]
ADIMINISTRATIONS oP THE UNITED STATES-(p. 152) On the death of President Taylor, July 9, 1850.
MILLARD FtLLOIntE, of New-York (Vice-President) became President. He appointed, soou
after, the following Cabinet, viz.:
Daniel Webster, Massachusetts, Secretary of State..
Thomas Corwin, Ohio Secretary of Treas.
Charles M. Conrad, Louisiana, Secretary of War.
William A. Grahami, North Carolina, Sec. of the Navy.
A. H. H. Stewart, Virginia, Sec. of Interior.
Nathan K. Ilall, New-York, Post Master Gen.
John J. Crittenden, Kentucky, Attorney General.
William I. King, Alabama, was elected Pres't of toe Senate,
and became acting Vice Pres't of U. S.
Howell Cobb, -eorgia (co tinued in office), Speakes of H. Reps.
Linn Boyd, Kentucky, Dec. 18o1.
OaMISSIONS on page 152, " FF' ld's P rogess."
Hugh S. Legare, S. Carolina, May 9, ded June 2, 43, of Sta
John C. Callhousn, S. Carolina, Mlarch 6, 1844, to Mar. 1, 1845 Se of Stat
Geo. M. Bibb, Kentucky, June 15, 1844, to Mar. 3, 1845, Sec. of Treas.
Win. Willcins, Pennsylvania. Feb. 15, 1844, to Mar. 3, 1845, Sec. of War.
Thos. W. Gilmer, Feb. 15, 844, died Feb. 28 1844, Sece of Navy.
dohn Y. Mason,'Virginia, [larcb 14, 1844, to Mar. 3, 1_85,
2 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD7S PROGRESS, 1850-51. [AME
AFRICA. The British forces defeated with considerable loss in their engagement with the Caffres of South Africa. Dec. 29, 1850. The Caffres attack
Fort White, Cape of Good Hope, Jan. 3, 1851, hut are repulsed, with loss
of 20 killed. Jan. 7-the Calfres, in their attack on Fort Beaufort, are
completely routed, and their chief Hermanus and his son killed. 3000
Caffres attack the colonists near Fort Hare. Jan. 23, but are driven back
with loss of 100 killed. Feb. 23d —Col. So merset burns Fort Hamilton,
which had been abandoned by the British, killing 90 Caffres, and taking
230 prisoners. J. G. Richardson, the African traveller, dies at Ungurta, six
days distance from IKouka, the capital of Bornou, March 4, 1851.
ANGLO-SAXONS. It may be assumed, on the most moderate data, that upwards of 51,000.000 of the human race now speak the language of Shaks<
peare, Bacon, and Newton.
ARCTIC EXPEDITION. Dispatches received by British Government, Sept.,
1851, confirming the statement that traces of Sir J. Franklin's party had
been discovered, showing that they had passed their first winter, 1845-6. in
the bay between Beechey Island and Cape Riley, and that their dep arture
had been sudden. The vessels, Advance and Rescune, nobly dispatched by
Mr. Grinnell in aid of this expedition in May, 1850, were frequently in conmmunication with the British party, and returned to New-York Oct., 1851.
ADVERTISEMENTS. The number of advertisements in the 159 London
papers. in 1850, was 891.650, the duty on which at. s. 6d. each. amounted to
X66;873 15s. In the 222 provincial papers, 875.631 advertisements; in 102
Irish papers, 236,128; and in the Scottish papers, 249,141. The Times supple-ment, Jan. 23, 1813, contained 1706 advertisements, one page of' which,
embracing six columns, yielded ~108.
AGRICULTURE, U. S., 1851. The following are the number of farms in
several states, as reported in the last census:New- York - 174,234 Maryland - 21,950
Pennsylvania - 127,733 New Jersey - ~ 24,504
Ohio - 146,821 Delaware - 6,225
Indiana - - - 101.973 5Michigan - 34,699
Virinia - 76,794 Wisconsin...062
Illiois- -. - 71,062 Iowa - - - 15;500
Kentucky- 77,290
ALABAMA. Nov., 1851. The governor, in his message, recommends a discriminating tax on all articles from those states that continue slave agitation. The population of this state, 1850, according to census returns,
was:-White, 426 515; Free colored, 2,250. Total free, 428,765; Slaves,
342;894. Fed. Rep. Pop. 634;501.
ALFRED THE GREAT. A medal commemorative of the 1000th anniversary
of this monarch was struck in 1849, with the legend, " Alfied and his children, the British Empire, United States and Anglo-Saxons every where!"
ALMANACS. The almanac was canonized as St. Al7rn.chiLs, in the Roman
Calendar. —H. JFVharton's Life of' Loeola, 1688. Almllanacs fist printed at
Constantinople, Sept., 1806. Regiomantus supposed to be indebtedl for his
formula, 1474, to the Persian almanacs. —Eilc/. Wldl/reip. The popular almanac in Shlakspeare's time was that of Leonard Digges. —C. [KAisst. In
1851: Dr. McGowan, laboring in China for the Missionary Union, prepared
a philosophical almanac in the language of that country, exhibiting to the
Chinese the realities of science, and particularly detailing the principles of
ta Magnetic Telegraph. —N. Y. Ezpr'ess. See Wor'ld's Progr'ess, p. 162.
liERICAN FLAG. Previous to 17756 the colors used in this country exhibited a snake with 13 rattles, in a crimson ground interlaced with white, by
&ST] ADDENDA TO THE WORLDS- PROGRESS 1850-51. 3
some supposed in compliment to France, but more recently by others as representing those in the armorial bearings of Gen. Washington. A description of this flag is given in a London paper, published in 1776. On the 14th
June, in the succeeding year, the American Congress " Resolved, that the
flag of the 13 Unitad States be 13 stripes, alternate red and white; that the
union be 13 stars, white, on a blue field-representing' a new constellation.'"
A new " star-spangled banner" made its appearance on the river Thames
(London), October, 1851, showing five stars emblematical of the British
colonies New South Wales, Victoria (Hong Kong), South Australia, Van
Dielman's Land, and West Australia.
AMERICAN LITERATURE. The first English work written in America was
Sandy's Translation of the Metamorphoses; Dr. W. Vaughan's poem of the
Golden Fleece was written about the same time. Jocelyn, who wrote the
New EKngland Rarities, and his Two Voya/cges, brought over a version of part
of the Psalms, by Quarles, which, if approved by the Minister at Boston,
was to have succeeded Sternlhold a nd Hop/ins in the New World. The first
work printed was the " Freeeman's Oath," Cambridge, 1639; the second an
Almnsaac, calculated for New England. by Pierce. a mariner; and the third
"Tie Psalms, newl/rv ta'ed into melte."-Dr. Iolnzes's A1er'icanc Annals.
AMUSEMENTS, PUBLIC, New York, April, 1851.
Nine Theatres, with audiences nightly of 15,900
Four Minstrel Concerts " " - 2,300
Three Panoramas, " " 600
Nightly audiences at Public Amusements in New-York.............. 1,800
The average nightly receipts, exclusive of Astor Opera House (not
obtained), amounted to $5;800.
AMUSEMENTS, LONDON. The amount annually expended in London for
sight-seeinmg, theatres, &c., is estimated at about fouz? millioans ste'lii.g.-Art
j, urnal.
ARMY, (STANDING), U. S. A. June, 1850, the regular army of the United States,
including 882 commissioned officers, consisted of 10,320 men: distributed,
eastern division, in the Atlantic States; western, west of the Alleghanies;
and the Pacific division in Oregon and California. Expenses of the war
department year ending June 30, 1849, partially including those of the
Mexican war, amounted to $17,290,936.
ARMIES. EUROPEAN, 1851. Great Britain, 114,451, infantry and cavalry effective; France, 408 000 (exclusive of National Guards. who nunlber over
2;000,000); Russia, 674,000; Austria, 405,000; Prussia, 121,000. which last
with Austria, has an effective organization of the Laendwehr', similar to the National Guards of France.
ARMORIES, U. S. There are five armories in the United States, viz.: Harper's
Ferry, Virginia; Springfield, Massachusetts; Alleghany, Pennsylvania;
Washington, District of Columbia; and Watervliet, New-York. For the fiscal
year ending January 30, 1850, the manufactory of weapons of war is reported
as 28,115 percussion muskets; 2000 percussion cavalry musketoouns; 2;676
percussion rifles; 110,487 flint lock muskets altered to percussion.
ASTRONOMY. The planet Uranus, was discovered through observation
of the perturbations of Jupiter and Saturn; and similar movements in
Uranus led M. Leverrier to determine by calculation the existence of a new
planet. This remarkable theoretic conclusion was verified on the night of
Sept. 23d, 1846, by M. Galle, at Berlin, the new planet (Neptlesne) being found
in the position and with the diameter announced by Leverrier, one of the
noblest achievements of modern times. M. Arago calculates the distance of
4 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD S PIROGRESS. 1850-51, [lBAN
this planet from the sun at 1,250,000,000 leagues, or about 3,125,000,000
miles Periodic time nearly 166 years. Its volume is about two hundred
and thirty times that of the earth. Thus, during the year 1846, the bounds
of our solar system have been nearly doubled. The discovery of Neptune
marks, in a signal manner, the maturity of astronomical science. The
Pa;rtlhenope, a new planet discovered by M. de Gasparis, at Naples, May,
1850; the name of the Victoria, discovered by Mr. Hind in same year, was
changed for that of Clio; the Egeria planet, discovered by de Gasparis, at
Naples, November, 1850. Another discovered by Mr. G. P. Bond, of
Cambridge, United States, August, same year; and one by Dr. Peterson, of
Altona, situate near the North Pole.
ATTORNEY-GENERAL, U. S. A. Appointed by the President, and is one o:.
the members of the Cabinet. He is the legal adviser of the executive government. The first attorney-general of the United States was William Brad.ford, appointed by Washington. 1789. (See AdminListrations.) There are
also District Attorneys for the United States, appointed by the President,
for the several districts in each State of the Union. In each State there is
also an attorney-general of the State; in some States appointed by the governor and legislature, in others elected by the people.
AUSTRIA. Ultimatum of the Austrian government delivered at Berlin, No-,
6, 1850, directing that Prnssia evacuate H-esse, dissolve the Erfurt league,
&c., which is replied to by the Prussian king signing an order for calling out
the whole military force of the monarchy. The Russian ambassador at Vienna, Nov. 11, announces that the continuance of the Russian policy in the
electorate will be considered by his government a caensus belli. Protest of
France, and remonstrance of Lord Palmerston at Vienna, Dec. 1850, against
the proposed extension of the Germanic confederation beyond the Alps. The
Austrians complete their military possession of Hamburg, Jan. 31, 1851, and
Feb. 2. proclaim their resumption of seignorial rule of the King of Denmarkl.
The Emperor establishes a council of the empire by imperial decree, April
1851. The German diet, July 17, in answer to Lord Palmerston's protest
against annexing the non-German provinces of Austria to the German Federation, reply " that no foreign interference should be allowed in a purely
Germanic question." August 20, the Emperor, by cabinet letters, declares
"that his ministers ae responsible to no other political authority than the
throne," and the minister-president is directed to take into consideration the
possibility of carrying out the constitution of March, 1849.
BALLOONS. Mr. Green and the Duke of Brunswick in April 1851, crossed tLe
British channel fionz Hastings, and in 5 hours landed safely near Boulogne;
greatest altitude mid-channel was 4000 feet. Mr. Green ascended on horseback'fioom Vauxhall, July 1850; since then M. Poitevin has made several
ascents e'c-cheval, and in a carriage and pair (July 1851), sometimes acconspanied by his wife, c. —In one ascent he carried up a live ostrich. Lt. Gale
(the Mazeppa of the Bowery Theatre) left Bordeaux with his balloon Sept.
18.50. and w\as fosund dead the next morninlg in a field, dreadfully mutilated.
Several hazardous ascensions have since been made in France, one by an
aeronaut with his head downwards.
BALTIMORE,'U. S. A. Population, by the census of 1850, 169,000, being a
gain of 66 per cent. in ten years.
BANKS, PENNY. These were first instituted at Greenock in Scotland. Of 5,000
deposits the aggregate amount of nearly ~-1,100 gives an average of about 4's.
6d. each. In London and the provincial towns they are becoming very popular. In Whitechapel, 8000 deposits in nine months showed an accumulation
of nearly ~2,000 or about 6s. each.
BiS] ADDENDA TO THE'WORLD'S PROGRESS 1850-51. 5
BANKS IN THE U. S. 1851. The following tables it is believed exhibit the
number, capital and general condition of the Banking interests in this country, to March 1851.
No. Bkcs. Circulation.,Specie. Capital.
Maine - - - 32 $2,300,000 $424,000 $3,148.000
New Hampshire - 22 1.700,000 150,000 2,205,000
Massachusetts. 102 9,600,000 645,000 16,405,000
Boston 30 6,000,000 2,100,000 21,760.000
Vermont 27 2,300,000 120.000 2,195.000
Rhode Island - 38 1,100.000 130,000 3,037,865
Providence -- 23 1,400,000 130,000 8,159,037
Connecticut 14 5,200,000 880,000 20,949,732
New-York - 152 18,000,000 880,000 20,949,732
New-Yorkl city 28 6.400,000 10,740,000 27,300,330
New Jersey - - - - 25 2,900,000 690,000 3,646,750
Pennsylvania 58 7,000,000 2,500,000 8,009,781
Philadelphia 15 4,130,000 4,000,000 10,518,700
Wisconsin - 1 225 000
Texas - - - 1........ 300,000
Maryland - - 12 1,210,000'400,000 1,997,079
Baltimore - - 12 2,068,000 2,127,000 1,997,079
Iowa - - 1........ 200,000
Mississippi 1....... 100,000
Virginia 35 7,000,000 2,300,000 9,913.100
North Carolina - 19 3,500,000 1,600,000 3,650,000
South Carolina 14 6,090,000 2,200,000 11,431,183
Georgia - 17 1,000,000 1,600,000 5,329,213
Ohio - 57 10,366,000 2,750.000 7,425,171
Indiana - - - 14 3,300,800 1,280,000 2,082,910
Kentucky -. 23 6,680,000 2,680,000 9,180 000
Tennessee - 21 4,000,000 1,500.000 7,165,197
District of Columbia 4 900,000 300,000 1,182,300
Delaware 9 900,600 250,000 1,440,000
Missouri - - - 6 2,600,000 1,900,000 2,258,751
Mtchigan 6 650,000 116,000 1,150,000
Louisiana - 5 4,200,000 7,300,000 13,267,120
Alabama 2........ 200,000
Total- - 863 $120,505,400 $51,446,000 $2.30,897,500
Boston, Banker's Mag. 1851.
BENEVOLENT SOCIETIES. The receipts of some of the principal Benevolent
Societies of New-York, for the year ending April 30th, 1851, were:
Anmerican Tract Society, $310,618 09
Bible " - - - 276,852 53
d" B. C. For. Miss. 8 months, - - - 176,676 83
Home Missionary Society, - - 150,940 25
and Foreimn Christian Union. 11 months, - - 56,265 82
and Foreign Bible Society, 29,648 28
Baptist Home Missionary Society, - 19,252 61
Seaman's Friend Society, - - 22,000 00
Society for Melior. condition of Jews. 11,193 02
New-York State Colonization Society, 22,000 00
Association for Improving the condition of the Poor, 32,327 31, Society, Relief Widows and Orphans of Medical Men, amount
of funds, Nov. 1851,. - -10,292 94
$1,118,067 68
BIBLE SOCIETIES. The first that ever existed, was established by some Roman Catholic Prelates, in France in 1774.-Ch/anb stbers's Ed. J1. The British
and Foreign Bible Society has distributed during the 45 years ending Jan.
1, 1851, more than twentty-ti/ree millions of copies, in onze hArdred aedff'orty
different languages.
BISHOPRICS, English Colonial.-Nova Scotia, established 1787; Quebec and
Montreal, united 1793; Calcutta, 1814; Barbadoes and Jamaica, 1824;
M'adras, 1835; Sidney and Bombay, 1836; Toronto and Newfoundland,
6 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS: 1850-5. [Bit
1839; New Zealand and Jerusalem. 1841: Gibraltar, Antigua. Guiana, and
Tasmania, 1842; Fredericton and Colombo, 1845; Newcastle, Adelaide, Melbourne, and Capetown. 1817; Hong-Kong and Prince Rupert's Land, 1849;
Lyttleton, 1850. —N. HaEven C/A. Rev.
BOOKS, U. S.-The number of volumes published during the year ending
June 30th, 1851, is estimated to have been 1,261, forming 1,176 distinct
works; which were
Novels and Tales, 249
Theological and Religious - 170
Histories and Travels 121
Biographical, 96: Poetry and Hymns, 80 -176
Science, Natural History, &c. -83
Classics, Education, &c. -84
Law, 43; Medicine, 47; Agriculture, 20 110
Practical Mechanics - 18
Arts, Music, and Architecture- 57
Political Economy, Commerce, and Miscellaneous - - 193
Total - 1,261
"Book Trade."
BOOKS IMPORTED INTO UNITED STATES for the year ending June 30, 1851:In Hebrew, $74 00
Latin and Greek,.- - 2,027 00
English, - -8341,755 00
Other Languages, --. 115,486 00
Periodicals and Illustrated Newspapers, - - 4,328 00
Periodicals and other workls in course of publication, - 2,861 00
Total, $466,531 00
Books exported during same period, $119,475 00
Asoerican Almswoanac, 1852.
BOOKS, GERMAN.-Since the Easter Fair at Leipsic, 1851, not less than 3:860
new books had been published, up to Nov.; and 1150 were then in preparation for issue.-Illus. News.
BOOKS, LONDON, 1850 about 4,400 were published, of which the Papal Question
furnished 180 ine osne monlth; fiction, 500; law, 250; and travels, 200; the
remainder miscellaneous.-Ills.ts. News.
BRITISH MUSEUM. The total income for the year 1850, was ~55,686 17s. ld.;
and the actual expenditure within the same period, ~47,463 5s. 10ld.
BOSTON, U. S. A. Population by the census of 1850, 135,000, being an increase
of 42:000, or about 45 per cent. in ten years.
BRIDGES. The Suspension Bridge over the Niagara river, near the Falls, coimpleted July 28, 1848. C. E. Ellett was the engineer. The Britannia Tubular
Bridge, over the Menai Straits, between Caernarvon and the Isle of Anglesea,
completed October, 1850, Mr. Stephenson engineer, at an outlay of nearly
~600;000. A suspension bridge over the Ohio, at Wheeling, span 1010 feet,
being 152 feet longer than the Friburg bridge, Switzerland. was completed
by Mr. Ellett, 1850. Remington's bridge, at Montgomery, Ala., on the same
plan as that he exhibited in London about two years ago, though slight in
appearance, is of extraordinary merit for its strength and ingenuity. The
floating bridge, for passage of railroad cars across Lake Champlain, went
into operation 1st Sept., 1851.
BRITAIN, GREAT, AND BRITISH ISLES. The returns of for/si thousand enumerators show the population of this country, in March 1851, to be, males
10,192721; females, 10.743,747, being an increase during the last 50 years
of 98 per cent.; the average of annual rate of increase dnuring that period,
is 1'37. This amount is exclusive of absent soldiers and sailors, the number
of whom is estimated at 167,604. In Scotland, the rate of increase for the
-CAR] ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS2 1850-51. 7
half century preceding 1851, is 78 per cent.; present population, 2.865,421.
The population in Ireland 6.5156 794, compared with that of 1841, viz.,
8.175 124. shows a total decrease of 1.659,330 souls. The returns of the British metropolis, including parts of Middlesex, Surrey and Kent, give a total
population of 2,361,640, the preponderance in which is females.-Parliasmentar? Ret'urns.
BUILDING (BENEFIT) SOCIETIES. First established at Kircudbright, Scotland, 1815; after 1830 they increased rapidly.-Scratc/tley's Trr1eatise on B. B.
Societies. Several have been in successful operation in New-York since 1848.
CALCULATING MACHINE. A very superior one exhibited in the Crystal
Palace, 1851. by J. A. Staffel, of Warsaw. This extraordinary machine was
the effect of tell years undiminished study and application; by it any errors
may be corrected and the operator warned of any surplus calculation.-Illqus.
News.
CALIFORNIA, STATE OF, U. S. A. Constitution ratified by the people, Nov.
13, 1849. The State admitted into the Union by vote of the United States
Senate, Aug. 13, 1850, and on Sept. 9, 1850, the California Senators, Dr. Wm.
M Gwin and Col. J. C. Fremont, took their seats. The number of emigrants,
to California, passing Fort Laramie, and registered to June 20, 1850. are, men,
32.740; women. 494; children, 591; of mules, 6,725; oxen. 21.418; cows,
3.185; horses, 28,798; and wagons, 7,586. The census returns for 1850, indicate a white population of 165.000 and 1.800 colored, making the fractional
representative enumeration 74,000 and thus securing a second Representative in Congress.-Darilty Times. First overland party of the season,1851,
arrives at Placerville July 17, in 77 days from St. Joseph's. Gov. McDougal
issues a proclamation, July 21. against'; Vigilance Committees," calling upon
all good citizens to sustain the laws. From Janl. to 31 Oct. 1851, inclusive, the
number of vessels at Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and New
Orleans, show an evident decrease in the clearances and cargoes for that
countrly.-Bostoi Price C~rr'ent. Great fire in San Francisco, Sept. 17, 1850,
loss $300.000; more than 200 houses destroyed by fire in Nevada City, estimated loss, $i:300.000. Another fire at San Francisco May. 3, 1851, several
lives lost and many injured, 2 500 buildings consumed, and from one to five
millions of property destroyed. A fire at Stockton, May 14, total loss
$1,500,000. Shock of an eartlhquake felt at San Francisco, May 15. Jenkins
hung at San Francisco and the police driven back by the "Vigilance Committee," June 10, 1851. Another fire (the sixth) at San Francisco, June 22.
500 houses burned, and $3,000,000 property consumed. "Jim Stuart" hung
at San Francisco. July 11, 1851, being the second execution by the "Vigilance Committee." At Sacramento, Aaug. 21, a prisoner under sentence of
death. but reprieved by the Governor, is forcibly executed by the citizens.
Aug. 24, Whittaker and McKenzie taken by force fi'om the jailer at San
Francisco, and publicly executed by the " Vigilance Committee." Aug. 30,
a fire consumes part of Marysville, California. California Fleet.-The whole
number of clearancee from the United States for California. in the year 1850,
was 565, of which 181 were from New York, and 170 from Boston.
CANADA. A memorial for annexation to the United States received, in five
hours, the signatures of 300 merchants, land-owners, and professional men,
in Montreal, Oct. 10, 1850.
CARDINAL WISEMAN, born at Seville, created cardinal January, 1848, public
assumption in London, 1850. The operations of the Catholics arising from
this creation produced great excitement in England. A London bookseller
issued a catalogue of more than 1700 English works on Popery, which he
offered for sale.-S'ee Westmislter.
8 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD7S PROGRESS, 1850-51. V CoA
CARPETS IN NEW-YORK. Prior to 1760 they were not known, but in the
papers of that date Matthew Wilders advertises a variety imported from
Scotland.-NIcocah's S. Tihmes.
CATHOLICS, 1851. Prelates in the U. States-.Archbishops, 16; Bishops, 85;
Vicars Apostolic, 10.-Ai(zi de Religion. The total income received by three
Catholic institutions in Low. Canada, was stated by the Montreal Courier,
of March, 1851, to be larger than the whole Provincial revenue. Real es;.
tate in the Papal dominions is stated at $195.000,000. —I Caltolico C/l'istiano
(l altese payper), 1851. The number of Cathllics in the United States is estimated at 1,233,350 (Am. _Alman~ac), while the entire Catholic population of
the world, Greek and Roman, is judged by Ungewitter and Dr. Baird to
amount to nearly 200,000,000. The great "aggregate meeting" of Roman
Catholics from all parts of the United TKingdonm for inauguration of the
Catholic Defence Association, held at Dublin, August 19th, 1851. The
Duke of Norfolk, whose ancestors for centuries observed the Roman Catholie faith, secedes to the Protestant Church, Sept., 1851.
CHICAGO. From the returns of eight of the largest establishments in this
city, the business operations for 1851 were:-Cattle slaughtered, 30,800;
barrels beef packed, 59;600; barrels tallow, 7,342; hides, 30,800; tons of
salt used, 2,023; number of hands employed, 463.-Clvicago T'lib. and IN.
Y. Daily Times.
CHILI. Suspension of " discriminating duties" upon Chilan vessels determined by U. States Nov. 1, 1850, so long as the equality of maritime imposts
is maintained between the two countries. Don Manuel Montt inaugurated
President, Sept. 18, 1851,
CHINA. The progress of the disturbance in the southern provinces excites
serious alarm in the Imperial Court, Pekin, June 23, 1851.
CHOLERA appeared on the island of Jamaica, West Indies, in the autumn of
1850, and before the 1st December, more than 6,000 persons had fallen victims. It also appeared in California, Oct. 22, 1850. In the city of Mexico,
2,700 persons died of cholera in four weekls-I- ay and June, 1850.
CHURCH OF ENGLAND. Great excitement and agitation in England respecting a dispute on doctrine between the Bishop of Exeter and Rev. Dr.
Gorham, one of' his clergy. The Privy Council's decision in favor of the
latter, afterwards ratified by the courts, March 8, 1850. According to evidence of l!Mr. Baines before Committee H. Commons, 1851, there were in.
Gt. Britain 13,193 places of worship dissenting from the tenets of the Established Church; to which may be added R. Catholic chapels 597, minor
sects and Jews 550; making the total of nonconformist churches 14,340.
CINCINNATI, the " Queen of the West," had by the census of 1850, a population of 115,590. In 1840, it was 46,3852. Increase, in ten years, 69,208, or
about 150 per cent.
CLOCKS. Between 200,000 and 300,000 clocks are manufactured annually in
the State of Connecticut; the brass works being made by machinery with'
mathematical precision. Chauncey Jerome of N. Haven makes upwards of
800 per day, some of which he sells at sixty cents each wholesale, warranted.
An astronomical clock exhibited in Crystal Palace, by Dr. Henderson of
Liverpool, requires winding up but once in a century. It was conmmenced
in 1844, and finished for the Great Exhibition. —llcts. News.
COALS. Comparative view of the areas of coal lands, and the production, in
1845, of the six principal producing countries.
CO1] ADDENDA TO THE WORLD9S PROGRESS6 1850-51. 9
Square Miles. Tons of Fuel Relative Official estimated Value at the
Countries. of Coal For- produced in parts of Places ol_ Production.
mation. 1845, 1,000. American Pounds Ster.
Dollars. ling.
Great Britain... 11,859 31,500,000 642 45,738,000 9,450,000
Belgium........ 518 4,9601077 101 7,689,900 1.660,000
UniJted States... 133,132 4,400,000 89 6,650,000 1,373,963
France......... 1,719 4,14,617 84 7,663,000 1,603, L06
Prussian States. not defined. 3,500,000 70 4,122,945 856,370
Austrian States. " 659,340 14 800,000 165,290
Total....... 49,161,034 1,000 72,663,845 5 5,108,729
COAL FIELDS, 1851. East of the Mississippi, 124,735 square miles; west of
ditto, 8,379 square miles. This is all bituminous. The anthracite of Pennsylvania is about 437 square miles. In Europe & Brit. America we find:Great Britain and Ireland, anthracite, - 3,720 sq. miles.
r4 "6 bitulninous, - 8,139 "
British America, - - 18,000 I
Spain, " - - 3,408
France, " - 1,719 "
Belgium, " 518 ",Scientific Atmzerican.
The very general substitution of coal for wood as fuel, and its employment
in the manufacture of iron and in the production of steam and gas, have, of
late years, given an amlazing impulse to the trade in this article. Coal was
discovered in Mansfield, Massachusetts, about 1835, but the efforts to render the same available were only efficiently applied by the Mansfield Mlining
Co.. in 1848, which establishment it is expected will work the mine to much
public advantage. The main shaft is 171 feet from the sulface, and four
other shafts lead from this, making the entire length 1.100 feet. — Boston
Traveller. The amount of Pennsylvania anthracite coal sent to market
in 1850 was 3,127,083 tons. Coal-field found at Port Philip, V. D. Land,
June, 1851, surpassing any of those in the sister colonies.
COAL, GT. BRITAIN. The present home consumption is about thirty-two
millions of tons annually: export about six millions. —Alderson's " Courese
of Creation."
COD FISHERY. The total amount of tonnage employed in the cod fishery of
Marblehead, Mass., fiom 1794 to 1850, was 280233,507. Nunmber of vessels
rating over fifty tons each, 3147; under fifty tons, 100l7. Vessels lost in
1846, eleven.-. Y. Sane?.
COFFEE AND TEA. Value of imported into the United States of America,
For the year ending, June 30, 1849: —Coffee, $98.058,352; Teas, 84,071.789.
1850: 1, 93:31; 4,719,232.
1851: ~ 1t,070; 4,798,005.
Courier.
COINAGE or TTHE U. S. MIN'r AND BRANCHES. for the year ending December
31, 1849. Gold, value $9,007,761; silver, 2 114;950; cop ler $41: 84; total,
$11,164,695. The amount of cotitage at Philadelp.ia, 1861., fioni January
to November 5 inclusive. was: gold,.$3.1139,131; silver, $246,650; silver
three cent pieces, $146 653; colper, 091,988; total, $46,624,22). The California gold depotsited at the Mint during thlat period was $42,512,588.T/'ib w;ne.
COMMERCE, INTERNAL, of the United States, 1851. The aggregate value of
the lake trade, as appears by returns made tt the btureau of' Topogliaphical
Engineers, amounts to the enormous sum of $186,485:269, or more, by
$40,000,000, than the whole foreign export trade of the country. The aggre1.*D
10 ADDENDA TO THE WVORLD S PROGRESS, 1850-51. [coT
gate tonnage is 203,041 tons, of which 35,904 is foreign. The net value of the
commerce of the western rivers is $256:233,820; the value of vessels,
$18,661:500. The gross value of the internal commerce of the United State>:
may be estimated at $795,654,744.
COMMERCIAL TONNAGE, THE, of England is stated at 3,130,000 tons. If so,
the United States will stand as the first commercial nation in the world, as
her tonnage on the 30th of June, 1850, was as follows: registered tonnage
in foreign trade, 1 585.711 tons; vessels in coasting trade, 1,797,824 tons;
fishing vessels, 151,918; in whale fishery, 146,016 tons. Total, 3,681,469
tons.
CONVENTION of Delegates from Southern States in defence of the slaveholding interest, at Nashville, June 3, 1850; and again November 12, 1850.
COPPER. The Connecticut mines are stated by Professor Silliman to extend
over thirty miles south of Bristol, and would employ, if thoroughly worked,
30;000 miners. The net profits in 1849 were $120 000; and the yield increases in value every foot the miners proceed. From Lake Superior the
shipments of copper, till the close of navigation, 1850, were 2,680,000 lbs. —
Awn. Scientific Discover'y.
COSTUME, BLOOMER. The male costume was entirely adopted by Miss Webber, an agriculturist of Belgium, in 1850; and a partial modification by Mrs.
Bloomer, of Seneca Falls, New-York, in 1851. Attempts have been made
for its general adoption, both in this country and in England; but the propriety of female opinion has hitherto been against it.
COTTON. First exported from this country to Liverpool in 1784, when eigh.
bales were seized by the customs, who disputed its positive shipment from
the United States. In 1791 the exports to Great Britain Awere about
2,000,000; the shipments now made exceed 800,000,000 lbs. With the exception of Liverpool, more cotton is shipped from New Orleans to Boston
than to any other part of the world. — V. Flax-Cotlton. The quantity
received in England from the United States has increased from seventy
millions of pounds in 1849, to nearly one hundred and twenty millions in
1850; the former being about 9 per cent. of the whole quantity imported by
that country, the latter about 18 per cent.-olorning ECx;press. The ratios
of cotton imported by Great Britain in the five years 1844-49 were: America
785. per cent., India 101, Brazil 7, Egypt, 31, West Indies and miscellaneous
0~ per cent. " If we could derive a larger supply than we now do fiom
our own colonies, equally good and cheap with that from the United.
States, it would be nationally beneficial in many ways." —Comypaion to
British Almanac, 1851. The exports of cotton from the United States in 1850
were valued at $72.000.000. The value of entire product of United States
cotton goods for year ending June 30, 1851, was $61,859,184. —Herald.
COTTON SPINDLES in operation in Europe and America, 1851. The following is the estimated number of spindles in actual operation: Great Britain,
17.500.000; France, 4.300;000; United States, 2,500 000; Zollverein States,
815.000; Russia, 700.000; Switzerlandl, 650.000; Belgium, 420,000; Spain,
300,000; Italy, 300,000. Total, 28,985,000.
COTTON MANUFACTURES in the United States. It is estimated that the
annual product of all the cotton mills in the United States is 250,000,000
yards, and the consumption of cotton 600,000 bales; 100,000 bales of which
are consumed south of the Potomac and in the Western States. The value
of this amount of cotton when manufactured, is supposed to be upwards
of sixty-seven millions. Convention of cotton planters at Macon, Georgia,
October 28, 1851.
DEC] ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS, 1850-51. 11
CUBA. Trial of General Lopez and others, engaged in the Cuban expedition,
commenced in Circuit Court, New Orleans, December 17. 1850. General
Quitman, of Mississippi, arrested by United States Marshal February 3,
1851, on charge of setting on foot a military expedition against Cuba; he
issues a paper to the people of Mississippi, resigning his office as Governor.
Proclamation by the President United States, April 25, warning all persons
within jurisdiction of the States from aiding or engaging in any expedition
against Cuba. Arrest of O'Sullivan and others, April 26, on charge of being
concerned in a Cuban military expedition then fitting out in New-York.
Steamer Pampero, with Lopez and 400 to 500 volunteers, sails from New
Orleans, Aug. 3; disembark at Cabanos on the 12th; Col. Crittenden, on his
route to join Lopez then in advance, is attacked by 500 Spanish troops and
his forces scattered. Lopez having repulsed Gen. Enna, at Las Posas, retreats
to the mountains; is taken by bloodhounds on the 29th, and publicly garotted at Havana, September 1. Col. Crittenden puts to sea, but is captured
with 50 of his comrades on the 15th Aug.; the whole are carried to Havana
and shot the next day. The remaining followers of Lopez, after enduring
great privations, are captured or surrender, and all but three or four condemned by the governor to 10 years' labor on the public works in Spain, for
which country they are shipped September 1, under escort. Great excitement at New Orleans, Aug. 21, growing out of the above; the Spanish residents attacked, and the Spanish Consul placed in city prison for safety.
Mr. J. S. Thrasher, late editor of the "Faro Industrial," arrested at Havana, and after a trial resulting in his conviction, sent to Spain 24th Nov.,
1851. The American prisoners in Spain pardoned by the Queen, Dec. 1851.
DAGUERREOTYPES. Of the innumerable variety of specimens of this Art,
those of the United States are considered superior for brilliancy and execution.
It is estimated that not less than 15,000 persons are connected with this Art
in the U. States, and that the amount of material annually consumed in their
operations exceeds $900,000. The nearest approach to success in Daguerreotypes in natural colors is that of M. Ni6pce the original inventor of the
Art-Daguerre having only perfected the discoveries of that gentleman. Daguerre died in Paris, July 1851. Hill's " discoveries " in colored Daguerreotypy decided by a committee of " New York State Daguerreotype Association," 18th Nov. 1851, to be " an unmitigated delusion."
DEBTS OF THE STATES IN THE AMERICAN UNION, 1851. In round
numbers the debts of the different States for the year 1851, are estimated as
follows:Maine, $S50,000; New Hamnpslhire, $76,790; Vermont, none; Massachusetts, $6,000,000;
Rthode Island, none; Connecticut., none; New-York, $24,000,000; New Jersey, $67,000;
Pennsylva-ia, $40,10,000; Delaware, none; Malryland, $15,000,000; North Carolina,
$977,000; South Carolina,. 2,300,000; Georgia, $1,800.000; Florida. none; Alabama, $8,.
900,000; Mississippi, $7,270,000; I,ouisiana, 816,283,000; Texas, $1 1,000,000; Arklansas,
$3,S50,000; Tennessee, $3,337,000; Kentucky, $4,497,000; Ohio, $49,000; Indiana,
$6,530,000; Illinois, $5,590,565; Michigan, $2,S00,000; Missouri, $156,000; Iowa,
355,0U0; Wisconsin, none; California, $G650,000.
DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. In March 1851 the Legislature of
North Carolina accepted a Report affirming as a well-ascertained historical
fact that the celebrated 1M1ecklerbscrg' Declar-atioe was published in June,
1775,-large portions of which were embodied in Mr. Jefferson's Declaration
of the following year. A resolution was passed that the Governor cause to
be transmitted the block of marble presented by Lincoln county for the
Washington Monument with tihe arms of the State and the following inscription sculptured thereon,-" North Carolina, Declaration of Independence,
Mecklenburg, May 20, 1775.
12 ADl)ENDA TO THE WORLD'7 PROGRESS, 1850-51i [ a1E
DEMOCRACY of England, France and the United States-Compared.
Votes Votes
Comntry. Pop, No. Votes. to Countryg Pop, No, Votes. to
Pop. Pop.
England, 17,000,000 630,721 1 in 26 Great Britain 2,650000 3, in 4
WVales, 850,000 37,924 1 in 23 and Ireland, 1 in
Scotland, 2,800,000 72.720 1 in 38 France, 34,000,0o0 250,000 1 in 137"
Ireland, 8,000,000 98;006 1 in 81 United States, 20,000,000 2,750;000 1 in 7
DENMARK. Battle of Idstedt, between the Danes and Schleswig-Holsteiners
Danes lose 116 killed and 2,373 wounded. lolsteiners retire, but advantage
about equal, July 25, 1850. See Germlany, Austcria, &c. The Government
of Schleswig-Holstein yields to the Commissioners of the Germanic Confederation, Jan. 10, 1851. The Danish mining operations in Greenland 1851 produced large quantities of copper ore, yielding about sixty per cent.
DIAMONDS. The Koh-i-noor, or " Mountain of Lio-ht," valued at. 2,000,005,
received in England from India, July, 1850.'The actual value of this Diamond tested by Mr. Jeffrey's tables is ~260,000. It is however exceeded
by the famous Portugal Diamond, wreighillg 1,680 carats; this Diamond has
never-been cut or polished. and is valued by the Portuguese Government at
~5,644.000! The Durra-i-Noor or Sea of Light, the property of the East
India Company, a blue Diamond belonging to the Queen, another in Mr.
Hope's collection (177 grs.) with several parti-coloredcl, and a green diamonad'
owned by the King of Saxony, are among the most remarkable gems of the
present day. Several pink diamonds were exhibited in the " Crystal Palace,") also a Black diamond weighing 350 carats, the property of Mr. Joseph
Mayer.
DIRECTORY, NEW YORK CITY. The earliest published was in 1786, a
small volumie of 82 pages, printed by Shepherd Kollock, Wall street; the
names of the individuals and firms include about 900. and occupy 33 pages,
the remainder being filled with general statistics of the City, U. S. Government, Post Office regulations, &c. In his address the ]Editor states it was thQi
" first Directory ever attempted in this country." The N. Y. hfist. Society
possesses a complete set from its first publication to 1851.
DOLLAR. This word is said to have originated fiom the following circumzstance. In 1516 a silver mine was discovered at St. Joachim's Thal (or dale'
in Bohemia, the proprietor of which issued a number of silver pieces which
were called Joachim's Ttatlec; by subsequent corruptions this word became
Dolltar, the mtark $ is simply a monog'ram of the letters P. S.-i. e, Peso the
Spanish word for Dollar.
DRAMATIC FUND ASSOCIATION. This benevolent institution for the relief of decayed or disabled members of the profession, itn this country, wias
founded in New York, April 1848.
EARTH, ROTATION OF THEL. M. Foucault's public demonstration in Paris, May
1851, of the rotation of the earth, was preceded by a similar exhibition by
M. Guyot, Paris, 1836.
EDUCATION. General convention of the friends of education in the United
States, at Philadelphia, Oct. 19, 1849, and again, Aug. 1850. The report of
the Board of Education of New York, for 1851, shows the number of childlres
attending the 207 schools in that district, as 107,.363.'Yearly outlay,
$274,794; average expense of each child for the scholastic year df 204 days,
is $6 86. The London Atheneum in referring to this report states that the
governmental cost of each criminal in Great Britain is, from first to last
nearly ~400! and nobly endorses that great truth in political economy,
* Before the late revolution. At the election in December, 1851. the suffrage was nominally' universal,' and the ntmber of votes was about 8,000,000.
ERIA] ADDENDA TO THE WORLD S PROGRESS, 1850-5i.
that " The cheapest system of police is education!" Students in New-Yorkl
Free Academy, 1851, 382; professors and tutors 17.-F. A Catanlogue (SXe
Sc/ools.) Tn the United States there ar.e 217 colleges and professional schools,
120 colleges proper, 43 theological, 17 law, 37 mIedicine. UO the colleges 13
are Baptist, 8 Episcopalian, 13 Methodist. and 11 Roman Catholic. The
number of volumes in the diflerent collegiate libraries is 871,800.-Americom
Alman2ac.
ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. The crude idea was started by Schwenter, a German, in 1636.-Loand. Pdilos. Jourz. In 1684 the celebrated Hoolke presented
a communication to the Royal Society, " showing how to communicate onlle's
mind at great distances, not by sornd but by sifht!"-Chavsbes.s Iln 1774
Le Sage of Geneva submitted a plan for an electric telegraph, to Fr ederick
the Great, as' the monarch best capable of realizing it." Illn I787, Lomond,
of Paris, exhibited to Arthur Young" an alphabet of motions" appertaining
to an electric telegraph; the distances to he accomplished by which, Young
expressly states, " depended solely on the length of the wires." In Jan. 1851,
twenly,-two thousand mg'iles of a continuous telegraphic route, extending from
Halifax, N. S., to New Orleans, and as far West as Duhbuque, Ioua, was accomplished as follows: Professor Morse's principle, 12 000 miles; Messrs.
House and Bain 10,000 miles.-Sciel. Americcan. Dec. 2, 1851, a dispatch of
34 words was sent from New York to New Orleans, a distance of 1,900 miles,
and an answer received in Zess than five minuttes; the whole distance traversed
being 3,800 miles.-NV. Y. Conmmercial. Bakevwel's copying electric telegraph
experimented on, Apr. 1851, gave fac-similes of autographs, at the rate of
120 to 150 letters per minute. The submarine telegraph between Dover and
Calais. completed Oct. 17, opened for public use; Nov. 13, 1851. United
States brig Dolphin, sailed Oct. 1851, upon her expedition to run a line of
soundings for telegraphic purposes across the Atlantic.
EMIGRATION to the U. S. A. Passengers arrived in the year ending June
30, 1849, 299,610, of whom 213,736 landed ats New York; in 1850 the number was 315,333, of whom 212 796 landed in New Yorlk.
ENGLAND. Resignation of the Russell Ministry Feb. 22, 1851; after several
unsuccessful attempts by Lord Stanley to form a cabinet. Lord J. Russell
and his colleagues resumed their ministerial functions. Second reading of
the prohibited Affinity Marriage Bill, lost in the Iouse of Peers, Feb. 25,
by a vote of 16 to 50; Lord Campbell and the Ecclesiastical Bench voting
in the majority. Great Exhibition, lMay 1st, which see. Banquet to royal
and foreign conumissioners of Great Exhibition, on board American steamer
Atlantic at Liverpool, by Mit r. W. Brown, M. P., July 12, 1851. Oath of
Abjuration (Jew) Bill, passed by the Commons, is refused a second read-!ng in the House of Lords; July 17, by a majority of 36. July 18, Alderman
Salomons, the Jewish member for Greenwich, not permitted to take his seat.
(Case in abeyance.) Resignation of Lord Palmierston, Sec. for Foreign Affairs, Dec. 1851.
ENVELOPES FOR LETTERS. Delarue's machine in London completes no
less than 396,000 daily, the cutting, foldi:g; and gumming, being performed
by one single operation.-Illus. N wvs. Dr. Hawres' three machines at
Worcester, Mass., complete, count and pack 36,000 per day, and preparations are malcing for a contract of 120,000 daily.- W. Spy.
ERIE CANAL ENLARGEMENT. The passage of this bill defeated in the
New York Senate April 16, 1851, by the withdrawal and resignation of
twelve of the democratic members. The bill passed by new Legislature,
1851.
ERIE RAILROAD. This great undertaking, extending from N. Y. city to
14 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD9S PROGRESS; 1850-51. [EXP
Dunkirk, 469 miles, was opened by President Fillmore, Mr. Webster, &c.,
15th May, 1851. Original charter 1832; cost nearly $20,000,030; first
regular journey 19th May, 1851, the whole distance being completed in 17
hours, or nearly 27- miles per hour.
EXHIBITION., GREAT, LONDON, opened by the Queen, May 1, closed Oct.
11, 1851. This building, erected for the exhibition of the "World's Industry" in arts, manufactures, &c., covered nearly nineteen acres, being four
times the size of' St. Peter's at Rome. It was erected from the designs of
Joseph Paxton, almost entirely of glass and iron; the cubic contents of the
building were 33:000,000 feet; height of the transept, 108 feet.Total cash receipts fiom privileges, season tickets and visitors, - - ~505,107
Oflwhich $356,808 25 was taken in the is. days.
Expenses and appropriations, 355,000
Net profit, ~150,107
Total number of visitors, — 6,201,856
Largest number of admissions on closing day, being at 5 P. M., - 0,000
Number of Exhibitors, - 17,000
Couecil Idedals awardedl to Great Britain,79; Germany, 12; Austria, 4; Belgium,2; Tuscany.
2; Spain, 1; France, 56; United States, 5; Russia, 3; Switzerland, 2; Holland, 1; Rome,
1; and Turkey, 1. Total, 169.
Juiry Medals, of which 9 were awarded to U. S., 2,918.
The number of letters received by the acting Commlnissioners during their official session was
Thirlty-seven Thousand!
It is not a little to the honor of the United States that the articles combining the greatest utility were exhibited by American citizens; MeCormic's Reaping Machine being one of the most important and successful.
PLOSIONS, FIREs, EARTHQUIa KES, &c. Portuguese frigate, Donna Maria II.,
of 32 guns, accidentally destroyed by explosion at Macao, China, Oct. 29,
1850, when 188 of the 244 men on board perished. At Fredericton, N.B.,
near 300 houses destroyed by fire, Nov. 11, 1850. A terrible hurricane at
Cape Girardeau, Mo., Nov. 27, 1850, and many of the principal buildings
destroyed. Steamer Anglo-Norman, on a pleasure trip, explodes at New Orleans, Dec. 13, 1850, nearly 100 persons killed, wounded and missing.
Violent storm, Boston and vicinity, March 17, 18. 19, 1851, unusual rise of tide,
and great damage to property on wharves. Earthquake at Valparaiso, South
America, April 2, the most violent since that of 1822, few lives lost, but great
destruction of property. Great storm on the whole sea-coast of Massachusetts, April 15, 16, 17, greatly exceeding the injuries of the preceding month.
The city of Amalfi, and neighboring towns southeast of Naples, visited by a
series of shocks by earthquake July 14, and 3,000 persons supposed to have
perished. Volcanic eruptions fiom 8 craters, in the mountains of Martinique, West Indies, Aug. 5. Tornado, attended with great injury to buildings, &c., at St. Louis, Mo., Aug. 15; this was preceded by storms and
freshets in Iowa and Tennessee. On the 17th great damage to shipping at
Castries, St. Ltucia, by an extraordinary commotion of the sea. A destructive tornado passed over Waltham, West Cambridge, and Medford, Mass.,
Aug. 22, doing much damage in its progress. Same day a violent storm
blew down and unroofed buildings, &c., at Tallahassee, Floida.
EXPORTS AND IMPORTS, U. S. A. Year ending June 30, 1849, imports.
$147,857,439, exports $145,755,820; excess of imports, ~$2101,619. Imports
for year ending June 30, 1850, $178,138 318. Yrear ending June 30, 1851,
imports $210 000:000, exports $188 000.000; excess of imports $22 000 000.
Specie imported same period, $5,000.000; do. exported, chiefly California
gold, $29;000,000. The amount of imports in 1850, for articles of dress and
personal ornament, was stated by N. Y. Express to be $18,476, 7X68.
EXPORTS os GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, 1849, E58,848,042-being an in
VRAJ ADDENDA TO THE WORLD S PROGRESS, 1850-51. 15
crease of ~9,902,717 over those of 1848. Of the exports there were:-To
British Colonies. X16 594.087; China,:1,445.959; United States of America,
~9;564 909; Cuba, ~733:169; Brazil,;2.067.299; Mexico and Central South
America, ~3,757,463. In 1850 the British exports were., to United States,
~14.891,951, and. to forty-four other countries, ~37,847.035; total exports,
1850,~71,367,885.-Pa.l. Retzuris. Imports by Great Britain. 1851, amount
exclusive of London was, England, ~6,691,629; Scotland, ~1,951,981; Ireland,
~2,0553925. —Iliis. News.
FIRES. At San Francisco, $1,500.000 worth of property destroyed, Dec. 24,
1849 Another at same place, May 4, 1850; 200 buildings, value $4,000,000,
destroyed. Another at same place, 300 houses,' &c., value $5,000,000
burnt, June 14, 1850.-See Explosions.
FIRE-ANNIHILATORS. The Water Bomb for extinguishing fires, invented
by Zachary Greyl, a German, 1721; another by an English chemist, 1823,
Phillips's annihilator, experimented with in New York, 1851. Salomon's
gas engine exhibited, Cincinnati, Sept. 1851; and one by W. Lay, at Philadelphia, same year. First fire engines in New-York, brought from London,
1713, with hooks and ladders.
FLAX-COTTON. M. Claussen's patent, in 1850, for a new preparation of hemnp,
under the title of cotton-flax, having excited much attention. extensive pre.parations were made in Great Britain and Ireland, for the cultivation of flax
for the new material. A sample of 60 tons manufactured for a Manchester
house, 4 flax and i cotton, was considered decidedly successful, when the
British Board of Trade agreed to purchase a company's produce of 100,000
acres, at the rate of ~12 per acre. In the western states, and particularly
Ohio, the subject excited great interest, as a branch of trade well suited for
the agricultural facilities of that district.
FLOGGING IN THE NAVY. Bill to abolish it passed the House of Representa..
tives of the United States, 131 to 29, Sept. 19, 1850. Mr. Brodhead of Pennsylvania, presented a petition in Senate, Dec. 17, 1851, praying for " restor..ation of flogging in the United States Navy."
FLORIDA, 1851. White population 47,167; free colored 925; slaves, 39,309;
total 87,401. Farms in cultivation 4.304; manufacturing establishments
producing annually upwards of $500,121. —Ccensus Ret-rn&s.
FRANCE, 1849. Nov. 9, M. Poussin, French minister to the U. S., having been
dismissed by the American government, sails for France. Nov. 12, trial of
the political offenders of June 1848 ends at Versailles; 11 are acquitted, 20
convicted and sentenced-17 to transportation for life, 3 to imprisonment for
five years. Nov. 15, Ledru Rollin and 30 other accused persons, absent from
trial, are sentenced to transportation for life. 1850, Jan. 1. The President
creates his uncle Jerome a marshal of France. April 15, 300 soldiers drowned at Angiers by the fall of a bridge. May 16, the French ambassador recalled from London in consequence of'a difficulty connected with an English
claim on Greece. May 31, new electoral law restricting the right of suffrage,
passed. June 21, an arrangement with England on the Greek dispute.
June 24, dotation bill, giving the President 2,160,000 firancs per ann., passed.
Dec. the French government protests, at Vienna, against the proposed extension of the Germanic Confederation beyond the Alps. 1851, Jan. 3, the
Ministry resign. Feb. 8, the Presidential Dotation Bill proposing an additional
grant of 1,800,000 francs, rejected in the assembly. March 25, Declaration at
Honolulu of arrangement of difficulties between the Haiwaian government
and the French republic. July 5, report of sub-committee on petitions, for
revision 741,011; for revision and prolongation of powers 370,511; for prolongation of powers 12,103; total signatures 1,123,165. July 19, question of
16 ADDENDA'TO T-SE WORiLD'S P1ROGURESS, 1850-51. [GOL
revision of French Constitution again taken in Assembly, when the minority
was declared 97 less than the three-fourths required by the constitution. Dec.
1, Revolution in France; Louis Napoleon by a coup dl'etat seizes the reins
of government, dissolves the National Assembly; declares a state of siege; arrests the Members of the Assembly; constitutes an entire new Ministry.
The President proposes the instant restoration of universal suffrage; an
immediate election by people and army of a President, to hold office for ten
years, to be supported by a council of state, and two houses of Legislature.
The revolution creates an intense excitement. Dec. 10, the vote of the army
shows a large majorityfor Louis Napoleon. Resistance to the usurpation is
shown in various parts of France, but the overwhelming power of the army,
and a " state of siege" in 33 departments, crushes all open opposition. Dec.
20, the election, under various controlling influences, results in the confirmation of Louis Napoleon as President for 10 years, by a vote of about seven
millions out of eight millions. The French census of 1851 shows a total population of 35;500,000. The number of foreigners domiciled of all nations,
exceeds 1,000,000, of which 75,000 are British, or about one-half the British
residents previous to the revolution of 1848.
GAS. First introduced in UJ. S. in City of Baltimore 1820, and shortly after in
Boston, New York and Philadelphia.-Sci. American. Opposed in Italy
by the Pope (Gregory XVI.) as " subversive of religion " in suppressing the
sale of wax candles for the shrines.- Gas Journal. Water Gas discovered
by Lavoisier, circa 1790.-Sci. Amerlican. Paine's Water Gas spokeen of
during the last 5 or 6 years, but appears to have been accomplished by the
French Chemists. Superior gas from wood and fibrous matter, the discovery
of a German. used at the R. R. Depot at Munich, 1851. In 1847 the expense
of gas at the London Gen. Post Office was ~3,.047; increased facilities by the
Gas Co. gradually reduced the charges in 1850, when the whole amount paid
by the Post Office was ~1,485.
GEORGIA. Population in 1850 was,-white, 513,083; free colored, 2,586; slaves,
362 966; federal representative pop. 733,448.-Censits Restru-ns.
GERMANY. The Archduke John resigns his office as head of the central power
at Frankfort, Dec. 20, 1849. The Schleswig-Holsteiners under Gen. Willisen,
engage the Danes at Idstedt, in a bloody but indecisive battle, July 25, 1850.The Schleswig-Holsteiners attempt to take Frederickstadt, but are repulsed
by the Danes and lose 500 men, Oct. 5, 1850. Difficulties in Hesse-Cassel,
between the Elector and his people, in regard to the mode of taxation. Austria and Prussia respectively send armies to the Electorate, to take opposite
parts in the struggle; but they are soon after withdrawn, without collision,
Sept.-Nov. 1850.
GIPSIES. A company from England arrived in Cecil county. M[aryland, in
March 1851, bringing with them all their wandering habits and peculiarities.
GLOBES, MONSTER. Originally exhibited in Paris 1823, and a more perfect
one by M. Gudrin in 1844, which he styled the Giloramna.-Art. JI Wyld's
Monster Globe erected in London 1851, employed 300 men nearly 30 days in
fitting up the interior.-Ill. News.
GOLD. Received from California, in port of New York, 1851,
January, $2,S890,903 July, - - 3,094,311
February -. 4,36,471. August, 4,105,689
Mlarch, - - - 1,951,055 September, - 3,237,460
April, - 2,023,119 October - 3,756,241
MIay, - - 2,282,388 Nov. to 21st, - - 5,238,813
June. - - 3,975,355
Gold discovered at Ophir, Bathurst District, Australia, by Mr. IIargreaves,
in Feb. 1851; and at Port Philip, in June, same year. One piece weighed
'HUNj ADDENDA TO THE W-ORLD;S PROGRESS, 1850-51. 17
3 lbs. 10 oz.; and Dr. Kerr found in one day over 102 lbs., value ~4000 sterling. The diggings are estimated at 300 miles in extent. Gold mines reported to be discovered in the province of Gerona, Spain, Oct. 1851. Nearly
~e750,000 sterling was raised in London, N\ov. 1851, for California and Australian gold mining operations.
GREECE. Lord Palmerston's note to the Greek government, Nov. 1851, produces great sensation at Athens, and the ministerial crisis likely to end in
favor of the Russian party.
GUN COTTON. Discovered by Prof. Schoenbein, in Germany, 1846, but its
practical utility for mining purposes supersedes its use in fire-arms.
TUTTA PERCHA. Previous to 1844, the very name of gutta percha was unknown to European commerce. In that year two cwt. was:shipped experimentally from Singapore. The exportation of gutta percha from that port
rose in 1845 to 169 piculs (the picul is 1330 lbs.); in 1846, to 5,364; in 1847,
to 9,292; and in the first seven months of 1848, to 6,768 piculs. In the first
four and a half years of the trade, 21,598 piculs of gutta percha, valued at
$274,190, were shipped at Singapore, the whole of which were sent to England, with the exception of 15 piculs to Mauritius, 470 to the continent of
Europe, and 922 to the United States. The great variety of articles for domestic use, the ornamental arts, &c., to which this material has been applied,
has given employment to thousands not only in the factories of our own
and other countries, but also to the gatherers in the Indian Archipelago,
with whom it at present constitutes one of their most profitable articles of
export.
HAMBURGH. Occupied by 4,000 Austrian troops, Jan. 1851.
HATS, STRAW. This branch of trade is principally carried on in Massachusetts. At Medfield the value of Bonnets made in 1851 was $134,000; Foxboro' for the same period, $122,000; and in Franklin 160,000. In Boston
city alone there are over 300 sewers.
HESSIAN FLY. This plague to agriculturists was introduced into this country
by the foreign mercenaries on Long Island, 1777, from their baggage or in
the forage of their horses.
HUMAN RACE. Dr. Pickering enumerates eleven different races, of which
the names and numbers, supposing the whole human family to be
900,000;000, are as follows:
White, - - 350,000,000 Abyssinian, - 3,000,000
Mongolian,- - 300,000,000 Papuan, 3,000,000
Malayan, 120,000,000 Negrillo, 3,000,000
Telingan, 60 000,000 Australian, 500,000
Negro, 55,000,000 Hottentot, 500,000
Ethiopian, - 5,000,000
Dr. P. supposes that there have been at least two centres whence these different races have been derived, one in Asia and the other in Africa; he does
not support the original unity of the races in one parent stem.-See Pickceri'ag's Races of Me2n, 1851. Professor Agassiz contends for a primitive
ubiquity, or different types of humanity co-existent in different climes and
countries.
HUNGARY. The fortress of Comorn surrenders to the Austrians, September
27, 1849. Count Louis Batthyani, late prime minister of Hungary, shot at
Pesth, at the sole urgency of Haynaun October 7, 1849. In his visit to London, September, 1850, Haynau was attacked and severely maltreated for his
cruelty in the late Hungarian war. General Bem dies at Aleppo, December
9. The Austrian government and the Ottoman Porte, in Feb., 1851, conclude on a general amnesty towards the Hungarian refugees, eight only excepted, amongst whom is Kossuth. Mr. Charles Brace, an American, im -
18 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS, 1850-51. [IRO
prisoned in Hungary May 23, on a charge of being an agent of Ujhazy and
Cretz, and travelling with revolutionary books, &c., for the purpose of exciting rebellion. The authorities of Pesth. November 15th, forbid the distribution of all foreign journals, including those intended for editors of newspapers, until decision is received as to what papers, &c., shall be admitted.
Louis Kossuth, ex-governor of Hungary, after a series of vicissitudes,
during which he was nobly protected by the Ottoman Porte, visits England
on his route to this country, landing at New-York, December 5, 1851, where,
as in England, he was received with every demonstration of friendship and
liberality, in return for his great exertions to procure the freedom of his
native country. His arrival in New-York was known, per telegraph. at Milwaukie. 1,000 miles distant, in less than fifteen minutes. Great Kossuthprocession, Saturday, December 6th, 1851. This was followed by a public
banquet, professional dinners, &c., &c.; Kossuth's semi-official interview
with the President at Washington, December 31. He is formally presented
to the Senate of the United States, January 5, 1852.
ILLINOIS, Population of in 1850 was,-white, 846,104; colored, 5,366; farms
in cultivation, 76,208; dwelling-houses, 146,514; manufactories producing
annually $500 and upwards, 3,099. —Ce'asies Retalq-ts.
INDEX Expurgatory. In 1850 the " Congregation of the Index" ainong other
works placed on their pages Professor Vericour's (Cork College) " Historical
Annals of Christian Civilization." —Illqste.efted c News. In 1851. D'Harmonville's " Diet. de Dates," 1844, Professor Whateley's': Elements of Logic," and
Henry's " Historical Institutions of' Eyptians," were aclded to the list. The
last author, however, " made due submission to the Church." —Giornacle di
R]oma, April, 1851.
INDIA, British. A fourth presidency contemplated by Great Britain, Nov. 1851,
and a proposal to remove the seat of government from Calcutta to Lahore.
INDIANA, 1850. White population, 9583,634; free colored, 5.100. Total,
988 734. Farms in cultivation, 93,896; manufactories producing anLually
$500 and upwards. 4,326. —Census Retle'ns,
INDIA RUBBER. The natives of Hindostan were the first to collect this substance, which was introduced into England in 1735, for the purpose of removing pencil marks from paper.-AAt/hev. In 1772 a cubical one-half inch
of this substance cost 3s. sterling. Mr. Macintosh, of England, was the first
to manufacture the prepared guma for its present innumerable applications.
Cuirasses of vulcanized rfibber were introduced in the French army, 1851,
and said to be bullet-proof (.) The daily product of India rubber shoes,
made in the United States, is calculated at 15,000, at an annual profit of
nearly $200 000. —Fasumee' ansd Mtlmcheezsic.
INOCULATION. The small-pox was introduced into the United States
about 1517; and so late as the year 1769 we find the practice of inoculation
prohibited by law in Virginia.
IOWA. The population of this territory, according to census returns 1850,
was 192 914, and the aggrlegate valuation of taxable property $22,623,334,
being an.increase of' $1,114,567 since 1849.-Americav AZlman'ac.
IRON, United States, 1851.
Aennally.
Mine at Saiisbuly, Conn., yields, a3,00i tons.
Dutchess and Columbia Co., N. Y., 20,0,00
ER-s x Co., -.15,000"
Clinton Co., 3,001)
Franlklin Co., -600 "
St. Lawrance Co., 2,000 "
Value of Iron produced in the U. S., 1835, $6000,000
tF'1 16 1837,.. 7,700,000
-LAN] ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS, 1850-51. 19
The iron ores in Ohio. Kentucky. Tennessee, Illinois, Maryland, and Virginia,
from recent inspections, are found to be inexhaustible. —Sci. American. In
the Gentleman's Magazine, 1783, is a recommendatory article of cast iron,
then in its infancy, which is there said to be " capable of being carried to a
great extent."
JESUITS. In 1851 this body published in Italy a " Catechissb Filosofio," or
dialogue on Monarchical Constitutions, containing instructions for kings,
how far they may go with a safe conscience in breaking promises made to
their people. —Ediia. Rev.
JEWS. Of the original twelve tribes, two only are at present known; the
tribes of Judah and Benjamin. The Spanish and Portuguese Jews are the
descendants of Judah; the Jews of Germany and Northern Europe are of the
tribe of Benjamin -Art JoL/t. Dr. Raphael (lecture N. Y., May, 1851), states
that with the exception of Josephus, who wrote in Greek, and M. Jost, who
wrote in German, about 1841, the Jewish historians from the first century
(A.D.,) to the nineteenth, invariably wrote in the Hebrew language. Dr.
Lykins, of the Pottawattamie Reservation, exhibited in the office of Indian
Department, Washington, in Dec. 1851, a Jewish fsosntlet, containing portions of the Pentateuch, which he received from Pategwe, a Pottawattamie
Indian, in whose family it had been from time immemorial. There were
originally two of these indexes of Jewish faith, one of which was irrecoverably lost in crossing a river.-A- at. Intel. This curious discovery may perhaps be considered as strengthening the opinion of the late Major Noah,
that the American Indians are descended from the lost tribes of the Jewish
people.
KAFFIR (oR CAFFRF) WAR, in South Africa, against the British Colonists;
Jan., Feb. 1851, several engagements and many lives lost.-See Africa.
KENTUCKY. The census returns show the population in 1850 to have been
987,950; of whom 776,713 were firee, and 211,237 slaves. The increase compared with returns of 1840, is, free, 179,143; slaves, 28,979; total, 208.122.
The first white man who bDiltt in Kentucky, was James Harrod, in 1774, at
Harrod's Station, near the present town of Harrodsburg.
KOSSUTH.-See Hungcar/y.
LAND OWNERS. It is a remarkable fact, that of all the constitutional states
of Europe or America, Great Britain is the country in which the people
hold the smallest stake in the soil. Fiance with a population of 32,560,034,
has 10,896.682 landed proprietors. or one in three. The United States. with
a population of 20 000 000, has 5.000.000 proprietors, or one in four. Belgium,
with a population of 5,022,677, has 950 723 proprietors, or one in five. Holland, a commercial and shipping country, with a population of 3,500 000, has
400,000 proprietors, or one in nine. Sweden. with a populatiin of 3:874 203,
has 300,000 proprietors, or one in twelve. While Great Britain and Ireland,
with a population of 27.041,050, have only 633.421, or one in forty of the population, including freeholders and copyholders, with a direct interest in the
soil.
LANDS (PUBLIC) OP TuE U. S. A. Within the limits recognized by treaties and
cessions (see American Almanac, 1850, p 179), the public lands covered an
estimated area of 1,584.000,000 acres. To the 30th Sept. 1849, 146 000 000
acres had been sold, leaving unsold an area of 1,438:000, acres, which land,
in large bodies of detached tracts, is found in the several States and Territories above mentioned. The system for surveying and disposing of the
public lands was established by the act of 20th iMay, 1785, and has continued to the present time but with slight modifications, viz.; every township
of six square miles is to be divided into 36 sections, of one mile square, each
20 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD S PROGRESS; 1850-51. [LIN
section generally containing 640 acres. The lands are then proclaimed by
the President for sale, at public auction, at not less than $1 25 per acre, and
such as hereafter remain unsold may be purchased at private sale at thai
rate.-Amee'ican Almanac.
Quantity of Public Land sold, and the amnount paid for it, in eaclh Year, fromn 1833 to the
Third Quarter of 1850.
Years, Acres. Dollars. Years. Acres. Dollars.
1833 3,856,227-56 4,972,284'84 1843 1,605,264-06 2,016,044-3C
1834 4,658,218-71 6.099,981 04 1844 1,754,763-13 2,207,678-04
1835 12.564'478-85 15,999,804- 11 1845 1,843,527-05 2,470,303-17
1836 20,074,870-92 25,167,833-06 1846 2,263,730-81 2,904,637-27
1837 5 601,103-12 7,007,523 04 1847 2,521,305 59 3,296,404 -0
1838 3,414,907-42 4,305,564-64 1848 1,887.553 04 2,621,615-26
1839 4,976,382-87 6,464,556-79 1849 1,329,902-77 1,756,890-42
1840 2,236 889-74 2,789,637-53 1850' 869,082-32 1,129,186-50
1841 1,164,'796-11 1,463,364 - 06
1842 1,129,217-58 1,417,972'06 Total - 73,752,221-65 $94,191,279'21
* Embracing only three quarters of the year. t Total for eighteen years and three quarters.
LANGUAGE. Ethnography has furnished conclusive evidence that the
family of American languages have had a common origin with those of
Asia. The unity of all human language must be considered as establishing
an identical unity of all the human races; all dialects must be regarded as
dialects of one now lost. —Dr. Ssbyt/'s Unity of tIHnan Races.
LAW. The number of Lawyers in the United States, in March 1851, was 21,979,
or about one to every fifteen hundred inhabitants.-2aVo ntly Law Magazine.
Estimating their average receipts at $1000 per annum, their aggregate
income would reach within a fraction of twenty-two niltiozs of dollars. In
1851 there were in New York, 4,740 lawyers; in Pennsylvania, 1,848; in
Ohio, 2,031; in Massachusetts, 1,132; in Kentucky, 1,066; and in Georgia,
908.-Living'stons's Law Register.
LETTERS. The number of letters transmitted in the following European
countries annually, were estimated. in March 1851, as followss:Population. Letters. Pr. Head.
England, - - - 29,00,000 320,000,000 11France, - - 36000,(00 108,000,000 3Prussia, - - - 16,500,000 45,000,000 2- 7
Switzerland, -2,408,000 13,600,000 5-6
Austria, 3 7.000,000 23,000,000 0-6
Being rather more than half a letter for each inhabitant of the Austrian dominions.
London Watchmanz. Vide P. Oyfce.
LIBRARIES in United States, 1851. Professor Jewett, of the Smithsonian Institute, shows the number of libraries to March, 1851, to be 10,640, and the
aggregate number of volumes 3,641.765. Of these, Harvard comprises
83,000; Philadelphia and Loganian, 60.000; Congressional, 50,000; Boston
Athenteum, 56,000. The aggregate tlunxbey of volumes in 182 of the largest
libraries was stated by Mr. Evans, before the select committee, British House
of Commons, to be 1,294,000. The Legislature of New-York, in 1851, voted
an appropriation of $75,000 for the erection of a State library in the rear of
the capitol at Albany. Among the donations to this library is one from
Austria of the Pater Noster in upwards of 600 languages and dialects. A large
portion of the valuable library of Congress destroyed by fire in the Capitol,
Dec., 1851:
LINEN. The average annual import of linens into the United States is estimated at about 86,500,000. The only nmanufactory in the United States is
that of Mr. Stevens, at Webster, Massachussetts. In 1840 the flax crop in
a11 the States north of the Ohio river, and including Maryland, covered some
:: AS] AADDEN:DA To THE WORLD'S PrROGRESS 1850-51. 21t
four millions of acres, averaging 350 lbs. flax lint per acre; of which about
one-third is fit for linen fabric; the remainder, say 1301bs., being available for
paper bagging, &c. The excess of profit in the culture of flax compared with
cotton, is shown by N. Y. Tribune, April, 1851, to be nearly 50 per cent.
LIGHTHOUSES. In July, 1850, the lighthouse establishment of the United
States numbered 315 lights in lighthouses, and 40 floating-lights, attended
in all by 346 keepers, exhibiting over 3,000 lamps, and supported at an
annual expense of $141,153.
LITHOGRAPHY. A process for printing in oil by different stones, according
to the colors required. was invented by Mr. Kronheim, of Pater noster Row,
London, in March, 1851.
LOCKS. Mr. Chubb, of London, stated before the Society of Arts in Jan.,
1851, that the basis of all security in modern locks is found in the old
Egyptian, the original of the patent tumbler lock: —11sustrated News. His
lock, however, was picked by the celebrated Mr. Hobbs, of New-York, during
the session of the Great Exhibition, 1851. Day and Newell's prove'aintoptic
lock, exhibited in the Crystal Palace, is susceptible of 1,307,647,368,000
changes; the time required for effecting the whole of which would consume
13,000,000 years.
LOTTERIES. The Maryland Convention of 1851 passed a resolution abolishing all lotteries and their attendant evils, after April, 1859.
MANHATTAN. This term, as applied to the island on which the city of NewYork stands, is taken from the name given by the Indians to the original
Dutch settlement in 1621, and means'the place where they (the Indians) all
got druenk!"
MANUFACTURES. The increase of manufacturing industry in Great Britain
in sixty years, is shown by the following table of the raw materials used in
that kingdom:
In 1790. In 1849.
Wool, 3,245,352 lbs. 76,756,lS3 lbs.
Silk, 1. 253,445 " 6,881,861 -
Hemp, 592,306 " 1.061,273 "
Flax, - 257,222 " 1,806,786
Cotton, 30,574,374 758,841,650 "
See "Cotton,"l &c.
MARYLAND. The new Constitution of this State went into operation on 4th
July, 1851, and from its general acceptance promises greatly to increase the
prosperity of the State. Population by the census of 1850, 582,506, of which
89,800 were slaves.
MIASKS. Before the introduction of females on the British stage, masks were
used in the representation of female characters, by the male actors who
were no longer youthful. —Kight's S'hakspeare. They were also employed
by female actors in the early stage of the English drama, and also by women
when travelling. Miss Livingston, of New-York, who married Nicholas
Bayard, about 1749, when she rode out in cold weather, or went sleighing,
wore a black velvet mask, with a silver button or mouthpiece to keep it on.
MASSACHUSETTS. The polls, population, and valuation, for the last four
decennary terms, are as follows. viz.:
Polls. Population. valuation.
1820, - - 125,715 - 523,287 - $153,644,265
1830, 150,691 - 610,408 208,908,107
1840, - 185,908 - - 718,592 - 299,878,327
1850, - - - 245,142 - - 9914,665 597,936,969
The relative increase of polls, population, and property, during the above
periods, omitting fractions, is as follows:
22 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS$ 1850-51. [MIET
Polls. Population. Valuation.
1820 to 1830, - 28,000 - - 47,000 - $55.000,000
1830 t6 1840, - 35,000 - - 108,000 91000 000
1840 to 1850, - - 57,000 - - 255,000 - - 299,048,666
In this State systematic beggary is unknown. The poor are provided for by
law, and for this purpose not less than 204 comfortable alms-houses are
sustained at the public charge. The number of persons relieved or supported as paupers, in the year 1850, was 25,981, and of these 12,334 were
foreigners, the larger portion being from Ireland. The weekly cost of each
pauper in alms-houses was $1'083; out of alms-houses, $0'98. Estimated
value of pauper labor in alms-houses, $17,966. Of paupers by reason of
idiocy, the number was 969; while that from intemperance in themselves,
or through others, was not less than 14,674. Number of public schools in
this State, 1850, was 3,878; scholars in summer, 176,344; in winter schools,
194.403. Male teachers, 2,442; female do., 5.985. Average expense each
scholar in Massachusetts is nearly $8. Value of public school-houses in
1848 was $2,750,000, of which amount $2.200,000 had been expended since
1838. Criminal prosecutions in 1850 were 3,764, of which the convictions
were 1,907. Of the banks in Massachusetts, there are 29 in Boston, and 97
in various parts of the State; cash capital, independent of other resources,
$36.925.050; circulation, $17,005.826. The commerce and manufactures of
MIass. have advanced 100 per cent. in the last ten years-Am. Al.; the importations more than doubled, and its tonnage has increased more than 50
per cent. The wealth of Boston and its suburbs. in 1840, was $120,000,000;
in 1850 it had increased to nearly $270:000,000. The annual value of the
boots and shoes manufactured in Massachusetts is estimated at $18,000,000.
MEDICINE. The first medical school established in the U. S. was commenced
in Philadelphia in 1768; this was closed during the first war with Great
Britain. First medical degrees conferred were by King's College, New
York, 1769. Thatcher's " Brief Guide on Small Pox and Measles," lass.,
1677, was the first medical work published in this country. Inoculation fox
small pox introduced by Dr. Z. Boylston of Boston, 1677, having first experimented on his own son; Dr. B. Van Beuren first practised inoculation in
New-York. The first recorded post-mortem examination in America was
that of Gov. S!oughter, by Dr. Johannes Kutbyl and five other physicians
of New-York, in 1691; and the first medical meeting was held in New
Brunswick, N. J., 1766.-Lit. WYold.
Medical Slztdents,ffall Session, N. Y., 1851.
Coll. Physicians atid Surgeons, 197
University of New-York, - 179
N. Y. Mectical College,. - 69
445
Mred. Gaz.
At the Female Med. College, Philadelphia, June, 1851, there were forty
students. Doctor or Doct'ess Elizabeth Blackwell practises at this present
(for females and children) in N. York city.
MESMERISM. In 1776, F. A. Mesmer of Germany first made public his doctrine of a subtle fluid produced by planetary influence acting on the nervous
system of the animal fiame. Franklin and Dr. Bailly exposed the futility
of animal magnetism, which theory. however, has been lately revived, both
in this country and Europe. Among others who have made themselves
conspicuous in favoring this absurdity, is the celebrated Miss Martineau.Haydn.
MIETEORIC Stone falls at Charlotte, N. C., accompanied by explosion; &c.,
Oct. 31, 1849.
METHODISTS. The general "Book Concern" of this body was first estab
MtOR] ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS, 1850-51. 23
lished at Philadelphia in 1800,-Ezekiel Cooper, Agent; it was subsequently
removed to New-York. The unfortunate dissension between the Northern
and Southern Methodist Conferences on the question of Slavery was brought
to trial in New-York in May, 1851, and by decision of Judge Nelson, of' U.
S. Circuit Court, in Nov. of that year. judgment was given confirming the
full right and title of the Southern Conference to their proportion of the
profits of the General Book Concern. the value in 1815 being $750,000. The
case will be moved to the Superior Court.
MEXICO. Gen. Arista inaugurated president of republic of Mexico, Jan.
15, 1851. The initial bouldaory point between Mexico and the U. States, established on the right bank of the Rio Grande, in 32~ 22' north latitude, by
the American and Mexican commissioners. and a monument recording
same, erected April 24, 1851. Herrera, ex-president of Mexico, dies in that
city May 15, 1851. Gen. Carvajal's insurrection in Northern Mexico-his
attack on Metanmoras Oct. 20, 1851,
MEXICAN WAR with the United States. Mr. Corwin, Sec. of the Treasury,
estimates the direct and indirect cost of this war to the U. S. at nearly
$300,000 000.
MICHIGAN. The population of this state in 1850 was-Whites, 393,156;
Free colored, 2,547; Federal Rep. Population, 395,703.-Censors Retuorns.
MILITIA, U. S. The Army Register for 1851, gives the aggregate number of
the militia force throughout the States as 2,006,456, this does not include
Iowa, California, Minnesota, Oregon, Utah, and New Mexico, from which
there are no returns. Of the volunteer companies included in the militia returns, New-York city furnishes 170, each of which averages 60 members.
MILITARY BOUNTY LAND BIr.L, passed the House of Representatives, U. S.
June 25, 1850. It gives 160 acres of land for 12 months' service in the war
of 1812. and the Mexican and Indian wars.
_M-LI'rARY, U. S. The number of officers, non-commissioned officers, privates,
&c., attached to the army of the U. States on 1st January, 1851, was 10,334.
MINNESOTA. The first Territorial legislature closes its session of sixty days
Nov. 1, 1849. The census returns show the population of this territory in
1850 to be-white, 6,0')8; colored, 839-total, 6.077; farms in cultivation,
157; mannfactories producing annually $500 and upwards, 5.
MISSISSIPPI. The literal translation of the aboriginal name is Goreat River;
the Indian title is written variously by the early journalists; Marquette
spells it " " Missoisssippll;" Hennepin " Miesclhcsipi." Sape is river, running
water; the prefix means "great," -bia."-C/ lrist. Rev.
The Population of Mississippi in 1850 was:
Whites. Slaves.
North District, ]70.459 134,508
South " - 29,550 177,060
Totals, - - 300,009 311,568
The Mississippi Legislature in the session of 1850 abolished the commonlaw form of pleadings, for a system similar to that of chancery or civil law,
and appointed a special officer for making up the " Mississippi Reports,"
to the exclusion of all other reporters. These reports are in future to be
printed by the State only.-A-w. Almanac.
MORMONS. The number of Mormons in England and U. S. early in 1851
was estinmated at 300;000. Twenty-five hundred left the ftbrmer country
for Deseret in the spring of that year. —AthenL'ml. In April, 1851. their elders
and preachers were gathering converts to their principles in Italy and
Switzerland, and especially among the Waldenses; also at Paris. Their
'4 ADDENDA TO THE VWOiRLD'S PROGRFESS, 1850-51. [NEW
celebrated "Bible," professed to have been delivered to Joe Smith, was
really written by Rev. Sol. Spaulding, about 1812, as a supposed history of
some ancient mounds in Ashtabula co., Ohio. The MS. is said to have been
borrowed by one of the Mormons, who copied it and subsequently printed
the same.-Athen. A copy of this " Bible" in the English, French, and
Danish languages, was intended for exhibition in the Crystal Palace, 1851.
MORTALITY, NEW-YORI. Deaths-4.042 men —3,683 women —6,798 boys,
and 5.234 girls —total, 19,755. Greatest mortality in a single month in July
when 2,364 persons deceased; lowest in June, when 1,385 died. Deaths in
1850, were 16,978 —increase 1851, 2,777. —N. Y. CoeeerciaZ.
MOUNTAINS, FORMATION OF. Prof. Gorini of the University of Lodi, in
Oct. 1851, by a remarkable process, illustrated the formation of mountair.3
by melting a secret composition, and allowing it gradually to consolidate,
during which process portions continue to ooze up in gradual elevations,
forming ranges and chains of hills exactly corresponding in shape with
those which are found on the earth.-Len. Tivies.
lMUSIC. Jenny Lind, the " Swedish Nightingale/" gave her first concert in
America at Castle Garden. New York, 1850. The proceeds of her 100 subsequent concerts in the U. States and Havana, were estimated at $800,000.
MURDER. John W. Webster, Professor of Chemistry in Harvard College, executed in Boston for the murder of Dr. Geo. Parkman (Nov. 1849,) August
30, 1850.
NATIONAL ACADEMY OF DESIGN, N. Y. Instituted 1826; number of
members originally limited to 35; but now increased to 50.-A rt Josr.
NAVY, OF THE U. S. The Naval power Sept. 1, 1851, consisted of the Pennsylvania, 120 guns; 10 Ships of line, 74 guns each; the Independence Razee,
54 guns; 12 Frigates of 1st class, 4-1 guns each; 2 Frigates of 2d class, 36
guns each; 21 Sloops of war, 20 guns each; 1 do. 18 guns, and 4 of 16 guns
each; 4 Brigs of 10 guns each: 3 Schooners, 4 guns; 5 Steam Frigates,
30 guns (including the Mississippi); the Powhatan-number of guns not
returned; 3 Steamers 1st class 7 guns; 3 do. 2d class 8 guns, and 4 do. number of guns not returned, with 5 store Ships and Brigs, 24 guns.
NAVY, BRITISH. The Naval force ofthe United Kingdom for 1850, comprised six hundred and seventy-one Ships of war, either in ordinary or commission, varying from two to one hundred and twenty guns each; of this number
one hundred and seventy-eight are armed Steamers, of one hundred to three
hundred horse-power engines, constructed on the most approved principles
for active sea service. This fleet, the largest of any maritime power on the
globe, employs in time of peace 85,000 to 50,000 able-bodied seamen, 2,000
strong lads, and 13,000 royal marines.
NEW ENGLAND. "In 1630 the whole of New England contained but 300 inhabitants, which, in a century afterwards, had increased to 160.000, and may
at this day be given at nearly three millions. The capital of New England,
in 1720, contained 12,000 inhabitants; in 1820, 43,000; in 1830, 78,000; and
in 1850, 135,000. Boston, in 1789, was proud of two stage coaches, which
employed twelve horses; she was prouder still in 1800, of twenty-five stage
coaches, which employed one hundred horses; in 1847, these twenty-five
coaches had risen into two hundred and fifty coaches and omnibuses, employing one thousand six hundred horses, without taking into account seven
railways, which provide, daily, accommodation for 7,000 passengers. The
first newspaper published in the colonies, was issued in 1704, i. this
same city of Boston, and a third newspaper published in the same town, in
1721, under the title of the New England Cmo'rant, could not maintain itself,
though it had very warm advocates, being supported by the Hell-fire Club;
-ENv] x ADDENDA To THE WORLD'IS PROGRESS, 1850-51. 25
at this moment there are in Boston sixteen daily news-papers, with a
circulation of 36.000 copies, and fifty weekly news-papers with a circulation of 223,000-to say nothing of semi-weekly papers, and semi-monthly
papers, and monthly, quarterly, and annual publications.-Extlractfrom Sir
tI. fBllwuver's Speech before nT. E'ng. Society, Dec. 22, 1850.
NEW HAMPSHIRE. The returns of the 7th census ( [850) show a population
of 317,997; in 1810 it was 284,574; gain in 10 years 33,423, beingan increase
of nearly 12 per cent.
1850. 1851.
Number of School Districts reported, - - 2,167 2,222
Scholars in winter schools, 77,806 73,301
" " seummer " -. - 61,498 58,328
Whole amount raised for District Schools, - - $174517 66 $179,065 46
Increase above preceding year, - - 15,087 28 4,547 80
Number of Banks in N. Hampshire is 22; cash capital independent of other
resources, $2,501,000; circulation $2,012,837.-Ams. Allmaisnac.
NEW JERSEY. The total free population of this State. according to the 7th
census (1850) was 488.562, viz 466.283 white and 22,269 colored; of the old
slave population but 119 remaining. The number of' children receiving public instruction in 1851 was 75 245, at the average cost per quarter of $2 10
each pupil. The appropriations and receipts for school purposes was $152,678 62; amount expended $99.560 13; whole available school fund was
$377,929 85.-Asma. Almnynac. Transit duties levied upon merchandise and
passengers, for the year 1850, and paid into the State Treasury was $75.511
-viz., Delaware & Raritan Canal $20,289; Camden & Amrboy Rail-Road &
Transportation Co., $41,421; New Jersey R. R. & Trans'n Co., $13,261.
NEWSPAPERS. The newspaper press of a country may be regarded as the
surest index to its intellectual condition. The census of' 1850 shows the
number of newspapers in the United States to he 2,800, of which 2,000 are
published in the firee, and 800 in the slave states. About 850 are Whig;
750 Opposition; 70 Freesoil or anti-slavery; 20 Agricultural; 40 Temperance; 200 Religious; and 870 neutral and miscellaneous. New York state
publishes 443 papers; Pennsylvania 328; Massachusetts 212; and Ohio
300. —Cexnsus Retul?'nis. In the Austrian dominions it appears there are but
10 newspapers; 24 in Spain; 20 in Portugal; 30 in. Asia; 14 in Africa (.);
05 in Belgium; 85 in Denmark; 90 in Russia and Poland; 300 in Prussia;
and 320 in other Germanic States. Of the London papers it is stated that the
daily circulation of the Times, in 1846, was 28.594; other papers 38,999; but
in 1850 the Times had run up to 38,019 daily copies, while the circulation of
all the other papers was only 24,116. The London Illustrated News, in 1849;
rose to a weekly circulation of 69,000. Of the newspapers published in the
United Kingcldom, 159 are issued in London; 222 in the English provinces;
110 in Scotland; and 102 in Ireland. The duty paid for the different
advertisements in these, in 1850, was ~163,038! In July, 1851, Burgess, an
Englishman, issued the first number of a Persian Journal, with all the features of a general newspaper, under the patronage of the prime minister of
that country. —N. Y. Tribzne.
NEW YORK CITY. The census of 1850 shows a population of 517,849, being an
increase in ten years of 205,000, or about 66 per cent; including Brooklyn,
Williamsburg, and other suburbs, properly belonging to New York, the entire population was about 700,000.'The manufacturing capital employed in
this city, annually, according to the last census, is $105.218 308. Numiber of
children in the Public aad Ward schools in 1850, was 105,3878. Dreadful accident in 9th Ward school, Nov. 20, 1851, through a false alarm of fire, when 43
children were killed, and 59 injured; there were 1,800 children in the school
at the time of the accident, under the superintendence of 24 teachers 3
2
26 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS, 1850-51. [PAT
NEW MEXICO. This Territory, according to the census returns, 1850, has a
white population of 61,632; colored 17. Farms in cultivation 3,750; manufactories producing annually $500, and upwards, 20.
NEW ORLEANS. Population shown by the census returns, 1850. was 119,285.-Am. Alma. Number of deaths, same year was 7,819, of which 1,389
were by cholera. The St. Charles Hotel destroyed by fire, Mar. 18, 1851.
NICARAGUA. General Munoz, ex-minister of war, deposes President Pineda
and his cabinet. at Leon; sends them prisoners to Tigre Islands, and elects
Albaunaz president. The senate assembles at Grenada, and elects Montenegro president, Aug. 4, 1851. Steamer Prometheus arrives at New York
from San Juan, the Atlantic terminus of the Nicaragua route, Aug. 12,1851,
then for the first time opened.
NORTHWEST PASSAGE. The Investigator and Enterprise, Sir James Ross's
vessels, arrive in London, on their return from their fruitless Arctic Expepedition, Nov. 11, 1849. Another expedition, under Captains Collinson and
McClure, sails from Woolwich, Jan. 11, 1850. Another, under Capt. Penny
and Capt. Stewart, firom Peterhead, April 13, 1850. Another under Capt.
Austin, 4 vessels from Greenhithe, May 4, 1850. Another, under Sir John
Ross, from Lochyran, May 24, 1850. —See Arctic Expedition.
OHIO. The total population of this state in 1850, was 1,980,408; viz., white
1,956; colored 24,300. Farms in cultivation 143.887; manufacturing establishments producing annually over $500,10,550; houses, 336,098. —Cenqs1s Returns. In 1850 the wheat crop of Ohio amounted to 30,000,000 bushels.
April, 1851, completed 62 years since the first band of white settlers entered
Ohio.
OCEANS. Edrisi, the Nubian, writing in the 12th century of the Atlantic,
says: " There is no mariner who dares to enter into its deep waters, or if
they have done so, keep along its coasts, fearful of departing from them."
-Irvi/ng's Columbus. Lieut. Goldsborough (U. S. ship Saratoga), in Dec., 1850,
found soundings in the Atlantic 128~ 21' south, at 31 miles; but Sir James
Ross in 1848, in lat. 15~ 3' south, long. 260 14', run out 4,600 fathoms, or:nearly 5~ miles, without finding a bottom; this appears to be the greatest
depth satisfactorily obtained, In May, 1851, Lieut. Rodgers, U. S. navy, in
Gulf Stream, 30 miles S.W. from Key West, sounded at 730 fathoms; but at
another point at a depth of 3,000, the line was cut off,': supposed by a swordfish."- Tribuue. The entire surface of the sea is estimated at 150 millions
of square miles, the Pacific covering 78 millions, the Atlantic 25 millions,
and the Mediterranean one million. The waters of the Mediterranean and
the Red Sea are exactly on a level. —'Tibune. Mr. Stephenson (Brit. Ass.,
1850), from actual experiment, found the force of the waves is 1: ton per
square foot, in the German Ocean; and nearly double that force in the waves
of the Atlantic.-Household Words. Dr. Scoresby (Brit. Ass., 1850), stated
the height of the waves of the Atlantic, from the trough to the crest, to be
43 feet, and their average velocity a fraction over 32 miles an hour; thus
confirming Mr. Scott Russel's observations in 1845.
OMNIBUSES, &c. The number licensed to carry passengers, in New-York
in the year 1851, was 586; hacks 320.-Marcshal's Retcurus.
PARLIAMENT (BRITISH). The House of Commons first meets in the new
building at Westminster, May, 1850. Baron Rothschild, a Jew, claims his
seat as member elect for London, but his claim is postponed, August 5, 1850.
Mllr. Alderman Salomons, Jewish member for Greenwich, refused his seat in
the Commons, July 18, 1851, the question still in abeyance.
PATENTS., AMERICAN. The number of patents granted by the office at Washington, from 1790 to 1850 inclusive, is 16,296.
TOS] ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS1 1850-51. 27
PENCILS. Gessner first describes the "pencil of plumbago, in wooden handles,"
in 1565. —(Fossils.) Pettus (Fleta Minor) speaks decidedly of pencils " inclosed in fir or cedar," in 1683. M. Cont6, of Paris, made great improvements in 1795. Mordan's " ever-pointed pencil" was patented about 1820.
Philip Crabbe, the first manufacturer of lead pencils by machinery, died in
his 100th year, in London, May, 1851.-Tribune.
PENS, STEEL. The largest factors are Gillott's, of Birmingham, who employ nearly 1,000 hands, for the conversion of 2- tons of steel into 35,000
gross of pens weekly! In 1820-1 the first gross of three-slit pens was sold
wholesale for ~7 4s.; in 1851 a superior article could be furnished at 3s. 6d.
to 5s per gross, while the commonest pens can be rendered at twopence the
gross! Gillott's house exhibited in the Crystal Palace, 1851, a giant pen of
thirty-six inches in length, and close to this was a small glazed frame containing 15,840 steel pens, the whole weighing only one ounce. The greatest
number of these pens are sent to the United States.-Illuls. Ntews.
PENNSYLVANIA. The population exhibited by the 7th census, 1850, was
2,311,681; the banking capital, $18,675.484 14; tax on dividends,
$153,877 14; tax on corporation stocks, $70,008 86; ratio of tax, 12; in
1849 the ratio was 14.-Herald. Total revenue for year ending November 30, 1851, was $5,645,678 74; total expenditures during the same period
$4,780,667 53.
PHILADELPHIA, U. S. A. By the census of 1850 this city and suburbs contains 406,353 inhabitants. Increase in ten years, 148,221, or about 57 per
cent. In the city and county there are 258 public schools, with 45,383 children, under the instruction of 81 male and 646 female teachers. The total
school expenditure for the year 1850 was $332,433 21, being an average of
$6 46 each child. Manufacturing capital of this city in 1850, according to
census returns, was $33,000,000, and the annual products $61,000,000.
Duties received at custom-house, 1851, Jan. to Nov. inclusive, $3,532,982,
against $3,213,031 in corresponding period of' preceding year. —Tribune.
PLANK ROADS. The first plank road in Canada was laid down in 1836, and
in New-York in 1837. Plank roads in operation, Jan. 1, 1851:
Canada. New- York.
Number of roads,... 19
Number of miles, - 442 2,106
Average cost per mile, $1,750 $1,833
Total cost, $773,500 $3,860,292
Very nearly four millions of dollars have been expended in New-York upon
these roads, and the resulting advantages are immense. The Troy and
Lansingburg road pays 10 per cent. dividend, which is generally believed to
be the case with all the others, with the exception of the Utica and Burlington, which yields 20 per cent. None of the stocks are in the market. —
fKingSf0?rd.
POSTAGE, GT. BRITAIN. The gross revenue of the Post Office for the year
ending Jan. 5, 1850, was ~2 213,149; the cost of management, ~1,307,248;
the net revenue, after deducting charges other than management, was
- 840,787. [An ample proof of the advantage of cheap postage.] The number of Money Orders issued was 4,248,891, the representative value,
~8,152,643. The value of commission on the issue was ~70,670; the
amount of expenses incurred was ~70,248. The total amount of the charge
for packet service in the year was ~;748,296. The value of bank notes,
checks, and money orders found in letters returned to the Dead Letter
office, for the two years ending 5 Jan., 1851, amounted to 1.245,158 8s. 5d.,
the whole of which was regularly entered and indexed, and is returnable
to the claimant, on proving his title to same.
28 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD S PROGRESS1 185051. EP[ro
POPULATION, UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, ViE,:
1850. 1840. Increase per cent. since
STATES, TOTAL POPULATION. POPULATION.!840.
Whites. Slaves. Whites. Slaves. Whites.
Maine -. -'583,088..,- 7501,798 -,.' about 16 pr. ct.
New Hampshire - 317,864... 284,574 l " 11
Massachussets - 994,271.... 737.699.. " 35
Connrrecticut 370,6041 309,978 17 " 20
Rhod- Island - 147.555 108,830 5 36',
-Vermont 313,466.... 291,948 7... 7
New York - 3,090.022 21-28,621 [ 4 " 28
New Jersey 489;333 222 373,306 974 " 31
Pennsylvania 2,311,681 1,724,033 64 " 34
Ohio - - 977,031 1.... 519,467 3' 24
Michigan - 395.703 212,267 " 86
Wisconsin 304;226.... 30,945 11 " 884 "
Indiana 988,734 685.866 3 " 44
Illinois.. 858,298 4761183 331 " 77 "
Iowa -. 192,122 43,112.... " 347 "
Califbrnia _ 200,000....________________
SLAVE STATES.
1850. 1840. Increase per cent, since DeSTATES. TOTAL POPULATION. TOTAL POPULATION. 1840. creons,
Pop. wilites. hi ses. hop Whites. Staves. Total. Whsites. SlR. W. S.
Delaware - 91,53 89 246 2,289 78,085 757480 2,605 17 p. ct 19 p. ct..... 14
Dis. Columbia 51,687 48,000 3 687 4 3,71 39,018 4,694 18 " 9 22
Mayani 583.035 492,667 90368 470019 380,282 89,737 24 9 30 "
Viriinsa 1 421 081 948,055 473,026 1,239,797 790,810 448,987 15 20 " 5
N. Carolina - 868903580491 88.412 753,419 907,604 7445,817 155 144 17
S. Catolsna 668,469 283 144 384,921 594,398 267,315 327,083 13 " 6 " 18
Geoeiat 878 633 15 669 382.965 691,392; 410,448 280,944 27 " 26 29
Florida - 87,-87' 48,046 39,941 54,47i 28,760 25,717 59 66 " 0
Alabama 771,659 428'765 342 894 590,756 337,224 253,532 31 27 36
Mississippi 5925833 292 434 0300,419 379,651 180,448 195,211 58 62 154
Louisiana 500 763 1269, 956 230.807 352,411 183,959 168,452 42 47 37
Texas- - 187,4031134.057 53,346
Arkansas 209,640 162,658 46,982 97574 77,639 19,935 116 11'I 135
Missouri 682,043 594,621 87,429 383,702 325,462 58.240 77 " 83 " 50
Tennessee -1,002 625 763,164 239,461 829.210 646,151 183.,059 21 " 18 " 31
Kentucky 1,001,496 779,728 221768 779,828 597,570 182,258 29 31 " 20
Territories.
Minnesota 6,392
N. Mexico - 61,632
Oregon 20.000
Utah. 25_0001
RECAPITULATION.
s~TA~T~s~. Total Free Sves Representative
Population. Population.
Free States 13,533,328 119 13.533,399
Slave States 6,3193,757 3,175,783 8,299,226
District and Territories - 160,824 3,687
20,087,909 3,179 589 21,832,625
Total free population 20,087,909
Slaves 3,179,589
23,267,498
Ratio of Representation - 93,702' The highest rates of increase in the Free States for the last 10 years were in Wisconsin,
684 per Ct.; Iowa, 347 per et.; Michigan, 86 per ct.; Illinois, 77 per ct. The highest in the
Slave States were, in Arkansas, whites, 111 per ct. Missouri, whites, 83 per ct.; Florida, 6
_.Ol] ADDENDA TO THE WORLD S PROGRESS, 1850-51. 29
per ct.; Mississippi, 62 per ct. The highest increase of Slaves was in Arkansas, 135 per et.;
Mississippi, 54 per ct.; Missouri, 50 per ct. The lowest rate in the Free States was, in Vermont, 7 per ct.; New Hampshire, 11 per ct. The lowest in the Slave States of whites, was
in South Carolina, 6 per ct.; North Carolina, 141 per ct.
In North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Arkansas, the Slaves have increased more than the Whites. In all the other States the proportion of Slaves has diminished,
especially in Maryland, Virginia, and Kentucky.
General oratio of increase of the whole Unsited States.
From 1830 to 1840, white, 34'72 -. - Colored, 23-81
" 1840 to 1850 C' 38-20 - - " 26-16
The centre of Representative population in 1790, was 46 miles north and 22 east of Washington, in Baltimore county, Maryland. In 1800, the centre was 64 miles north and 30 west of Washinmton, in Adatnms county, Pennsylvania. In 1820, it was 47 miles north and 71 west of Washing-ton, in Morgan county, Virginia. In 1830, it was 43 miles north and 108 west of Washington, in Marion County, V'irginia. By these calculations, the accuracy of which we see no reason to question, the representative power, in its rapid and accelerated movement westward,
has for fifty years kept nearly the same parallel of latitude. In that time it has moved 10 miles
south, and 182 miles westward. The advance westward was as follows:
From 1790 to 1800 - - 13 miles. I From 1820 to 1830 - - 37 miles.
" 1800 to 1810 - - 39 " 1830 to 1840 - 52 "
" 1810 to 1820 - - 41
The calculation is that the census of 1850 will show the centre of representative population
in the State of Ohio.
PHYSICIANS were formerly ecclesiastics. It was during the nunciate of
Cardinal d'Etouteville in France, in 1452, that he obtained permission for
them to marry. —71Merage. Sir William de Butts, physician to Henry VIII.,
and mentioned as such by Shakspeare, was paternal ancestor of Mrs. Sherwood, the popular authoress, who died in Sept., 1851.
POET-LAUREATE (England). Alfred Tennyson appointed Nov., 1850.
POST OFFICE, U. S. A. Year ending June 30, 1849; length of mail routes
167,703 miles; amount of annual transportation, in miles, 42,544.069; gross
revenue $4,905,176; net revenue $426.127. In 1850, the length of mail
routes was 178,672 miles; revenue $5,552:971; expenditures $5,212,953;
of which amount the transportation charges were $2,965,786.
The actual receipts during the year ending June 30, 1851, were, $6,786,493 22
Less amount received for Brit. Postages, - 58,626 44
Gross Revenue for the year, - - ~ $6,727,866 78
Being an increase of $999,006 41 over the proper revenues of the preceding
year. The ordinary expenditure of the department, year ending June 30,
1851, was $6,024,566 79. Number of post offices in 36 states, and District
Columbia in 1837, was 19,604. —P. Mcas. Gen. Report.
POST OFFICE, NEW YonR. For the quarter ending Sept. 30, 1851, there were
received by steamers and packet ships 577,885 letters and 261,426 papers;
despatched by mail per steamer and ship, during same period, papers
305,448; letters 584,038; which latter, added to the daily average correspondence, shows the receipt and transmission of nearly 7 millions of letters
by the New Yorkl office, in three months. During same quarter, 5.100 official
letters were received, and 3.018 written and despatched. In addition to all
this, 637 Dead Letters were sent to the proper office at Washington, containing property of value, gold dust, bank bills, drafts, &c., in amounts
varying from $1 to $10,000, a large portion of which were returned to the
writers, andt the balance remain subject to the order of the proper owners.
Increase of business under the new law is 10 per cent., and about 75 per cent.
of all letters are prepaid. Number of' stamps sold to Sept. 30. was 1,475,555.
PROTESTANTISM IN U. S. In the year 1800, the Episcopal Church, the oldest in the Union, numbered 320 churches; 260 ministers; 16 000 members;
and 7 bishops. In 1850 it had increased fourfold, viz.; churches, 1,560; ministers, 1,504; members,73,000; bishops, 28. The congregation lists in 1850, comprised 1,971 churches; 1,687 ministers; and 197,175 members. The Baptists
enumerated 13, 455 churches; 9,018 ministers; and 948,867 members. Pres
30 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 1850-51. [RAy
byterians 4 General Assemblies; 65 Synods; 360 Presbyteries; 4,578 ministers; 1,014 students and licentiates; 5.672 churches; and 490,259 members,
being an increase of eleven-fold since 1800. The various bodies of Methodists
speaking the English language, had, in 1850, 30,000 places of worship; 6,000
regular preachers; 8,000 local preachers; and more than a million and a
quarter of members. The Methodist Protestant churches of German origin,
have 1,827 regular and 559 local preachers; 5,356 congregations; and 333,000
members. The orthodox Friends had 300 congregations. More than 10,000
places of worship were erected in 1849, and $1,670,150 were paid in voluntary subscriptions to mninisters.-Dr. Baird before Lon. Evan. Soc. To these
may be appended the following, viz.:Churches. Ministers. Members.
Dutch Reformed, - - - 282 299 33,980
German do. and Lutherans, 1,865 936 233,000
Moravians, - - 22 24 6,000
Unitarians,.- -245 250 30,000
Universalists, - 1,194 700 60,000
Swedenborgians, 42 30 5,000
Dr. Baird estimates the number of Protestants in the world as follows:England. Wales, Scotland and Ireland, -20,000,000
France, Italy, and Switzerland, - 3,000,000
Germany and Holland, - 22,'00,000
Hungary and Poland, more than - 3,000,000
In the Scandinavian countries, 8,500,c00
In Russia, fully 3,000,000
The United States, all of - 19,000,000
British America, including West Indies, about - - - - 2,000,000
Australia, Cape of Good Hope, and British possessions in Asia, Africa,
and Polynesia, 500,000
Total, 81,000,000
PRUSSIA. New edict against the press enforced; 37 journals forbidden to
pass through the post, June 5, 1850. The treaty of l0mutz announced at Berlin,
Dec. 3, 1850. May 31, 1851, Inauguration of Rauch's Colossal Equestrian
statue of Frederick the Great, Berlin. In Oct., 1851, the question of the admission of Jews to judicial office, brought to a partial termination by their
permission to study law.-Illzts. News.
PYRAMIDS. M. Persigny, in his " Destination," &c., " cldes Pyramides," lately
published in France, appears to have made the nearest approach to the
original design of these structures, viz., that they were intended as a barrier
to arrest the progress of the sands from the desert, and thus to preserve the
cultivated fields of Egypt from destruction. The great Pyramid at Ghizeit is stated was first opened by the Caliph Al Mamoun, in the expectation of
discovering treasure; when the people murmured at their disappointment,
he ordered a slum of money to be secretly deposited, which, on its discovery
by the laborers, is said to have satisfied their cupidity.
RAILWAYS IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, Jan. 1850.
In Massachusetts, - - 1,889 miles.
In other New England States, -o 914 - 9
In New-York, - 1,892 "
In other States, - - - 5,019'~
Total, - - 9,714'*
* The estimate on page 154; was erroneous.
Railroad Jubilee at Burlington, Vt., celebrating the union by railroad of the
waters of the lakes and the Atlantic, June 25, 1850. N. Y. & Erie R. Road
opened with appropriate ceremonies, through the entire line, May 14, 1851.
The Hudson River R. Road Co., organized March, 1847, road completed,
Oct., 1851, at a cost of $6,666,681.
RAILWAYS, SOUTH AMERICA. The first Railway in PERU, from Callao to Limp,,
six miles, was opened Nov., 1850.
PEV] ADDENDA TO THE WORLDIS PROGRESS, 1850-51. 31
RAILWAYS, GREAT BRITAIN. During the year 1849, about 870 miles of new
railways were opened in the United Kingdom, viz.: 630 miles in England,
108 in Scotland, and 132 in Ireland. The following table gives the progress
of railways since 1844, with the average receipts per mile per week:
Years. Miles open. Per mile per week. Yeas. Miles open. Per mile per week.
1844 1,770 ~64 1848 4,178 ~50
1845 2,033 ~67 1849 4,983 ~46
1846 2,498 oi64 1850 6,075 ~44
1847 3,375 ~56
The number of rail-road passengers in England and Wales in 1846, was 35,000,000; in 1850, 53:000,000; total United Kingdom in 1850, 66,000,000.-.
Herald. The great Rllssian rail-road, from Moscow to St. Petersburgh, was
opened Nov 13, 1851, the distance 420 miles, being run through in 18 hours,
233 miles per hour.-Londoin Paper.
RELIGIOUS denominations in the United States, according to returns made
1844 —51, and by estimate.
Noasies. Churches. Ministers. Comnmunicants.
Roman Catholics, - 1,073 1,081 1,233,350
Protestant Episcopalians, - 1,232 1,497 67,550
Presbyterians, old school, 2,675 2,027 210,306
Presbyteriaus, new school, - 1,579 1,489 140,060
Cuimberland Presbyterians, 480 350 50,000
Other classes of Presbyterians, 530 293 45,500
Dutch Refbormed, - - 282 299 33,980
German Reformed, - 261 273 70,000
Evangelical Lutherans, - 1,604 663 163,000
Moravians, - 22 24 6 000
Methodist Episcopal (North) - 3,984 662,315
Methodist Episcopal (South)
Methodist Protestant Chuich, - 740 64,313
Reformed Methodists, - - 75 3,000
Wesleyan Methodists, - - -,600 20,000
German Methodists, (United Bretlhren) 1,800 500 15,000
Allbright Methodists (Evangelical Association) 600 250 15.000
Mennonites, - - - 400 250 58,000
Orthodox Congregationalists, 1,971 1,687. 197,196
Untitarian do. - - 245 250 30,000
Universalists, - 1,194 700 60,000
Swedenborgians, - 42 30 5,000
Regular Baptists, - 8,872 5,509 719,290
Six-Principle Baptists, 21 25 3,586
Seventh-Day Baptists, - 52 43 6,243
Free Will Baptists, - - 1,252 1,082 56 452
Church of God Baptists, 97 128 10,102
Reformed Baptists (Campbellites), - 1,848 848 118,6L8
Christian Baptists (Unitarians), 607 498 3,040
Antimission Baptists, - - - 2023 897 64,738
Am. Aizmanac, 1852.
REVENUE, and ExPENDITURES, U. S. A.
REVENUE.
Year ending, June 30, 1848. 1849. 1850.
Customs, - $31.,757,070 $28,346,738 $39,668,686 42
Sale public lands, 3,328,642 1,683,959 1,859,894 25
Miscellaneous sources, - 351,037 1,038,649 1,847,218 33
Loans and balance on hand, 22,957,951 28,742,284 6,230,914 28
Total, - $58,394,700 $59,816,630 $49,606,713 28
EXPENDITURES.
Civil List, - - $2,647,955 $2,865,615 $3,042,770 07
Foreign Intercourse, 390,897'7,972,832 4,838,594 76
Miscellaneous, - 2,546,216 3,179,192 6 958,360 24
War Department,t - 27,820,163 17,290.936 9,401,239 16
Department of Interior,.................. 3,400,524 87
Navy, - - - 10,670,416 9,869,818 7,923,313 18
Public Debt,. 15,429,197 16,453,272 7,437,366 41
Total, $58,241,167 $57,631,667 $43,002,268 69
Including the Indemnity to Mexico. t Inc. part of Mexican war.
32 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS, 1]850-51. [iRe
Aggregate receipts for fiscal year ending June 30, 1850, with balance in
Treasury -.-.- -. $52,312,979 87
Total expenditures to same period, - - 48,005,878 68
Imports for year ending June 30, 1851, - - 215,725,130 00
Of which tliere were in specie, -. 4,967,901 00
REVENUE FROM CUSTOMS, AND EXPENSES OF COLcLECT'ING IT. U. S. A.
Wa4Zshington's Administration. Jackson's.ddministsration.
Rev. fromn Cus. Ex. of Coll'n. Rev. fomn Cus. Ex. of Coll'n.
1796 *... 12,681,866.... 291,206 1835... 26,091,829... 1,284,997
1797.... 13,000,105.... 343,434 1837... 31,129,275.... 1,397,469
Adamns's Adm.inistr-ation. Van BrT1en's Admlinistration.
1800 16,185,889.... 440,373 1838.... 20,127,988.... 1,514,633
1801.... 20,828.336.... 483,772 1840.... 15332036.... 1,542,319
Jefferson's Adoninistr-ation. 1841.. 20,104,474... 1,483,960
1808.... 11,349,769 565,238 Tyler's Admlinistration.
1809... 11,885,380.... 498,130 1844.... 29,560,530.... 1.807,500
Madison's Admoninistration. 1845.... 31,14.4,244 2'066,033
3815.... 39,012,624... 476,007 Polk's AdzAinizst-ation.
1816.... 33,577,988 819,038 1817.... 28,305,464.... 2099,844
1817.... 22,706,514 782,308 1848.... 33,034,275.... 2,132,636
Ioonsoroe's A dnzinistration. Taylor' s and Fillnore' s
1824.... 25.726.836.... 779,739 Adnzinistraction.
1825.... 3190 3875.... 889,302 1849.... 28,346,738
Adams's Adm.inistration. 1850.... 39,668,686
1827.... 28,191,308 889,818
1828.... 30,187,701.... 932 093
1829... 27,982,947... 1,013,667
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE (Great Britain), year eiiding Jan. 5, 1850.
Revenue,.52,951,748. ExpenditLure, ~50;853,622.
RICE. First planted in South Carolina, 1693, and has been grown in that state
every year since that period.
RIOTS. At Philadelphia, between a set of white' rowdies," called " killers,'"
and negroes. Military called out; 4 persons killed; 11 wounded; 4 houses
burned, Oct. 10, 1849. Riot at Hoboken. N. J.. between Germans and " short
boy" rowdies from N. York, May 26. 1851. Riot at New Orleans in reference to Cuban affairs-the Spanish Consul's house attacked, and also those
of the Spanish residents, Aug. 21, 1851. Christiana Treason trial, at Philadelphia, Nov., 1851; Hlanneway and others acqluitted Dec. 11, but the murderers of -Mr. Gorsuch sent to Lancaster for trial.
ROMAN CATHOLICS. The appointment by the pope of several R. C. bishops
and archbishops in England, causes great excitelllent in that country, and
an indignant letter frolm Lord John Russell, the premier, Nov., 1850. A statistical account from the Vicar General's office at Rome, in April. 1851, shows
the ecclesiastical body of that city to consist of 34 bishops, 1 240 secular an,-;,
1,892 regular priests, and 1,467 monks. The schools and seminaries under
their supervision were 321. —See Eccl, Stales.
RtOME. The Council of State at Rome announces a political amnesty, excepting from it, however, the late Triumvirate, the chiefs of the assembly, and
the military leaders, and about 13.000 persons supposed to be implicated in
the late movements, Sept. 18, 1849. The pope returns to Rome, April 19,
1850. The total population of Rome in April. 1851, was 170,824. —Vicar Gen'ls
Office. In 1848 the population numbered 179,000, and a proportional diminution is shown in the returns of the other Roman States. —Herald. In Obt.
1851, a mixed commission of cardinals; prelates, merchants, &c., and simple
workmen, was foirmed by the Pope, for the examnination and amendment,
where susceptible, of all corporate laws. —FIl2ls. News.
RUSSIA. The Russian troops repeatedly defeated by the Circassians, June
1851.
RUSSIAN ARMY, 1851. Infantry, 640,384; cavalry, 101,902; artillery, 41,902;
adding to the above the engineer staff, the entire force amounts to 810,000
.SHTIA] ADDENDA TO THE WVORLD'S PROGRESS) 1850-51. 33
effective troops. Other accounts, however, place the actual number of military fit for service no higher than 300,000 men, and of these a quarter must
be kept in Poland. —Triester Zeiltusq.
SAN FRANCISCO, Commerce of. The amount of duties collected at San Francisco, in the quarter ending Sept. 30, 1851, as compared with the corresponding quarter of the year 1850.
1850. 1851.
July, - - $143,276 48 $182,396 75
August, - 176,656 00 104,128 00
September, 144,318 00 162,558 19
$464,250 48 $459,082 94
Amount of deposits in September, 1851, on account of unascertained, $72,707 30, being in
addition to above.
Amount of Bullion reported in manifests at Custom's House was, July, 1851, $3,471,245;
August, $3,311,100; Sept., $3,488,171; Total, $10,270,516.
Specie brought into the city in freight was, for July, $84,280; August, $61,195; Sept.,
-55,351.
Males. Females. Child'n. Total. Left.
Passengers arrived, July,. 1,729 231 134 2,094 1,697
""!, August, 1,886 348 211 2,445 2,097
((" " September, - 1,140 140 56 1,336 6,574
Totals, - 5,875 10,368
Excess of Departures, Sept. 30, 1851, 54,493
10,368
SCHOOLS, originally kept in the porches of churches. Even so late as 1624,
John Evelyn, then four years old, was taught by " one Frier at the churchporch of Wotton." —E's. Diary. The sraged schools, for the instruction of
destitute children in England, originated with John Pounds, a poor cripple
and shoemaker at Portsmouth, who, while laboring for his daily sustenance,
found time to instruct the vagabond children of his neighborhood. He died,
" deplored by all his scholars and their relatives, Jan., 1839." Infant
schools originated about 1780, with Oberlin, pastor of Waldbach (Germ.);
and in England were first put in operation in 1815, by James Buchanan, one
of the masters engaged by Robert Owen at Lanark. Wilderspin's plans
were subsequent to the above. — West. Review. Sabbath schools were partially in operation previous to the great effort of Mr. Raikes, through the
instrumentality of Miss Walker, a Quaker lady of Tottenham, near London,
and the Rev. Mr. Lindsay and wife, of Catterick, Yorkshire. —Nor. of Scot.
Gaz. The first S. school in the United States is said to have been established by Mrs. Archibald Lake, in the stockade in Marietta, Ohio, March,
1791.
SEWING MACHINES. Invented 1848, and brought to general use by the
large tailoring establishments. A machine, with the attention of one girl,
will sew six overcoats per day.-Sci. Am.
SHANGHAI. The population trading with this Chinese port is between
60,000 000 and 80;000,000. The teas grown here are the finest in the world,
and its supplies to foreign countries are about seven-eights of the whole product exported from the empire. The amount sent forward from China in
1850, is given officially as follows: To Russia, 7,000 000 lbs.; France,
2,000 000 lbs.; Holland. 3,000;000 lbs.; Great Britain, 52,000.000 lbs.; and
the U. States. 30.000 000 lbs.; the total valuation of which shipments cannot fall far short of $30.000,000. The rich silk fabrics of Suchan are brought
to Shanghai, as well as numerous other articles of valuable traffic, all of
which may be more readily purchased here than at Canton, which port receives its principal export supplies from the former. The importance of
Shanghai as a port of entrance for the American merchant offers incalculeable
advantages.-See N. Y. Coterier.
2-,*
34 ADDENDA TO THE WORtLDsS P.OG:RESS 1850-51. [STE
SHIPPING, U. S. A. Vessels built and tonnage thereof in the U. S.: year ending June 30, 1849. Ships, 198; brigs, 148; schooners, 623; sloops and
canal boats, 370; steamers, 206. Total, 1,5'7. Aggregate tonnage, 3,535 000.
Iron cylinder masts first fitted in a Dutch E. Indiamnian at Liverpool, March,
1851. Amount of tonnage of American vessels engaged in foreign trade, for
year ending, 30th June, 1850, was entered 2,573 016; cleared. 2:632.788. Fortign tonnage during same period entered, 1,77T5,63; cleared, 1,728 214.
Number of vessels built in 1850 was 1 360. their total tonnage 272,218 54-95.
In 1851 the total U. S tonnage was 3,772 439, including the whaling vessels,
181,644; vessels built. 1,367. Massachusetts total tonnage engaged in foreign
and domestic trade, 694,402; New-York, 1,041i013; Oregon (smallest),
1,063. —. Courier,. The clipper ship; Flying Cloud," Capt, Cressy, left,
Tew-York June 2, 1851, and arrived at San Francisco, August 20, making
the trip round Cape Horn in the unprecedented short space of 90 days; the
shortest passage on record. In three days the F. C. made 992 miles.
SLAVE-TRADE. Official returns made to the foreign office in London show
that fiom the year 1840 to the year 1848, inclusive, 594 vessels, containing
37,824 slaves, were captured by the British squadron. and 556 of them condemned. It has been estimated by the English statician McQunlen, that tt:e
loss sustained by slave-traders in consequence of the captures or presence
of African cruisers, from the year 1800 to 1847, was ~30,240;000.
SLAVERY, U. S. A. Renewed agitation of this subject caused by the passage
and enfoircement of the " Fugitive Slave Bill" (passed by Congress in Aug.,
1850). In several instances, the claims for fugitive slaves are resisted or
defeated in the Northern States, but without serious collision or bloodshed;
Sept., Dec., 1850. By decision of Judge Hoadly, Superior Court, Cin., in
Oct., 1851, this law was pronounced as " opposed to the spirit and letter of
the Constitution of the U. S." The Boston, Post, of Dec.. 1850. states that
the original Fugitive Slave Law was drafted by Geo. Cabot. of Mass., Nov.
1792, and passed unanimously by the Senate on the 18th of Jan'y following,
by a majority of 41. A Papal Bull of Dec., 1839, prohibits all traffic in
human beings by subjects of Roman Catholic States. — Jade's BLit. Hist.
SPAIN. Queen Isabella personally opens the Cortes in the new palace, in the
Plaza de Cervantes, Oct. 31, 1850. At Madrid, Nov., 1851, the commissioners for regulating the liberty of the press refuso to assent to the ministerial
proposition of seizing newspapers before publication.
STAGES. In 1749 there was a daily staoge route between Newark, N. J., and
New-York, during the sumrner months only. The number of passengers
in one season was considered large at 3.000; the iumber of passengers over
the railroad to the saime place was, in 1850, 959,000!
STEAM ENGINE. A patent was granted in England in 1618, for a steam-or
as it is there designated, a "' fire-engine, for taking ballast out of rivers aiid
for raising fresh water." It is supposed to have been an invention brought
from Italy, where it is stated to have been anteriorly used. Brancas. an
Italian philosopher, published at Rome, in 1629, a book on the subject.Wade's Brit. Hiist, A complete steam-engine, weighing only three fourths
of an ounce, and capable of fiull motion, was finished and intended for exhibition at the Crystal Palace by an ingenious mechanic of Saddleworth,
Yorkshire. in Feb., 1851. —-1lus. News. The tubular boiler was invented by
Col. John Stevens, Hoboken, N. J., 1805.
bTEAM NAVIGATION, U. S. A. The steamer Atlantic, 3,500 tons, the first.
of the Collins' line, sailed for Liverpool, from New York, April 27, 1850.
Steam communication between Philadelphia and Liverpool opened ]by the
" City of Glasgow,," arrived at Philadelphia, Jan. 1, 1851. The first steamer
SUG] ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS, 1850-51. 35
that ever crossed the Atlantic was the " Savannah," 350 tons, from Savannah,
Geo., to Liverpool, which port she reached 20th July, 1819.-Mff'riwade's
Corn. Report. The first steamboat that ascended the Mississippi was commanded by Capt. Henry M. Shreeve, who subsequently invented the steam
snag-boat; he died in 1851. The number of steamboats on the Western
waters in 1850 was estimated at 575, investing a capital of $60 000 000,
and employing 15,000 hands. The annual cost to the U. S. government of
the Steam Mail Service in 1850. was distributed as follows:-Collins' line,
New York and Liverpool, $385,000; Ocean Steam Navigation Company,
New York and Bremen, $200,000; do., do., do., do., New York and Havre,
$150,000; New York, Havana and New Orleans, $290,000; Panama and
Oregon line, $199.000; Charleston and Havana line, $50.000. —Total,
$1 274,000. The first steamer on Lake Nicaragua began its trips January,
1851. Duty paid by Cunard steamers at Boston, in 1847, wais 1,.199.971 78;
in 1850, $1,322.383 30. Marine Steam Force of Great Britain in 1851 was147 ships, including 3 in Canada, and 32 iron steamers, 11 ranging from
1.547 to 1,980 tons. A discovery in 1851 of a work in the archives of Venice,
of a treatise on " Navigation by Fire," by M. Gautier, Mem. Roy. Soc. Paris,
shows that the professor's plans for steam navigation were exhibited by him
to the Venetian Republic in 1756.
STEAMBOAT BUILDING. The annual report on commerce and navigation,
gives the following aggregate of the number of steamboats built in the
United States since 1824-twenty-five years, in periods of five years each:
From 1824 to 1829 - 94 From 1844 to 1849, - - - 960
18234 to 1839, 304
" 1839 to 1844, - - 522
Two-thirds of these were built in the West, one-sixth of theim in Ohio.
STEAM AND POWDER EXPLOSIONS. The most fatal accident of this
natule in 1849 was that of the steamboat Louisa, at N. O.. Nov. 15. when
60 persons were killed and 92 wounded and missing. During 1850 the
number of steamboats lost in the Western waters was 53, arid 64 seriously
injured. Nearly 700 persons lost their lives, and $1 500,000 of property
was destroyed. Some of the most prominent accidents by explosion in
1850 and 1851, were:DATE. FACTORY OR VESSEL. tVWERE. LIVES
1850. LOST.
November 7, Steamer Telegraph, Near Newcastle, Del., 15
10, Ship of war, Volney, Near Brest, 10
23, Am. Sieamer Resolute, New-York, 5'26, Ste. Antoinette Douglas, Tate's Shoals, 30
Am. Steamer Columbus, Off Point Lookout, 7
December 13, Steamer Anglo Norman, New Orleans,
o' 17, South America, Near Bayou Sara, 40
18, - Knoxville, New Orleans, 20' 20, Fashion, Near Pittsburgh, many
1851.
March 2, - Oregon, Mississippi, 21
Febrtary 23, Ferry-boat (many injured), St. Louis, 15
March 15, Victoria Coalpit, Scotlatnd, 61
" 27, Cotton mill, Stockport, Eng., 14
August 2, Distillery, larrison, Ohio, 15
September 8, Balloon, 1 mile bigh, exploded near London; the 4 passengers providentially
escaped without serious injury.'C 21, Steamer Jackson (35 injured), Shawneetown, Ill., 7
" 25, - Brilliant, Bayou Sara, La., many.
SUGAR. A hundred years ago the Jesuits brought a few bundles of cane from
Hispaniola, and planted them in the second municipality of New Orleans.
36 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD S PRlOGRESS, 1850-51o [UN!
In 1759 the first sugar-mill was erected. In 1840 the number of slaves employed in the sugar culture was 148,890, and the product was 119,947 hogsheads, of 1,000 pounds each, and 600,000 gallons of molasses.-JiMobile
Register.
TEA. Quantity imported into Great Britain in 1849, 53,460,751 lbs. The
duty upon it amounted to ~5,471,671. This is an increase of nearly 50 per
cent. over the imports of 1840.
TELEGRAPH, THE SNAIL. The actuality of telegraphic communication
by medium of magnetism in snails, experimentally demonstrated by Prof.
Gregory of Edinburgh, May, 1851.
TELEGRAPH-see " Electric."
TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES. The benevolent influence of these associations
may be estimated from the fact that the amount of taxation in the state of
New York, in 1850, occasioned by pauperism and crime resulting from intemperance, was nearly $2;600,000, and the amount for the entire Union
during that period, and resulting from the evils of intemperance, was over
$16,000,000. The daily expenditure in the 5,000 drinking places in New
York is calculated at over $40,000.-Mr. Foster's Speech at Tripler Hall,
March, 1851.-Father Matthew, the " Apostle of Temperance," after visiting
numerous states in the Union during two years, and administering over
600,000 pledges, sailed for Liverpool in steamer Pacific, Nov. 8, 1851.
TEXAS. The question of the boundary line between Texas and New Mexico,
after much excitement and discussion, is settled by the payment of $10,000,000 by the U. S. to Texas, as indemnity for the territory claimed by
New Mexico, Sept., 1850. Population in 1850, 188,403, including 53,346
slaves.
TIDES. The highest known are in the Bay of Fundy, Newfoundland, and
the Bay of Tonquin, Cochin China. —Q. Rev., 1819. That of the former
rises 60 feet; the tide at Chepstowv (Monmouth, Eng.) rises 70 feet. —PIlls.
News. That of Baffin's Bay only 4 feet.-Capt. Ross, 1819. Seeds dropped
accidently into the sea in the W. Indies, were subsequently found on the
shores of the Hebrides. —D/'. Walker to Lord Kames.-See Oceans.
TIGRE (Island of), Central America, seized by Mr. Chatfield, British Consul,
with an armed force, for the " British Queen," Oct. 17, 1849; but the claim
was not enforced, and was settled in the " Nicaragua Treaty," signed at
Weashington, by Clayton and Bulwer, June, 1850.
TURKEY. Battle between the Turks and Syrians, who had revolted against
the Turkish recruiting system-Syrians defeated with loss of 1,000 men,
1850. Explosion on board the Neiri Schevket, line of' battle ship, at Constantinople, 1,000 persons killed, Oct. 23, 1850.
UNION MEETINGS. Gov. Quitman of Miss., addresses a disunion meeting
with some opposition, at Natchez, Oct 7, 1850. A similar meeting in Yazoo
city votes down the resolutions proposed. A convention for amending the
constitution of Indiana, assembles at Indianapolis, Oct. 7. A great union
meeting at Mobile, Ala., Oct. 8. Convention for amending constitution assembles at Richmond, Va., Oct. 14. A union festival in compliment to Mr.
Clay, at Lexington, Ky., Oct. 17. A Woman's Rights convention held in
Worcester, Mass., Oct. 23. A great union meeting at Dayton, Ohio, Oct. 26,
and an immense meeting for like purpose in New York, Oct. 30. Convention to amend constitution of Maryland, meets in Annapolis, Nov. 4; another
at Concord, N. H., for revising constitution of that state, Nov. 6; and one at
Manchester, N. H., Nov. 20. A great union meeting at Philadelphia, Nov.
21. One at Bath, Me., Dec. 16. Convention of Delegates from Southern
viS] ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS, 1850-51. 37
Rights Association, of S. Carolina, at Charleston, May 8; adjourns after
resolving " that with or without co-operation they are for dissolution of the
Union!"
UTAH TERRITORY OF U. S. A territorial government provided by Congress,
Sept. 9, 1850. The territory is bounded on the west by California, north by
Oregon, east by the summit of the Rocky Mountains, and south by the
parallel of 370 Nt. The act provides the sum of $5,000 for a library.
VENEZUELA. Gen. J. G. Monagas elected president for four years, Jan.
20, 1851.
VIRGINIA. According to the census returns, the real estate, &c., of Virginia,
1850, was $530,000,000, viz.: —Real estate, $278,000,000; value of slaves,
$147,000,000; other personal estate, $105,000,000. The returns further
show that nearly 83,000 white persons over the age of 21, can neither read
nor write! The new Constitution of this state adopted 1851, in the Illth
article has the following clause: "And no person shall have a right to vote
who is of unsound mind, or a pauper, or a non-commissioned officer in the service of the United States." Population of 1850, 1,421,081, including 473,026
slaves.
WAMPUM. This material as a representative circulating medium, was borrowed by the people of Plymouth, Mass., from the Manhattan Dutch. and
was found very profitable in their traffic with the eastern Indians, and subsequently among the colonists generally. Three of the blackbeads and six of
the white, were considered as equivalent to a penny; and for convenience'
sake, they were strung in lengths of certain value from one penny to 5 shillings, in white; and from twopence to ten shillings in black; as the quantity in circulation increased, the value depreciated and the number of beads
to the penny was augmented.-See Hildrethl's U. S. America, 1850.
WARS, MODERN. Those of the 17th century, were wars of religion; of the
18th century, of conquests and dynasties; of the 19th, of monarchs against
the people.-Berlies Cordres. N. Y. Cone. The actual cost of the late Mexican war is estimated at $300,000,000. The wars of Europe from 1783 to 1815,
are estimated at $15,000,000,000. The late Hulngarian war left 25,000 widows,
and 80,000 orphans of soldiers, almost entirely without food, shelter, or
clothing.
WASHINGTON, D. C. Population in 1810, 8,201, in 1820, 13,248, in 1830,
18,827, in 1840, 23;,364, in 1850, about 42,000.
WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL ADDRESS. The original MS. was sold
at auction in Philadelphia, to a citizen of New York, for $2,300, February
12, 1850.
WESTMINSTER, ARcHBP. O0. Nicholas Wiseman, having been created Cardinal by the Pope, is installed as Roman Catholic Archbishop of Westminster, Nov., 1850. This, in addition to Dr. Ullathorne's enthronement as R. C.
bishop of Birmingham, in Oct., together with the parcelling out of all England into Roman dioceses, created great excitement, and petitions from every
quarter of the United Kingdom were addressed to the Queen and government, praying their resistance to the " monstrous usurpation."
WHALE FISHERY. Registered tonnage employed in this branch of commerce,
1850, was 146.016. Fish and sperm oil exported during the year ending
June 30, 1850, $1,809,115. The average yield of a polar whale is about
120 barrels oil.
WILLIAM TrE CoNQUEROR. Inauguration of the statue of this renowned
monarch at Falaise, Normandy, his native place, Oct. 26, 1851.
WISCONSIN. The population of this State is shown by the census returns,
38, ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PROGRES87 1850-5 1, [z1'r
1850, to be: white, 304,565; colored, 626; total, 305.191. Farms in cultivation, 20,177; manufactories producing annually $.500, and upwards, 1,273.
WOOL. The imports of wool into the U. S. for fiscal year 1850, amounted t$1,681,691; and for same period 1851, 83,833,160. —Couzier.
WORSHIP, FORMS OF. The Jews and Quakers wear their hats during worship,
Protestants and Catholics remove them.-The Mohammedans wear their
turbans, but put off their shoes on entering their mosques, evidently from
their Prophet's adoption of many of the Jewish customs.-See Exodus iii, 5.
It is particularly worthy of remark that the Mohammedans invariably remove from their persons all jewelry, and articles of adornment previous to
the commencement of their prayers.
WRECKS, &c. The number of vessels belonging to the U. S. lost during the
year ending June, 1848, was 585; value, $2;021,495; value of cargoes,
$2,501,771; total number of lives lost in connection with them, 477. The
Caleb Grimshaw. Liverpool and N. Y. packet ship, burnt at sea; 60 passengers lost on a raft; 339 rescued by Capt. David Cook of Nova Scotia, Nov.
12, 1849.
DATE. NAME OF VESSEL. WHERE. LIVES
180. LOST,
January 13, Am. Ship Hottinguer, Wexford rocks, Ire. 13
May 6, - Steamer Commerce, Lake Ontario, 38
" 24, Br. Indiaman, Sulimary, From Bombay, 100
June 2, A barge, Near Neuwerk, Ger. 100' 17, Am. Steamer, Griffith, burnt Off Port Patrick, 50
i 18, Br. Steamer Orion, Lakle Erie, 300
July 18, Brig. Elizabeth, OffFire Island, N. Y. many
October 4, Am. bark Isaac Mead, Charleston to N Y. 24
7, Br. ship Provldence, Near Belfast, 19
Nov. 24, Br. Ship Edmund, Near Limerick, 96
" 28, Propeller Helena Sloman, At sea, Hamburgh to N. Y. 1 I
Minot's Ledge lighthouse carried away, April 17,'51, and the two assistant
keepers drowned. Steamship Union lost on her passage from San Francisco
to Panama, July 5,'51; passengers and gold dust saved.
YACHTING. The Yacht America, built by Steers of New-York, 204 tons bur.,
after winning the " cup of all nations" at Cowes, I. of Wight, England, and
out-sailing the British yacht Britannia, Aug., 1851, was sold by Messrs
Stevens to Capt. Blaquiere for 25,000!
YANKEE. The derivation of this word is generally accredited to the Indian
pronunciation of the word English, which they render Yengeese.-In NewYork it is applied to the New Englanders; in the South to all the Northeners; and in Europe to all Anglo-Americans.-In a curious book on the
Round Towers of Ireland, published some years ago, the origin of the term
Yankee-Doodle was said to have been traced to the Persian phrase Yanki
dortniael, or': Inhabitants of the New World." Layeald, in his "Nineveh,"
also mentions Yanhi-d1zbnia as the Persian name of America. —Illus. News.
YUCATAN. Intelligence received at New Orleans, Jan. 3, 1851, that a battle
between the whites and Indians in Yucatan resulted in the victory of the
latter, 300 of the whites being killed.
ZINC. Tile Soc. IneduLst. Ncationale in Paris, granted to M. Leclaire, 1846, a
medal of gold worth 3000 fiancs, for his substitution of zinc for white lead
in the formation of painter's color, the use of which latter has been attended
with so much danger to health.-Art Joursnal. White paint prepared from
zinc is much used of late in the U. States. and has hitherto been greatly
approved.
PAINTING.
PAINTING. Chronological Table of the most celebrated Painters, arranged in
Schools and Ages, fronm the revival of the art, 1600, to the commencement of
the Nineteenth Century.
(From Bell's Edition of Bredosw's Tables of Usniversal History.)
1. FLORENTINE ScHOOLt.-Style elevated and old, seeking rather to be admired than
to please; sometimes gigantic; neglects coloring and grace —1240, Cimlabue; 1726, Giotto;
1211, Andrea Taffi; 1400, Massolino; 1402, Massacio; 1431, Filippo Lippi; 1432, Andrea
V'errochlio, Andrea Castagna, Pisanello; 1443, Ghirlandajo; 1445, LEONARDO DA VINCI;
1469, Bartolommeo di San Marco; 1471, Baldassarre Perozzi; 1474, Michael Angelo Bluonarotti; 1484, Dominiro Beccafumni; 1488, Andrea del Sarto; 1493, Jacopo Carrucci da Pontormo; 1496, Del Rosso; 1500, Perino del Vaega; 1509, Daniel da Volterra; 1510, Francesco
Salviati; 1510, Giorgio Vasari; 1545, Antonio Tempesta; 1559, Luligi Cardi- 1563, Francesco Vanni; 1578, Matteo Rosselli; 1596, Pietro Berretini, called Pietro da Cortona; 1611,
Pietro Testa; 1615, Benvenuto da Garofoli; 1616, Carlo Dolci; 1666, Benedetto Lutti;
1695, Giovan' Geronino Servandoni; 1702, Pompeo Battoni.
2. ROoiAN SCHooL carries invention and design to the highest perfection by the analytical study of the antique and of nature; heads of the most sublime beauty; co'oring and
chiaro oscuro less perfect. 1513, Bernardino Pinturichio; 1446, Pietro Perrugino; 1483,
Raffael; 1428, G. F Penni; 1492, Giulio Romiano; 15'8, Frederico Barocci; 1529 Talrddeo
Zucchero; 1543, Frederico Zuccliero; 1589, Dominico Feti; 1594, Nicholas PoussiN ~
1598, Giovaie' Lorenzo Bernini; 1599, Andrea Sacchi; 1600, Claude Gelee, called Claud l
of Lorraine; 1602, Ceriozzi; 1605, G. B. Salvi, called It Sassoferrato; 1613, Gaspard 12i
ghet, called Poussin or Guaspre; 1616, Luigi Scaramuccia; 1617, Francesco RollanelP
1623, Giacinto Branldi; 162:, Filippo Lauri; 1625, Carlo Marattii 1634, Ciro Ferri; 169s
Pietro Bianchi; 1728, Raflael Mengs.
3. VENETIAN SCoIOOL. — Faithful imitation of. well-chosen subjects of nature, excellent
coloring, admirable effect; design less perfect through the neglected study of the antique;
this school is now extinct, 1421, Gentile Beliini; 1431, Andrea Mantegna; 1478, Giorgione; 1477, TITIAN (Tiziano Vecelli da Cadore); 1480, G. A. Regillo; 1485, Sebastiano del
Piombo; 1510, Jacopo da Ponte; 1512, J. Robusti, called 11 Tintoretto; 1522, Paolo Farinati; 1522, Andrea Schiavoue; 1528, Geroiiimo Muziano; 1531, Paolo Cagliari; 1535,
Giusepype Ponta; 1539, Dario Varotari; 1540, Felice Riccio; 1540, Jacopo Palma (Il Vecchio); 1544, Jac Palma; 1549, Giov. Contarino; 1560, TMaria Tintoretta; 1561, Leonardo
Corona; 1586, Tiberio Tineli; 159(), Aless. Varotari; 1600, Aless. Turchi; 1635, Giov. B.
Langetti; 1642, Andrea Pozzo; IG56, Franc. Trevisani; 1659, Sebast. Ricci; 1666, Ant.
Blalestra; 1672, Rosa Alba Carriera; 1675, Giov. Ant. Pellegrini; 1682, G. B. Piazzetta;
1687, Ant. Canale; 1693, Giov. Bat. Tiepolo; 1699, Giuseppe Nogari.
4. LoInBARD AND BOLOONESO E SCHOOIS. —Correggio, born in Lombardy, not having
founded a permanent School, but having been imitated by the painters of Bologna, these
two Schools are conjoined. Correggio's distinguished characteristics are a seducing and volIptuous (though perhaps somewhat aflected) grace in his figures and attitudes, and a magic
harmony in his coloring. Tibaldi and the Caracci introduce a more elevated character of
design, and many of their pupils unite therewith the fine coloring and the graces of Correggio. 1450, Francesco Franco; 149), F. Primaticcio; 1494, CORREGGnIO Antonio Allegri;
1495, Polidori Caldari; 1504, Fr Mazzuoli; 1522, Pellegrino Tibaldi; 1546, Camillo Procaccinii; 1559, M1. Angelo Amerigi, called Carravaggio; 1555, Lodov. Caracci; 1557, Agostino CIaracci; 1561l, Annibaie Caracci; 1560, Bartol. Schidone; 1575, Guido Reni, called
Guido; 1576, Lionello Sp1ada; 1577, Aless. Tiarini; 1578, Francesco Alblano; 1580, Giacomo Cavedone; 1581, Dom. Zampieri, called Domenicllino; 1581, Giov. Lanfranco; 1588,
Frances Gessi; 15911, G. F. Barbieri; 1597, Lcdov Lana; 1600, Mic. Ang. Colonna; 1606,
Grima'di; 1618, Giorg. And. Sivani; 1612, Sinone Cantarini; 16'24, P. Fran. Mola; 1628,
Cignani; 1638, P. F. Caroli; 1643, Lodov. Quaini; 1648, Ant. Francescllini; 1654, Guis.
del Sole; 1l57, Fer. Galli Babiena; 1665, Guis. Maria Crespi; 1668, Dom. Maria Viani;
1671, Donato Creti; 1674, Giov. P. Zanotti; 1691, G. P. Painiii.
(NEAPOLITANS, GENOESE, SPANIARDS. These nations are not regarded as having founded general Schools; their painters are formed on the masters of the great Italian Schools.
Neapolitai.-rThe painters of this nation are reproached with being in general somewhat affected. Pietro and Tommaso Stefani, d. 1310; Fil del Tesauro, 1320; 15)00, And. Sabbatani; 1560, Guis, Cesare d'Arpino; 1600, Aniello Falcone; 1603, Mario Nuzzi; 1613, Matteo Petri; 1615, Salvator Reosa; 1631; Luca Giordano; 1657, Fran. Solimene; 1661, Nunzio Ferajoli; 1679, Sebast. Conca; 1693, Carl Corrado. Genoese are often incorrect in
design. —14I0, Nich. da Vottri; 1527, Cambiasi; 1544, G. B. Paggi; 1557. Bern. Castelli;
1581, Bernardo Strozzi; 1590, Gio. Carlone; 1616, Benedetto Castiglione; 1625, F. M. Borzoni; 1639, G. B. Gaun!i; 1644, Greg. Ferrari; 1654, Bart. Guidoboni; 1660, Il Molinaretto. Spaniards.-These painters have especially imitated the Venetian School, and often
display its brilliant coloring. —1400, Alonso Berragente; 1487, Blaise de Prado; 1519, Mo
PAINTING.
rales; 1528, Luis de Vargas; 1532, J. F. Ximenez de Navarete; 1550, Pablo de las Rovias;
1589, Josef Ribera; 1599, Don Diego Velasquez de Silva; 1601, Alonso Cano; 1610, Henrique de las Marinas; 1613, Bartolosun Esteban de Murillo; 1617, Franc. Rizzi; 1631, Matias
de Torres; 1640, Pedro de Nunez; 1640, Juan de Alfaro; 1651, Juan C. Falco; 1663, P. A
Pietri.)
5. GERMAN SCHOOL.-This school having never had a common point of union, bears no
general and distinctive character; it produces, in the different styles of painting, rival artists
to the great masters of Italy and of the Netherlands. 1297, Th. de Matina; 1357, Theo. de
Prague; 1357, N. Wurmser; 1479, Albert Durer; 1492, Lucas Muller; 1498, Hans Holbein;
1515, Lucas Cranach; 1534, Tobias Stimmer; 1550, Christ. Schwartz; 1556, John Van
Aachen; 1564, J. Rottenhammer; 1570, J. Lys; 1574, Adam Elzheimer; 1598, Sam. Hofmann; 1600, J. W. Bauer; 1606, Jo. Sandrart; 1611 Ch. Loth; 1616, Govaert Flink; 1618,
P. Van der Faes; 1619, J. Spilberg; 1621, Leb. Stopkopt; 1625, J. Lingelback; 1631, J.
IHen Roos; 1637, Jos. Warner; 1639, Gasp. Netscher; 1640, Ab. Mignon; 1647, M. S. 118rian; 1648, Godfrey Kneller; 1666, G. P. Ruggendas; 1668, J. R. Huber; 1669, Anna Wr",
ser; 1685, Balthasar Denner; 1689, Fr. P. Ferg; 1698, J. E. Riedenger; 1709, Brinkmann;
1712, C. WV. E. Dietrich; 1728, Raffael Mengs; 1730, Solomon Gessner.
6. FLEMISrE OR BELGIC SCHOOL.-This School excels in coloring and in the faithful imitation of nature, but does not always exhibit sufficient nobleness of design; it produces
eminent artists in every style; that to which Teniers has affixed his name had its birth in
this School; the Academy at Antwerp, the cradle of this School, was founded in 1510, but
there was a Society of Painters at Antwerp from the year 1442.-1306, Erbert Van Eylr;
1370, John Van Eyk; 1450, Quentin Messis; 1490, Ber. V. Orley; 1499, J. de Mabuse;
1553, Peter Knock; 1520, Frank Floris; 1534, Mar de Vos; 1536, J. Straden; 1540, F. Porbus; 1546, B. Spranger; 1548, C. Van Mander; 1550. H. Steenwyck; 1555, Denys Calvart
1556, Otto Venius; 1569, P. Van Breughel; 1570, P. Neefs; 1573, S. Frank; 1576, Fr
Sneyders; 1577, Peter Paul Rubens; 1580, David Teniers; 1594, James Jordaens; 1599,
Anthony Van Dyk; 1602, Phillip de Champagne; 1610, David Teniers; 1613, J. Van Artois; 1618, Gonzales Coques; 1634, Van der Meulen; 1664, Simon Varelst; 1668, G. P.
Vanbruggen; 1672, Ab. Breughel; 1742, Henry de Coort.
7. DUTCH SCHOOL. —This School is especially distinguished by an eminent intelligence
of the chiaro oscuro; exhibits good coloring, and a faithful imitation of nature in the ninutest details. The style of precious finishing is carried to the highest pitch in this School.
1467, Erasmus; 1.494, Luke of Leyden; 1498, Martin Hemskerk; 1518, An. Moro; 1564,
Ab. Bloemart; 1579, Sol. de Brey; 1586, Cornelius Poelenberg; 1596, Leo Brairer; 1600, J.
D. de Heein; 1600, John Wynlants; 1606, Albert Cuyp; 1606, Paul Rembrandt van Ryn;
1608, Gerard Terburg; 1610, Adrian Van Ostade; 1613, Gerard Dow; 1615, Gabriel letzu; 1620, Philip Wouvermans; 1624, Nicholas Bergham; 1625, Paul Potter; 1631, Ludolph
Bakhuytzen; 1633, W. Van der Velde; 1635, Jac. Ruysdael, Hobbema; 1635, Frail. Mieris;
1636, John Steen; 1637, Van den Eleyden; 1638, Adrian van der Velde; 1640, Karel du Jardin; 1664, John Weenix; 1669, Adrian van der Werf; 1682, John Van Huysum.
ENGLISH PAsrNTERS.-Formed in general on the masters of the Flemish and Italian
Schools; excel in portraits and landscapes, are unrivalled in water-colors.-1480, Halns Holbein; 1543 F. Zucchero; 1572, Inigo Jones; 1601, P. Oliver; 1609, S. Cooper; 1610, W.
Dobson; 1620, Ric. Gibson; 1619, John Greenllill; 1648, Godfrey Kneller; 1660, Lulre
Cfradock; 1677, James Thornhill; 1697, William Hogarthl; 1714, Rich Wilson; 1723,
Joshua Reynolds; 1727, Thom. Gainsborough; 1733, Sawrey Gillpin; 1734, P. J. de Loutherbourg; 1735, David Allan; 1738, Benjamin West; 1745, James Strutt; 1746, James North.
cote; t748, J. F. Nollekins; 1748, Philip Reinagle; 1751, William Hamilton; 1752, Wm.
Beechey; 1755, Thom. Stotllhard; 1759, Francis Bourgeoise; 1761, John Opie; 1764, Geo.
Morland; 1769, Thomas Lawrence; 1774, Edward Bird; 1776, John Constable; 1786,
Will. Hilton; 1787, Geo. H-Ien. Harlow;, Thomas Daniell; 1785, David Wilkie; 1786.
R. B. Haydon;, A. W. Calcott; 1789, W. Etty.
8. FRENCH SCHOOL.-The good painters of this School are formed on the model of the
different Italian Schools, of which they bear the several characteristics; they are in general
more successful in composition and design than in coloring. It is emancipated from the degradation and affected style it assumed after the death of Le Brun by Vien, and become the
most numerous and flourishing school of all.-1490, Fran. Primaticcio; 1496, Rosso de
Rossi; 1502, J. Cousin; 1582, Simon Vouet; 1594, Nicholas Poussin; 1600, Claude Lorraine; 1600, Le Va'entin; 16t0, James Blanchard; 1607, James Petitot; 1616, Sebastian
Bourdon; 1617, Eustachius le Seur; 1619, Charles le Brun;: 1640, Charles de la Fosse;
1644, John Jouvenet; 1657, Joseph Vivien; 1667, Nicho-las Bertin; 16G7, Anth. Rivally;
1684, Ant. Watteau; 1638, Francis Le Moine; 1692, Noel N. Coypel; 1700, Chas. Natoire;
1794, F. Bouchier; 1712, Joseph Vernet; 1716, Vien; 1729, J. B. Deshays; 1756, J. L. David; 1758, Carle Vernet; 1767, A. L. Girodet.
AD)DENDA TO THE WORLD)S PROGRESS, 1850-51. 41
ADDITIONS TO THE BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
(INCLUDING ACCIDENTAL OMISSIONS IN THE FORMER EDITIONS.)
NTATION, NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED.
Eng. Adelaide, Queen Dowacer, widow of William IV.. 1850
Eng. Adrian IV. (N. Breakspeare), the only English pope. 1159
Gr. Egineta, Paulus, writer on medicine.. 630
Eng. lEifiic, Abp. Canterbury, author of Anglo Saxon wors.. 1005
Eng. Almon, John, political writer and publisher.. 1738 1805
Ger. Fr. Anne of Austria, wife of Louis XIII. of France. 1604 1666
Amer. Armnlstrong, S. T., book publisher and Lt. Governor of Mass.. 1784 1850
Gr. Armenides, philosopher of the Eclectic School.. 5th c. B c.
Gr. Aspasia, celebrated courtesan-cause of the Pelop. war temp. Peiricles. B. c. 450
Amer. Auldubon, John James, traveller and naturalist (b. at New-Orleans) 1780 1851
Eng. Baffin, Wm., navigator-explorer of Baffin's Bay. 1584
Span. Balboa, Vasco Nunez D., one of the first navigators to the W. Indies 1517
Amer. Barron, James, Commod. I. S. Navy.. 1769 1851
Amer. Bartram, William, horticulturist. 1823
Eng. Baskerville, John, celebrated printer, publisher, and type-founder 1706 1775
Fr. Bastide, John F. de, voluminous writer and editor.. 1724
Eng. Bates, William, non-conformist divine, and theol. writer. 1625 1699
amer. Beck, John B., writer on nediciie, botany, &c..... 1794 1851
Ger. Beckmann, John A., author of History of Invenitions. 1739 1811
Eng. Bell, Andrew, D.D., founder of national schools.. 1753 1832
Scotch. Bell. Henry, first successful steam navigator in Europe.. 1767 1830
IHung. Bern, Gen., military commrandler in the war with Austria.. 1851
Jew. Benjamin of Tudela, one of the earliest modern travellers. 1173
ital. Bentivoglio, Guido. cardinal, and historian. 1579 1641
Eng. Benger, Eliz. Ogilvie, biog. of Anne Boleyn, Queen of Scots, &c. 1827
Russ. Behring, or Beering,Vitus, captain in Russian navy who gave name to
the "Straits".. 1741
Eng. Behn, Aphra, female dramatist, temps. Charles II. 1689
Eng. Berrington, Joseph, Author of History of Middle Ages.. 1827
Eng. Bicliersteth, (Rev. E.,) author of popular religious works 1850
Eng. Bickerstaff, Isaac, dramatic writer of 18th century
Dutch. Bilderdykl, George, poet 1760
Eng. Bingham, George, author of Ecclesiastical History —Christ. Antiq.. 1668 1723
Fr. Blainville, M. de, chemist and naturalist.. 778 1850
En,. Blanchard, Laman, essayist and magazine writer.. 1803 1844
Eng. Bloomfield, E. V., classical scholar, ed. of Museum Criticum 1788 1816
Moor. Boabdil, the last Moorish king of Grenada. about 1495
Eng. Bodley. Sir Thomas, founder of the Bodleian Library 1544 1612
Fr. Bonaparte, N. F. C. J., duke of Reichstadt-only son of Napoleon. 1811 1832
Eng. Boleyn, Anne, second queen of Henry VIII... 1507 1536
Ger. Bos, Lanlbert, Greelk scholar, author of works on Greelk Classics 1670 1717
Eng. Bowles, Rev. W. L., poet. 1761 1850
Fr. Boyer, Abel (Fr. relugee in England), author of Fr. Dictionary. 1664 1729
Amer. Brigham, Amariah, M D., medical writer and philanthropist. 1798 1849
Eng. Brand, J., Author of"' Popular Antiquities"... 1743 1806
Fr. Brinvilliers, Marchioness, notorious poisoner.. 1676
Eng. Brunton, Mary, novelist-" Discipline," &c. 1778 1818
Eng. Bryan, Michael, author of Diet. of Painters.. 1757 1821
Eng. Buckingham, John Sheffield, duke of, military comm'r, poet. 1649 1720
Fr. Burgundy, Charles the Bold, duke of.. f. 1470
Amer. Buckminster, J. S., author of" Sermons," c., o 1784 1812
Eno. Buxton, T. Fowell, leading opponent of the slave trade.. 1787 1845
Polish. Bythner, Victorinus, author of Lyra Prophetica... 1664
Cadmus, fountler of Thebes, introducer of letters.. f. B. c. 1700
Eng. Cacde, Jacl, noted for his rebellion against Heny VI.. f. 1450
Amer. Calhoun,John C., senator ofU. S. folrS. Carolina-ex-Sec. ofState, &c. 1782 1850
Ego. Calamy, Ed., numerous theological works.... 1732
Eng. Cambrlidee, dule of, youlngest son of George III... 1774 1850
Gr. Capo D'Istria, John, Count of, diplomatist-assassirated.. 1780 1831
Fr. Ital. Catharine de'Medici, wife of Henry II. of France... 1503 1589
Eng. Catharine Parr, 6th queen of Henry VII.... 15 1548
Sp. Eng. Catharine of Arragon, 1st queen of Henry VII1.. 1483 1536
Fr. Caulaincourt, A. A. L., Dulke of Vicenzas. 1773 1827
42 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS) 1850-51.
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED.
Ital. Cavallo Tiberius, author of works on nat. phil. in Enllgland. 1749 1809
Eng. Cave. Dr. William, author of " Primitive Christianity" 1637 1713
Ital. Cellini, Benvenuto, Florentine artist, author of Autobiography. 1500 157('
Fr. Chastelleux, F. J., marquis, author of' Travels in America" 1738
Amer. Cogswell, Rev. Wm., D.D., theological and statistical writer. 1788 1850
Eng. Chillingworth, Wm., theologian-author of Religion of Protestants 1644
Rom. Claudianus, Claudius, poet, temp. Emperor Theodosius, Arcadius, &c. 380
Mex. Clavigero, F. S., author of the History of Mexico
Clemens, or Clement, of Alexandria, one of the fathers of the church f. 189
Eng. Clinton, Sir Henry, commander-in-chief of British army in Amer. Revol. 1795
Fr. Clovis, first Christian king of France. 511
Gr. Codrus, 17th and last king of Athens.. C. 1069
Eng. Collier, Jeremiah, non-j uring divine, author of Ecc'I History 1650 1726
Amer. Colton, Walter, Rev., author of several books of travel. 1851
Fr. Commines, Philip de, historian, chronicler, statesman, and courtier 1445 1561
Fr. Condorcet, John. A. N. C., marquis of, mathematician and philosopher 1743 1794
Eng. Congreve, Sir Win., inventor of Congreve rockets, &c.. 1772 1828
Amer. Cooper, J. Fenimore, novelist, traveller and historian. 1851
Fr. Corday, Charlotte, the executioner of the sanguinary Marat 1793
Ital. Cosmo I., grand duke of Tuscany, promoter of the arts, &c. 1519 1574
Eng. Coverdale. Miles, one of the earliest English reformers-trans. of the Bible 1509 1580
Eng. Cowper, Wm., earl, lord high chancellor. 1723
Scotch. Crichton, James. an accomplished gentleman-the" admirable Crichton" 1560 1583
Crcesus, 5th and last king of Lydia, famed for his riches, f.. f. B. 557
Eng. Curtis, William, botanist, author of " Flora Londlinensis". 1799
Rom. Curtius Marcus, who devoted himself for his country. B.C. 362
Pers. Cyrus the Great, king of Persia, conqueror of Lydia, Assyria, &c. B. C. 529j
Fren. Daguerre, perfecter of the daruerreotype process.. 1789 1851
Amer. Dale, Richard, naval commrander, associate of Paul Jones, &c. 1756 1826
Damon, Pythagorean philosopher, friend of Pythias-in Sicily
Eng. Daniel, Samuel, poet-laureate on the death of Spenser, and historian 1562 1619
Fr. Danton, George James, sanguinary revolutionist (guillotined) 1759 1794
Fr. Daru, P. a. n. B., statesman, poet and historian.. 1767 1829
Eng. Davenant, Sir Wm., poet-laureate after Ben Jonson 1606 1668
Amer. Davis, Matthew L., politician, biographer of Burr.. 1766 1850
Fr. Davoust, L. N., duke of Auerstadt, marshal of France. 1770 1823
Amer. Dearborn, H. A. S., Gen., military commander in war of 1812, &c., 1783 1851
Swiss. Delolme, J. L., author of work on English Constitution.. 1745 1806
Eng. Denham, Sir John, poet... 1615 1668
Fr. Denon, D. V., baron de, author of the great work on Egypt 1747 1825
Dutch. Dewitt, John, an enlightened statesman. 1625 1672
Iial. Diodati, John, translator of the Bible into Italian.. 1589 1649
Eng. Dodsley, Robert. bookseller, editor of Old Plays, and author. 1703 1764
Eng. Donne, John, a divine and poet. 1573 1631.
Eng. Douce, Francis, antiquarian-" Shakspeare and his Times," &c.. 1834
Amer. Douglas. David B., officer in the war of 1812, engineer, &c. 1793 1849
Eng. Drake, Nathan, essayist-" Mornings in Spring," &c.. 1766 1836
Eng. Drayton, Michael, poet —' Polyolbion," &c. 1563 1631
Eng. Drew, Samuel —" Essay on the Soul," &c... 1765 1833
Scotch. Drunmond, Wm., poet-friend of Ben.Jonson.. 1585 1649~
Eng. Drumnmond, Sir Witlliarn, antiquary —" Origines," &c. 1828
Eng. Dugdale, Sir Wm., antiquary, " Monasticon," &c.. 1605 1686
Swiss. Dumont, Stephen, writer on legislation, &c... 1750 1829
Amer. Dwight, Rev. S. E., biofrapher of Edwards, &c. 1850
Amer. Eaton, WVm., consul at Tunis —distinguished in war with Tripoli 1764 1811
Ger. Eichhorn, John Geo., biblical critic, author of History of Literature 1752 1827
Eng. Ellenborough, lord, chief justice of England. 1748 118i
Eng. Elliott, Eben, the Corn-law Rhymer.. 1782 1850
Ger. Eschenberg, J. J — " Manual of Classical Literature". 1743 1820
Fr. Estaing, Chas. Hen., count de, naval comm. in Amer. war. 1793
Eng. Exmouth, Viscount, naval commander-at Algiers, &c. 1757 1833
Rom. Fabius Pictor, the first Roman historian-works not extant f. f... 225
Ital. Facciolati, James, author of Latin Dictionary.. 1682 1769
Eng. Fairfax, Edlward, poet-translator of Tasso,.. 1632
Eng. Falkland, viscount, statesman and soldier in the civil war 1610 1643
Eng. Feltham, Owen, author of" Resolves, Moral," &c., about.. 1678
Ger. Fichte, John Gotlieb, philosopher and metaphysician 1762 1814
Amer. Fitch, John, one of the first experimenters in steam-boats. 1743 1798
Eng. Flamstead, John, astronomer... 1646 1719
Eng. Fletcher, Giles, poet.... 1588 1623
Eng. Fletcher, Phineas, brother of foregoing, poet.. 1582 1650
Fr. Foix, Gaston de, nephew of Louis XII., warrior. 1489 1512
ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS1 1850-51. 43
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED.
Ital. Foscolo, Ilgo, writer of plays and essays, &c,. 1776 1827
Ital. Francis, Saint, founder of the Franciscan Friars.. 1182 1226
Amer. Fuller, S. Margaret, marchioness d'Ossoli, essayist and critic. 1810 1850
Ger. Fugger, the name of a noble and very wealthy family at Augsburgh 151h and 16th c.
Fr. Gay-Lussac, N. F., chemist,... 1778 1850
Eng. Gell, Sir Wm., antiquary —" Pompeiana," and " Rome". 1777 1836
Fr. Goguet, Anth. Y., advocate, author of " Origin of Laws," &c.. f. 1758
Eng. Good, John Mason, medical writer —" Book of Nature," &c. 1764 1827
Scotch. Gordon, lord George, author of the Anti-popery Riots in 1780 1750 1793
Amer. Gore, Christopher, Gov. of Mass., senator of IJ. S... 1758 1827
Scotch. Grahame, James, historian of the United States.. 1790 1842
Fr. Grammont, Philibert, count of, famous wit at court of Chas. II. 1707
Eng. Grenville, Rt. Hon. W. Wyndham, lord, prime minister. 1759 1834
Enog. Hall, Joseph, bishop of Norwich, the Christian Seneca.. 1574 1656
Irish. Hamilton, Anth., count, poet, courtier, and man of letters. 1646 1720
Carth. Hannibal, the Carthaginian general-invader of Italy a. c. 247 B. C. 183
Eng. Harley, Robert, earl of Oxford, statesman, patron of Pope. 1661 1724
Eng. Harris, James, philologist, author of" Ilertmes," &c... 1709 1780
Eng. Hatton, Sir Christopher, lord chancellor for Queen Elizabeth. 1591
Aer. Heinecius, John G., jurist, civilian, pIrof. of philosophy. 1681 1741
Fr. Heloise. or Eloise, celebrated for beauty and wit, and love for Abelard 1101 1164
Fr. Herbelot, Bartholomew d'. learned orientalist... 1625 1695
Mex. Herrera, ex. president of Mexico. 1851
Eng. Herbert, Edward. lord of Cherbury, diplomatist and historian. 1581 1648
Eng. Hill, Aaron, poet... 1750
DEng. Hill, Itev. Rowland, a popular and eccentric preacher. 1744 1833
Gr. Hipparchus, the most eminent of ancient astronomers. f. about 150 B. C.
Eng. Hollis, Thos., benefactor of Harvard'College, U. S. A.. 1720 1774
Amer. Holyokle, Edw. A., physician and man of science-lived 101 years 1728 1829
Eng. Home, Sir Everard, author of Comparative Anatomy, &c.. 1756 1832
Amer. Hopkins, Stephen, statesman and jurist-signer of Dec. of Indep. 1707 1785
Amer. Ilopkinson, Francis, political writer-signer of Dec. of lndep.. 1738 1791
Rom. Hortensius, Quintus, eloquent orator and writer.. B. a. 49
Fr. Hoste, Paul, matematician-author of Naval Evolutions. 1652 1700
Eng. Howe, John, non-conformlist divine and theol. writer. 1630 1705
Eng. Howe, Sir Wm., British commander-in-chief in America 1814
Eng. Howell, Jas., author of Familiar Letters 1595 1666'Scotch. Hunter, Wn., anatomist... 1718 1783
Scotch. Hunter, John, anatomist. 1728 1793
Amer. Hunter, W. L., diplomatist and senator 1774 1849
Eng. Huntingdon, Henry of, historian f. 1150
Eng. Huntingdon, Selina, countess of, founder of chapels, schools, &c. 1707 1791
Eng. Hurd, Richard, bishop of Litchfield-philologist and miscel. writer 1720 1808
Amer. Hutchinson, Anne, religious enthusiast-banished from N. E. 1643
Eng. Hutton, Wm., an ingenious self-educated writer.. 1723 1815
Hypatia, a female philosopher of great attainments, in Alexandria 415
Gr. Ignatius, St., eminent father of the Church, and martyr. f. 68
I:enaeus, St., bishop of Lyons, Christian father and martyr 202
Gr. Irene, empress of Constantinople-famous far beauty, talent and crime S03
Span. Isabella of Castile, wife of Ferdinand of Arragon —patron of Columbus 1451 1504
Iamblicus, a philosopher-author of Life of Pythagoras. f. 300
Eng. Jervis, John, earl St. Vincent, admiral-victor off Cape St. Vincent 1734 1823
Eng. John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, warrior, &c.. 13- 1399
Eng. John of Salisbury, bp. of Chartres, latin poet-promoter of literature f. 12th c.
Eng. Johnson, Sir Wm.:. British commander in N. America 1774
Amer. Johnson, Richard M., Col. distinguished in war of 1812, V. Pres. U. S. 1780 1850
Fr. Joinville, John Sieur de, statesman and historian... 1228 1318
Amer. Jones, Jacob, commodore in U. S. N.-victor in the " Wasp," &c. 1768 1850
Amer. Judson, Rev. Adoniram, D.D., missionary in Burma 1788 1850
Jugurtha, king of Numidia-conquered andI put to death B.. 106
Justinian I., the Great, emperor of the East-famed for his Code 483 565
Swe. Kalhn, Peter, naturalist-author of travels in America 1715 1779
Fr. Kellermann, Francis C., duke of Valmy, marshal of France. 1735 1820
Eng. Kent. Edward, dulke of, 4th son of Geo. III., father of Q. Victoria 1767 1820
Eng. I(eppel, Augustus, viscount, admiral. 1786
Eng. Kirby, Rev. W., entomologist... 1751 1850
Eng. Know!es, Richard, author of Hist. of the Turks, &c.. 1610
Ger. Korner, Theodore, poet and dramatist... 1788 1813
Fr. Lannes, John, duke of Montebello and marshal of France. 1769 1809
Fr. Larcher, P. H., classical philologist and translator.. 1726 1811
Eng. Latham, John, M.D., ornithologist and antiquarian. 1740 1837
Scotch. Law, John, the originator of the 1" Mississippi Bubble". 1681 1729
44 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS7 1850-51.
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED.
Eng. Lee, Nathaniel, dramatic poet.. 1692
Fr. L'Enclos, Anne or Ninon de, a noted voluptuary. 1616 1705
Eng. Lennox, Charlotte, poet and novelist-born at New-York. 1720 1804
Ire. Leslie, Charles, theological writer.. 1732
Ger. Lessing. Gotthold Ephraim, miscellaneous writer. 1729 1781
Eng. L'Estrange, Sir Robert, polit. and controversial writer.. 1616 1704
Scotch. Leyden, John, poet and oriental scholar... 1775 1821
Leyden, John of,.
Eng. Lillo, George, dramatist —" Geo. Barnwell," &c. 1693 1738
Eng. Lilly, Wm., astrologer..... 1602 1681
Scotch. Lindsay, Sir David, poet.. 1490 1557
Amer. Livingston, Brockholst, jurist. 1757 1823
Amer. Livingston, Robt. R., chancellor of the State of N. Y. and diplomatist 1746 1813
Fr. Louis Philippe I., king of the French.. 1850
Span. Loyola, Ignatius, founader of the Jesutits... 1491 1556
Eng. McAdam, John Loudon —Colossus of Roads.. 1756 1836
Amer. McDuffie, Geo., ex-Gov. of S. C., senator of U. S., &c. 1851
EnL. Macauley, Catharine, historian.... 1730 1791
Irish. Maclklin, Charles, actor and dramatist... 1690 1787
RInm. Macrobius, A. A. T., miscellaneous writer... 420
Eng. Madan, Martin, translator of Juvenal. &c... 1726
Irish. Magee, Wm., archb. of Dublin-theological writer. 1765 1831
Fr. Malebranche, Nicholas, priest and philosophical writer. 1638 1715
Fr. Malesherbes. C. W., statesman and author... 1721 1794
Eng. Mandeville, Sir John, traveller.... 1372
Egypt. Manetho. historian..... f.. C. 304.
Reom. Manlius, Titus Torquatus, warrior and consul.. f. B. C. 340
Rom. Manlius, Marcus, saved capitol from Gadls B... 383
Scotch. Mansfield, Win. Murray, earl of, chief justice... 1705 1783
Fr. Marceau, F. S. D., general under Napoleon... 1769 1796
Rom. Marcellus, M. Claudius, general against Hannibal 3. C. 209
Ital. Margaret of Anjou, queen of Henry VI. of England.. 1482
Ger. Maria Theresa, empress of Germany.. 1717 1780
Eng. Marlowe, Christopher, poet and drainatist... 1593
Irish. MIartin. Mrs. Bell. novelist-died at New-orlk.. 1850
Eng. Marvel, Andrew, poet and political writer. 1620 1678
Scotch. Mary Stuart, queen of Scots-murdered by Queen Elizabeth 1542 1587
Eng. Maskelyne, Nevil, mathematician and astron.... 1732 1811
Amer. Mather, Increase, D.D., theol. and historian... 1639 1723
Eng. Maurice, Thomas, oriental scholar and historian... 1753 1824
Maximuts Tyrius, philosopher of second century
Ital. Medici, Cosmo de, merchant and statesman... 1389 1464
Scotch. Melville, Henry Dundas, viscount-statesnan.. 1740 1811,.
Jew. Mendelssohn, Moses-the Socrates of the Jews... 1729
Port. Mendez-Pinto, Ferdinand-lying traveller.. - f. 1550
Amer. Mercer, Hugh, brig'r general in Revolutionary army.. 1777
Ger. MIIesmer, Fred. A., discoverer of animal magnetism.. 1734 1815
Fr. Michaux, Andr6, traveller and botanist —N. A. Sylva. - 1746 1802
Amer. Miller, James, gen. Milit. commander in war of 1812.. 1775 1851.,
Eng. Miller, Philip, gardener and botanist.... 1691
Lng. Miller, Joseph, witty actor-the Father of Jests 1684 1738
Amer. Miller, Samuel, D.D., historian of" l8th Century" and theologian 1759 1850
Amer. Miller, Win., founder of the "' Millerites," " End of the World" sect 1781 1849
Eng.'Milter, John, Catholic divine and theological writer.. 1752 1826
Minucius-Felix, Marcus, rhetorician.. f. 3d c.
Fr. Mirabaud, J. B. de, philosopher and translator. f. 1770
Eng. Monmouth, James, Dulce of, natural son of Charles II.. 1649 1685
Eng. Montagu, Elizabeth, essayist and founder of the Blue Stockings. 1720 1800
Fr. Montespan, Mad. de, mistress of Louis XIV.
Mex. Montezumna, emperor of Mexico-conquered by Cortes.. 1520
Fr. Montfaucon, antiquary and critic. 1655 1741
Eng. Montfort, Simnon de, earl of Leicester-founder of the H. of Commons 1265
Fr. Montgolfier, J. E., inventer of air balloons.. 1745 1799
Scotch. Montrose, James Graham, marquis of, royalist general. 16- 1645
Eng. More, HIenry, theological and philosophical writer. 1614 1687
Welsh. Morgan, William, mathematician. 1833
Ger. Munchausen, J. C. F. —proverbial for "stories".. 1797
Assy. Nabonassar, 1st Iing of the Chaldeans... f. B. C. 747
Assy. Nabopolassar, lking of Babylon... f. s. c. 626
Irish. Napier, W. J., lord, naval commander.,. 1787 1834
Eng. Nash, Richard-commonly called Beau Nash. 1674 1761
ier. Nestorius, patriarch of Constantinople-fobunder of Nestorianls 439
ADEDMNDA TO THE WORLD S PROGRESS1 185051L 45
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIEd.
Gr. Nicephorus, Calistus, ecclesiastical historian. 14th c.
Gr. Nicephorus, Gregorius, Byzanrina historian. 14th c.
Eng. Nichols, John, antiquary and miscellaneous writer 1744 1828
Amer. Noah, Mordecai M., ex-consul to Morocco, editor and politician 1851
Ger. Noheden, G. H., grammarian and misc. writer 1770 1826
Eng. North Fred., lord. premier during Amer. war. 1733 1792
Irish. Nugent, lord, author of Life of Hampden, &c. 1850
Rom. Numa Pompilius, 2d king of Rome. f. B c 714
Eng. Oglethorpe. J. E., general-founder of Georgia.. 1698 1785
Eng. Oldcastle, Sir J., lordCobham.. 1417
Amer. Olin, Stephen, D. D., Pres. Wesleyan Sem., author of Travels in the
East, &c.,.... 1851
Irish. O'Keefe, J., dramatist, 1748 1833
Sar- Omar, 3d caliph of the Saracens-founder of the Mosque. 643
Irish. O'Meara, surgeon and biographer of Napoleon... 1778 1836
Fr. Orleans, L. J. P, duke of-" Egalit6' —guillotined. 1747 1793
Scotch. Ossian, ancient Gaelic bard-supposed to have lived in the. 3d c.
Egypt. Osymandyas. king of Egypt-about. 1500 D. c.
Eng. Overbury, Sir T., poet, &c.-poisoned in the Tower. 1581 1613
Span. Oviedo, J. G., bishop of, author of" Travels in W. Indies" 1540
Ger. Panzer, G. W. F., bibliographer... 1729 1812
Irish. Parnell,.T., poet and divine. 679 1717
Eng. Parr, Thomas-lived 152 years... 1483 1635
Eng. Parr, Samuel, learned divine and philologist.. 1746 1825
ung. Patrick, Simon, learned prelate and theological writer.. 1626 1707
Paul, Sr. Vincent de, missionary ecclesiastic.. 1576 1660
Eng. Pearson, John, bishop ol'f Chester-writer on the Creed, &c.. 1612 1686
Eng. Peele, George, dramatist and poet... 1598
Eng. Penn, Wm., admiral-father of the founder of Pennsylvania. 1621 1670
En-. Pepys, Samuel, secretary to the admiralty, author of " Diary," &c. 1703
Eng. Perceval, Spencer, prime minister-assassinated.. 1762 1812
Eng. Peters, Hugh, eccentric preacher and Roundhead-executed. 1599 1660
Fr. Philidor, Andrew, writer on chliess playing.. 1726 1795
Span. Phillip II., king-married Mary Queen of England-sent the Armada 1556 1598
Eng. Philipps, Ambrose, poet and dramatist... 1749
Jew. Philo Judeus, learned Jewish writer of Alexandria f. A. D. 40
Ital. Piazzi, astronomer. 1746 1826
Swiss. Pictet, Benedict, theological and historical writer.. 1655 1724
Eng. Picton, Sir T., general-killed at Waterloo.. 1815
Eng. Piozzi, IHester L., miscel. writer-friend of Dr. Johnson.. 1739 1821
Eng. Pococl, Dr. E., learned critic and commentator... 1604 1691
Eng. Pocock,.R., learned prelate and traveller.. 1704 1765
Amer. Poinsett, Joel R., statesnmen, diplomatist, and author. 1778 1851
Polycarp, St., Christian father and martyr... 169
Fr. Pompadour,.J. A. P., Marchioness de, mistress of Louis XV.. 1720 1764
Polish. Poniatowsli, Stanislaus Aug., last king of Poland... 1732 1798
Fr. Pradt, AbbeDominique de, political writer.. 1759 1837
Eng. Price, Dr. R., writer on civil liberty... 1723 1791
Eng. Pritchard, J. C., ethnologist — Natural History of Man," 1849
En5r. Prynne,.Wrn., learned lawyer, political writer, and antiquary. 1609 1669
Fr. Psalmanazar, Geo., literary impostor.. 1679 1763
Eng. Purchas, Samnuel, divine-editor of Voyages and Pilgrimages. 1577 1628
Eng. Puttenham, Geo,, poet and critic... 1600
Eng. Pye, H. J., poet-laureate... 1745 1813
Pyrrhus, king of Epirus-one of the greatest warriors of antiquity I. C. 272
Eng. Quarles, Francis, poet-author of" Emblems," &c... 1592 1644
Eng. Quin, James, eminent actor.... 1693 1766
Fr. Rabelais, Fran., wit and satirist. 1483 1553
Eng. Raffles, Sir T. Stamford, author of History of Java.. 1781 1826
Eng. Raikes R., printer-founder of Suntday schools.. 1735 1811
Fr. Rapin de Thoyras, Paul, author of History of England.. 1661 1725
Fr. Reggio, C. N. Oudinot, duce de, marshal of France.. 1767
Reoin. Regulus,M. A., patriotic general and consul... f... 256
Eng. Rennell, Major J., geographer and topographer... 1742 1830
Eng. Repton, Humphrey, landscape gardener and architect.. 1752 1818
Eng. Jew. Ricardo, David, writer on political economy and finance. 1772 1823
Amer. Rich, Obadiah, bibliographer... 1850
Eng. Richard I., Coeur de Lion, king... 1157 1199
Eng. Richard ll. king-killed at Bosworth... 1450 1485
Eng. Richardson, James, traveller in Africa, &c... 151
Eng. Ridley, Nicholas, prelate and protestant martyr.. 1500 1555
Eng. Ritson, Joseph, lawyer, antiquary and editor of poets.. 1752 1803
46 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS, 1850-51.
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. SORN. DIED.
Scotch. Rob Roy, (Robert Macgregor,) highland fieebooter, about 1733
Fr. Rochambeau, J. B. D., count de, marshal of France.. 1725 1807
Fr, Roland, M. J. P.. madame, martyr to the Revolution. 1754 179[
Eng. Romilly, Sir S., jurist and statesmen.. 1757 1818
Irish. Roscommon, W. D., Earl of, poet and critic... 1663 1684
Scotch. Ruddiman, Thos., critic and grammarian... 1674 1757
Dutch. Ruyter, M. A. de, admiral..... 1607 1679
Eng. Rymer, Thomas, antiquarian and historian (Fcdera).. 1713
Eng. Sacheverell, Henry, divine-impeached for sedition.. 1672 1724
Eng. Sackville, T., Earl of Dorset, poet,. 1536 1608
Eng. Sackcville, Ch., earl of Dorset, wit and poet 1637 1706
Eng. Sadler, Sir Ralph, diplomatist and historian... 1507 1587
Jewish. Sadoc, Rabbi, founder of the sect of Sadducees... f.. 220
Fr. Saint Pierre, Bernardin de-" Paul and Virginia," "Stud. of Nat." &c. 1737 1814
Eng. Sale, George, historian and translator of the Koran.. 1736
Phcen. Sanchoniatho, philosopher and historian... f. B. c. 760
Eng. Savage, Richard, poet.... 1697 1743
Fr. Savary, N., traveller and Oriental scholar.. 1788
Ital. Savonarola, Jerome, monk-famed for zeal and eloquence. 1452 1498
Dan. Saxo Grammaticus, historian.... 1208
Ital. Scala, statesmen and historian of Florence... 1430 1497
Ital. Scaliger, Joseph Justus, critic and historian... 1540 1609
Fr. Scarron, P., comic poet and satirist.... 1610 1660
Ger. Schlegel, Fred., critic and historian.... 1772 1829
Ger. Schwab, Gustav., poet,..... 1792 1850
Ger. Secundus, John, Latin poet. 1511 1536
Eng. Sedley, Sir C., poet.... 1639 1701
Eng. Selden, John, antiquary and historian. 1584 1654
Scotch. Selkirk, John, mariner-the original of " Robinson Crusoe". 1680
Span. Servetus, Michael, polemical writer against Calvin.. 1509 1553
Eng. Seward, Anna, poetess and miscellaneous writer.. 1744 1809
Eng. Shadwell, T., poet laureate..... 1640 1692
Eng. Shirley, James, dramatic writer,.. 1594 1666
Amer. Short, Wm., charge d'affaires to France, Holland and Spain. 1759 1850
Rom. Silius Italicus, Caius, Roman poet... B.. A. D. 74
Sam. Simon Magus, religious impostor... 66
Gr. Simonides, ancient poet.. f. B. C. 450
Eng. Skelton, John, poet-laureate to Henry VIII... 1529
Gr. Socrates, ecclesiastical historian... f. 5th c.
Span. Solis, Antonio de, historian of Mexico, &c.. 1610 1686
Eng. Somers, Lord John, chancellor and polit. writer-" Coll. of Tracts' 1650 1716
Eng. Somerville, Wm., poet,..... 1692 1743
Fr. Sorbonne, R. de, divine, founder of the college at Paris. 1201 1274
Fr. Soult, one of Napoleon's marshals, ex-statesman, &c... 1769 1851
Eng. Southern, T., dramatic writer and poet.. 1662 1746
Gr. Sozomen, Herinias, ecclesiastical historian.. 450
Eng. Speed, John, chronologist, historian anti antiquary.. 1555 1629
Eng. Spelman, Sir Henry, historian and antiquary.. 1561 1643
Dutch. Spinoza, Bened., remarkable atheist... 1633 1677
Eng. Stillingfleet, Dr. E., bp. of Worcester and theological writer. 1635 1699
Eng. Stow, John, antiquary and historian... 1525 1605
Eng. Strype, John, divine, biographer and historian.. 1737
Amer. Stuart, Moses, professor, theologian, and philologist.. 1780 1851
Eng. Stukely, Wm., divine and antiquary.... 1687 1765
Ens. Suckling, Sir J., poet and dramatic writer... 1613 1641
Eng. Sylvester, Joshua, poet..... 1563 1618
Eng. Taylor, John-called the 1"Water Poet,".. 1580 1654
Eng. Tenyson, Dr. T., ab'p of Canterbury, polemical writer. 1636 1715
Gr. Theodoret, ecclesiastical historian... 386 457
Eng. Thoresby, Ralph, biographer and antiquary. 1658 1725
Eng. Tickell, Thomas, poet, and writer in the " Spectator".. 1686 1740
Eng. Tindal, Matthew, D. D., polemical divine... 1657 1733
Ital. Tiraboschi, G., historian... 1731 1794
Irish. Tone, Theobold Wolfe, general in the Irish Rebellion.. 1763 1798
Jew. Tudela, Benjamin de, rabbi and traveller.. f. 12th c.
Eng. Tusser, Thomas, old English writer and poet. 1580
Eng. Tyndale, Wm., reformer, and first translator of the Bible into English 1500 1536
Eng. Tytler, P. F., historian... 1790 1849
Eng. Tyrwhitt, T., critic and antiquary.. 1730 1786
Fr. Valliere. the duchess de la, mistress of Louis XIV.
Eng. Vanbrugh, Sir John, dramatist. 1726
Swiss. Vattel, E. de, jurist and metaphysical writer ("L Law of Nations") 1714 1767
ADDENDA TO THE WORLD S PROGRESS1 1850-51. 47
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED.
Span. Vega, Lopez de, dramatic poet... 1562 1635
Ital. Virgil, Polydore, priest and historian.. 1555;r. Voiture, V., poet and miscellaneous writer... 1598 1648
Brit. Vortigern, warrior... 484
Ger. Voss, J. G., historical writer and chronologist.. 1577 1649
Ger. Voss, Isaac, critic and philologist.. 1618 1689
Eng. Warwick, R. Neville, earl of; general antL statesman-" King Maker" 1471
Eng. Waterland, Dr. D., dlvine, anti polemical writer.. 1683 1740
AEng. Wedgewood, J., scientific manufacturer of pottery.. 1731 1795
Eng. Whitehead, Wm., poet-laureate... 1715 1785
Eng. Whiteloclke, Bulstrode, lawyer and statesman. 1605 1676
Eng. Whitgift archb'p, divine, and writer against the Puritans.. 1530 1604
Eng. Wither, George, poet... 1590 1667
Eng. Wood, Anthony h, antiquary and biographer... 1632 1695
Eng. Wotton, Sir H., statesman and poet..., 1568 1639
Eng. Zouch, T., D.D., biographer... 1737 1816
PAINTERS, ENGRAVERS, SCULPTORS, &c.
(Additions to list on page 688.)
-vATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED.
Scotch. Allen, Sir William.. Painter.. 1781 1850
Irish. Barker, Robert, inventor of panoramas Painter.. 1740 1806
Ital. Bartolozzi, Francesco... Engraver. 1730 1813
Ger. Bauer, Ferdinand Botanical painter 1826
Ital. Bellini, Giov., founder of the Ven'n School Painte.. 1462 1512
htal. Bernini, Giovanni, L.... Pin'r, Sculp'r Arch't 1598 1680
Eng. Bewick, John, publisher of various works
with woodcuts... Wood ezgraver. 1795
Eng. Bone, Henry... Enanel painter. 1755 1834
Dutch. Brill, Paul... Landscarpepaiszter. 1556 1626
Ital. Brunelleschi, Philip, "Pitti Palace" at Flor. Architect.. 1377 1476
ital. Cellini, Benvenuto, Florentine artist —author of Autobiography... 1500 1570
Ital. Cignani, Carlo... Painter.. 1628 1719
Dutch. Cort, Cornelius E. Engraver.. 1536 1578
Ger. Cranach, Lucas, Ensgraver. 1470 1553
Eng. Gibbons, Grinling, famed for carving in oak culptor.. 1721.tal, Guilio, Romano, (see Julio)
Fr. Greuze. Jean Baptiste... Painter. 1726 1805
Dutch. Metzu, Gabriel.. Familiar life painter 1615 1669
Dutch. Mieris, Francis..4 ".. 1635 1681
-tal. Morghen, Raphael.. Engraver.. 1758 1833
Dutch. Neefs, Peter,.... Arch'l painter.. 1570 1651
Ital. Pannini, Giov. Paolo. ". 1691 1764
Ital. Piombo, Sebastiano del. P. Painter.. 1485 1547
EnBg. Richardson, Jonathan, writer on art and Painter.. 1665 1745
Fr. Roubilliac, L. F. c Sculptor.. 1762
Fr. Rousseau, James... Painter.. 1630 1693.Pruss. Schadow, J. G. czlptor.. 1764 1850
Ger. Scheffer, Ary,-living.. Painter
Ital. Schidtone, Bartolomeo. Painter.. 1560 1616
Eng. Shee, Sir M. A., pres't Royal Academy Painter. 1795 1850
Span. Spagnoletto, Guiseppe Ribera la, - Painter.. 1589 1656
Dutch. Steen, Jan.. Painter.. 1636 1689, er. Sunder, Lucas, (see Cranach)..Engraver
Scotch. Thom. Jas.-Tam O'Shanter, &c.. Sculptor. 1850
Eng. Thornhill, Sir.ames... Historicalpainter. 1676 1732
Eng. Turner, J. W. M..Painter. 1851
Dutch. Van der Neer, Arnold... Landscape painter. 1619 1683
Dutch. Van Huysum... Fruit painter. 1682 1749
Fr. Watteau, Antoine.. Painter.. 1684 1721
Eng. Westall, Iichard... Historical painter. 1781 1836
Eng. Wyatt, R. J..culptor.. 1795 1850
ADDENDA TO THE.WORLDS PROGRESS, 1850-51.
M U S I. I A N S,
(1n addition to those mentioned in the Biographical Inzdex.)
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED.
Ger. Bach, John Sebastian. Organist and composer. 1685 1750
Eng. Bishop, Henry Rowley-living. Comnposer. 1782
Pr. Boieldieu, Francois Adrllien. Composer. 1775 1834
Eng. Calcott, J. W., musical doctor, author of
" Musical Grammar," and.. Com7poser.. 1766 1821
Ital. Corelli, Arcangelo.. Violinist and composer. 1663 171%1
ital. Gemirnani, Francesco.. " 1680 1762
Ital. Giardini, Felice.. "6 1716 1795
Ger. Gluck, Christopher... Composer. 1712 1787
Ital. Jomelli, Nicolai... 1714 1744
Ital. Lully, Giovanni Battista, FViolinist and composer 1634 1687
Ger. Mendelssohn, Felix Bartholdy Composer. 1809 1843
Fr. Mehul, Etienne Henri... 1763 1817
Ital. Paer, Ferdinand.' 1771 1839
Ital. Paesiello, or Paisiello, Giovanni.. ". 1741 1816
Stal. Palestrina. Giovanni Perluigi da.. 1524 1594
Ital. Pergolesi, Giovanni Battista Jesi da " 1707 1737 or'9
Ital. Peri, Jacopo, (see Rimicini, who did not
compose the first opera —Peri did) ". 550 1625
Eng. Purcell, Henry.. ". 1658 1695
Stal. Sacchini, Antonio, Maria Gaspardo.'. 1734 1786
Sapio... Tenor vocalist. 1792 1851
Ital. Scarlatti, Atlessandro... Coposer. 1659 1725
Ital. Spentini.. 1780 1861
Ger. Spohr, Louis-still living.. Violinist and coesposer. 1783
Stal. Stradella, Alessandro, about. Vocalist " 1645 1670
Ital. Tartini, Giuseppe... Violinist.. 1692 1770
Eng. Tailis, Thomas... Composer. 16th G.
ABBREVIATIONS.
Amer. American, Gr. Greek. Pruss. Prussian.
Ara. Arabian. Heb. Hebrew. Rom. Roman,
Assy. Assyrian. Hind. Hindon. RLuss. Russian.
Bab. Babylonian. Ital. Italian. Sam. Samaritan.
Bav. Bavarian. Jew. Jewislh. Sar. Sardinian.
Car. Carthaginian. Mace. Macetlonian. Span. Spanish.
Dan. Danish. Nor. Norman, Swe. Swedish.
Eng. English. Pers. Persian. Syr. Syrian.
Fr. French. Phen. Phoenician. U. S. A. United States of
Her. German, Port. Portuguese IT. S. America.