PUThAJI'S IHOME CYCLOPEDIA. HEAND-BOOK OF ~HRONOLOGY AND HISTORY ~)e ~arlhs ~9rtngress, A DICTIONARY OF DATES: WITH TABULAR VIEWS OF GENERAL HISTORY, AND A HISTORICAL CHART. EDITED BY GEORGE P. PUTNAM. NEW-YORK: GEORGE P. PUTNAIM 1852. ENTERED, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1850, by GEORGE P. PUTNAM, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court for tlhe Scuthern District of New-York. JOHN F. TROw, Printer and Stereotyper, 49, 51 and 53 Ann-st., N. Y. iPREFA CE. 4'-rILE revising a chronological manual, in compiling which I had, It the age of fifteen,* employed many midnight hours, I have found 3iaterial assistance in the tables prepared by my late friend, ID. A. Talboys, publisher, of Oxford, England, usually called the Oxford ironological Tables. In the alphabetical part of the volume, the comprehensive and useful Dictionary of Dates, by HIaydn,t has been incorporated almost entire, with such additions relating to the United 3tates as were necessary to its completeness, and with continuations o the present year. The contemporary tables which I had formerly prepared, had )st much diligent application, and I was glad to find on collating hem with the more recent works, that some slight additions only vere needed to make them as full and complete as was desirable for the purpose in view, viz.: a convenient and portable volume for reference, not over-burdened with details, but indicating to the intelligent reader all the great landmarks of history in their order of succession; tend showing also what was going on at the same time in different countries. To render this glance more comprehensive and clear, many of the details in the former tables are now omitted, as they are given more at large in the alphabetical part of the volume. To a reader of history the utility of such a glance at contemporary persons and events, is too obvious to need illustration: but while the more elaborate and ponderous works of Blair, Talboys, and * Ckron0logy-An Index to Universal History, &c. 12mo. Leavitt, NewYork, 1833. The volume has been long out of print. t Fourth edit. 8vo. Lond., 1817. That work needs no praise here. iV PREFACE. others, are available to the historian or the merely literary man, they are usually repulsive to the general reader, for the very reason that they contain too mzuch for ordinary purposes; their very elaborateness serves to puzzle and to mystify. What is here aimed at is simply to indicate, in brief and sugges. tive terms, the succession of the prominent occurrences and of the governments in the chief nations of the world-enough merely to recall to the reader of history the full pictures of these events, and to enable him to classify them correctly in his memory. The alcnirbetical part of the volume gives, in most cases, more full and ample references to the same historical facts; but still th, whole work is but an index to the sources of knowledge-a Dictionary of Dates. It has been planned so as to facilitate access to thil largest amount of useful information in the smallest possible compass. There are some discrepancies among the authorities, as to name,; and dates-especially in the Middle Ages-and in somie instance the dictionary varies from the tables; but these instances are no. numerous or important. The Biographical List at the close of the volume will contribute, it is presumed, to render the contemporary tables far more variously useful than would be at first supposed. By ascertaining from it the dates of birth and death of any eminent person, the tables will. show at a glance what events happened, and what other eminent persons lived during the life-tilne of that individual. It would be superfluous to say more by way of explanation. That such a volume can be quite free from imperfections is not to be supposed; but the compiler trusts that it will be found to answer all reasonable expectations, as a compact manual of reference to the World's Progress in Arts, Literature, and Social Life, as well as in Politics and Government. G. P..P. CONTENTS. TABULAR VIEWS OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY, IN CONTEMPORARY COLUMNS,. I. ANCIENT IIISTORY.?ERIOD I.-The Antediluvian (1656 years)...?ERIOD II.-Dispersion of Mankind (427 years).-The Deluge to Abraham 4?SRIOD III. —The Abrahamic or Patriarchal (430 years).-Abraham to Moses. 6?ERIOD IV.-The Mosaic or Tlleocratic (396 years). —Moses to Saul. 8 PERIOD V.-The Monarchical (489 years).-Saul to Cyrus.. 14?ERIOD VI.-The Persian (322 years).-'-Cyrus to Alexander. 2]?eRIOD VII. -The Grecian (184 years).-Alexander to the Fall of Greece 26 ERInOD VIII. —The Roman (146 years). —Fall of Greece to the Christian Era. 38 I. MODERN IIISTORY. PERIOD 1.-(306 years).-From the Christian Era to the reign of Constantine.. 48 PEROD II. —(170 years.)-Constantine to Odoacer..... 58 lrERmoo III.-(146 years.)-Odoacer to Mahornet. 62 PERIOD IV.-(178 years.) —Mahomnet to Charlemagne, 68 P'RIoD V.-(266 years.)-Charlemagne to William the Conqueror. 72 PErsIoD VI.-(233 years.)-William the Conqueror to Othman I... 86 PEarIoD VII.-154 years.)-Othman to the Fall of the Eastern Empire. ~ 102 PERIOD VIII.-(145 years.)-Fall of Eastern Empire to the Edict of Nantes. 112 PERIOD IX.-(120 years.)-Edict of Nantes to the death of Charles XII., of Sweden 122 R'ERIOD X. —(97 years.)-Charles XII. of Sweden to the Fall of Napoleon ~ 134?ERIOD XI.-(35 years.)-Napoleon to the year 1850..146.:I. DICTIONARY OF DATES.. 145 [II. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY...... 609 IV. HEATIIEN DEITIES, &c.. 648 y: BIOGRAPHICAL INDIEX...657 EXPLANATION OF THE CHART OF HISTORY: tpr-esenting, in a Chronological Series, the Rise, Revolutions, and Fall J the principal Empires of the World. ON THE PLAN OF DR. J. PPRIESTLEY. It is necessary to notice, that the space allotted'o each country is rather according to its relative litical importance, than to its geographical extent. The spaces between the vertical lines which cross the chart, represent tisne, viz., each a cen-:y or 100 years; those between the horizontal lines represent countries, the names of which are pressed at the end of the chart. By examining the vertical columns, we ascertain the contemporary state of different nations at period we fix upon. - For instance: about 1500 years before Christ, we see states forming in'eece; the Israelites in Egypt (from whence they depart nine years after); the Egyptian, Assy-.n, Persian, Chinese, and other kingdoms had been founded several centuries previous-but their;tory uncertain and obscure. At the time of Christ, we find the Roman Empire spread over a eater part of the then known world, but the Parthians, Britons, and Germans, as yet unsubdued them. 700 years after, this empire exists only in Turkey, and its former territories are under rbarians: the Ileptarchy in England; the Lombards in Italy, the Franks in Gaul; the African ovinces, and a large part of Asia under the Saracens. In 1500 we find the Eastern or Greek npire fallen under the Turks; the Tartars powerful in Asia: many of the modern states of trope founded; America discovered by the Europeans, &c. &c. On the other hand, the revolutions of each country may be seen in continuation by looltng ng the chart horizontally: the Persian empire is founded in remote antiquity; united with that the Medes, about 600 B. c.; is extended by Cyrus into Assyria, Asia Minor, and Egypt, 536; falls turn, under the Macedonians, Parthians, Saracens, Turks, and Tartars, successively.-The -aelites in Egypt from 1706 to 1491 B. c.; in Canaan 1451; under the Judges about 1300; under ngs, 1095; Ten Tribes separated, 975; they are conquered, 721, and Judah, 588, by the Assyrians;;tored by the Persians, 535; under the Macedonians, 330; restored to independence by the Macbees, 150; conquered by the Romans, 63; by the Saracens, A. D. 622; afterwards by the cruiers, Mamelukes, and Turks, successively.-England subdued by the Romans in the first cenry; relinquished by them, A. D. 410; subdued by the Saxons, 500; by the Danes, 860; by the )rmans (receiving French territories), 1066; united with Ireland, 1170; with Wales, 1280; with otland, 1600.-Italy in antiquity possessed by several petty tribes; by the Romans from 300-200 c. to 480 A. D., then by the Herulii, Ostrogoths, Lombards, and Franks, successively;-in modern aes, divided into several small republics and principalities; joined to the French empire about 30, and now divided chiefly between Austria, the Grand Dukes of Tuscany, Modena, &c., the )pe, and the King of Naples. " They are rather melancholy reflections which the view of such a chart of history is apt to cite in the minds of persons of feeling and humanity. What a number of revolutions are nrked upon it! What torrents of human blood has the restless ambition of mortals shed, and in tat complicated distress has the discontent of powerful individuals involved a great part of etr species l " —Priestley. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. PART I.!ABULAR VIEWS OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. ANCIENT CHRONOLOGY-fi'om the Creation to the Birth of Christ-4004 years. MODERN CHRONOLOGY-fi'om the Birth of Christ to the present time-1850 years. 1. ANCIENT CHIRONOLOGY. DIVIDED INTO EIGHT PERIODS. B.C.* From the Creation, 4004 to the Deluge, 2348........1656 years.........The Antediluvian Period. From the Deluge, 2348 to the Call of Abraham, 1921..... 427 years.......The Dispersion Period. From the Call of Abrahan, 1921 to the Exode from Egypt, 1491.. 430 years........The Patriarchal Period. From the Exode, 1491 to the Kingdom of Saul, 1095........ 396 years.........The Theocratic Period. From Saul, 1095 to the Captivity of Israel, 588. 507 years.........The Monarchical Period. From the Captivity, 588 to Alexander the Great, 330....... 258 years......The Persian Period. From Alexander, 330 to the Subjugation of Greece, 146...... 184 years......... The Grecian Period. From the Subjugation of Greece, 146 to the Birth of Christ, 0........ 146 years.........The Roman Period. From the Creation to the Christian era, the dates are reckoned B. a.BEFORE CIIRlST. They are then chalged to A. D. —the Year of our Lord. THE WVORLD'S PROGRBESS. 3 FIRST PERIOD-(the Antediluvian)-1656 years. C. )04 THE CREATION OF THE WORLD.-(Hebrew Peztateuch.) [Hales places it 5411 B. C.* The fall of man, and the promise of a Saviour. The birth of Cain, the first-born of woman-a husbandman. I75 The death of Abel, the first subject of death. He was a shepherd.'74 Seth born, the third son of Adam. Enoch born, the first son of Cain.t /69 Enos born. Cain builds a city, which he calls Enoch..Te iatroduces the use of weights and measures. —Josephus. Tytler. 79 Cainan born. Irad. 09 Mahalaleel born. Mehlujael. 44 Jared "l Methusael. 82 Enoch IC Lamech-polygamy introduced.:17 Methuselah " (lived 969 years.) Jabal, Jubal. Tubal-cain. Naamah.;30 Lamech " The first to He invent- He discov- She introi74 Death of Adam, aged 930 years. build a Tent ed the Hlarp ed the mode duced the 1i7 Enoch translated. for habita- and the Or- of preparing artsof Spin4S Noah born, tion, and to gasz,or wind and using ning and 68 The building of the Ark commenced. usecattlefor and stringed iron, brass,V Weaving. 48 THE DELUGE. [Hales places it 3154 purposes of instruments and other B. c.] husbandry. of music. MlIetals. a * See alphabetical portion of this volume for the various dates of the chronologists. The,Saoaritan Pentateuch places the Creti.ion B. c. 4700; the Septuagint, 5872; Josephus, 4658; the'olonudists, 5344; Scaliger, 3950; Petaviuzs, 3984; and Dr. Hales, 5411. The last named enuerates above 120 various opinions on this subject, the difference between the latest and remotest:te of which is no less than 3268. The Hebrew account is followed by Usher, and is here adopted the most generally received standard. t No dates are assigned in Scripture to the names here placed in the right-hand column.-They e however contemporary with those in the other column. REMARKS. —The Antediluvian Period was nearly as long as the whole period that has elapsed ace the birth of Christ. Of the progress of knowledge and the arts, during that period, nothing known beyond what is given above, except that ship-building, calking, and the use of pitch, or tint, of measures by cubit, &c., and of doors and windows, were known. They imply, in their Laptation to the use of man, other arts, anrd a considerable advance in science and the mechanical nwers. =- THE TABULAIR VIEWS ARE CONTINUED ACROSS TWO PAGES AT THE SAME TIME. THE WORLD S PROGRESS. SECOND PERIOD-(Dispersion of Mankin.) — SACRED HISTORY. B.C. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY AND THE ARTS. 2347 WCine made by Noah from the grape. 2347. The descendants of Noah dispersed through the earth: those of Shem probably in Asia, of Ham in Africa, and of Japhet ir Europe. 2347. The curse pronounced upon the descend. ants of Ham. 2247 Bricks made, and cement used to unite them. 2247. The building of Babel.* Confusion of languages at Babel. 2245. BABYLON founded by Nimrod, son of Cush, and Grandson of Ham. NINEVEH founded by Ashur, son of Shem. 2234 Astronotical observations begun at Babylon. 2122_ Athotes (son of Menes) invents hieroglyphics. 2100 Sculpture and Painting employed to commemorate the exploits of Osymandyas. 2095 Pyraooids and Canals in Egypt. The science of Geometry begira, to be cultivated. 1998 Ching Hong teaches the Chinese the art of Husbandry, and the method of making Bread from wheat, and wine from rice. 1996. Abraham born. 1921. The call of Abraham. * The chronology here adopted is that of the HIebrew Pentateuch. The Samaritan placc: Babel 531 years after the deluge. THE WORLD 7S PROGRESS. 5 127 years. —The Delugte to Abrahaln. PROFANE IIISTORY. —(In this period traditional and uncertain.) B. c. ASIA. AFRICA. EUROPE. 207 CHINA. The first imperial dynasty of lia begins. Fohi (who is perhaps Noah himself) is mentioned as the first Chinese monarch. 2188. Misraim (Menes), the son of Ham, builds Memphis, in EGYPT, and begins the Egyptian monarchy. 24IBelus reigns in BABYLON.- gyptian monarchy. [Some suppose Belus to be the Nimrod of Scripture. If so, there is a discrepancy of 121 years between the sacred and profane chronologies.] The origin of the kingdoms 2111. THE BE S founded by of Babylon and Nineveh, and Busiris. of the Assyrian empire, is 2100. Osymandyas, the first variouslystated by the chron- warlike king, passes into ologists. See Sacred Hist.] Asia, and conquers Bactria. 2089. SICYON, the first kingdom of GREECE, founded by Egialus, or Inachus. 2085. Egypt conquered by the shepherd kings of Phenicia, who hold it 260 years. 169 Ninus, son of Belus, reigns in Nineve. 2048 A colony of Phenicians )59 He establishes the ASSYRIAN land in Ireland. (9) 2042. Uranus arrives in Greece. )17 Semiramis enlarges and embellishes Babylon, and makes it the seat of empire. [By others placed 2107 B. o.] 375 Semiramis invades Lybia,Ethiopia, and India. 1938. Lake Moeris constructed. 337 The Arabs seize Nineveh. (3) Revolt of the Titans. War of the Giant. 6 THE WORLD7S PROGRESS. THIRD PERIOD-(The Abrahamic or Patriar'chal.)SACRED IISTORY. B.C. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY AND THE ARTS. B. C. THE JEWS. 1921. Abraham called. 1920 Gold and silver first mentioned as money. 1920. -goes into Egypt. 1912. -delivers Lot fiom captivity, and r ceives the blessing of Melchizedec. 1909. Ishmael born. 1897. Sodom and Gomorrah destroyed. God renews his covenant with Abrahal 1896. Isaac born. 1891 Letters first used in Egypt by Syphoas. 1871. Abraham commanded to offer Isaac sacrifice. 1856. Isaac married. 1836. Jacob and Esau born. 1824. Abraham dies, aged 172. 1822 Memnon invents the Egyptian alphabet. 12 emnaphabet. 1759. Jacob marries Leah and Rachel. 1739. His name changed to Israel. 1729. Joseph sold into Egypt. 1715. Is made governor under Pharaoh. 1706. Jacob and his family settle in Egypt. 1702. End of the seven years' famine. 1699. Death of Jacob. 1635. Death of Joseph. 1588 Atlas, the astronomer. 1582 The chronology of'the Arundelian marbles begins. 1580 The cymbal used at the feasts of Cybele. 1577. Israelites persecuted in Egypt. 1574. Aaron born. 1571. Moses born. 1534 Dancing to music introduced by Curetes. Book of Job written about this time. 1531. Moses flees into Midian. 1513. The supposed era of Job. 1506 Theflute invented by Hyagnis, a Phrygian. 1497 Amphictyon gives interpretation to dreams and draws prognostics from omens. 1494 Ericthoneus teaches the Athenians husbandry. 1491. God appears to Moses in a burning bL at Horeb, and sends him to Egypt to deli) the Israelites. The Ten Plagues in Egypt. Institution of the Passover. The EXODUS of the Israelites fri Egypt. THE WVORLD'S PROGiLESS. 7 Abrahcan to llioses. —(430 yecars.) PROFANE HE-ISTOrIY.-(Stil fabulous or uncertainz.) ASIA. A FRICA. EunopE. 1856. Inachus, the Phenician plants a colony in ARGOS. 1807. Phoroneus reigns in Argos. 1764. Ogyges reigns in Baeotia. 766 China. The 2d Imperial dy- 1707. Apis, king of Argos. nasty begins. 1732. The Ogygean Deluge in Attica. 1711. The city of Argos built by Argus, the son of Niobe. 1710. A colony of Arcadians emigrate into Italy under ]Enotrus.-C-Enotria afterwards called Magna Grecia. 1641. Criasus succeeds his father, Argus. 1618. Sesostris reigns in Egypt. 1556. Rameses-Miamum reigns 1556. ATHENS founded by in Egypt. Cecrops. 1552. Triopas. king of Argos. The kingdom divided, Polycaon reigning in Messenia. 1546. TROY founded by Scamander. 1529. Deluge of Deucalion in Thessaly. 1520. Corinth founded. 1516. Sparta founded, and the kingdom of Laconia, or Lacedemon. 1507. The Areopagus establish. ed in Athens. 1506. Crotopas succeeds to the throne of Argos. 1504. Deucalion arrives in Attica. The kingdom of Messe. nia commenced by Polycaon. 1493. THEBES in Bceotia, founded by Cadmus, a Phe nician, who introduces the alphabet into Greece. 8 THE'WORLD'S PROGRESS. FOURTH PERIOD.-( The Mosaic or Theocratic)SACRED HISTORY. B. C. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY AND THE ARTS. THE JEWS. 1491. Departure of the Israelites from Egyi The law given at Mount Sinai. 1490 Crockery made by the Egyptians and Greeks. 1486 Ericthonius introduces the first chariot. The fabulous or traditionary Hermes. Trismegistus placed about this period. 1471. Rebellion of Korah, Dathan, and Abira 1453. Aaron dies. 1451. Moses writes the Pentateuch, and die 1451. Israelites enter Canaan urder Joshua. Bacchus, god of wine. 1453 Olympic Games first celebrated in Greece. Apollo, god of music and poetry. 1443. Joshua dies. 1405. Othniel judges Israel. 1390. The tribe of Benjamin almost extinct 1370 Bucklers used in single combat invented by Prcetus and Acrisius of Argos. 1356 Eleusinian mysteries instituted by Eumolpus. 1343. Eglon, king of Moab, enslaves Israel. 1325. Ehud kills Eglon, and delivers Israel. 1317. Shamgar kills 600 Philistines with ox goad. 1305. Israel subdued by Jabin, king of Canat 1285. Deborah and Barak defeat the Canat ites-Sisera killed by Jael. 1284 Orpheus and Linus, sons of Apollo, skilled in music. 1263 The temnple of Apollo at Delphi built by the council of Amphictyons. 1263 Jason leads the Argonautic expedition; the first naval expedition on record. 1252. Israel enslaved by the Midiantes. 1249. Gideon, with 300 men, defeats the I dianites. Musceus, a poet. 1240 The axe, wedge, swimble and lever, also masts and sails for ships invented by Dwedalus of Athens. 1224 The game of Backgammon invented by Palamedes of Greece. 1209. Abimelech judges Israel. 1206. Tola judges Israel. 1183. Jair, judge of Israel. THE WORLD'S PIROGRESS. 9 96 years.-Moses to Saul. PROFANE IIISTORY.-(Still uncertain.) c. AAIA. AFROIA.'EUROPE. 1491. Pharaoh and his army drowned in the Red Sea. 1485. Egyptus reigns, ant Sthenelus reigns in Argos. gives name to the country. 80 Dardarnus, Iking of Troy, builds Dardania. 1474. Danaus usurps the kingdom of Argos. 1463. Damnonii invade Ireland. 1457. The kingdom of Mycene begins under Perseus, late kcing of Argos. 1453. Olympic games first ce49 Erictllonius reigns in Troy. lebrated at Elis. 1438. Pandion begins to reign at Athens. 13 Cushanlishathaim, king of 1400. Minos reigns in Crete. Mesopotamia. (See Scrip- 1397. CORINTH becomes a ture.) kingdom under Sisyphus. 30 Teucer, king of Troy. 1383. Ceres arrives in Attica. 1376. Sethos:eigns in Egypt. 1376b The Isthmian games instituted. 1356. Eleusinian mysteries ini4 Troas, king of Troy. troduced. L4 Ilus, son of' Troas, founder of Ilium. 1283. JE-geus reigns in Attica. 1266. CEdipus, iking of Thebes. 1263. The Argonautic Expedition. 1257. Theseus unites the cities of Attica under one government. 1243. The Arcadians conducted;0 Laomedon, king of Troy. by Evander into Italy.-Mui9 Phenicia: TYRE founded. seus, a poet. 1239. Latinus reigns in Italy i2 Second Assyrian Dynasty: Mithreaus or Ninus II..0 Troy taken by the Argonauts. 1233. Cartlage founded by the Tyrians!5 Hercules arrives in Phrygia. C2 Argon, a descendant of Hercu- 1225. First Theban War.les. first king of LYDIA. Euristhenes and Procles,!0 Priam, king of Troy. kings of Lacedemon. 5 Tautanas king of Assyria. 1222. Hercules celebrates the Olympic Games. 1216. War of the Epigonii, or 2d Theban War. 1213. Helen carried off by 4 The TROJAN WAR begins. Theseus, is recovered by q I The TR begins. ~Castor and Pollux, and mar4 Troy taken, 408 years before ries Menslaus. the Ist Olympiad. 3 Treutaus, king of Assyria. 1204. Helen elopes with Paris. l2 Trojans migrate into Italy. 1182. Eneas lands in Italy. 1176. Salamis founded by Teucer. 1170. Epirus: Pyrrhus Neoptolemus. 10 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. Fourth Period.-( The Mosaic or Theocratic.) — SACRED HISTORY. B.C. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY AND THE ARTS. THE JEWS. 1161. Israel enslaved by the Philistines and Ammonites.-Samson born.-Eli judges a portion of Israel. 1143. Jephtha defeats the Ammonites, and becomes judge of a part of Israel. 1136. Samson slays 1000 Philistines with the jawbone of an ass. 1117. Death of Samson and Eli. 1116. Samuel, the last judge of Israel. lllr, Mariner's compass said to be known in China. (?) 1100 A standard dictisonary of the Chinese containing 40,000 characters, completed by Pa-outshe. (X) 1096. The Philistines defeated at Ebenezer. 1095. Establishment of the HEBREW MO. NARCHY.-Saul anointed king of Israel. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 11 96 years. —(Continued.l)-/Moses to Saul. PROFANE HISTORY.-(Still fabulous or uncertain.) C. ASIA. AFRICA. EUROPE. 1152. Alba-Longa built by Ascanius. 1 Temple of Ephesus burnt by the Amazons. 39 Thineus, king of Assyria. 1124. AEolian migration. THEBES, the Capital of.2 China:-3d dynasty;-Tchcoo. Bceotia, founded. 9 Dercylus, king of Assyria. 1104. Return of the IIeraclidwe. -End of the kingdom of Mycene. i~ 12 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. FIFTH PERIOD.-(The lIooncarchical.)SACRED HISTORY. B.C PROGRESS OF SOCIETY AND THE ARTS. THE JEWS. 1095. Saul, King of Israel. 1085. David born. 1062. David kills Goliath. 1055. Death of Saul. David reigns in Hebro over Judah; Ishbosheth reigning in MahE naim, over eleven tribes. 1048. Ishbosheth slain. David made kin over all Israel. 1043. David subdues the Philistines, Moaites, Syrians, and extends his dominions t the Euphrates, on the East, the Red Sea, o the South, and Lebanon, on the North. 1036. Solomon born. 1023. Revolt and death of Absalom. 1014. Conspiracy of Adonijah. 1015 Minos gives his laws to Crete. 1015. Solomon crowned in the presence e David. 1016. David dies. 1012. Solomon lays the foundation of tl temple. 1004. DEDICATION OF SOLOMON: TEMPLE. 1000. Solomon extends his commerce, in co nection with Hiram, king of Tyre, to Indi via Red Sea, and to the shores of the Atla tic, via Straits of Gibraltar: builds Ta mor (Palmyra) in the desert, Baalbec, at other cities. 985. He is seduced into idolatry by his wive 975. -dies, and is succeeded by Rehoboam. JUDAH. ISRAEL. 975. Rehoboam, king. Jeroboam, king. 971. Shishak plunders the temple. 958. Abijah, king. 955. Asa, king. 954. Nadab, king. 953 Baasha, king. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 13 07 years.-Saul to Cyrus. PROFANE HISTORY. C. ASIA. AFRICA. EUROPE. 1088. End of the kingdom of Sicyon. 1070. Heremon, from Gallicia1 conquers Ireland. 1069. Codrus devotes himself for Athens. 1060. Athens governed by Archons. 44 The Ionian emigrants settle in Asia Minor. Alliance between Solomon and Alliance between Solomon and Hiram, king of Tyre. Pharaoh. 6 Samos built. 986. Utica built. 978. Sesac, (Shishak in Scripture, and supposed Sesostris,) king of E~gypt. 976. Capys reigns in Alba Longa., Shishak plunders Jerusalem. 14 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. Fifth Period.-( Th.e Monar chical.)SACRED HISTORY. B. C. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY AND THE ARTS. THE JEWS. JUDAH. ISRAEL. 942. Asa defeats Zerah, king of Ethiopia, with a million of men. 941. -makes a league with Benhadad, king of Syria. 930. Elah, king. 929. Zimri, king. Omri, king. 918. Ailab, king. 937 Breastplates invented by Jason. 914. Jehoshaphat, king. 907. Benhadad, king of Syria, besieges Sa898., Jehoshaphat as- maria but is resists Ahab. pulsed. 894. War with Moab. 889. Jehoram, king. 897. Ahaziah, king. 896. Jehoram, king. 895. Elijah translated. 884. Ahaziah, king. 884. Jehu, king. 886 Homer's poems brought into Greece. Athaliah, queen 884 Lycurgus reforms the constitution of Sparta. usurps the throne. 856 Jehoahazking. 869 Gold and silver coined by Phidon, tyrant of 878. Jehoash, king. Argos. Prophecies of Jozoah. The Prophet Jo. 841. Jehoash, king. nab. 825. Jeroboam, king. 839. Amaziah, king. 784. Interregnum. 810. Azariah, king. 773. Zachariah, king. Shallumrn, king. 800 Carpets in use for tents. 772. Menahem, king. 786 The Corinthians employ trirernes or vessels 770. Pul invades Iswith three banks of oars. rael and is bribed to depart with 1000 talents. 772 Sculpture first mentioned in profane history- 762. Pekahiah, king. an Egyptian art. 759. Pekah, king. Interregnum. 758. Jotham, king. Hoshea, king. 742. Ahaz, king. 721 The first eclipse of the moon observed by the1. CAPTIVITY OF Chaldeans at Babylon. 717. Iezekiah, king. The Buddha religion introduced by Gautama 712. Sennacherib ininto India. vades Judah. 711. His army (185,. 710 Roman Calendar reformed. The year divided, 000) destroyed by a 12 months instead of 10 as before. pestilence. Augurs instituted by Numa. 696. Manasseh, king. 685 Iambic verse introduced by Archilocus, Tyrteus, and Evander, poets. 680 Chess invented. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 15 507 years.-Saul-to Cyrus.-(Continued.) PROFANE HISTORY. B. C. ASIA. AFRICA. EUROPE. V HIomer born. 935. Bacchus, king of Corinth. 916. Calpetus, king of Alba. 903. Tiberinus, king of Alba. 895. Tiberinus drowned in the river Albula, which is thence called the Tiber. 864. Romulus, king of Alba Longa. 869. Dido arrives in Africa, 845. Aventinus, king of Alba. 840 Jonah preaches to the Nine- and builds Byrsa. vites. 825. The dynasty of the Tanites in Egypt; begins with 820 Arbaces, king of Assyria. — Media revolts. 814. The kingdom of MACE797 Ardyssus, 1st king of LYDIA. DON founded by Caranus. 808. Procas, king of Alba. 794. Numitor, ": 771 Pul, king of Nineveh. 794. Amulius," 781. The dynasty of the Saites 767 Sardanapalus, king of Nine- in Egypt. veh. Olam Fodla, king in IreMedia subjected to Assyria. land. (?) 761 Alyattes, king of Lydia. 769. Syracuse founded by 747 ERA OF NABONAZZAR.- Archias of Corinth. Assyrian empire destroyed. 753. BUILDING OF ROME — Meles, king of Lydia. begun. 744 Pharnaces, king of Cappado. Catania founded by a cocia. lony from Chalcis. 736 Tiglath-Pileser conquers Sy- 747. Union of Romans and ria and part of Israel. Sabines. 735 Candaules, king of Lydia. 743. 1st Messinian War. 721,Shalmanezer king of;Nine- 737. Sebacon invades Egypt. veh, takes Samaria, and carries the Ten Tribes into captivity. 716. Romulus murdered by the 713 Gyges usurps the throne of senators. Lydia. 715. Numa Pompilius. 717 Sennacherib, king of Nineveh. 713. Gela in Sicily founded. 710 MEDIA becomes a kingdom under Dejoces. 703. Corcyra built by the Co709 Ecbatana founded by Dejoces. rinthiars. 685. 2d Messinian War..680 Babylon and Nineveh under Esarhaddon. 16 THE WORLD S PROGREISS. Fifth.Period. —(The llIonarchical.) — SACRED IJISTORY. B.C PROGRESS OF SOCIETY AND THE ARTS. THE JEWS. 677. Manasseh carried to BaLylon, is afterwards rekored. 660 Attempt to discover the primitive language of mankind; Interpreters instituted by Psammeticus; children educated in the language and manners of Greece. 651 Se-Matsien's history of China begins. 640 The Spherical form of the earth and the true 640. Anlmon, king of Ju'lah. cause of lunar eclipses taught by Thales, 641. Josiah. king of Judah. who discovers the electricity of amber. 629 Periander encourages learning at Corinth. 621 Draco frames his bloody code of laws at Athens. Josiah killed at Megiddo, by Pharaoh. Neo cho. 610 Pharaoh-Necho begins a canal between the Mediterranean and Red Sea. The lives of 120,000 men lost in the attempt. He sends 609. Jehoahaz, king, deposed and carried to out a Phoenician fleet which, sailing through Egypt. the Straits of Babelmandel, returned the Jehoiakim, king. third year by the Straits of Gibraltar, thus circulmnavigating Africa. 606 Sappho, Alcalus, Pittacus, Bius, Chilo, My- 606. CONQUEST OF JERUSALEM by son, Anacharsis,.Bsop, Ilychis, Theognis, Nebuchadnezzar. Stesichorus, Phocylides, and Cadmucs (of Miletus), flourish at this time. 601 Thales' prediction of a solar eclipse accomplished.-(See Asia.) 598. Jehoiachin, king, reigns three months, 594 Solon's legislation in Athens, supersedes that and is carried captive to Bahylon. of Draco. Zedeliah, king. 691 The Pythian Games at Delphi. 591. Ezekiel begins to prophesy in Chaldea. 588. CAPTIVITY OF JUDAH completed. JERUSALEM DESTROYED-the term. ple burnt. Obadiah prophesies. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 17 507 years. —nSaul to Cyrus.-(Continued.) PROFANE HISTORY. B. C. ASIA. AFRICA. EUROPE. Ardysus II., king of Lydia. 678. Argmus, 1st king of Macedon. 672. Tullus IHostilius, king ol 676 Holofernes, Assyrian general. Rome. 668. Messina in Sicily founded. 665. Alba destroyed. 660. Psammetlcus, king of 664. Sea fight between the Egypt.-MRemphis becomes Corinthians and Corcyreans. the capital of the kingdom. 658 Phraortes, king of Media. 658. BYZANTIUM founded. 648 Saracus, king of Babylon and Nineveh. 647 Phraortes conquers Persia, 640. Ancus Martius. —The port Armenia, &c. of Ostia built.-The Latins conquered by the Romans. — 634 Cyaxares, king of Media. Philip, 1st king of Mace631 Sadyattes, king of Lydia. don. 626 Nabopolassar revolts from Sa- 629. Periander rules at Coracus. rinth. 624 The Scythians invade Lydia and Media. 619 Alyattes II., king of Lydia. 61i2 Nineveh a second time destroy- 616. Tarquinius Priscus, king ed. of Rome. Nabopolassar, king of BabyIon. 610. Pharaoh-Necho, king of Egypt. 606 Pharaoh-Necho defeated by Nebuchadnezzar at Circesium, on the Euphrates. 604 Nebuchadnezzar, king of Ba- 602. iropus, king of Macebylon. don, conquers Illyria. 601 Daniel interprets the king's 6 dream. 600. Psammis, king of Egypt. A solar eclipse predicted by Thales-separates the Medes and Lydians in battle. (New.ton's Chhron., 585.) 599 Birth of Cyrus. 596 Astyages of Media drives out the Scythians. 594. Pharaoh-Hophra, king of 594. Solon, Archor of Athensa Egypt. 18 TIHE WORLD'S PROGRESS. SIXTH PERIOD. —( The Persian.)B.C PROGRESS OF SOCIETY. JEWS. ASIA. 585 582. Nebuchadnezzar invades Elam-takes Susa. 578 Money coined at Rome by Servius Tullius. 572. Tyre taken by Nebuchadnezzar. 569. Nebuchadnezzar losing his reason is deposed. New Tyre founded. 568 Depoenus and Scyllis open a school of statuary at Athens. Naucrates given to the Greeks by Egypt as a factory. Egypt possesses 20,000 inhabited cities. 562 First comedy acted at Athens 562. Croesus, king of Lydia. on a cart, by Susarion and Solon and Esop at his court. Dolon. 561. Evil-Merodach, king of Dials invented by Anaximan- Babylon. der of Miletus. o 559. Handwriting on the wall 559. Neriglissar or Belshazzat Anaxinlenes, Cleobulus. at Belshazzar's feast. killed in the night. Cyaxares It. (Darius' king of Media. Cyrus the Persian assists him. Asia Minor subjected to Crce sus. 546. Sardis taken by Cyrus.540 The Corinthian order of ar- Crcesus made prisoner.chitecture invented by Cali- THE LYDIAN KINGDOM ENDmachus. ED. Zoroaster, the Persian Philo- 538. BABYLON TAKEN by sopher. Cyrus..Simonides, Anacreon, poets. 536. Edict of Cyrus for the RE- 536. PERSIAN EMPIRE TURN of the JEws. founded by CYRUS, comJoshua, Zerubbabel. posed of Assyria, Media and 535 Thespis performs the first Persia. tragedy at Athens. 535. Rebuilding of the temple begins. Zechariah, Haggai. 529. Cambyses, king of Persia. 527 Learning encouraged at Athens.-First public library founded. 522 Confucius the Chinese philo- 522. Darius Iystaspes, king sopher. The Daric issued by Darius. Persia. 516. Dedication of the second temple. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 19 258 years. —Cyrus to Alexander the Great. B. C. AFRICA. GREECE. ROME, ETC. 585. Death of Periander, tyrant of Corinth. 582. Corinth becomes a repub581 Egypt invaded by Nebuchad- lic. nezzar. 578. Servius Tullius, king of Rome. 571 Apries taken prisoner, and strangled in his palace. -569 Amasis, king —connection between Greece and Egypt. 567. Conquest of the Etrurians by Rome. 565. First census of Rome: 84,700 citizens. 560. Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens. 549. Temple of Apollo at Delphi burnt by the Pisistratidme. 547. Amyntas, king of Macedon. 539. The Phocians emigrate to Gaul and build sMassilia (now Marseilles). 536 Pythagoras visits Egypt. 534. Tarquinius Superbus, king of Rome. 530. CADIZ built by the Car. thaginians (near the ancient 527. Pisistratus dies. Tarsish). 525 Psammenitus, last king of Egypt.-Invasion of Cambvses, who defeats the Egyptians at Pelusium, and takes Memphis. 522. Polycrates, tyrant of SaEGYPT BECOMES A PERSIAN mos. PROVINCE. 521. Hippias and Hipparchus reign in Athens. 510. The Pisistratldea expelled. -Democracy established at Athens.-Statues erected to Harmonius and Aristogiton, leaders in the revolution. 20 THE WVORLD'S PROGRESS. Sixthi Period.-( The Persian.)B. 0. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY. THE JEWS. ASIA. 509 Abolition of the Regal Government, and establishment of 508. Darius conquers India. Republic at Rome. 507 Heraclituzs, Th/eano, Protagoras, A2naxagoras, philosophers.-Corinna, poetess. 500 The Phmenician letters carried to Ireland from Spain. Pythagoras teaches the doctrine of celestial notions. The temple of Minerva built. 498. The enians revolt from Persia and burn Sardis. 491. Darius sends an army of 500,000 men into Greece. 487. Artabazes, king of Pontus. 486. Xerxes, king of Persia 483 The Etrusrians excel in music, 483. Joaclim, High Priest. 481. The expedition of Xerxes the drama and architecture. into Greece. 480. The family of Archeanactes, from Mytilene, settle 3479 Xschlyluss, Pindar, poets. in Bosphorus (now Circas. 479 Jscrlylus, Pindar, poets. sia.) 478. Death of Confucius.477 Simonides, of Cos, obtains the China distracted by interna prize at Olympia, for teach- wars. ing a system of Mnemonics, which he had invented. 473 Empirics instituted by Acron, of Agrigentum. 468 Sophocles, the tragic, and Plato, the comic poet. 466. Persians defeated by -ra and land. 465. Xerxes assassinated. 464. Artaxerxes I. (Longina. nuis,) king of Persia. 460 Voyage of the Carthaginians to Britain for tin. 458. Esther. 457. Ezra goes to Jerusalem, collects th'e Jewish Scriptures: and 453. -writes the Chronicles. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 21 258 years.- Cyrus to Alexander'.-(Continued.) D3.C. AFRICA. GREECE. ROME AND ITALY. 509. The Tarquins expelled from Rome. BRUTUS AND COLLATINUS first CONSULS of Rome. 507. Second census of Rome, 130,909 citizens. The Capitol finished.-War 505. Lacedemonian War. against the Tarquins and 504. Lemnos taken by Milti- their ally Porsenna. ades. 498. Titus Lartius, first Dicta. 497. Alexander lst, king of tor. Macedon. Tribunes of the people. Hippocrates, tyrant of 496. Posthumius, Dictator. Gela. 491. Invasion of the Persians 491. Coriolanus banished. under Datis and Artaphernes. 490. Battle of MARATIION. 488. Miltiades imprisoned. 488. At the request of his 487 Eigypt revolts —is subduet by mother, Coriolanus withXerxes. -draws the Volsci from Rome. 485. Gelon, tyrant of Syracuse. 483. Aristides banished. 483. Quaestors appointed. 480 IlHamilcar killed in battle. 480. Battle of Thermopylae. 480. The. Carthaginians de. Athens burnt by Xerxes. feated by Gelon. Battle of Salamis. 479. Mardonius a second time 479. Syracuse'governed by takes Athens. Hiero,. Defeat of the Persians at Platea and Mycale on the same day. 477. The 300 Fabii slain. 476. Themistocles rebuilds Athens.-The Piraeus built. 470. Cimon son of Miltiades. — Themistocles banished.The kingdom of the Odrysee extends over the most of Thrace. 467. Thrasybulus succeeds 466. The Persians twice de- Hiero, and is expelled for feated at the Eurymedon by his cruelty. Cimon. Democracy in Syracuse. 465. 3d Messinian War. 461. Ostracism of Cimon.- 461. Earthquake at Rome. PERICLES rises to great 460 Egypt, under Inarus, revolts power. from Persia. 459. Athens assumes to be the head of Greece. 456. Cimon recalled. 456. Cincinnatus Dictator. 455 All Egypt reduced by Megabysus. 22 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. The Sixth Period. —(The Persian.) — B. C PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. THE JEWS. ASIA. 450 The Britons inflict punishment of death by drowning 449. Persians defeated at Sain a quagmire. lamis in Cyprus. Peace with Greece. 445 Herodotus reads his history in 445. Walls of Jerusalem built the Athenian council.-Em- by Nehemiah. pedocles, Parmenides, Aris- Sect of Samaritans. tippus, and Antisthenes, philosophers.-Phidias the finest sculptor of antiquity. 438. Spartacus takes posses. -Euripides, tragic poet. sion of the Bosphorus. 441 The Battering Ram invented by Artemones. 434 Aristophanes, prince of ancient comedy. 432 llfeton begins his lunar cycle. Socrates, the greatest of heathen moralists. Hippocrates, of Cos, the father ot medicine. Thucydides, Ctesias, historians. Democritus, the laughing philosopher. 425. Xerxes II. k. of Persia. 424. Darius II. k. of l'csl.a. 414 An eclipse of the sun causes the defeat of the Athenians at Syracuse 410 Thucydides' history ends, and Xenophon's begins. 404. Artaxerxes II. (>inemon.) king of Persia. THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 23 258 years.- Cyrus to Alexander.-(Continued.) B. C. AFRICA. GREECE. ROMIE ETC. 454. Perdiccas, II., king of Macedon. 451. Decemviri —the laws of the 12 tables. 449. Cimon makes peace with Virginia killed by her Persia. father. 448. First Sacred War. 447. Athenians defeated at Cheroncea. 446. Syracuse reduces Agrigentum. 445. Military Tribunes. 444. Office of Censor instituted. 440. Pericles takes Samos. 440. Famine in Rome. 437. Amophipolis planted by 437. The Veii defeated. Athenians. 436. Corinth at war with Corcyra. 434. War with the Tuscany. 433. The temple of Apollo dedicated. 431. The Equi and Volsci de432. Revolt of Potidmea from feated. the Athenian confederacy. 431. The Peloponnesian War. Invasion of Attica. 430. The Plague at Athens. 429. Pericles dies, having governed Athens 40 years. 425. An earthquake separates the peninsula of Eubcea from the main land. 424. Exile of Thucydides. Campaign of Brasidas in Thrace. 420. The 90th Olympiad. Alcibiades effects a treatv between the Athenians and Argives. 416. Nicias, general of the Athenians. War in Sicily. 414 Amyrtmus, king of Egypt, 414. The Atheniansalarmed by shakes off the yoke of Per- an eclipse, are repulsed besia. fore Syracuse. 413. Archelaus, king of Macedon. 412. Athens governed by the 400.-Alliance of Sparta with Persia. 411. Alcibiades at the court of Tissaphesnes. 410. Alcibiades defeats the Spartans. 407 The Carthaginians send 300,000 men into Sicily. 408. Capture of Byzantium. 405. Lysander defeats the Athenians - takes Athens, and establishes the 30 tyrants. End of the Peloponnesian War. Death of Alcibiades. 24 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. The Sixth Period. —(The Persian.)B. C. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. THE JEWS. ASIA. 401. Cyrus the younger defeated.-Retreat of the 10,000 under Xenophon. 400. The city of Delhi found ed. 399 Cataqpulte invented by Dionysius. 396 Cynics, sect of philosophers founded by Antisthenes. 388 Plato, the philosopher. Philoxenes, the poet. 387. The Greek cities of Asia tributary to Persia. 383 BITIIYNIA becomes a kingdom. Mithridates lst, king of PONTUS. 380 Treatise on conic sections by Aristcus. 377 Diogenes, the cynic; Isocrates and Iseeus, orators. 368 A celestial globe brought into 366. Jeshua slain by JohanGreece from Egypt. nan in the inner court of the temple, for which a heavy 362. Ariobarzanesking ofPon, fine is laid on the daily sacri- tus.-evolt of the Persian fices. governor in Asia Minor. 361. Darius Ochus, or Artaxerxes III. king of Persia. 360 Philippics of Denosthenes. 360. CAPPADOCIA becomes a kingdom under Ariarathes 1. Commerce of Rhodes with Africa and Byzantium TIHE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 25 258 years.- CyrLes to Alexander.-(Continued.) D1.C. AFRICA. GREECE. ROME AND ITALY. 401. Thrasybulus expels the 30 tyrants. Death of Socrates. 400. Siege of Veii begun. 399. Amyntas II., kIing of Macedon. 397. Lake Alba drained. 396. Agesilaus goes into Asia. 395. Corinthian War begun.Battle of Coronea. 391. CAMILLUS, Dictator, takes Veii, after a siege of ten years. 390. Rome taken and burnt by the Gauls, under Brennus. -The Capitol besieged. — Camillus delivers his country. 386. Damon and Pythias. 384. M. Manlius Capitolinus thrown from the Tarpeian 382. Thebes taken by Phcebi- rock. das. 380. Thebes delivered by Pelo379 The Carthaginians landl in pides and EPAMINONDAS. 379. The Volsci defeat the Italy. 100th Olympiad. Romans. 377. Spartan fleet defeated at Naxos. 376. Lucius Sextus, first ple372. Ellice and Bula in the Pe- beian consul. loponnesus. swallowed up Camillus, the fifth time by an earthquake. Dictator. 371. Battle of Leuzctra. 371. The curule macistrates Alexander II., king of Ma- appointed. cedon. Pr7edonsinance of Thebes. 370. Perdiccas III., king of Macedon. 364. Pelopidas killed in-battle. 932 Tachos, king, of Egypt. 362. Battle of Mantinea, death 362. Curtius leaps into a gulf Agesilaus, the Spartan, of Epaminondas. in the Forum. aids the Egyptians. DECLINE OF GRECIAN REPUBLICS. 360 360. Philip II., king of MaceVoyages of the Carthaginians don. defeats the Athenians under Hanno. at Methone. The Macedonian phalanx. WVar of the allies against Athens. 358. Philip takes Amphipolis and loses his right eye by an arrow friom Astor. 357. The 2d Sacred War. 357. Dionysius, the younger, 356. Philip conquers Thrace expelled from Syracuse. and Illyria. The Temple of Diana at Ephesus burnt. ALEXANDE R" the Great " born. 26 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. SEVENTH PERIOD. —(The Grecian.) — B.. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. THE JEWS. ASIA. 343 Aristotle. the logician and phi. losopher, founder of the Peripatetics; Jschines, orator. Demosthenes; lcetas, of Syracuse. 342 The Lyceum built in Attica. 336 Alexander spares the house of 336. Mithridates II., king of Pindar. Pontus. The revolution of eclipses first calculated by Calippus, the Athenian. 335 Caustic painting or the art of burning colors into wood or zvary, invented by Gau- 334. Battle of the Granicus. sias, a painter of Sicyon. 333. Battle of Issus.-Parthia, Bactria, Hyrcania,Sogdiana and Asia Minor, conquered by Alexander. 332. Tyre subdued after seven months' siege. Damascus taken. —Gaza surrenders. Alexander enters Jerusa- 331. Battle of Arel.he lem.-On seeing Jaddus, the 331. Battle of Arbela. —High Priest, clad in his Persianarmytotally defeat robes, he declares he had. CONQUEST of the PERseen him in a vision, invit- 330. CONUEST of the PER-EMPIRE. ing him to Asia, and pro- 329. Thalestris, queen of tey mising him the Persian em- Amazons, visits Alexander, pire. He goes to the Tem- with a train of 300 women. pie offers sacrifices to Jeho- 328. Alexander extends his 328 The voyage of Nearchus from vah, and departs. conquest to the Ganges. the Indus to the Euphrates. 323. Alexander dies at BabyApelles, the painter; Cali's- lon. thenes, philosopher. 322. Perdiccas talkes CappaIlenander, the inventor of the docia. new comedy. Lysistratus invents moulds from which to cast wax figures. 320 First work on mechanics, writ- 320. Ptolemy carries 100,000 320. Eumenes defeated by Anten by Aristotle. —Diving Jews into Eypt. tigonus. Bell first mentioned. Onias I. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 27 184 years.-Alexandc er to the Fall of Greece. B. C. AFRICA. GREECE —MACEDON. ROME, ETC. 354. Dion put to death, and 353. The Phocians defeated by Syracuse usurped by ty-.39 Darius Ochus conquers Egypt, Philip. rants. and pillages its temples. 348. End of the Sacred War. Philip talres Olynthus. 346. Philip admitted to the Amphictyonic,Council. 345. Duras buried by an earth- 345. Twelve cities in Campa. quake. nia buried by an earthquake. 343. Thrace tributary to Mace- 343. Samnian War, which condon. tinues 53 years. Aristotle appointed tutor to Alexander. 341. Philip makes war upon Athens. 340 The Carthaginians defeated by 340. -lays siege to Byzantiunl. 340. P. Decius devotes him. Timoleon. Timoleon recovers Syra- self for his country. cuse, expels Dionysius, the All Campania Is subdued. tyrant, and defeats the Carthaginians at Agrigentum. 338. Philip defeats tie Greeks at Cheronea. 336. Philip is murdered by Pausanias. ALEXANDER III., surnamed the Great. —Te ravages Greece, destroys Thebes, sparing the house of Pindar. 335. -is chosen generalissimo of Greece against Persia. 334. -invades Persia, and after several great battles (see "Asia") subdues the Persian empire and Egypt, and marches into India. 332 Egypt conquered by Alexan- 332. The Caledonian moder. narchy (Scotland) founded Alexandria built. by Fergus I. 330. 2Eschines, the orator, banished. 325. Demosthenes banished. 325. Papirius Cursor, Dictator. 323 Ptolemy I. (Soter, sonof La- 323. Death of Alexander.gus.) The Grecian cities revolt from Macedon.-Demosthenes recalled. 322. The Greeks defeated by sea and land near Cranon. Death of Demosthenes. 321. Antipater, regent. 321. The Samnites make the Romans pass under the yoke. 320. The Samnites defeated at 319. Polysperchon succeeds Luceria. Antipater, and proclaims. liberty to the Grecian cities 28 TIE W\ORLID S PROGRESS. The Seventh/ Period. —(The Gr'ecian.)B. C. |PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. THE JEWS. ASIA. 317 Commerce of Macedon with India, through Egypt. 312 The Appian Way constructed. 312. SYRIA. Seleucus, Nicatos. -The Gnomon invented to measure altitudes. 311. Judea subject to Al:tlgo. 311. Seleucus Nicator retakes nus. Babylon. Era of the Seleucide. 310 Aqueducts and baths in Rome. 310. Eumeles usurps the throne of Bosphorus, putting to death all his bronIhrs. After a reign of six years, is murdered. 305. War in India, against Sandrocottus. 301. Judea under the domi- 301. Battle of Ipsus.-Antigo. nion of the Ptolemies. nus killed. 300 Euclid, of Alexandria, the ALEXANDER'S i,,. celebrated mathematician.- PIRE DIVIDED in four Zeno, founder of the Stoics; parts. - Ptolemy, Seleucus, -Pyrrho, of the Skeptics; Cassander. Lysimachus. Epicurus, of the Epicu- Mithridates III., king of reans.-Bion, of Borysthe- Pontus. nes, philosopher. The great Chinese Wall built. 293 The first sun-dial erected at Rome by Papirius Cursor, 291. Seleucus founds Antioch, and the time first divided Edessa, and Laodicea. into hours. 290 Fabius Introduces painting at Rome. The Colossus of Rhodes built by Chares, of Lindus. 285 Theocrites, the father of pas. 285. The Scythians invaf toral poetry. Bosphorus Dionysius, the astronomer at Alexandria, begins his era. Iie found the solar year to consist of 365 days, 5 hours, and 49 minutes. 284 The Septuagint translation of 284. The sect of the Sadducees. the Old Testament, begun at Alexandria, by order of Ptolemy Philadelphus. THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 29 84 years. —(Continued.) aCl AFRICA. GREECE. ROME, ETC. 318. Phocion put to death by the Athenians. 317. C a s s a n d e r assumes 317. Syracuse and Sicily usurpthe government of Macedon. ed by Agathocles. Demetrius Phalerius governs Athens. 315. Cassander rebuilds Thebes, and founds Cnssandria. 312. Epirus: P y r r h u s II., 312. War with the Etruscans. the grleatest hero of his time. 310. The Cartllaginians defeat Agathocles, and besiege Syracuse. 308. Fabius Maximus 307 Afathocles is defeated by the defeats the Samnites. 306 Peoce beuween Sicily and Car- 306. Democracy established at tlPace b lAthens by Demetrius. thage. 304. Athenians repulsed from Rhodes. 303. Desmetsris Poliorcetes. 303. Establishment of the general of the Grecian States. Tribus Urbanpe. 300. Restoration of Democracy 300.First Plebeian High Priest. at Athens. 291. Death of Cassander.Alexander and Antipater succeed. 296. Siege of Athens, by Demetrilus. 294. Demetrius murders Alexander, and seizes the throne of Macedon. 290. End of the Samnite War. 287. Athens revolts from DeJI et.ius. 92;. Pyrrhus expelled from 286. Law of Hortensius, by -Macedon. which the decrees of the people had the force of those of the senate. 284. The Achtean Republic. 30 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. The Seventh Period.-( The Grecian.)B. 0. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. THE JEWS. ASIA. The Pharos built at Alexandria, the first light-house on record. 283 Philetaerus, of Pergamus, patron of the arts, especially Architecture. 282. The kingdom of PERAlexandria, the resort of the GAMUS founded by Philelearned, and centre of trade. tMarus. 281 Chariots armed with scythes, 281. Lysimachus defeated:nd andforti3ied camnps, in use. killed by Seleucus.-Antio chus Soter succeeds Seleucus. 276 First society of critics formed. 267 Ptolemy makes a:anal from the Nile to the Red Sea. 266 Silver money first coined. 266. Ariobarzanes III., ki-'r (; Pontus. 264 The Parias Chronicle composed. Gladiators first exhibited at Rome. 262. Antiochus Soter defeate& at Sardis. 256 Berosses, the historian of Ba- 256. Kingdom of PARTIPI bylon. founded by Arsaces. 255 The armillary sphere invented 255. The fourth imperial' by Erastosthernes, who made nasty of China begins. the first attempt to determine the length of a degree. 252. Mithridates IV., besiege,; in his capital by the G-.als. Greece instructs the Romans in the arts and sciences. 248. Onias II.: high priest. THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 31 184 years.-(Continued.) B.C. AFRICA. GREECE. ROME, ETC. 283 Ptolemy Philadelphus king of 283. Lysimachia destroyed by 283. The Gauls and EtruEgypt. an earthquake. rzains subdued. 281. Lysimachus defeated and 281. The Tarentine War. slain by Seleucus. The AchEean League of 12 states, under Aratus, of Sicyon. 280. The Tarentines seek the alliance of Pyrrhus, who conquers the Romans at Pandosia, and at 279. trrruption of the Gauls 279 — Asculum. under Brennus. 278. -they are defeated near 278. Sicily conquered by PyrrDelphi. hus. 277. Antigonus Gonatus, king of Macedon. 275. Curius defeats Pyrrhus, and compels him to leave 274. Pyrrhus invades Mace- Italy. don, defeats Antigonus, and is proclaimed king. 272. Pyrrhus besieges Sparta 272. Fall of Tarentum. and Argos-is slain, and Antigonus is restored. 269 Egypt first sends ambassadors to Rome. 268. Athens taken by Antigonus Gonatus. Second incursion of the Gauls into Macedon. 266. Rome mistress of all Italy: census of the city 292,224. 264. The first PUNIC WAR. -Appius Claudius drives Hiero from Syracuse. 260. D u i 1 u s gains a victory over the Carthaginian fleet. 256. R e g u l u s gains ano256 Reulus invades Africa, and is ther victory. defeated by Xantippus, a 255. A n t i g o n u s liberates 255. The Lacedemonians asSpartan general. Athens. sisting Carthage. - XantipAthens joins the Achaean pus defeats Regulus, and league. takes him prisoner. 254. Palermo besieged by the Romans. -About this time 251 Metellus defeats Asdrubal. 251. Sicyon joins the Achwean the EIuns are first heard of, league. governed by Teuman. 250. The Romans begin to resort to Greece for improvement in knowledge. - Par- 249. Naval fight at Drapanum. thia revolts from Macedon. 32 THE WORPLD'S PROGRESS. The Seventh Period.-( The Grecian.)B. C. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. THE JEWS. ASIA. 246. Antiochus II. poisoned by his wife. Agrarianism attempted in Sparta, but is put down. 241. Attalus I., king of Pergamuls. 240 Comedies first acted at Rome, those of Livius Andronicus. 237. Simon II., High Priest. 233 The original MSS. of AJschylus, Euripides and ASophocles, lent by the Athenians to Ptolemy, on a pledge of 15 talents. 226. Seleucus III., k. of Syria. 225 Fabius Pictor, the first Roman historian. Appollonius Rhodizes, poet.Chrysippus, Stoic philosopher. 224 Archimedes, the mathemati- 224. The Colossus of Rhodes cian, demonstrates the pro-thrown down. perties of the lever, and other mechanical powers, also the art of measuring solids and surfaces.and conic sections-constructs aplanetariumn. 219 The art of Sur'ery introduced. An eclipse of the moon observerL in Asiu Minor. 213. Chi Hong Ti destroys the records of the Chinese empire. 211. Antiochus the G r e a t, king of Syria. T1'E W\ORLD S PROGRESS. 33 184 years.-(Continued.) 3 C. | AFRICA. GREECE. ROMIE, ETC. 247 Iamilcar Barcas, general of 247. Hamilcar defeats the Rothe Carthaginians. mans at Liliboeum. 246 Ptolemy Eurgetes subdues Syria. 243. Corinth taken by Aratus. 242. Demetrius II., of Macedon. 241. Agis, king of Sparta, put 241. End of the first Punic to death for attempting to es- War. tablish an Agrarian law. 240. Cleanthus, the Stoic, starves himself. 238 End of the Libyan War. 237 Hamilcar with Hannibal, passes into Spain. 232. Philip III., of Macedon. 231. Sardinia and Coreicaconquered by Rome. 228. Roman ambassadors first appear at Athens and Co227 Carthagena in Spain, built by rinth. Asdrubal. The fortress of the Athenaeum built. 226. Cleomenes, king of Sparta, defeats the Achwaans.Lyscades lilled. —The Agrarian law restored. 225. The Romans send another 225. The Gauls repulsed in embassy to Greece. They Italy. are admitted to a share in the Isthmian games, and granted the fieedom of Athens. 224. The Romans first cross the Po. 223. Cleomenes talces Megalo- 223. Colonies of P 1 a c e n - polis. tia and Cremola. 222. Battle of Sellasia. 222. Insubria (Milan) and Ligu221 Ptolemy Philopater, king of ria (Genoa) conquered by Egypt. Rome. 220. The Social War. 219 Conquests of Hannibal, -Philip, of Macedon, as- 219. Hannibal takes Sagunthe Carothainian, in Spain; sists the Achweans.-Cleome- tum, and crosses the Alps. He crosses the Alps. polies dies in Eyypt.-Agesipolis and Lycurgus elected kings of Sparta. 218. Acananla ceded to Philip. 218. The Second P v N I C W A R.-The Romans defeated by Hannibal at T icinis and Trebia. 217. Flaminius defeated at Thrasymene. 216. earro at C an n ae to215. Aratus poisoned at totally defeated by Hannibal.?Egium. Fabius Maximus, 214. First Macedonian War, Dictator. 212. Syracuse and Sicily conquered by Marcellus. -Archimedes killed. 211. Alliance of Philip with 211. The Carthaginians driven Hannibal. from Capua. 34 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. The Seventh Period. -(The Grecian.)B.C. PROGRESS OF SOCIETT, ETC. THE JEWS. ASIA. 207 Ennius, of Calabria, poet; Sotion, of Alexandria, a grammarian. 206 Plautus, of Umbria, the co- 206. The dynasty of II a n in mic poet; Appollonius, of China. Perga, mathematician; Zeno, of Tarsus, the philosopher. Gold coined at Rome. 203. JUDEA CONQ.UERED SY ANTIOCHUS THE GREAT. 202 The art of printing in China. 201. Onias III., High Priest.. 200 Aristonymus 4th, librarian of 200. Jesus, the son of Sirach, Alexandria. writes Ecclesiasticus. Caius Leliuss, the Roman orator. 198 Books, with leaves of vellum, 198. The Jews assist Antiointroduced by Attalus, king chus in expelling Scopas and of Pergamus, in lieu of rolls. the Egyptian troops from Jerusalem. 197. Eumenes, king of Perga. First mention of a Senate or innus. Sanhedrim. 196. Hannibal joins Antiochus, who seizes the Thracian Chersonese. 192. Syria at war with Rome. 190. Scipio Asiaticus defeasia Antiochus at Magnesia. 188 A total eclipas of the sun at Rome. Asiatic luxuries brought to 187. Antiochus killed in the Rome. temple of Jupiter Belus.Syria becomes a Roman province. 186. The city of Artaxata (it Armenia) built. 185. Seleucus IV., king of S, ria. 183 A comet visible 80 days. 183. Pharnaces I., king of Por Bion and Moschus, comic tus, conquers S i n o p e. poets. 180 Statius Cmcilius, comic poet. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 35 184 years.-(Continued.) B.C. AFRICA. GREECE. ROME, ETC. 210. Scipio takes New 208. Battle of Lamia, near Elis. Carthage, and conquers As-Philip, of Macedon, de- drubal. feats the XEtolians. 207. Nero and Livy defeat Asdrubal at Metaurus-Asdrubal killed. 206. BATTLE of MANTINEA: 206. The Carthaginians driven Philopce men, the Prae- out of Spain. 205 Ptolemy Epiphanes, king of tor of Achaia, defeats the Egypt. Spartans. 204E The RomangeneralScipiobe- r 204. Scipio carries the war sieges Utica, and takes in into Africa. one day the camps of Asdrubal and Syphax. Hannibal recalled. —Sophonisba poisoned by Masinissa. 202 Hannibal defeated at Z a m a. -End of the 2d Punic War. 201. Scipio carries Syphax in triumph to Rome. 200. The Rhodians defeat the Macedonian fleet near Chios. -Siege of Abydos.-Second Macedonian War begins. 199 Treaty of Carthage with Masinissa, king of Numidia. 198 Egypt loses her Syrian posses- 198. The Achteans and Sparslons. tans join the Romans against Macedon. 197. Philip III. defeated at Cy- 197. Fiaminius victorious in nocephalme by the Romans, Macedon. under Flaminius. 195. Flaminius, the Roman, 195. C a t o in Spain. quarrels with Nabis, king of 193 Masinissa harasses the Cartha- Sparta. ginians, and injures their commerce. 190. War with Antiochus, of Syria, who is totally defeat. 189. Epirus declared free by ed by L. C. Scipio, and the Romans. 188. Philopcemen abrogates 188. Syria is made a Roman the laws of Lycurgus in province. Sparta. 187. Scipio Africanus banished from Rome. 183. Philopeemen defeated and 183. Cato, the elder, censor. killed by Dinocrates, king of Messinia. 181. Plague at Rome. 180 Ptolemy Philometer, king of 180. Death of Scipio AfricaEgypt. nus. 179. Numa's books found in a stone coffin at Rome. 36 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. Th/e SeventhA Period.-(The Gr-ecian.)B. C. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. THE JEWS. ASIA. 176. Heliodorus in Jerusalem. 175. Jason obtains the high priesthood by corruption. 172. Jason defeated by Mene- 172. Antiochus IV. (Epipha. laus. nes) king of Syria. 171 -declares war against Ptolemy Philomater. 17D Paper invented in China. 170. Jerusalem and the temple 170. An irruption of Tartars 169 Polybius, historian of Greece plundered by Antiochus into China. and Rome. Epiphanes, who attempts to The comedies of Terence per- abolish the Jewish religion, formed. and commits great cruelties. 168 An eclipse of the moon, which was predicted by Q. S. Gallus. 167 The first library opened at 167. Matthias, High Priest. Rome, consisting of books 166. Prusiags king of 1 ithynia. brought from Macedon. The Roman treasury is so rich 165. JUDAS MACCABEUS exthat the citizens pay no pels the Syrians, and puritaxes. fies the temple. 162 Hipparchus of Nice fixes the first degree of longitude and latitude at Ferro, whose 164. Antiochus Epiphanes most western point was died. made the first general meri- 162. Demetrius Soter, kin- of dian-lays the foundation of Syria. Trigonometry. Mithridates Philopater, 161 Philosophers and rhetoricians 161. Judas kills Nicanor-is king of Cappadocia. banished from Rome. succeeded by Jonathan. First treaty with the Romans. 158. Jonathan compels the Bacchides to withdraw-is mur159 The clepsydra or water clock dered by Tryphon. invented by Scipio Nascia. 157. Mtithridates V., king of Pontus. 153. Ariarathes VII., king of Cappadocia. 150 Hipparclus, of Rhodes, astro- i50. Jews take Joppa. 150. Alexander Bala kills Denomer. - Aristarchus, of metrius,and takes the throne. Alexandria, grammarian. 149. Prusias, of Bithynia, killed by his son Nicomedes. THE WORLD'S PROGRtESS. 37 184 years.-(Continued.) CL. O. AFRICA. GREECE. ROMsE, ETC. 17,. Perseus, king of Macedon. 174 Cato's embassy to CarthagS. 171. Third Macedonian War. 170. Tiberius and Caius Gracchus. 168. Perseus defeated at Pydna, by Paulus Emilius.MACEDON 1BECOMES A ItOMAN PROVINCE. 167. Census 327,032. 165. Romans enter Achaia. 155. Embassy of Diogenes, 155. Romans unsuccessful in Carniades, and Critolaus to Spain. Rome. 152 Massinissa defeats the Cartha- 152. Andriscus usurping the ginians. government of Macedon, is 151 Joint reign of Philomater and conquered by Metellus. 151. Defeat of Galba. Physcon in Egypt. 149. THIRD PuNIC WAR, 147. Metellus defeats the AchMans in Greece. 146 CARTHAGE TAKEN -and 146. Corinth taken and de- Conquest of Carthage and destroyed. stroyed by Mummius. — of Corinth. GREECE becomes a RO- Greece annexed to the MAN PROVINCE under Roman empire, the name of Achaia. 38 THE WORLD7S PROGRESS. EIGHTH PERIOD. —(The Roman.)B. G. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. THE JEWS. ASIA. 146 Alexandria, the centre of commerce. 143 Hipparchtes begins his new cycle of the moon. 142. Simon, High Priest. 140 Toothed wheels applied to the clepsydra by Ctesibius. 137 Learning and learned mnen 137. Antiochus IV., (Sidetes,) liberally patronized by Ptol- king of Syria. emy Physcon. Diodorus and Satyrus, peripatetics; Nicander. physician and poet; Lucius Ac- 135. End of the Apocrypha.cius, tragic poet; Arislobu. Jerusalem besieged by Anlus, the Jewish peripatetic. tiochus IV. 134. Antiochus invades Judea. 133 Equestrian order, a distinct class. 130 Revival of learning in China. 130. John Hyrcanus delivers 130. Antiochus IV. defeated Judea from the Syrian yoke: and killed in a war with Par-reduces Samaria and Idu- thia. mea. 129. Demetrius II. (Nicator) regains Syria. 123. Mithridates the Great, 120 The theory of eclipses known king of Pontus. to the Chinese. [16 L. Ccelius Antipater, historian; Lucillius, the first Roman satirist; Apollodorus, of Athens, chronologist; Castor, of Rhodes, chronologist; Anthemon, philosopher. 11. Mthridates conquers Scy. 110 First sumptuary lawe at Rome. thia, Bosphorus, Colchis, 108. Hyrcanus destroys Sama- &c. ria. 107. -succeeded by his son Aristobulus, who first assumes the title of king. 10.5. Alexander Janneus at war with Egypt-takes Ga. za. —Rebellion excited by the Pharisee.s THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 39 146 years.-Fall of Greece to the Christian Era. B. C. AFRICA. ROMAN EMPIRE. 146 Commerce of the world cen- Ie the East. In Europe. tres at Alexandria.:45 Ptolemy Physcon becomes sole king of Egypt by the death of Philomater. 141. Numantian War. 140. The Picts from the north of England settle in the south of Scotland. 135. Servile var in Sicily. 133. PERGAMUS, a R o man 133. Numantia destroyed by Province. Scipio: SPAIN BECOMES A ROMAN PROVINCE. Death of Tiberius Grac. chus. 129 Ptolemy Physcon driven from his throne lbr his cruelty. 128 Pestilence in Egypt. 123 Carthage rebuilt. 123. Tribunate of C a i u 118 Death of Micipsa, king of 118. DALMA.TIA, a Roman Gracchus. Numidia, and the assassina- P r o vi n ce. tion of Hiempsal by Jugurtha. 116 Ptolemy Lathyrus, king of Egypt. 113. First great mnigration of 112 Jugurthine War. the German nations. 109. War of the Teutoni and Cimbri. 107 Alexander I., king of Egypt. 105 Jugurtha is defeated and sur- 105. Numidia becomes a Rorenders Numidia to the Ro- mas, province by the dejeat mans. of Jugurtha. 104 The Teutoni defeat 80,000 Romans on the banks of the Rhone. 102. M a r-i u s victorious over the Teutonl and Ambrones at Aqu.e Sextie. 101. Marius and Catullus defeat the Cimbri. 100. Marius buys his sixth consulate. Banishment of Metellus. 40 TEIE WORLD'S PROGRESS. The Eighth Period.-( The Romzan.)B.C PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. THE JEWS. ASIA. 98. China still submits to the IIHan dynasty; Semat: zi n, Emperor. 97. Mithridates conquers Cappadocia. 95. Cappadocia declared free by Rome., - Ariobarzanes elected king. 94. Antluochus, king of Syria, defeated y Seleucus. 93. Tigranes, king of Arme. nia. 89. Pontus at war with Rome. 86 Libraeries of Atess sent to 86. Mithridates takes Bythi. 82 Decline of Agriculture in Syria. Italy; corn supplied from the provinces. 79 Posidonius calculates the 79. Alexandra, widow of Janheight of the atmosphere to neus, governs Judea. be about 800 stadia. 78 Zeno, of Sidon, the Epicurean; Apellicon of Athens; Alex.ander Polyphistor,the grammarian; Photius Gallus, 75. By the death of Nicomerhetorician; Q. Valerius des Bythinia becomes a Anltias, Roman historian; province. Q. Holrtensius, orator. 74 The cherry tree brought to Europe from Asia by Lucullus.- Terentius Vorro writes three boolts on agriculture. The Romans possess gold mines in Asia Minor, Macedonia, Sardinia and Gaul; and productive silver mines in Spain. 70 The first water nzill described 70. Hyrcanus II., High Priest, 70. Damascus possessed by. near a dwelling of Mithri- deposed by his brother Aris- the Romans. dates. tobulus. 69. Mithridates and Tigranes 67. Aristobulus and Hyrcanus defeated by Lucullus. 66 Ebony introduced at Rome by appeal to Pompey, who en- 66. Mithridates defeated by Pompey. ters Judea and takes Jerusa- Pompey. Vikranzaditya, king of Ozene, lem, and restores Hvrcanus in India, patron of literature to the priesthood. 65. Antiochus XII. defeated -at his court flourish Ame- by Pompey.-The race of ra Sinka, lexicographer; the Seleucidae becomes exVararuchi, grammarian tinct. - Ariobarzanes II., Kalidasa, poet. king of Cappadocia. -An earthquake in Bosphoru~ lays in ruins several towns. 64. Dejotarus, king of Galatia, seizes Armenia Minor. 63. JUDEA A ROMAN PRO- 63. Pharmaces, king of Pontus. VINCE. THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 41 146 years.-(Continued.) o. c. AFRICA. ROMAN EMPIRE. In Asia and Africa. In E-urope. 99. L u s it a n i a conquered by Dolabella, and becomes a Roman province. —Birth of Julius Cwesar. 97 By the death of Ptolemy 97. Annexation of Cyrene. Apion, CYRENE becomes a Roman province. 91. Social War in Italy. 89. illithridatic War; Sylla commands the Roman army. 88. The Athenians seek as- 88. Sy 11 a defeating the sistance from Mithridates Marsi and Peligni, puts an against Rome. end to the Social Wgr. 86. Athens, reduced by famine, Civil War between Mais taken by Sylla. rius and Sylla. 83. Second Mithridatic War. 82 Revolt in Upper Egypt.- 82. Sylla plunders the temple 82. Sylla defeats Marius, and Thebes destroyed. of Delphi. is createdperpetual dictator. 81 Alexander 11I., king of Egypt. SO. JULIUS C_.ESAR'S FrIsT 79. P o m p e y defeats Do- CAMPAIGN. mitius in Africa. 77. Sertorius revolts in Spain and defeats Metellus and 75. Bythinia a Roman Pompey. Province. 74. Third Mithridatic War under Lucullus. 73. War of Spartacus, the gladiator. 71. Spartacus defeated by Cras 70. Pompey and Crass u s Consuls. 69. Census 450,090. 66. Metellus subdues Crete. Pontus becomes a Roman Province. 65 Ptolemy Auletes, king of 65 y r i a, a R o m a n 65. M. T. CICERo, Consul. Egypt. Province. 163. Cataline's Conspiracy detected and supI pressed by Cicero. 42 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. T/ze Eighth Period. (The Roman.) — B. C. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. THE JEWS. ASIA. 62 Magrificert houses of the nobles; marble theatr-e of Scaurus, to hold 30,000 spectators. 60 Cicero, statesman and orator;,Sallust, historian; Lucretius and Catullus, poets; Apollonius, of Rhodes, rhetorician; Aristomedes, of Crete, grammarian; Andronicus, of Rhodes, peripatetic philosopher. 55 Iron chain cables used by the Veneti. 53. Crassus plunders the tem- 53. Parthian War.-The Rcpie of 10,000 talents. mans defeated. - Crassus slain. 50 A water mill on the Tiber at Romne. 49. The era of Antioch. 48. Antipater, the Idumean, is made lieutenant in Judea by Caesar. 47 The Alexandrian library (400,- 47. Battle of Zela.-Pharnacea 000 vols.) burnt. 000 vols.) burnt.: conquered by Caesar. 46 The year of confusion -so called because the calendar was altered by Sosigenes. 45 Ceesar reforms the Calendar, by introducing the solar instead of the lunar year.First Julian year. - Vitruvius, the greatest Roman architect. chitect. 44. A comet seen in China. 43 Cornelius Nepos, historian; 43. Judea oppressed by CrasDiodorus,Siculus, histo- SUs. rian. Malichus poisons Antipater. 40. Herod the Great, son of Antipater, defeats his rival, 39. The Parthians, under PairAntigonus, and Parcorus, corus, defeated by Venti. the Parthian-takes Jerusa- dius. lem-marries Mariamne-is Darius, king of Pontus. made king by the Romans. 38. Ariobarzanes dethroned by Marc Antony. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 43 146 years. —(Continued.) B. C. AFRICA. ROMAN EMPIRE. East. West. 60. First Triumvirate:Pompey, Crassus, and Julius Caesar. Sciold, first king of Denmark.-Boh, a fierce son of Odin. 58 Ptolemy goes to Rome, Bere- 58. Clodius prcures the ban nice reigns in his absence. ishment of Cicero. - The Helvetii defeated by Julius Caesar. 57. Cicero recalle. - S a 11 u s t expelled from the senate.-Gylf, king of Sweden. 55. Caesar passes the Rhine, defeats the Germans and Gauls, and INVADES BRITAIN. 54. Caesar's second invasion 53. Crassus defeated and killed of Britain. in Parthia. 52. Pompey, sole consul. 51. Caesar completes the conquest of' Gaul, which becomes a Roman province. 49. Caesar passes the Rubicon, and in sixty days makes himself master of Italy-marches into Spain and forces Pompey's troops to surrender. 48. Thessaly becomes the seat 48. Battle of Dyrrhachium. of war.-The Athenians declare for Caesar against Pompey. Battle of Phasa7ia:-Pompey, defeated by Caesar, flees 46 The African War. - Scipio into Egypt, and is slain there. and Juba defeated at Thap- 47. Caesar takes Alexandria, sus. -Cato kills himself at and conquers Egypt.-CaeUtica. —Ptolemy Dionysius sar victorious at Zela, in drowned in the Nile. Asia. 45 Caesar rebuilds Carthage. 45. Corinth rebuilt by Caesar. 45. C ae s a r p e r p e t u a 1 dictator-he subdues the two sons of Pompey, and acquires the sole power. 44. Caesar assassinated in the Senate House. 43 Cleopatra poisons her brother 43. Second Trisumv'irate:and reigns alone. Octavius Caesar, Marc Antony, and Lepidus.-Cicero proscribed ad murdered. 42. 7The Battle of Philippi:Antony and Octavius defeat Brutus and Cassius. 44 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. Thie Eighth Period.-( The Roman.)B. C. PROGRESS OF SOCGETY, ETC. THE JEWS. ASIA. 34. Antony takes possession of Armenia, which becomes a Roman province- leads an inglorious expedition against Parthia. Golden age of Roman literature. 30 The revenue of the empire 30. Herod kills Mariamne. amounts to about 40 millions sterling.-First standing army in Rome.-Direct trade of Rome with India.-Silk and linen manufactories in the empire. 29 Temple of Janus at Rome closed-there being now a 29. E p e s u, next to general peace. Alexandria, the chief place of trade in the Roman empire. 27 Treasures of Egyptian art brought to Rome.-The Pantheon built. 25 HORACE, VIRGIL, Tibullus, Propertius, poets; Varru-s and Tucca, critics; Livy, historian; Masscenas, minister of Augustus, patron of literature; Strabo, geographer;.nmilisus AIlacer, of Verona, poet; Agrippa, warrior, and patron of the arts. Woaship of Isis at Rome. 22 Pantotniznic dances introduced on the Roman stage. 20. Porus, king of India, soli19 Aquteducts constructed by 19. The Temple rebuilt by cits an alliance with Rome. Agrippa. Herod-he also builds Cy- Parthians defeated by Tipron, Antipatris, Pharselis, berius. 17 Dedications of btanks first in- and the tower of Phas&el in troduced. Jerusalem. 14. Polemon colnquers Bosporus. 12 The legions distributed over the provincos in fixed camps, which soon grew into cities -among them were Bonn and Mayence. 8 The calendar corrected by Augustus. 5 Dionysiuzs, of tIalicasrnassus, historian; and Dionysizss, 5. Cyrenius taxes Judea. geographer. 4 BIRTH OF OUR SAVIOUR, JESUS CHRIST, 4 years before the Vulgar Era. 3. Archelaus succeeds Herod with the title of Ethnarch. THE WQORLD S PROGRESS. 45 146 years. —(Continued.) B. C. AFRICA. ROMIAN EAIPIRE. East. West. 36 Cleopatra obtains from An- 36. Sextus Pompey defeated tony a grant of Phcenicia, in Sicily. Cyrene and Cyprus. 34 -receives all Asia from the Mediterranean to the Indus. 32. Antony quarrels with Oc31 Cleopatra and Marc Antony 31. By the BATTLE OF AC. def31. By the BATTLE OF ACAdecateti by Octavius, at TIUM Octavius acquires the empire. 30 Alexandria taken by Octavius. 30. THE REPUBLIC BE-Antony and Cleopatra de- COMES A MONARCHY. stroy themselves. Egypt becomes a Roman province. 29. Octav lis s 3 days triumph at Rome. Temple of Janus shut. Rome contains 4,101,017 citizens. 27. The titles of Augustus and Emperor conferred on Octavlus for 10 years. 23. Agrippa in Spain. 22. Conspiracy of Murmna. 21. Athens finally subjected to 21. Augustus visits Greece Rome. - and Asia. 20. CXCth Olympiad. 16. Lollius defeated by the Germans. 15. Cantabria, Austria, Rhebia, Vindelencia and Moesia become Roman provincesbeing conquered by Dr usus. 13. Augustus assumes the title of Pontifex Maximus. 12. Pannonia, conquered by Tiberius, becomes a Roman province. 11. Germany subdued by Ger manicus. 8. Tiberius at Rhodes. 5. Q. Varrus appointed govel-nor of Syria, and Cyrenius governor of Judea. 4. Cymbeline, king of Britain. PARTT II. O0DERN CHRONOLOGY, FROM THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE PRESENT TIME. Epochas or Periods. I. Fronm the Christian Era Period of the Ten Persecutiow, of to the Reign of Constantine the Great, A. D. 306 Christians. II. 76 Northern Invasions. Extinction of the Western Empire, " 476 Nohernnasions. ir" Justinian and Belisarims. " Flight of Mahomet, " 622 IV. " Crowning of Charlemagne at Rome, " 800 aracen Empire. v. "10661 i' New Western 2E mpoire. " Battle of Hastings, "1066 New Western Empire. VI Founding of the Turkish Empire, " 1299 The Crsades. vain cc C; Tamerlane, Wickli e andHuss.. Taking of Constantinople, " 1453 ffe, and Hs VIII. " The Reformation; Discoveries Edict of Nantes, " 1598 and Inventions. IX. # " The English Commonwealth Death of Charles XII. of Sweden, "1718 and Wars of Louis XIV. ~~~~~~~~X. ~~ ) "c American and French Revolu. Battle of Waterloo, "1815 tions. Xi. tm " European Revolutions, Litera" present time, (1850.) tare and the Arts. 48 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. MODERN CHRONOLOGY.-PERIOD lst.-(TfLe Ten Persecsutions.)A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. SACRED. The BIRTH OF CHRIST:-(see p. 44.) Herod Antipas being at this time tetrarch of Galilee. 8. Christ reasons with the doctors. 9 Celsus, the physician; Phcdrsus, the- fabulist; Fellius Paterculus, Roman historian. 25. Pontius Pilate, governor of Judea. 26 The Druids in Germany. 26. John the Baptist begins his ministry. 27. Christ baptized by John 28. -at the marriage in Cana.- Matthew called. 29. Twelve disciples sent abroad, "two and two." 30 Philo, Alexandrian Jew, disciple of Plato. 30. CRUCIFIXION of our SAVIOUR, FriSeneca, moral philosopher. day, April 3, at 3 P. M.; Resurrection, Sunday, April 5; Ascension, Thursday, May 4. 33 Valerius Maoxinmus, historian. 33. St. Peter baptizes Cornelius. 34. St. Paul converted to Christianity. 37 Appion, of Alexandria, grammarian, called the " Trumpet of the World." 39. St. Matthew writes his gospel. 40. The disciples first called Christians at Antioch. 41. Herod's persecution; St. Peter imprisoned. 44. St. llIark writes his gospel. —Death of St. James. 45. Barnabas and Paul preach in Cyprus. 48 A census being taken by Claudius, the emperor and censor, the inhabitants of Rome are foiund to amount to 6,900,000.-( Univ. Hist.)-[More than three times the number of London at present.] 50 Columella, born in Spain; left twelve books 50. Paul preaches in the Areopagus, at Athens. on husbandry. 52. Council of the Apostles at Jerusalem. 55. Paul preaches at Ephesus, and at Coesarea. 57. -pleads before Felix. 59. -pleads before Festus, and appeals to Ceesar. TIE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 49 306 years.-Fros t/he CAIs7istian Erac to thte reign of ConstatieWe. -. D. IROMAN EMPIRE. East. liVest. 1 Caius Cwsar makes peace with thle Parthians. Tiberius returns to Rome. 3. Cinna's conspiracy detected. — Caius Coesar dies. 6. Q. Varrus encamped on the Weser. governs Lower Germany like a Roman province. 9. The Germans, under Arminiuts, defeat and kill Varrus. Ovid is banished to Tomos. 14 Augustus dies at Nola, aged 76, and is succeeded by Tiberius.-. 17 Germanicus conquers Cappadocia. 19 Germanicus poisoned at Antioch. 19. The Jews banished from Rome. -The Marcomanni conquered by Drusus. 21. The theatre of Pompey destroyed by fire. 26 Thrace becomes a Roman province. 26. Tiberius retires to Capraea. 31. Sejanus disgraced and put to death. 33. Conquest of Mauritania. 37. Tiberius dies, aged 78. -~ C (aliguI la, a (noted for his profligacy and folly.) 41. Caligula assassinated by Chereas. Claudiussucceeds to the throne. 43. -invades Britain with his general, Plautius. 45. Vespasian. general in Britain. 48. Census of the city, 6,900,000. 51. Caractacus, the chief of the Britons, conquered and brought to Rome. Gq4.- - Ne ro,, a profligate and bloody tyrant. 55. -poisons Britanicus. 56. Rotterdasn built. 59. Nero's mother, Agrippina, put to death by his order. 50 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Modern: Period 1.-306 yeanr. A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. SACRED AND ECCLESIASTICAL. 59. Paul is shipwrecked on the Island Melita (Malta). 60. Paul imprisoned at Rome 63. Paul set at liberty. 64 Nero's golden palace built; of great extent, 64. The first persecution of Christians 0r inclosing fields, &c. The buildings in Nel o. Rome more regular after the fire. 63 to 66. Paul visits Jerusalem, and travels through the greater part of the known world. 66 Pliny, the elder, author of the first naturcal 66. Pope Linus.* history;. Quintius Cusrtius, historian; Per. The Jews at war with the Romans, and stius, satirist. Paul beheaded. St. Peter crucified. 67 Josephus, the Jewish historian. 67. The Jews massacred by Florus.-Josephus, governor of Galilee. Pope St. Clement.-Gamalie'. 68. Vespasian invades Judea. 69 The Coliseumn of Vespasian. 70. The destruction of Jerusalem, by T;dus. 77. Pope St. Cletus 78 The Capitol rebuilt. Circumnavigation of Scotland. 79 Destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii. 80 Very beautiful paintings in the Baths of Titus; the group of the Laocoon. 81 Quintillian, orator; Valerius Flaccus, poet; Martial, Epigrammatist; Apollonius, Pythagorean philosopher; Epictetus, stoic; Dio Chrysostom, Greek rhetorician and philosopher; Ph'ilo By tius; Ignatius and Pa- 83. Pope Anacletus. pias, two of the fathers of the church. 95. Second persecution of the Christians -by Domnitian. St. John writes his Gospel and Alpca. lypse, and is banished to the isle of Patimos. 96 Tacitucs, historian; Juvenal, satirist; *Sta. 96. Pope Evaristus. tiues, poet; Aul. Gelliss, Latin grammarian; Plsutarch, moralist and biographer; the youngere Pliny. I the younDer Pussy. 97. Timothy stoned. St. John returns from exile. 98 The Ulpian library; Public schools in all 98. Christian assemblies prohibited by Trajan. the provinces; Jurisprudence flourishes; the city adorned with the Forum; Pillar of Trojan, and baths; bridge built over * The word Pope is used in accordance the Danube. with the Roman Catholic usage, though the name was not adopted by their Pontiffs tipi several centuries after... -' —-C/rLstias Erac t Costa:CtltirCe.] THE WORLD'S P!'OG GRESS. 51 A D. D ROMAN EBPIRE. Nast. WVest. 60 Corbulo subdues Armenia. 61. Revolt of the Britons under queen Boadicea; they burn London. The queen, defeated by Suetoniuss, poisons herself. 64. Nero sets Rome on fire, and accuses the Christians of the crime. 65 Tiridates placed on the throne of Armenia by -persecutes the Christians-Seneca, LaNero. cian, and others put to death. 68. -- Galb a,p@ reigns 9 months, and is put to death by 69. —--- O t h o - (2 months) defeated and killed by V itelli usts, who is defeated by the army of 70 Judea subdued and Jerusalem destroyed by 70. - V e s p a s i a n. - Titus. 73 Vespasian conquers Lycia, Rhodes, Thrace, Cilicia, Byzantium and Samos. 77 Revolt of the Parthians. 77. A great plague at Rome, 10,000 dying in one day. 79. T i t u s, (beneficent.) Herculaneum and Posnpeii destroyed by an i? rruption of Vesuvius. 80. Julieus Agricola, conqueror and governor of Britain, reduces Wales, enters Caledonia. 81. —-D o m i t i an, ( a cruel tyrant.) 86. Dercebal, leader of the German hordes, defeats Domitian, and compels him to pay a yearly tribute. 88. Capitoline and secular games. War with Dacia 15 years. 96. Domitian put to death by Stephanus. (well intentioned but enfeebled by age., 98. -- T r aj an, (a great sovereign and a warrior.) The Roman nEmpire at its greatest extent. J. Severus, general in Britain. -1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 5i2 THE TVORLD'S PRiOGRESS. [Modernb: Period I.-306 yectz A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY. ETC. ECCLESIASTICAL. 100. St. John dies at Ephesus, met. 94. 107 The first credible historian among the 107. Third persecution of the Christians Chinese. Traj an. 104, St. Ignatlus devoured by wild beasts. Pope Alexander I. 118. Fourth persecution of the Christians b! Adrian. 120 The great buildings of Pallyra.-Temple of 119. Pope Sixtus I. the Sun at Baalbec. The Roman mnosaics. 126. Quadratus, bishop of Athens. 127. Pope Telesphorus. 130. Heresy of Prodicus, chief of the Adamnites. 132 Jurisprudence improved by the publishment of Adrian's pepetual code. Ptolemy,-the celebrated Egyptian astronomer and geographer -Arrian, Appians, AMaxim7us, Lysius and Pausanius, Greelc histo rians; Lucian, a satirical writer; Herzogenles, rhetorician of Tarsus. 134. Heresy of Marcion, who acknowledges three Gods. L35. Polycap and Aristides, Christian fathers 139. Pope Hygenus. 142. Pope Pius 1. Heresy of Valentine. 150. Pope Anicetus. Canon of Scripture fixed about this tin'( 154. Justin Martyr publishes his apology fo the Christians. 162. Pope Soter. 166 Tschang Henzg, the Chinese astronomer. 167. Polycarp and Pionices martyred in Asia 169 Galen, Greek physician; Athamneus, a grammarian; Diogeies Laertius, Greek historian. 171. Pope Eleutherus. 177. The Christians persecuted at Ly as.Theophiltus, Tatian, and.Moztanas. 180 The equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius. 185. Pope Victor I. St, Irenoaus. -Ci'.';',isl'i,'e to C;slst'e?2titee.J THE WORLD'S PROGIRESS. 53.D. nROMIAN EMPIREn. Bast. W/est. 100. The Huns emigrate westward. 101. Trajan reduces Dacia. 102 Pliny, proconsul in Bithynia, sends Trajan his account of the Christians.-Great victories of Trajan. 114 Trajan's expedition against the Parthians. 115. Massacre of the Greeks and Romans by tihe Jews of Cyrenoe. 1161 Seizure of Ctesiphon. 117 Armlenia Major again governed by its own 117. A d r i a n, kings dependent upon ornome. 120 Nicomedia and other cities destroyed by an 120. -nakes t progress through all the earthquake. 121. provinces -visits Britain. builds there a wall from the Tyne to Solway Frith.-A wail built from the Rhine, to the Danube. 1261 Adrian in Asia Minor for seven years. 130 Adrian rebuilds Jersusalem, under the name of,Elia Capitolina, and erects there a temple to Jupiter. 132 The rebellion of tile.ews crushed after a war of five years.-The Jews banished fiom Judea. 13. —An ton inu s Pius, (eminent for his virtues and love of peace.) 140. Lollitus Urbicus extends the Rotman dominion in Britain, and erects a second rampart, calledl the Wall of Antooninus. 145. Anmonirnms defeats the Moors, Germans, antl Dacianss. 1461. -introduces the worship of Serapis into Itoisse. 152. — stopl)s thie persecution of the Christians. 160 E mbassy sent by Antoninus to China.. 161.- I ra 1 cuS Aureliu s,. (Antonsinus,) (the stoic philosopher.) Escape of the thundlering legion. 158. Plague over the whole known world. 168 War with the Parthians, lasts 3 years. 169. The Marconmanlid at war with Rome. 180. The enmpe:or (lies at Siriium: succeedel Iby C Co mm o dus, (profligate and cruel;) mnakes peace with the Germans. GOTIIS in Dacia. 54 TIIHE WORLD7S PROGRESS. [Moderln: Period 1.-306 yJewea. A.D. itoCEltasSS OF SOCIsTY, ETC. ECCLESIASTICAL. 197. Pope Zephyrinus. 202. Fifth persecution of the Christians utnder 208 Papzsiacn, the gleatest civil lawyer of anrl- Severuls.-Tesrtlullizam, an able defender of quity-Jrelius Africamts, chronologer. Christianity.-Clemeens. of Alexandria, and Mlsisutius Felix, C. F.* 215 Crac'rslla grants the right of Roman citizenship to ail the provinces, that tthey may be- 217. Pope Calixtus I. come liable to the taxes, irsheritas scea;, &c. The Septuagint found in a cask.'2f.3. Pa!)Te lUrban 1. 2'34. Pop)e Pontianus. 235 Aomzmonius, founder of a new school of Pla- 235. AnteruS. tonic sphlitosoplly at Alexanria. Origen. C. F. Dio Cassius, Greek historian. Sixth persecution of the Christians, under Miaximinus. in whichl L.aosidas, rfrene2ts. Victor, Perpetua, and Felicilas are martyred. 242 Ceesoriaus, a critic antl grammarian. 2-l4. Greary Thazs t2cms guss, andl Dtionty.q)st of Alexandria, C. F. 249 Ilerodiao, Greek historian. 250. Pope St. Cornelius. 250 Loangizses, plhilosopher and critic. Seventh persecution of the Christians * Christian Father. — Christ ias Era to Constantine.] THE VWORLD'S PROGtRESS. 55 A.D. ROMAN EDIPIRE. East. W;Vest. 189 The SARACENS defeat the Romans. 189. The Capitol of Rome destroyed by light. 191. Rome nearly destroyed by fire. 192. Comrnodus assassinated by Martia and Laetus. 193. Pertinax, -- - proclaimed by the Prwetortan guardsmurdered after a reign of 3 nmonths.-The empire bought by Didits Jtulianus, who is put to death by order of the senate. — Septimus Severus, - (governs with vigor.) -defeats his competitors, Niger and Albinus. 194. -besieges Byzantium. 202. -persecutes the Christians. 203 -his sons Caracalla and Geta go to Britain, wlhere 50,000 Roman troops died of plague. Tl'he wall of Severus between the Forth and the Clyde built. 211. Severus dies at York, itl Britain. -Caracalla and Geta. --- Caracalla murders Geta. 212.'-visits the provinces along the Danube. -Wars with the Catti and Alemanni. 217. Caracalla is assassinated. M- acrinus, put to death by the soldiers. 218.- Heliogabalus, - (a monster of vice and cruelty.) 222.-Alexander Severu s,. (a beneficent and enlightened prince.) 23 PERSIA; the new kindlom begun by Artax- The onans aee to py an aual trierxes; (the dynasty of the Sassasitd), bute to the Goths, to prevent them firo molesting the empire. 226 Parthia tributary to Persia. 226. The victory of Severus over the Persians at Tadmor. 235. Severus murdered in a mutiny of the army; succeeded by Maxim inus, - _who defeats the Dacians and armatians. 236. Maximinus assassinated by his troops near Aquilea. -B a lbinus and Gordian, -- 241. The FRANKS first mentioned in his242 Cordian defeats the Persians under Sapor. tory; they invade Gaul. 244. -are repulsed at Moguntiacum. Gordian put to death by -P hi 1 i p,(the Arabian,) —--- who makes makes peace with Sapor. 247.'The secular games restored. 2,49. -Decius i persecutes the Christians. 250. —slain by the Goths, who invade the empire by crossing the Danube. 56 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Modern?; Period 1. —306 years. A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. ECCLESIASTICAL. 251 Ptotines. 251. St Cy/prian, bishop of Carthage. —lIoOdi~n in Scandinavia. nastic life originates about this time. Dispute between the churches of Rome and Africa about baptism. 259. Pope Dionysius. 262. Paul, bishop of Samosatia, defies the divinity of Jesus Christ 26S Paulus, a Roman poet. 270 Longinus at the court of Zenobia. 269. Pope Felix I. 272. Ninth persecution under Aurelian. 274 Rome surrounded with a wall. 274. Pope Eutychianes. Longinus dies. rManes originates the heresy of the Manichlaans-rejects all the sacraments; refuses allegiance to temporal sovereigns, &c. 276 Porphyry, the Greek philosopher and opposer of Christianity. 277 Extraordinary naval expedition of the Thracian Franks in t.o Mediterranean and Northern Seas. 283. Pope Caius. The Jewish Talsnud and Targum conm posed. Paul, the Theban, the first hermit.-Religious ceremonies multiplied.-Pagan rites imitated by the Christians. 284 Diocletian's Orientalform of governmenst — the monarchy considered hereditary-nomination of Casars as co-rulers. 286. Hierax, chief of the Hieraxians; asserts Diocletian's baths, containing 3,000 benches that Melchizedec was the Holy Ghost, and of white marble, while the walls were denies the resurrection. adorned with paintings. :-C/LriStratL Er'a to Constamtife.] THE WVORLD S PROGIESS. 57 A D. ROnIIAN EIMPIIZE. East. West. 251 HUNS on tile Caspian Sea. 251. —-- G a I I u s; - purchases a peace with the Goths. —Confederacy of the Franks between the Rhine and Elbe. -a great pestilence prevails in the empire. 253. - Emilianu s. 254.- Valerian. X-is successful against the Germans and Goths. 256 —69. Four great piratical expeditions of the The Persians victorious in Asia Minor. Goths into Asia Minor and Greece. 259 Persia:-Sapor's victory over the Itoman 2.59. Valerian defeated and taken prisoner and arms. flayed alive by the Persians. 260 )The temple of Diana at Ephesus burnt. A 26i Sapor, the Persian, takes Antioch, Tarsus and G a 11 i e n u s. Coesarea. Period of the 30 tyrants. The Persians penetrate to Ravenna. 264 Odenatus, king of Palmyra —he is succeeded 264. Alliance with Odenatus. by his wife. 267. Cleodamus and Athenius defeat the Goths Ze teatobi a, who reigns with the titles of and Scythians.' Augusta,' and' Queen of the East.' 268. Gallienus killed at Milan. - Claudius II. Xdefeats an army of 320,000 Goths. 269. -dies at Sirmium. 270. -A urelian, - (a great warrior.) 271. -defeats the Goths and Alemanni. 269 Zenobia conquers Egypt, a part of Armenia, and Asia Minor. 273 Zenobia defeated at Edessa, by Aurelian, who 273 -reduces Palmyra after an heroic resist. destroys her magnificent capital, and carries ance, and takes queen Zenobia prisoner. her to Rome. 274. France, Spain, and Britain reduced to obedience. The Temple of the Sun at Rome burnt.Dacia riven up to the barbarians. 275. Aurelian killed near Bvzantium. An inlter1egtnucsn of 6 ionthls. -— T Tacitus, - (a descendant of the historian,) reigns with wisdom 6 months. 277. —— Probus, u - - (a warlike prince.) -obtains several victories over the barba280 The Persians lefeated by Probus. rians.-The Franks peinmitted by Probus to settle in Gaul. 282. Probus slain by his soldiers. - - - Carus Cr kIilled by lightning. Carinus and Numerianus,* (effeminate and cruel.) 288. Fingal, king of Morven, dies. 284. - Diocletian -- sends ambassadors to China. "The Era of Diocletian," or of "the martyrs," August 29. 287. Britain usuiped by Carausius, who reigns 7 years. The empire attacked by the rlorthern barbarians, and several provinces usurped by tyrants.-Maximianus, a colleague of the Emperor. 3* 58 THE WORLDD'S PROGRESS. [Modern: Period I.-306 years. A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY. ETC. I ECCLESIASTICAL. 290 The Gregsorian code. 296..Ionks in Spain and Egypt. Pope Marcellinus. 303. Tenth Persecution of the Christians. 304 Gregory and Ilermogenes, lawyers; Elicus, 304. Arnobius, of Africa, C. F., converted Spartiansus, and Vopiscus, historians; Tre- from idolatry. bellius Pollo. MODERN: PERIOD SECOND. —170 years. — 306. Persecution of the Christians stopped by Constanti us. 310. Pope Eusebius. Arius excommunicated. 311. Pope Malchiades. 312 The preatorian guard broken up by Constantine. 314. Pope Sylvester I. 319. Toleration of Christianity by Constantine the Great. 323 Foundation of Constantinople by Constantine the Great.-Celebrated dome of St Sophia: 325. The Council of Nice (from June 19th; the splendor of the court so great that it 325 to August 25th) consisting of 318 bishops, cost more than the legions. who condemn Arianism. -Eusebius, bishop 330 Constantinople becomes the seat of art and of Caesarea, C. F., and ecclesiastical histoliterature. rian. - Lactantius, Athanasius, Arius.Ephraim and Basil, C. F., flourish in the reign of Constantine. 336. Pope Marcus. 337. Pope Julius. Eleventh persecution. —Saints invoked, the cross reverenced, and incense used by the Christians. 340 Ossian, the Caledonian bard, supposed to have flourished about this time. 341. Christianity propagated in Ethiopia by Frumaintius. 356. Pope Felix II. 357 Eutlropius and Mlarcellhzus, historians; Jam- St. Hilary and Gregory Nazianzen, of blicus and Eunsnpius, Greek historian. Constantinople, an eminent writer, C. F.-.Elius Donatuss, bishop of Carthage.Cyril, bishop of Jerusalem.-Monasteries in Thebais. -tf/ristian Em-' to Constantine.] THE WOJRLD S PROGRESS. 59 s.. DROMAN EMPIRE. East. Wi/ est. 291. The Franks make themselves masters of Batavia and Flanders. 293. The Franks expelled from Batavia.!-l Nlsrses, Icing of Persia, loses Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyrla. 296. Britain restored to the emperor. 2 )6 Alexandria taken by Diocletian. )301 Hormisdas, II., king of Persia, builds Ormus. 304. Diocletian and Maximian resign the Empire to Constantius and Galerius. PIrone Constantine to Odoacer. 306.- CONSTANTINE THE GREAT, - - (first Christian emperor.) Licinieus, Maximian, and AMaxentius, his three colleagues. Constantine defeats the Franks. 312. Maxentius defeated and killed. 314. Civil war with Licinius. 319. Constantine favors and tolerates Christianity. 32l. -appoints the observance of Sunday. 322. -defeats and banishes Licinius, and becomes sole emperor. 325 The first general council at Nice. 325. -abolishes the combats of gladiators and assemblies. 328 The seat of government removed to Constantinople, which was solemnly dedicated on May l cth, 330. 331. Constantine orders all the heathen temM pies to be destroyed. 333 Great famine and pestilence in Syria. 334 Revolt of Sarmatian slaves, 300,000 are dispersed over the empire. 337 Death of Constantine, and tile accession of his three sons, - C- oConstantius, Constans, and Constantlne.1- -— a 340 150 Greek and Asiatic cities destroyed by an 340. Constantine, the younger, defeated and earthquake. killed by Constans at Aquilea. 350 Hermanric, king of the Ostrogoths, founds an 350. Constans killed in Spain by Magnentius. extensive empire. 354 Gallus put to death by Constantius. 357. Six German kings defeated by Julian at Strasburg. 361 Constantius dies at Tarsus. 361.- J u I i a n, the Apostate, -attempts in vain to rebuild t e temple at Jerusalem. A disadvantageous peace with the Persians. 363. -is slain in a war with the Persians. Jovian. - 364. Death of Jovian, and the accession of Valentinian and Valens, under whom the EMPIRE is DIVIDED: EASTERN EMPIRE WESTERN EMPIRE, extending from the lower Danube to the con- extending fioom the Caledonian ramparts fines of Persia. to the foot of Mount Atlas. 60 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [M11odler'n: Period II.-170 yeer-.A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCiETY, ETC. ECCLESIASTICAL. 373. The Bible translated into the Gothic lan guage. 379. The prerogatives of the Roman See much 330 Aurelius Vzctor, author of lives of celebrated enlarged. Romnans. 381. The second general Council of Constantinople. 334. Symachus pleads in the Roman Senate for Paganism against St. Ambrose. 385. Pope Syricius. 392 Prsudentius and Ausonius, Latin poets; 392. St. CIhrsysostom, patriarch of Constan. P es and e, of Alexandria, mahe- tinople; St. Ambrose, archbishop of Milan; aplin. St. Jerome, St. o1artin, and St. Augustine, maticians.'Christian Fathers.' Imnage worship. —The Christian hierarchy begins. 395 Claudian, Latin poet. 401. Pope Innocent I. 412 Mac s, Plato. hilosoher 412. Cyril, bishop of Alexandria; Isidore and Socrales, ecclesiastical historians; Orosius, a Spanish disciple of St. Augustine; and Pelagius, a British monk, who denied original sin, &c. 416. The Pelagian. heresy condemned by the African bishops. 417. Pope Zozimus. 418. Pope Boniface I. 422. Pope Celestine I. 425 Theodosius establishes publi schoo00ls, and attempts the restoration of learning. 429..Nestorias, bishop of Constantinople, acknowledges two persons in Jesus Christ. 431. Third general Council at Ephesus. 432. Pope Sixtus III. St. Patrick preaches the Gospel in Ireland. 135 The Tlheodosian code published. 435. Neslorianisem prevails in the East. 440. Pope Leo I. (the Great). 443. The Viaic,7rreaa books burned at Rome. 445. Flavias, patriarch of Constantinople. * —From ConstntIWe to Odoacer.] THE WVORLD S PROGRIESS. 61 A.D. EASTERN EMPIRE. WVESTERN EMIPIRE. 364 - Valens. - - 364.- Valentinian I. - - elected by the army. 368. The Saxons invade Britain, but are defeated by Theodosius. 375. -- Gratian 376 tHUNGARY, (ancient Pannonia,) invaded by gains a victory over the Germans; sucthe Huns, fiom whom it is named.-The ceeds to the eastern empire on the death of Goths expelled by the Huns, are allowed by Valens; MIaximus is proclaimed emperor. Valens to settle in Thrace. -Gratian killed at Lyons. 378 Valens defeated and slain by the Goths near Adrianople. 379 -- T h e o d o s i u s the Great, - 379. The LOIMBARDS first leave Scandinaa zealous supporter of Christianllly. via, and defeat the Vandals. 383. -V alentini an II.- - -is dispossessed by Maximnus, but is restoied by Thieodosius; miakes Treves his capital. 3S4. -is strangled at Vienna by Arbogastes, a Gaul, colnlallder of the arrty. 3,38 Theodosius de feats Maxinmus, the tyrant of tile. western empire. 392 -T h e o do s ti us -s becomes sole emperor of the East and West. Complete down fall of Paganism. 394 Theodosins defeats Eugenius, the usur per of the West, and Arbogastes, the Gaul. Final division of the empire be tween the sons of Theodosius. 395 A r c a d u s. o ono rius. s A. 401. Europe overrun by the VISIGOTItS. A.; - - 403. Alaric defeated by Stillicho. 408 — T h e o d o s i u s I I. 1406. The Vandals permitted to settle in Spain, a child; Athenius, minister. Gaul, &c. 410. Rome sacked and burned by the Goths under A 1 a r i c. 412 Beginning of the Vandal power in Spain. 413. Burugndian kindclom begun in Alsace. 414 Regency of the emperor's sister, Pulcheria. 414. The Visigoths plant themselves in Toulouse. 417. The Alani defeated and extirpated by the Goths. 420 Persian ar. 20. FRANKS:-P h a r a m o n d, their first king, on the lower Rhine. 424.- V a l e n t i n i a n I II. - 426. Britain evacuated by the Romans. 427. Pannonia recovered from the Huns. 423. JEtius, the Roman general, defeated by the Franks and Goths. 431 Armenia divided between the Persians and Franks:-Clodion, king, extends his conRonmans. quests to the river Somme. 433 A great part of Constantinople destroyell by 433. A t t i 1- a, "The scourge of God," forms fire. an immense empire from China to the Atlantic. 437 Pannonia, Dalmatia and Noricum gained from 437. Etius defeats the Goths. the western empire. 439. The kingdom of the V a n d a ls i n Africa, under Genseric, who takes Carthage and plunders Italy. 441. The Roman territories invaded by the lIuns, Persians and Saxons. 445. Tho famous embassy from Britain, soliciting aid against the Picts. 62 TIUE WORLD')S PROGRESS. [M0odern: Period lI.-170 year,. A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. ECCLESIASTICAL. 447. Eutyches asserts the existence of onl, one nature in Jesus Christ. 449. Ibus, bishop of Edessa; and.Eusebius, bishop of Doryleum, deposed. 450 Zozisnus and Olymnpiodosrs, Greek histo- 450. Sozosren and Theodoret, ecclesiastical rians. historians. 451. The fourth general Council at Chalcedon, at which Eutycheanism and Nestorianism are solemnly condemned 461. Pope Hilarius. 465. Pope Simplicius. 468 The principle established that every accused person shall be tried by his peers, or equals. Oligarchy of the bishops of Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and JeruLegislation of the Visigoths in Spain —Eric salem —all striving for the supremacy.being Ikingr, and founder of the Gothic rno- The church now begins to assume a politi. narchy. cal aspect. 476 The tottering empire of the west was finally overthrown by Odoacer's sack of Rome, the great event which precedes the middle or "dark ages." The fobrm of the old Roman government remained-the senate, the consuls, &c.-but Italy, ravaged by a succession of wars, plagues, famines, and every form of public tyranny and domestic slavery, was nearly a desert. : —tFionl. Constantine to Odocer'.] TIIE WORLDnS PIPOGIPESS. G3 A.D. EASTERN EMPIRE. WESTERN EMPIRE. 448. Franks: —Merovceus lst, king of the Me. rovingians. ZEtius clefeats the Ituns. 450 M a r c i Mar a an, a Thracian, refuses to pay the annual tribute to the Iuns. 451. The arrival of the Saxons in B r it a i n, under Hengist and Horsa. 452. The city of VENICE founded. 455. Valentinian assassinated by -Petronius Maximus. ( -- A vitus. - 457 — L e o I., (the Thracian,) U- 457. —- Ma jorian. first emperor ever crowned by the patriarch. 458. Franks: —Childceric I., conquers as far War with the Goths. as the Loire and takes Paris. 461 Peace with the Goths; Theodoric is received 461. S e v e r u s. from them as a hostage. s. 467. Athenius. In (The last three emperors slain by Ricimer.) 468- Spain:-The Visigoths, under Eric, establish their kingdom. 472. — Olybius. S Eruption of Vesuvius, seen at Constantinople. 473. -- Glycerius.6 474 Zeno. 474.- Juli us Nepos. - a turbulent reign: debauc eries and conspiracies. 475 Theodoric becomes chief of the Ostrog oths, 475.- R o m u 1 u s A u g u s t u l u s. and invades the empire. tIe ravages 476. ROME taken by ODOACER, king of Thrace. the Herulii: END of the WESTERN EMPIRE, 1228 years after the building of Rome; and commencement of the kingdom of Italy under Odoacer. 64 THE WORLDIS PROGRESS. MODERN: PERIOD III.-146 ycars. A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. ECCLESIASTICAL. 483. Pope Felix III. -excommunicated by Acacius, bishop of Constantinople. 484. Christians persecuted by IIuneric, king of the Vandals.,p6 Rise of the feudal system in France, under Clovis. 492. Pope Ge~asius I. 493 Theodoric introduces the architecture of Greece to improve the buildings of Italy. 494. The 1eomzan Poenti' asserls his supre. 496. Christianity introdulced into France. 498 Publication of the Gemara or Talmud of Babylon. 501 Burgundian laovs published, being a collection of the rights and customs of the Burgundians. 511 The Salic lawz established in France. 513 Boethius, the Roman poet and philosopher. 513. Christianity embraced by the Persian king, Carbades. 514 Use of burning glass in warfare at Constan- 514. Pope Hormisdas. tinople. 516 The Christian Era proposed and introduced by Dionysius, a mnonk. 519. The orthodox bishops restored by Justin. 52-3. Pope John I. 525. The Arian bishops deposed. 526. Pope Felix IV. Extsremse Unction introduced. 529 The schools of Athens suppressed. 529. The Order of Benedictine monks instituted at Monte Cassino, near Naples. 530 The fables of Pilpay translated into Pers an. 530. Pope Boniface 1I. 531 Chess introduced into Persia from India. 533 oJustinian's pandects and code of lasws. 533. Pope John II. 535. Pope Agapetus. 536. " Sylvester I. Separation of the A7smenians from the Gree, church. 539 Architecture: the church of St. Sophia built 538. Pope Vigilius. at Constantinople. Proslus, a learned Platonist. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 65 — Od.acer' to MTIhonfz et. [The "Mliddle or Da~kl Ages" begin here.] A.D. EASTERN EmPIgaE. EuRopc, generally. - 480 An earthquake, lasting 40 days, destroys the greater part of Constantinople. 481 Zeno makes Theodoric general and consul. 481. FRANCE:-C o v i s I., fonder of the French monarchy. 484. Alaric II., king of the Visigoths in Spain. 485. France:-Battle of Soissons gained by Clovis. 487. Britain:-The Saxons defeated by Prince A r t h u r and Ambrosius. 490:-Italy:-ravaged by the barbarians. Britain:-kingdom of Sussex. 491 - A n a s t a s u s I. 491. France:-Clovis subdues Thuringia. 49l1 The Green and Blue factions. The emperor's persecution of the Catholics, and protection of the Manichweans, oc- 493. I t a y:-c o n q u e r e d b y Th e o - casions a rebellion headed by Vitalianus. d o r i c, kitl of the Ostrogoths. —Odoacer put to death. 499. France:-Clovis concludes a peace with Theodoric in Italy. 500. - Burgundy becomes his tributary. 502 The empire ravaged and the imperial army destroyed by Carbades, king of Persia. 507 Long walls built to protect Constantinople 507. — Clovis defeats Alaric near Poictiers. from the 1ultarians. foth Bugaia.510. IFrance:-Clovis maltes Paris his capital. 511 A great insurrection in Constantinople, 10,000 511. France: —Clovis dies. killed. Childebert I. - 512. The HERULII settle in Thrace. 514 Constantinople besieged by Vitalianus, whlose fleet is consumed by the burning glass of 516. The Christian Era adopted. Proclus. 516. The Christian Era adoptel. 517. Gete ravages Illyricum, Macedon, &c. 518 Anastasius killed by lightning. Justi n _I.,- _519. Britain:-Prince Arthur defeated at 18- Briista peawsatt of Dalmatia. Charford by Cerdic, who begins the third -- period of the Byzantie empire. Saxon kingdom of Wessex. 522. Spain:-Amalaric, the. first Gothic king, who establishes his court in Spain-his capital, Seville. 527 - J US T I N I A N. celebrated for his code of laws and the victories of his generals, Belisarius and Noarses. 529 Belisarius defeats the Persians under Chosroes. 530. Britain:-kingdom of Essex. 531. Spain:-Theudis succeeds Amalaric. 532 -quells a conspiracy in Constantinople. 532. Burgundy conquered by Childebert. 53s1 -defeats the Vandals in Africa. 535 -subdues Sicily. 536. Vitiges, king of the Ostogroths, surren..,se I —tak}es Naples. cders his possessions in Gaul to the French Iring. 537 -takes Rome, defeats the Ostrogroths in 537. Italy conquered by Belisarius. Italy. 538 -the Huns in Thrace, and 66 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [Modern~: Period 111.-146 years. A.D. PROGRESS OF SOC1ETY, ETC. ECCLESIASTICAL. 540. The Monothelites, who acknowledged but one will in Jesus Christ. 551 The manstfacturle of sille introduced from China by the monks. 552. The Fifth general Council at Constanti nople. 555. Pope Pelagius I. 557. The church of St. Germain de Pres, built 555 Procopieus, a Roman historian —the last of the at Paris. classic writers. 559 The Sawon lawos; the king's authority limited by the Witlenagemot. Three orders; the noble, the free, and the 560. Pope John III. servile. —Trial by ordeal. The Tritheists acknowledge three Gods, anti deny the resurrection. 565 Christianity introduced among the Picts by Columbi. 568 The old Roman municipal system in Italy overthrown by the invasion of the Lombards -and the feudal system established. Written lawes compiled among the nations of German origin-first by the Visigoths in 573. Pope Benedict I. Spain. Semei-circular arches introduced in the archi- 575. The first monastery founded in Bavaria. tecture of churches, with much grotesque Great increase of niracles. sculpture. 578. Pope Pelagius II. 580 The Latin language ceases to be spoken in Italy, while it supersedes the Gothic in Spain. 584 The origin of fiefs. 586 The Roman Catholic faith established in Spain. 588 Gregory of Tours, the father of French history. 590. Pope Gregory I. called The Great. The doctrine of purgatory first taught.Mass introduced. 596 Bretwalda, king of England, converted to Christianity. 597 Agathus, a Grecian historian. Gildas, the first British historian. 598. St. Azegustine, first archtlshop of CatnEvagrias, ecclesiastical historian.-Cassiodo- terbury, introduces Christianity into Britain. ruus, the historian of Ravenna, tutor to 604. Pope Sabianus, or Sabinian. Theodoric. 606. Pope Boniface III. made supreme head The Saxons, having conquered England, it of the church by Phocas.-The title of Unirelapsed, in a great measure, into the state versal Bishop assumed. of barbarism, from which it had been par- The Waldenses refuse submission to tially raised by the Romans. Rome. — FroIm Odoacer to Malsomeac.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 67 A.D. EASTERN EmPIRE. EUROPE, GENERALLY. 539. Italy: War, fatnine, and pestilence. ~540 Vitilrles at cRatvenna. — North Africa, Cor- The City of Milan ravaged by the Goths. sica and Sardinia, annexed to the Eastern empire. 542 Plague at Constantinople- during three 542. Britain:-Prince Arthur murdered in months from 5,000 to 10,.000 die daily. Cornwall. 54S The Lombards settle il Pannonia. -The Tulrktish monarchy founded in Asia. 549 Siege of Petra. 550. POLAND a dukedom-Lech, its first duke and legislator. tIis brother, Zech, 552 Narses defeats and kills Totila. first dulce of Bohemia. 554 Italy governed by Greek exarchs. T re Greeks form settlements on thle Spanish coast, from the Straits to Valencia. 556. Civil wars in France. 558 A plague extending over Europe and Asia, 558. France:-C 1 o t a i r e I. and lasting nearly 50 years. 559. Britain:-t h e S a x on IIe p t a r cihy comnmences. 560. Britain: —the kingdom of Northumbria, formed by the union of Bernicia and Deira. — Ethelbelrt, king of Kent, subdues most of the Saxon kings. 56tl Belisarius disgraced by Justinian. 561. France: —C hi a r i b e r t I. 562 " restored:-he quells a conspiracy. 563 Great fire in Constantinople-the city nearly destroyed.' 565 Justinian dies. 555. Europe ravaged by a pestilence. -------- J u stin II.' Belisarius dies in prison. 568. Italy conquered by the Lombards, under Alboin. He fixes his capital at Pavia. 5i9 The TURKS first mentioned in history.They send emlbassies to Justin, and form 571. Britain:-Bretwalda II., king ofWessex. an alliance. 574 Tiberius associated with Justin in the govertmmnent. 575. East Anglia formed into a Icing. 576 Justin deleats Chosroes. king of Persia. an called Ageland whence the o 578 - - -— ~ — T i b e 1 H i u s _II., _ gin of the name England. 5382 Maurice. the Cappadocian, king; under his reign the empire extends to the Araxes, and 583. Spain: —the Suevi subdued by the Visi. almo-st to the Caspian Sea. goths. France:-C lotaire II. - 5S. Britain: —the kingdom of Mercia founded. Spain:-Recared, kling. 588. The city of Paris dlestroyed by fire. 7:1- T'rhe Avars flouriset under Baiati-invade the 589. Rdme inundatted by the Tiber. buS Eastern ermpire, and spread over Hungary, 591. Britain:-Ethelbert, king of Kent, gains Poland, and Prussia. the pre-emninence, and becomes Bretwalda Il. Italy:-the Lornbards, under Autharis, successlfu against the Greeks and Franks. 595. Istria, Bohemia, and Poland invaded by the Sclavonians. 596. France:-Thlierry II., king of Burgundy. 597. Britain: —Christianity introduced by St. S' Augrustine. 502 -P h o c a s, — a centturiot, elected inog. 600. Italy rayvaged by the Sclavonians. The enlpire invaded by the Persians. 607. Britain: —Supremacy of the Pope acknowledged. 68 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [Modern: Period 111.-146 years. A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. ECCLESIASTICAL. The aristocracy acquire great power in France, somewhat restrained by the mayors 606. Pope Boniface TII. of the palace. 607. Pope Boniface IV. Rites and ssuperstitions increase in all Europe. The Pantheon at Rome dedicated to God, -Relics sought for, and worshipped. —Lita- the Virgin, and the Saints. nies addressed to the Vig-isn.-The burning 609. The Christians massacred by the Jews Pt of canzdles by day. —Exorcismss, &c. Antioch. Hereditary fiefs.-Aristocrratic class. 615 Srcundus, historian of the Lombards. 617 Elhelbert publishes the first code of lawos in'England. 618. Pope Boniface V. MODERN: PERIOD IV.-178 years. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. ECCLESIASTICAL. 620 Isodorus, historian of Spain, grammarian and philosopher. 625. Pope Ilonorius I. He had a taste for splendid cathedrals and processions. Monks and monasteries increase. Africa and Asia, with the churches of 632 Islamisn, and the power of the Caliphs esta- Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Antioch lost to blished in the East. In the Caliphs were the Christian world by the progress of Mounited the highest spiritual and regal autho- hamnmeclanism. rity. 640. Pope Severinus. 640. Pope John IV. 636 Christianity introduced into China. In England, somte improvetment in ecclesiaslical architectulre; circuelar arches introduced; churches built at Canterbury, Glastonbury, St. Albans, Witnchester, &c. In civil architecture, forts and castles-Conisborough Castle in Yorkslhire; Castletown 642. Pope Theodorus. Ile assumes the title in Derbyshire, &c. of " Sovereign Pontiff:" 644 University of Ccastlbridge founded, 644. Pope Martin I. Ie ordains celibacy of the clergy. Separation between the Greek antl Some of the nzonasteries of Europe continue Roman churches. to be the repositories of learnC1bisg and the arts. 654. Pope Eugenius. Celibacy of the clergy enjoined. 657. Pope Vitalian. HTe established the universal use of the Latiz Inanguage i li, te service of the chutrcsh. 672. Pope Adeodatus. -fs b'?o. Odoace' loa MAlf'homeL.] TH6E WOLI) S PH OCGIRES 9 A,D. EASTERN EMPIRE. EUROPE, GENERALLY. 604. Britain: —St. Paul's Churchl founded by Ethelbert, king of Kent. 610 Heraclius takes Constantinople, kills Phocas, and makes himself king. 612 MAEIOMET publishes his Koran. 612. Britain: —Ethelfrith, king of NorthulnSyria ravaged by the Arabs. bria, defeats the Britons, and destroys the 614 Jerusalem taken by the Persians. monastery of Bangor. 615. War between Lombardy and Ravenna. 617. Britain:-St. Peter's (now Westminster 618 Constantinople taken and pillaged by the Abbey) founded by Sabert, king of Kent. Avari. Britain:-Bretwald IV. -F'om? Malhomet to C/lar'lemantg'e. [Dar-k Ages, contintled.] EAsTERN EmPIRa, ASIA, &C. EUROPE, generally. 622 The HEGIRA; or Mahomet's Flight from Mecca to Medina. Erra of the Malhomnetanos. lHeraclius defeats the Persians under Chos- 628. France:-D a g o b e r t I. -— He roes. builds the clhurch of St. Deny, ie burial place of the French kings. 631. Samo, a merchant of France, makles 632 Death of Mahornet. himself king of Bohemia. A b u b e k e r succeeds him as caliph of the 633. Britain: - Bretwald V.; he embraces Saracens. Christianity. q33 0 m a r, caliph. 634 [ " takes Jerusalem, which is held 634. Britain:-Bretwald VI. by the Saracens 463 years. 6 0 m a r takes Alexandria, and destroys another famous library. 638. France -— C l o v i s II. 5 years old. The kingdom divided, Sigebert, (18 years s;41] C o n s t a n t i n e I I I. - old,) being king of Austrasia. -C o n s t a n s II. 642. Britain:-BretwaldVII. (11 years of age.) 0 644. Britain:-The University of Cambridgs 547 The Saracens become masters of Africa and founded by Sigebert, king of E. Anglia. Cyprus. 650. Britain: - Mercia converted to ChrisC 3 The Saracens take Rhodes, and destroy the tianity. Colossus. Persia becomes a part of the empire of the 656. France:-C 1 o t a i r e II I. Caliphs. 659 The Saracens obtain peace from Constans, by agreeing to pay him 100,000 crowns yearly. 660. France: —C h i I d e r i c I I. 661 Constans goes to Rome, and plunders the Treasury. MIoawiah, caliph, makes Damascus his capi- 663. Lombardy conquered by Grimoald. duke tal. of Beneventura. 68 C onstantine IV.. invades Sicily. 670 Grand Cairo founded. 672. The Saracens driven from Spain, by 673 Siege of Constantinople by the Saracens, Wamba, king of the Goths. whose fleet is destroyed by the Greek fire of Callinicus. The caliph compelled to purchase a peace of thirty years, by paying a yearly tribute. a 0 TIIE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Modern: Period IV. 178 years:' A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY. ETC. ECCLESIASTICAL. 674 Stolne bilidings and glass come into use in England. 676. Pope Domnus. The abbey of W~hitby, and the monastery of The popes become independent of the Gillin fobunded. Greek emperor. The Anglo-Saxons advance in civilization 679. Pope Agatho. and polwer, by the introduction of Chrlis- 1680. The sixth general Council at Constantinoliaunity. pie, called by the emperor Constantine, who In France, the Teustonic languzage supersedes presides. the Latin. —National assemblies established, 682. Pope Leo II. He usurps the right of inthough confined to the aristocracy. vestiture. 684. Pope Benedict II. In Persia, the Magian religion gives way to 685.. John V. the Mohammedan. 686. " Conon. 687 Severe persecution of the Jews in Spain. 687. " Sergius. 691 Jeulian, of Toledo, historian and moralist. 697 The venerable Bede, Ecc. historian. 698 A king first elected in Poland. Adleelis, the first British writer in prose and verse. 701. Pope John ~. Sclavonian replZblics in Bohemia. 704. The first province given to the pope. 705. Pope John VII. 708. " Sissinius (20 days). Christianity greatly extended among the Ger- 703. " Constantine. man nations and other people in the north of Europe; but almost exterminated in Africa, by the progress of Mohammedanism. 709 711. Custom of lkissing the Pope's feet intro. duced. 714. Pope Gregory II. 716 The art of making paper brought from Samarcand by the Arabs. George Syncellus, a Grecian chronologist. 718 Glastonbury Abbey rebuilt by Ina. Leo (Eastern Emperor) attempts to procure the assassination of the Pope. TIle Romans defend him. — From Mahomet to Charle-magne.] THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 71 A.D. EASTrERN EMPIRE, ASIA, &C. EURoPE, generally. 673. France:-Thierry I. 675. Spain: —Vamba gains a naval victory over the Arabs, who attempt to invade his kingdom. 630 The kingdom of Bulgaria founded. Yezid, caliph of the Saracens. 682. Spain: — Wamba abdicates and turns C'33 Moawiah II., caliph. monk. 634 Abdallah, caliph. 683 -- 1 Justinian II.. Abdulmelek, caliph. He discontinues the tribute to the Greek emperor 690. France: —P epin d' Heristel, mayor of the Palace and duke of Austrasla, aefeats Thierry, and becomes king. 691. France: —Covis III.695 Justinian II. deposed, and his nGse cut off by 691. France-C v is I Leonitius, who is also deposed by 695. -C h i d e b e r I I 697 Absimerus Tiberius. Armenia and the provinces between the Black 698. Poland:-Cracow founded.-An elective and Caspian Seas subdued by Caliph Abdul- monarchy established. melek. Venice: —Luc Anafetto first Doge. 698 Carthage rased, and the north coast of Africa completely subjugated. 700. Britain: —Anglo-Saxon Octarchy. France:-Aquitaine, Burgundy and Provence become separate dukedoms. 705 Justinian II. restored. 705. Britain:-Alfred the Wise, in NorthSyria recovered, 200,000 Saracens slain. umlbria. 709 Africa subdued by the Saracens. 710. Spain:-R ode r ic, king, (the last of the Goths.) 711 Justinian put to death by Philip Bardanes, who reigns under the name of Philippicus. 711. France:-D a g o b e rt I I.7131 Anastasius II. - 713. Spain conquered by the S a r a c e n s under Muca. By the marriage of Abdallah, the Moor, with the widow of the Gothic king, the two nations are united in interest. 714 - T h e o d o s i u s I I 1. — pro- 714. France: —Charles Martel, duke of Ausclaimed by the revolted army of Anastasius. trasia. 715. France:-C h ild e r i c II. - 7,16 - L e o I I I., (the Isaurian0,) -son 716. Britain:-Ethelbald, king of Moercia. of a shoemaker. 718. Spain:-Pelagius founds the kingdom of Asturias. 720. France:-T h i e r r y I I. -- 72 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [Modern: Period IV.-178 years. A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. ECCLESIASTICAL. Increasing Dark power, period 726. Image worship being forbidden by the spiritual of emperor Leo, causes great disturbance. andl European 727 Peter's p)ence first collected in England. temporal literature. 728. Leo orders the pope to ba, seized. of the Popes. 730. Gregory excommunicates the emperor. The Iconoclasts, or image breakers. 731 Winoifr7ed, an Anglo-Saxon, preaches the gos. 731. Pope Gregory III. pel to the Frisons. 735 The venerable Bede dies-a grammnarian, philosopher, historian, and theologian. 736. The images throughout the empire de740 The Abassidae, caliphs of the Saracens, en- stroyed by order of the emperor. courage learning. Monks persecuted. 741. Pope Zachary. 7,2 Freclegaire, a French historian. 748 Virgilius, a priest, is condemned as a heretic, for believing in the existence of antipodes. 752. The Pope dethrones Childeric, king of France, by a papal decree. 752. Pope Stephen III. at war with the Lombards, assisted by Pepin. 7A5. -he journeys to Pepin to implore his protection. 755. Commencement of the Pope's temporal power under the auspices of Pepin, who bestows on Stephen the exarchate of Ravenna. 757 An orgaon sent by Constantine to France. 757. Pope Paul I. 7650 Joh/zn of Dalnsacus, a founder of the scholastic philosophy. Fredegaire continues the history of Gregory of Tours. The schools of Baigdad, Cufa, Alexandria, Fez, and Cordova, promoted by the Abas- 768. Stephen IV. sidae caliphs. 769. Council of the Lateran. 770. The Eastern monasteries dissolved by the emperor. 772. Pope Adrian I., on whom the Ecclesias. Ignorance, profligacy, and misery, character- tical state is conferred by Charlemagne. ized the age preceding Charlemagne. 779. Ilposition qf Tithes enforced by Char783 The first palm-tree planted in Spain. lemagne, for the support of the clergy. churches, schools, and the poor. 785 Golden period of learning in Arabia, under the 785. Forcible conversion of the Saxons by caliph Haroun al Raschid. Charlemagne. 787. The seventh general Coszcil at Nice, m1 788 Pleadings in courts of justice first practised. which the doctrine of the Iconoclasts was 793 Foundation of schools in monasteries and condemned. cathedrals, by (tharlemagne. The Gregorian chant. 91The S1yno1d of Frankfort. 794. Pope Leo III. sends to Charlemagne for George, the monk. confirmation. Masses saidfosr snoney. -From Jlaliomet to Chacrlcmagnc g]e.] THE WOUtLD'S PROGRESS. 73 A.D. EASTERN EMIPIsE, ASIA, &C. EUROPE, generally. The Arabs invest Constantinople bhyland with 725. France:-Charles Martel crosses the 120,000 men, and by sea with IS00 ships. Rhine, and subdues Bavaria. The city is saved by the Greek fire-tile Arab fleet being almost entirely destroyed. 727. Britain:- -Ia, king of Wessex, begins the Leo confiscates Calabria and Sicily. tax called Peter's pence, to support a college at Inome. The Greek possessions in Italy are lost in consequence of the edict Jorbidding image worship. 732. France:-Charles Mlartel gains a great victory over the Saracens near Tours. 740. Spoletto taken by the Normans, but re741 Constantine V. (Copronymnus). covred by the Pope. 742. France:-C h ild e r i c III. -'16 The Arabs defeated by Constantine. —Rhodes, Cyprus, and Antioch captured. 752. France: —End of the Merovingian line of French kings. Pepin le Bref, - first of the Carlovingian line. 753. Pepin le Bref aids the Pope with a large army against the Lombards. Italy: —Ravenna a dukedom. 756. Spain:-Separated from the Caliphate: A b d e rh an a. 761. Spain:-Froila, grandson of Pelagius, 762 Almanzor, caliph; builds Bagdad and makes builds Oviedo, and mnakes it the seat of his it his capital. kingdom. 766 Asia Minor ravaged by the Turlks. 768. France:-CHARLEMAGNE, or Charles the Great, reigns with his brother, Carloman, until 771. 774 Great victory over the Bulgarians. 774. Charlemagne invades Italy; defeats Ars ( -L e o Didier, king of Lombardy, and annexes -Leo IV. ~ Italy to his empire. End of the Lombard kingdom. 778. A part of Charlemagne's army defeated at Roncesvalles. 779 Charlemagne conquers Navarre, Sardinia, 781 Constantine VI. (Porphyrogenetus). and the Saxons. Irene (Queen mother) restores image worship. Charlemagne conquers the Avari. 785 Tlhe empire is invacded by H a r o u n a I -attempts to unite the Rhine and the R a s c h i dl, caliph of' Bagdad. Danube 786 Constantine imprisons his mother, Irene, for her cruelty. 787. Britain:-First recorded invasion of the Danes: —The Sea Kings cand Vikings. 788 - — I r e ne puts him to death, and assumes the sole power. 793 -proposes to marry Charlemagne. -is dethroned by Nicephorus. 794. Charlemagne extirpates the Huns. The Saracens ravage Thrace. Sweden conquered by Iva Viafamo. 74 TIIE WOORLD 7S PROGRESS. PERIOD. V.-Thte Middle A3ges.-266 years A.D. I PROGRESs OF SOCIETY. ECCLESIASTICAL. NEW WESTERN EMPIRE. 800 Agriculture and horticul- 800. The Popeseparatesfromn 800. NEW EMPIRE of the ture encouramed by Charle- the Eastern Emzpire, and WEST' founded by Charlemagne; both flourish in becomoes supremne Bishop of mnagne, who is crowned at Spain under the caliphs. the WYestern. Rome, by the pope, king of Italy, Germany, and France. Gold faizes worked in Spain. 801 Pautl lVarefredus (Diaconus) Charlemagne reforms the the historian. church. 802 iHaroun al Raschid, courting 802. Charlemnagne receives vrn his alliance, presents Charle- embassy from Nicepjhorus, magne with a striking clock. Many bishoprics founded. and from Haroun at Ras. This clock was adorned with -Great increase of monastic chid. automaton figures, which institutions. moved and played on various musical instruments. Fine Arabian breed of horses introduced into Spain. 804 Alcuin, of York, a pupil of Bede, forms schools at Tours 806. Ch a r ] e m ag n e d i. -patronized by Charle- vides the empire be0 in ane. tween his three sons. 808. First descent of the NOR Transient revival of learning MANS upon France. under Charlemagne. Eginhard, historian, secretary to Charlemagne. 813 The reignofMamun (caliph) 813. Insurrection at Rome 813. Charlemagne dies, Jan. is regarded as the Augustine 3 age of Arabian literature, against the pope. 814. -Louis I. (Debonaire) an in rions 816. Pope Stephen V. and turbulent reign. 817.'L Paschal I. 817. Louis divides the empire The College of Cardinals between his three sons. founded. 820. Invasion of the Normans. 824. Pope Eugenius II. Christianity in Denmark and Sweden. 827. Pope Valentine. 828 St. Mark's Church at Venice 828. " Gregory IV. built. Missionaries sent from 829 Turpin, archbishop, to whom France to Sweden. is attributed the famous 831. Paschasius Radbertus, a 833. Lothaire, a fourth son of "De Vita Caroli Magni et monk of Corbey, father of Louis, associated in the govRolandi." the doctrine of transub- ernment. stantiation. This doctrine disowned by the English 840.-L ot h a i r e. -- Church. 841. -defeated by his brot ers, Ratramnus and Scotus En-i- JLouis and Charles, in the gena, theologians, holding battle of Fontenoy. much the same opinions as Division of the empire. Luther. A France: —Charles I. -(the Bald). Ger.:-Lou is I. __surnamed the German. Italy:-Lot haire s -with imperial dignity. The Normans plu.nder Rouen, and advance to Pa.ir THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 75 (A. D. 800-10G.) —CtrcirZemgt nsLe to Williael, the Cos7qteror. A.D. EIASTERN EMPIRE. ENGLAND. THE WORLD, elsewhere 801. DENMARK become a kingdom under Gotricue 0 The Saracens ravage Asia Minor. capture Cyprus, and compel Nicephorus to pay a tribute. 811 M i c h a e I.. — (Caropaltes); at war with the B ulgari. 813 - L e o V. -- (the 813. Egbert, king of Wessex, Armenian). defeats the Britons. 816 Earthqualkes, famitle, fire, &c. ravage the empire. 818. Al Mamun (caliph) a patron of learning. ~ll —>. 1787 Panosramas in Lonilon. 1787. General Convention at First spinninrg iachize in Philaduelhia. France. F E D EDERAL CONs T I T T r O N of the 1783. The kinr insane. —l)eiitn United States, adopted. of Charles Edward, thle last 1783. Coltlor plraned in Geor- pretender. gia. 1789. G:E O R G E W A S u - I N G T O N f, i st Pre.si Trial of Warren Jt' dent: in-s. Jefferson, Hamilton, Knox, Itan7'alsna, the celebrated trage- dol p h, anld Jay, foil lian. the cabinet. 1791. Fi rst United Srates Bank, 1792. K e n t u c Ik y adlmitted 1792. Provision for the gradtua to tlme Unlion. abolition of the slave trade, United States Mint established. 1718-1815.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 141 A.D. P FRANCE. GERiMANY. THE WORLD, elsewhere. 1778 Alliance with America. 1778. War of the Bavarian succession.-Bavaria seized by Germany. 1779 Scheme to invade England i779. Congress and Peace of from Normandy. Teschen. ]78CiR o c ha mb e au sent to 1780. Declaration of thc armed aid the Americans. neutrality —to protect neutral flags friom the riglit ol search claimed by Britain. 178L Necker resigns. 1782 Defeat of De Grasse in the 1782. Punishment of death [782. Italy:-Pontine ma;smes West Indies, by Rodney. abolished. drained. 1783 P e a c e o f V e r s a it The Pope visits the emn- India:-Rise of Sindia1 P e a c e o f V e r s a i 1- peror, to dissuade him fro T i p p o o, Sultan. 1 e s. lhostilities against tlee church. 1783. — alliance with tile French. 1785. 2,000 religious houses suppressed by the emperor. La Perousts's voyage of disco-. tvery. 1786. Prussia — Frederic William II. F787 Financial difficulties —-NewWa r with the taxation: Colonne, Brienne, Porte. and Necker, ministers successively. 1788. The emperor attempts 1788. Spain:-Charles IV. 17859 FRENCH 1RE3VOLUTION to control the Universities. FI~RES~NCHXI REC~VOLUTIO N ~ 1789. Ottoman Empire:-Sebegins.-Bastile taken and. lim II razed, July 14.-L a f a y - 1790. L e o p o d II d..- 1790. Tuscany: —Ferdinand e t t e commander of the 1II, national guards.- M i r a b e a u, leading orator. Congress of Reichenbach. 179. Flight of the king to Varen- 1791. Conference of Pilnitz. [nes.-Lalayette resigns. nes-alayette esgs 1792.-F r a n c i s I I. -- 1792 War with Germany: —The French take Spires, Mentz, 1792. Sweden:-Gustavus IV and Longwy-Lafayotte imFrance declared a prisoned at Olmutz. - republic. Gironudists and lIonrtainists. 142 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period X. —!)7 years. — A.D. PRLOGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. UNITED STATES. | GREAT BRITAIN. 1793. Washington re-elected. 1793. First coalition against Neutrality in regard to F'rance, diilected by -ng. France. ] anil —-all Euriop e, except Sweden, Deinmarki, and'TaurTon Paine, Ableri, Italian key. Fisher 4Atzes. poet. 179&. Comrenercialr treaty with, sgslIanl. 1iannahtleVre, Glzuck, C o in m e n c e n e n t Bcitish army defeated Gaisboro', iftaydrz, o f the a vy-6 fri- near Dunkirkc. 3loreland. l/Iozart, g a t e s b u i t. Albrechtsbe-r. Bognslazoski, fea, Krasiki, Po- Beethoven. lish poets. L795. War with Holland. 1796. Washington resigns. 1797. John Adams, 2d president. Difficulties with France. 1798. Recular army organized, 1798. Secondl coalition against Wasliliigton commnandler-in- France.-Irish rebellio,. - chief. N e 1 s o n I s victory at 1799 Pestalozzi, system of elemen- 1799. Death of Washington. the B a ttl e o f t h e tary education. T e nn re s s e e becomes N i e. ll1ungo Park's travels in a State. Wilberforce's motion Afiica, published. abolish the slave trade, lost, 87 to 83. 1800. Seat of government 1800. U n i o n o f E n - transferred to Washinton, land and I r eland. D. C. -Malta taken. 18010 Iron railways iln E Pnland. 1801. T h o m as J e f e r- 1801. Battle of Alexandria.Pstyteclzree schsst in Paris. so n, 3d President. Pitt resigns, succeedledl Exports of United States, Addington. 893,000,000. 18u2 First boocfair in eew-. York. 1802. 0 i o joins the Union; 1802. P ea c e o f A m i e n it has 76,000 inhabitants. 1803. Purclhase of L o u i s i- - 1803. Successful war in India, ana, for $15,000,000. U. States frigate Philadelphia, taken by the Tripolitans. 180 1;'irst Locomnotive Steass Essn- 1804. D e c a t u r recaptures 180-t. Pitt again premier. ginse used on the Merthyn the Philadelphia. Tydvil road in WVales. P r e b 1 e bombards Tripoli. Burr lills Hamilton. 1805. Jefferson re-elected Pre- 1805. N e 1 s o n defeats the sident: G eorge C lin - French and Spanish fleets t o n, of New- York, Vice- off Trafalgar. President. 1718-1815.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 143 A.D. FIRANCE. GERMANY. | THE WORLD, elsewhere. _ 7 —I. _!793 The king andl queen beheaded. 1793. F i r s t C o a 1 i t i o n 1793. Second Partition of Poa g a i n s t F r a n c e. lantd by Russia and Prussia. e i g n o f T e r r o r. II a y t i independent republic, under T o u s s ai n t MIarat assassinated by Char- L'O u v e r u r e. lotte Corday. 17941 Victories of P i c h e g r u and J o u r d a n -the allies 1794. Poland:-Revolt at Craevery where driven back. cow.-K o s c i u s k o, ge. Revolution of the 9th Thermi- neral-in-chief.-Russians dedor. feated at Warsaw. R o b e s p i e r e guillotined. 1795 NAPOLEON BONA- 1795. Final partition PA R T E, commander of o f P o 1 a n d- extinction the army; quells an insur- of the kingdom. rection in Paris. Batavian Republic:-Shimelpenninlk. 1969 War in Italy. 1796. Russia:-Paul I. Battle of Lodi. 1797 Bonaparte's Austri an Campaign —Hoche 1797. Switzerland:- General and M o r e a u' s cele- Revlutio — The Frech brated passage of the Rhine. Fee of o Prmi ~Ro. epublic. Peac e o f C amp o F o r m i o. Prussia:-Frederic William III I - 1798 Bonaparte's expedition to 1798. Second Coalition against 1798. India:-Marquis VellesEgypt is defeated by Nelson France. ley, govenor-generaL. at Aboulcir, Aug. 1. 1799. Russians, under S u - 1799 The French enter Switzerland w a r o w, defeated near underB er n a d o t t e and Milan. Jourdan.-Return of Bopaparte.-Revolution of the 18th Brumaire -Bonapart e, first consul. 1800 B a t t l e of M a r e n g o. -M o r e a u's victory of 1800. Armed neutrality of the II oh e nlind en. north. Pope Pilus VII. Ionian Republic founded..801 Peace of Lunevile. 1801. Russia: Alexander. 1802. Italian Republic-Bon-a. 32 Bonaparte elected president of parte president. the Itarian republic. Peace of Aomien s. Legion of Honor instituted. War woith Engaland. 1803. India:-Great Mahratta t803 Bank of France. War. FU4 BDuke D'Enghien shot. 1804. The emperor of Ger- 1804. Russia:-War wlthPerBonaparte crowned as NA- many assumes the title of Sia. POLEON I., Emperor of emperor of AUSTRIA. the French. |Marshals Soult, Murat, Ney, &c. J3,5 Austrian Campaign, Batttle of Austerlitz. Peace of Presburg. Napoleon Protector of the CoGsfederation of the Rhine. 144 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [Peiod X. —97 yea?'s.A.D. PEROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. UNITED STATES. GREAT BRITAIN. 1806 Planet Jueno discovered. 1806. Fourth Coalition against Leoivs 4 Clark's e.xtedition France. to the Poclcy Mouetains. 1807 FULTON'S FIRST SUCCESS- 1307. Embargo on all the 1807. Bill for tlte abolition of FUt TRIAL OF SrEAeI- ports of thle United States. the slave trade, passed. BOATS. Trial of Aaron Burr for treason. 1803 General University established Slave trade abolished. 1808. The English, under by Napoleon, to superintend W e 11 e s 1 e y, enter Spa:;e national education. as allies. Lithog,'Craplhy invented. 1809. J a m e s M a d i s o n, 1809. Fifth Coalition. In England: France: 4th President. Walcheren expeditiol. FWelstzzsoa, La Gralge, Embargo repealed; the Wesltnacott, lMaCnge, non-intercourse act passed. Chantey, 1lauy, sculptors. Biot, B. St. Pierre, L poet. 1810. War with Sweden. 1810 First steamtboat built in EuI.oepe. 181.1. Engagement between 1811 George, Prince of Wales, the' President' and the Prince Regent, (the king be-' Little Belt.' ing insane). Indians on the Wabash, Population of Great Bridefeated by Gov. HIarrison. tain, 12,552,144. Population of the United States, 7,239,903. 1812 Ainersican Board of Cos7n- 1812. WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. snissioners for EV7 eigfln Vlfissions, founded. Invasion of Canada under Gen. Hull. Gen. Hull surrenders Detroit to the British. 1814 Steaon carriag'es in England. The Constitution captures the GuerGas used for lighting the r i e r e: streets of London. (First check of British Lord L i v e r p o o 1, naval supremacy.) premier. 1815 Srtfety tamp indvented by Sir W o o 1 victorious at Queenstown, Oct. 12. Iusnmphrey Davy. Captain J o n e s, in the W a s p, captures the Frolic Oct. 18. In England: ~ Wh/ite, BI~ilderdyk, ~ The "United States," Captain Decatur, captures the K1ea1-. ButcThe WConstitite, Bildeo iyk, n British frigate lMacedonian. ~e ats, Dutch. The Constitution, Captain Bainbridge, captures the Bri Reg. Ileber~, tish friate Java. Shelley, German: Louisiana admitted into igate Java. Crlabbe, W. Schlegel, the Union. Si?- riY Scott, F Schlegel,'1813. P e rr y' s v i c t o r y 1813. Sixth Coalition agains Byrsouz, Richter, o i L a l e E r i e. France —Prussia, RIussia Colseridge, KIotzebue: Battle of the Thames: Sweden, Great Britain, anm Lamsb, Weber and Tecumsea killed. Austria. llsantgemery, Spohr, musi- 1814. City of Washington 1814. Treaty of Chautnont'Ioggg. caL compo- burnt by the BWtish. tween Alustria, Prussia, RIts sers. sia, and Great Britain. France: MBatd. de Stael, Russia: Peace of Ghent, signed Dec. 3. Mad. de Genlis, Karamsin, Chateaubriand Somorokor, 1815. Battle of New-Orleans; Cuvier. Dmitriev, British defeated by General 1815. Candy and Almora cap Krilov. Jackson. Jan. 8. tured. Melendez Val- Wellington vice dez, Spanish War against Algiers de- torious at Waterloo. June 18 poet. clared. :1718-1815.j THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 145: A.D. FRANCE. GCERMIANY. THE WORLD, elsewhere. 1806 Victory of J e n a over the Prussians. 1808. Holland:-Louis Napo. Berlin decree leon, king. Prulssia at war with France in alliance with Russina. [107 War with Russia. LS07.0 ttoman E npire:-MusBattle of Friedland.-P e a c e tapha IV. of Tilsit. Invasion of Portugal. 18AO French in Spain defeated at 1808. Spain:-Ferdinand VII. Vienna, by Sir Arthur WVel- " Joseph Napoleon. lesley. Naples:-Murat. Denlsark:-Frederic VI. Ottoman Empire:-i-Iahmoud II. 1809 Battle of Wagram- Peace of Vienna. 1809. Sweden:-Charles XII. tMetternich, minis- _ ter. 1810 Napoleon marries Maria Lou- 1810. South America: —VEise.-Continental peace ex- NEZUELA declared indecept with Spain. pendent. 1811 Birth of the emperor's son; 1811. NEW GRENADA decreated king of Rome. clared independent. Soult victorious in Spaintakes Badajos; is defeated by the English at Albuesa.'.812 R s s I A N C A 1 P A I GN. 1812. Austria in alliance with 1812. INVASIoN OF RUSSIA Battles of Smnolensko and Boe France against Russia. by Napoleon.-BURNING rodino. OF MOSCOW. Moscow entered hy Napoleon's tO tOSO f pursues ~army-an~ d b~urs:.d by the the retreating French. ~~~~~~~~~Russians.,Poland:-Diet of Warsaw: the Poles declaredl a nation by Napoleon. t8i3 Victories of L u t z e n, 1813.'War of German inde- 1813. South America: —B o - B a u tzen, and Dres- pendence. liv a r drives the Spand e n, over the allies. Austria joins the Coali- iards fiom Caraccas. lion. B a t t l e o f L e i p s i c — Bonaparte driven to the'814 The allies enter Paris. Rhine, loses his wholear amy. 1814. nion of Holland and Nap ole o abd icates. Belgiuml. —Peace of Kiel, and retires to Elba. Sweden, and Englalnd. 1H o u s e o f 11 o u r b o n llntost of Svedess Stl HJ ouse of Bourbon 1Union of' Sweden and r e s t o r e d: Norway as two kingdoms, — L o u i s X V III. - under one monarch. \812 Bonaparte returns frorm Elba. 1815. German League. [L85. Netherlands: —Villiam The hundred days. Congress of' VienNapoleon victorious at Ligny. n a. I BATTLE OF WATERLOO. e H o l y A 1. The allies enter Paris. 1 i a n c e' I —Russia, PrusBonaparte b anish- sia, and Austria. ed to St I elena. 7 146* THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. PERIOD XI. —35 years.A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. UNITED STATES. GREAT BRITAIN. 1815 New corn law in England. Polytechnic institution at Vienna. Manufactories introduced into Poland. The family of Rothschilds conies into notice at Frallkfort. Abolition of the slave trade by the congress of Vienna. 1816 Second United States Bank 1816. United States Bank in- 1816. Bombardoment of Alfiers. chartered for 20 years, capi- corporated. -The Dey compelled to tal $35,000,000. I n d i a n a admitted. malce peace and abolish slavery. 1817 Public schools established 1817. J a m e s AI o n r o e, 1817. Lord Exmouth's expethroughout Ru1ssia. 5th President. dition to Algiers. Belzosni penetrates the second Mi i adpyramid of Gheza. mitted. 1818 Abolition of predial bondage 1818. I 1 1 i n o i s admitted. in Bavaria and Wirteiibelg. War with the Seminoles. 1819 First passCge of thle Atlalntic by steam, by the SavannahNew-York to Liverpool. 1820. Main e admitted. 1820.- eor e IV. - 1821 Rise of mechanic institutions 1821. Monroe re-elected. in Enlland. M i s s o u r i admitted. Slavery compromise. 1822 IHieroglyphics deciphered:ChaLrpollion.-Sir William Herschel died. 1823 Huslrisson's free trade systel 1823, C a n i i n ministry. Finst 2nglCandzz.ifato?' i~2 Eyp~t The Ashantees in Africa First snmsstacory io Egypt, defeated. established by MehemeL All. 1824 Inland satvigation of the 1824. Lafayette's visit. United States: the great Eie cal opeed. Erie Canal opened. Priotective taopie 1821 Mazil-posts in Prussia.- 1825. J. Q. A d a m s, 6th 1825. Commercial treaty wit! Eteam 5a0i5ation 0n2 t~he lPresident. Prussia. Rhine. General financial panic in Englandl. Vast increase of periodical literature in England, France, Germany, America, &c. 1826 Alexander Volta dies, discoverer of the Voltaic battery. 1827. Treaty of Londop, in favor of Greece. 1828. Wellington ministry.-. Disturbances in Ireland, THE WORLD)S PROGRESS. 147" 81.15-1850. A.D. FRANCE. AUSTRIA, &c. THE WORL1)D, elsewhere. 1816. Portugal -Jchn VI. -in Brazi. Union of Naples and Sicily. 1817. Republic of the Ionian Islands. India:-The cholera commences its ravages. 1818. Sweden: —Charles XIV. 1118 Congress of Aix la Chapelle. (Bernaldotte.) -France joins the " Holy India:-The Mahratta Alliance."' power completely overthrown, and the British succeeds. 1819. South America:-Republic of COLOMBIA:B o 1 i v a r, President. 1821 Death of Napoleon at St. Ie- 1821. Congress of monarchs 1821. Ilayti:-B o y e r, ernlena. at Laybach. —Insu r rection peror. in Moldavia and Wallachia. South America:-PERU -Alexander Ypsilanti de- and GUATE2MALA indefeated and carried prisoner pendent. to Austria. 1822. BRAZIL declared inde. pendent. Mexico:-Iturbide, em. perolr. Greek Revolution. X Declaration of Indepen1524 -Charles Xem dence. Massacre of Scio. 1823. Italy:-Leo XII., pope, 1824. Death of Lord Byron at Missolonahi. 1825. Russia:-N i c h o l a s 1826. — War with Persia. Greece: -- Missolonghi talen by the Turks. 1827. Treaty between Russia and the Porte respecting Greece. Greece:-B attle o f Navarino. Portugal: —Maria de Glo1827 Fleet sent to Algiers, Portugal ria, queen. - -Rebellion in favor of Don Miguel as regent. 1828. War between Russia and the Porte. 148- r THE WORLD7'S PROGRESS. [Period XI.-35 year-s.A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. UNITED STATES. GREAT BRITAIN. In ENGLAND: FRANCE: Jeremy, Ben- Cuvier. tl/CGam, lTalbnza, trageThonas dan, 182/7. Treaty of London in meThomsDic La, favor of Greece. Thomas'Dicik, La Place, TV. Kirby, Becranger, Hallaie, Larcarltine. WLordee1't/, GERMANY: 1828. The Wellington minissbeethey, Maps/cree^, try. —Disturbances in -.eSouthey, Spohr, land. Camapbell, Vayerbeer, 10esre, Kotezebue., Leigh Hunt, Gall, we. enan, eim. 1829. G e n e r a 1 J a c k - 1829. Catholic emancipation. "i Barry Corn- SWED s o n, 7th President of the Captain Ross' voyage to wall." United States. discover a North West pasTegzner, sage. Rvus rA: Dahlyre'. Ke'amseisn, ITALY: Sossorokov{,..ossini, Dnietlriev, Iosenini Krilov. Paganzni. U. S. A. 1830. Treaty between the 1830. -W ill i a m I V, N. WTVebster, WIheatozn, United States and the Porte. Earl G r e y, minister. Irving, Kent, Difficulties with China. Cooper, Story, 1831. L o r d Jo hn R u s - Flisnt, Gallatins, s e 1' s Reforsn Bill introW irt, Livisngston, duced. iMa7rscall, Channiczg..Cholera first appears in England. 1830 Liverpsool and Blanchester Railroad opened. 1831. The king of the Nether lands makes his award on the The two Landers succeed in North Eastern Boundary, be tween the United States and tracing the Niger fromn Lakle the British provinces. Tchad to the ocean. 1832. War with the Winneba- 1832. Refolbrm Bill passed. 1831 The first newspaper in Con- goes and other Indian tribes. stantinople. — The Factory -Cholera in New-York.Bill in England, limiting the -Nullification in South Carohours of labor for children. lina.-General Jackson's ce1832 Reformn Bill in England:- lebrated proclamrnation. Etftension of Siffrage. 1833. General Jackson re-elect- 1833. Captain Ross returns T'rade unions in England, ed to the Presidency. from his voyage of di-CoFrance, Germany, Switzer- Removal of the Depo- very. land, &c. sites of the United States 1833 Girard College, at Philadel- from the U. S. Bank. phia, and the University of 1834. The President censured 1834. S i r t o b e r t P e e 1 New-York, commenced. by the Senate for removing Premier. -- Difficulties i. 1834 De Tocqueville's fistory of the Deposites. Canada. Democr-acy in America. Insfzyisitionl abolished in 1835. Great Fire in New-York. hjpaien. 183:5 Slavery abolished in the British colonies. Boston and Lowell Railsroad 1836. The national debt of the comspleted. United States being paid, the 1836 James Smithson, of London, surplus revenue is divided bequeathes ~l100,000 to the among the States. United States for the establishment of an In-stituztionL Treaty with Morocco.. "for the inscrease and diff-. 1837. The independence of 1837. — V i t o r i a. sion of knowledge amoassg T e x a s acknlowledged.?nero.." 1836 The Luxor obelisk erected at M a r t i n Va n B u re n, Paris. 8th President. 1815-1850.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 149' A D. FRANCE. AUSTRIA, &C. THE WORLD, elsewhere. 1327 A French fleet sent to Algiers. 18219 ABlgiers ta~ken. 1829. Italy:-Pius VIII., pope. Algiers taken by the French. VENEZUELA independent, General P a e z, President. 1830 T hre e D ay s' R e vo - 1830. BELGIUMI revolts from Holland, and I u t i o n, July 27, 28, and is declared independent in August. 29. 1830. Polish struggle folr nation Lafayette, commander of the a I ty, begins Noveimber 19. National Guard. 0 Charles X. abdicates. PeI.Brazil:-Itevolution; Don Pedro II. -Louis Philippe I. pIuuse of Orleans.)L 1831. Belgium:-L e o p old I. The Poles victorious at Prayo. Italy:-Gregory XVI., pope. Polandc: —Warsaw capitulates to Russia. 1832 Ministry of Marshal S o u I t. 1832. The kingdomt of GREECE founded: Otho I. - Poland;-The Insurrection crushed: 5000 families sent to Siberia. -University of Warsaw abolished. 1833. The Em- 1833. Spain:-Isabella. peror of Rus- -Don Carlos claims the throne. sia visits the Portugal:-A constitutional monarchy. Emperor of' Egypt:-Mehemet Ali acknowledged by Austria. the Sultan. Mexico:-Santa Anna, President. 1834. Quadruple alliance-England, France, Spain, and Portugal, against Don Miguel 1835 Death of Laftayette. and Don Carlos. 1835. The Plague in Egypt.'16 Insurrectiont attempted by 1836. Spain: —The Queen Regent adopts the Louis Napoleon at Stras- constitution. burg. Texas:-Battle of San Jacinto, Santa F e r d i - Anna taken prisoner. nandl I. China:-A decree to expel all British and othefbarbarian merchants. 150* THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period Xl.-35 years.A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. UNITED STATES. GREAT BRITAJN. 1837 S. F. B. M o R S E takes out a patent for his E 1 e c - 1838. The Exploring Expedit r o-magnetic T e 1 e - tion sails. g r a p h, (invented 1832 ) SuLspensionofspecie payments 1839. Disturbances on the 1839. The British take possesb by the Bantks in the United " disputed territory,' be- sion of Ghuzne. States, in May. tween Maine and NewBrunswick. 1839 The Dague reotype invented in Paris. Imnprovement of the condition of the Jews in Russia. Anz Antarctic Conetisnenst disco vered by the United States 18140. The uniform Pennzy Exploring Expedition. Postage system esta; lished 1840 Penney postage system in Eng- Marriage, f Queen Vic land. toria to Prince Albert ol Saxe Cobourg. Persecution of the Jews at War with Chita, to en. Damascus. force the opium trade. War in Syria: —Grea Britain taking'part with W4heeatstone's Electric Tele. Austria and Turlkey. Lord graph patented in England. P a I m e r s t o n' s foreign policy excites the ill-will of France. 1841. W. H. HIarrison, 1841. The war with Cllin, 9th Presidlent. ended: $6,000,000 received He dies April 4, just one as a ransom for Canton month after his inauguration. John Tyler, suc. ceeds him, as 10th President. Congress meets in extra session, May 31. Sub-Treasury Act repealed, Aug. 9. Bankrupt Act passed, Augrust 18. 1842 The Croton Aqzeduct in New- 1812. The'Dorr Insurrection York completed. in Rhode Island. Treaty between the Uni ted States and England, settling the north-eastern boundary. Treaty of peace with Bainz's electro-t,78agleetic Tele- China. gralph patented in London. 1843. Great "R e p e a " agitation in Ireland. The British gain posseE. sion of Scinde. 1844'Anti-'enstismz', o\)ached in 1844. T e x a s annexed to 1814. Daniel O'Connell's trial the State of New-Yorlr. the United States. and itmprisonment-the senAnti-rent riots in New- tence reversed by the House York. of Lords. 1815 A great defection from the Ro- 1845. Treaty with China. 18-15. Sir John Frankllin sai'. mish clhurch, under the J a in e s K. P o I k, in search of the north west preaching of Ronsge, in Ger- 1 1th President. passage. many. 18i6.War with MexiLord Riosse's Telescople.h M Gzutta Percha in use. Hostilities commence on 1845 Coplpl etion of the Thanes the Rio Grande, April 24. s7'nnel, March 25. Battle of Palo Alto, 1846 The Planet Neptune, pre- MIay 8. dicted by Le Verrier, dis- Battle of Resaca de la covered by Dr. Galle, of Palma, May 9. Berlin, Sept. 23. 1815-1850.] THE WORlLDIS PROGRESS. 1514 A.D. FRANCE. AUSTRIA, &C. THE WORLD, elsewhere. 1838 Talleyrand dies. 1838. New 1838. Mexico:-The Castle of San Juan Difficulty with Mexico: cap- Treaty of d'Ulloa taken by the French. ture of San Juan d'Ulloa. commerce with En.- 1839. Peace between France and Mexico. land, July 3. China:-The Opium trade forbidden. Ferdinand Turkey at war with Egvi~t. crowned at Milan, Sep- India: —Ghuzne taken by t, e British. tember 6. 1840 Prince Louis Napoleon at- 1840. China:-Canton blockaded by the Engtempts a hostile descent on lish, to compel the renewal of the opium the coast of France, near trade. Boulogne-is taken prisoner, and imprisoned at Ham. Holland:-William I. abdicates -William II.*Syria:-St. Jean d'Acre taker. by the G u i z o t, minister for fo- English, Austrians, and Turks reign affairs. The remains of Napoleon removed from St. Helena, and deposited withl great 1841. China:-Canton capitulates, $6,000,000 honors at the Invalides, in paid in one week, as a ransom for the city. Paris. Mexico:-Santa Anna enters the capital, and places himself at the head of the government. 11342 The duke of Orleans, heir to 1812. India:-Insurrection in Affghanistan. the throne, killed by a fall from his carriage. 1843. Temporary surrender of the Sandwich Islands to Great Britain, compelled by Lord Geo. Paulet. 1844 The Duke de Nemours ap- Greece: —King Otho compelled to acpointed Regent, in the event cept a constitution, Sept. 15. of the king's death. The Society Islands seized by a French squadron-e.ostored by the government. India:-Scinde annexed to the British empire. 1846 Louis Napoleon escapes from 1846. Poland:-A powerful, but unsuccessful Ham, May 26. insurrection at Cracow, Feb. 23. Rome:-Pius IX., pope; elected June 16. Poland:-Cracow deprived of its inde. pendence, Nov. 16. 152* THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [- Period XI.-35 yecars.n.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etC. UNITED STATES. GREAT BRITAIN. 18-16. The O r e g o n T r ea t y with Great Britain, settling the North-Western Bo undary, signed at London, June 18. Commodore Sloat takes possession of California, July 6. New Tariff bill passed, establishing ad valorent duties. Battle of Monterey, September 23. Tampico occupied, November 14. 1847. Battle of Buena Vista. 1847. Severe famine in Ire. Feb. 22. land. Large supplime of Battle of Sacramento, food sent from the United Feb. 26. States. Vera Cruz surrenders, March 29. The Bogue forts in China Battle of Cerro Gordo, taken and destroyed, April April 18. 26. Battle of Contreras, August 20. Armistice, Aug. 24. Hostilities renewed, September 7. Battle ofMolino del Rey, Sept. 8. Battle of Chepultepec, Sep, 12. Mexico surrend e r s, Sept. 14. 1848. Treaty of Peace with Mexico, signed at Guada- 1848. Civil war in Ireland. loupe Ilidalgo, Feb. 22. loupe lidalgo, Feb. 2. John Mitchell, tried and The cultivation of the Tea plant in the United States, condemned to transportacommenced by J. Smith, near Greenfield, South Caro- tion, May 26. lina. Postal convention betw een the United States and Great Britain. First deposit of CaliforXuspension Bridge at Nia- nia gold in the mint, Dec. 8. Habeas Corpus Act susgara Falls, opened July 29. pended in Ireland, July 25. Emigration from Europe to America during this year, 300,0'0. Smith O'Brien arrested and condemned, Aug. 5. Return of Ross's expts dition, Nov. 1815-1850.] THIlE WORLD'S PROGRIESS. 153 A D. FRANCE. AUSTRIA, &C. THE WORLD, elsewhere. 18ir Reform Banquets in Stras- 1847. Austria 1847. Prussia:-Frederic William grants a burg, Chartres, &c. takes posses- constitution, Feb. 8. sion of Cracow. iayti:-Soulouque, President, March 2. Michelet's Lectures interrupted by the ministers, Dec. Algiers -Abd-el-ICadet made a prisoner Abd-etlKader captured, Dec. to France, Dec. 22. 22. 1848 Debate on the Reform Bill, 1848. Sardinia:-Charles Albert'protests Feb. 8. against the encroachment of Austria, and calls outan Proposed Banquet at Paris, army of 25,000 men, Jan 10. abandoned, Feb. 21. Naples -Rebellion at Palermo, Jan. 12. R E: v L U T I o N C O a - Sardinia:-Charles Albert proclaims a M E N C E D, Feo. 22. constitution, Feb. 8. Barricades erected, Feb. 23. Bavaria: —Distut-bances on account of Louis Philippe abdicates and Lola Montes-the king abdicates in favor of flies, Feb. 24. his son, Provisional government established. - Iaximilian 11. - March 22. L a m a r t i n e, Provisional Presitelnt, Feb. 24. Charles Albert enters Milan, March 23. French Reptblic proclaimed, Denmark:-Revolt of Schleswig-HolFeb. 26. stein, March 26. Meeting- of' the National As- Sicily declared independent, April 3. sembdly, May 4. Holland receives a constitution, April 17. 0Bloody Insurrection in Paris, Polantd:-Unsuccessful revolt at CraJune 23-25. cow, April 25. Cavaignac, military dictator, Sicily:-The Duke of Genoa elected June 24. king, Julv 10. Paris in a state of siege. I, India:-Insurrection in Ceylon, Aug. 16. New Constitution adopted, Armistice signed between Denlmark, NIeCov. 4. nsi The Ban Jella- Prussia and Sweden, Aug. 26. chich ap- India:-The British make an unsucpointed gov- cessful attempt on Moultan. L o u i s N a p o 1 e o n B o- ernor of Sicily:-Messina bombarded and taken, n a p a r t e, elected Pre- Hungary, Sept. 2. sident, Dec. 10. Oct. 3. sidntInsurr De. 10. Oction. 3. ungary:-K o s s u t h appointed Pre) Vienna, Oct. sident of the Defence Committee, and Dicta. The6 a. c tor, Oct. 1848. The IEmperor leaves the city. The Hungarian army advances within 6 miles of Vienna, Oct. I 1. Windischgratz appointed commander of the imperial army. 1 54$ THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period XL.-35 years.A.D. PROGRESS OF SOOCIETY, etC. UNITED STATES. GREAT BRITAIN. 18419 A neiw plaszet discovered by 18-19. Z a c h1 a r y T a y 1 o r, 18-9. Moultan, in India, taken, Gasparis, at Naples. 12th President. Jan. 3. Magnetic Telegraph lines in use in the United States in 1819, 10,000 miles. Rail Roads 6,000 Tubular B13idge in Anglesea, England. Aliragnelic Clock, invented by Dr. Locke, at Cincinnati. Enmigration from Europe to America, durins this year, at the rate of 1080 a day. 1850 Great agitation on the Sla;very 1850. John C. Calhoun died at 1850. The war In Lahore fila. Question in the United Washington. ished, and th., Punjaub an-. States Congress. Attempted invasion of nexed to the British crown. Cuba:-600 adventurers unThe Pekin Monitort', a new der Lopez, repulsed at Carpaper, prinlted in China. denas, May. The Sultan of Turkey, grants Death of Gen. Taylor, permission to the Jews to July 9. build a temple on Mount Millard Fillmore, Zion. 13th President. A University founded at Syd- C a 1 i fo r n i a adney, New South Wales. mitted, 31st State. Texas boundary settled, by the payment of 10,000,000 Deaths in 1850: dollars to Texas. U. S. A. EURnOPE. New-Mexico and Utah A.Judson Wordswort admitted as Territories. A. Jttdsson, eWsoJ dswortt, Bill for the arrest of S. iL. Dvlleil, Jeffrey, fugitive slaves passed by Conil L. Duaavis. Neandeer, Zschsocke, Slave trade in the District of Berzelius, Columbia abolished. Baizac. A British fleet block: the ports of Greece, to force the alleged claims British subjects. Sir Robert Peel dies July 2. Ilaynau. ": the Austria butcher,' chastised by tt draymen in London, Sept. 1~15-1850.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 155w A.nD. FRUANIA. AUsnRA, &C. THE WORLD, elsewhere. The Emperor issues a proclamation against the city. Kossuth with-draws his army from Vienna, Oct. 27. Rome: —M a z i i xi i' s proclamation, The Imperial- Oct. 29. ists take pos- Prussia: —The king prorogues the Assession of Vi- sembly, Nov. 9. enna, Nov. -The Burgher Guard of Berlin refuse to 2. give up their arms. The city in a state of siege, Nov. 12. Rome: —Count Rossi, the Pope's primeminister, assassinated, Nov. 16. India:-Great battle near Ramnuggur, Ferdinand ab- Nov. 22. dicates, Dec. Rome:-The Pope escapes in disguise, 2. Nov. 241. - F r a n c i s Ilungary declared independent, Dec. 1849. India:-M-Ioultan taken by the British, Joseph Jan. 3. Italy:-The Grand Duke of Tuscany flies. Provisional Government proclaimed, Feb. 9. 1849. A new Rome:-Republic proclaimed, Feb. 9. Constitution Sicily:-A new Constitution conceded promnulgated by Naples, March 6. March 4. Sartinia:-Charles Albert defeated by Brescia taken Radetsky, March 21-again totally defeated by Haynau, at Novarra, March 23, he abdicates the March 30. throne in favor of his son,.Victor Emanuel.' India:-The Punjaub annexed to the British Einpire, March 29. Italy:-Insurrection in Genoa, April 1. Russia comes to the aid of Austria against Hungary, April 26. Rome: —The French army arrives under the walls of Rome, April 29. IIaynau takes command of the Austrian army in Hungary, June. Rome surrenders to the French, July 2. Garibaldi leaves the city, July 3. Rome: —The government placed in the hands of the Pope's commissioners, Aug. 3. G6rgey traitor-ously surrenders to the Russians, Aug. 11. Kossuth escapes into Turkey. 1850 Louis Philippe dies in Eng- Venice capitulates to Radetsky, Aug. 22. land. 1850. Ronme: —The Pope returns, April. Greece disputes the claims of Great Britain for losses of British subjects: is forced to submit. China:-The Emperor Tau-Kwang, dies: — Sze-hing: succeeds. DI]CTIONARY OF DATES. CHIEFLY FROM1 THAT OF JOSEPH HAYDN; W VITH REVISIONS AND ADDITIONS ABBEYS AND M3ONASTERIES, were first founded in the third century, near the close of which the sister of St. Anthony is said to have retired to one. An abbey was founded by St. Anthony at Phaim, in Upper Egypt, A. D. 305. The first founded in France was at Poitiers, in 360. The first in Ireland was in the fifth century: see Clogthe'-, Elpl/in, Dowt. The first in Scotland was in the sixth century: see Isles. And the first in Britain was in 560: see Bcungoro. The abbey of Mount Cassino, near Naples, founcldecl by St. Benet in 529, was esteemed the richest in the world, and furnished many thousands of saints to the church. 110 monasteries and priories. were suppressed in England by order in council, 2 Henry V. 1414.-Sc'almon. The revenues of 193 abbevs which were dissolved at the Reformation amounted to;2,653,000. These foundations were totally suppressed throughout the realm, 31 Henry VIII. 1539. See Mona,sl-eries. ABDICATION oF KINGS. They are numerous in ancient history. Those in later times of most remarkable character and greatest political importance, and to which reference may more frequently be made, are the following:Of Henry IV. of Germany,. 1080 lHe again abdicates in favor of the BoOf Stephen II. of Hungary, surnamed naparte family. See Sp~ain. May 1, 1808 ThIunder,. 1114 Of Joseph Bonaparte of Naples, to Of Albert of Saxony,... 1142 talce the crown of Spain,. June 1, 1808 Of Lestus V. of Poland,.. 1200 Of the same (by flying before the British Of Uladislaus III. of Poland, 1206 from Madrid),.. July 29, 1808 Of Baliol of Scotland,.. 1306 Of Louis of Holland,.. July 1, 1810 Of Otho of HIungary... 1309 Of Jerome of Wyestphalia, Oct. 20, 1813 Of Eric IX. of Denmarl, 1439 Of Napoleon of France,.. April 5, 1814 Of Eric XIII. of Sweden,. 1441 Of Emanuel of Sardinia,. March 13, 1821 Of Charles V. Emperor,.. 1556 Of Pedro of Portugal,.. May 2, 1826 Of Christina of Sweden,.. 1654 Of Charles X. of France,. Aug. 2, 1830 Of John Casimir of Polandd, 1669 Of Pedro of Brazil,.. April 7, 1831 Of James II. of England,. 1688 Of Don Miguel of Portugal (by leaving Of Frederick Augustus II. of Poland,. 1704 the lcingdom),... May 26, 18.34 Of Philip V. of Spain,. 1724 Of William I. of Holland,. Oct. 8, 1840 Of Victor of Sardinia,... 1730 Of Christina of Spain, queen dowager Of Charles of Naples,... 1759 and queen regent,.. Oct. 12, 1840 Of Stanislaus of Poland,. 1795 Of Louis Phillippe of France, Feb. 24, 1848 Of Victor of Sardinia,.. June 4, 1802 Of Louis, king of Bavaria,. March 22, 1848 Of Francis II. of Germany, vwho becomes Of Ferdinand I. emperor of Austria, emperor of Austria only,. Aug. 11, 1804 D)ec. 2, 1848 Of Charles IV. of Spain, in favor of his Of Charles Albert, kIing of Sardinia, son,. March 19, 1808 Aug. -1849 ABEL ARD AND H1ELOISE. Their amour, so celebratled for its passion and nsisf)rtu-noes. conmmenced at Paris, A. D. 1118 when Ieloise (a cnlon's daughter) was under 17 years of age. Abelard, after suffering an ignominious injury, became a monk of the abbey ofi St. Denis, and died at St. Marcel, of grief which never left his heart, in 1142. Helolse begged his body, and had 7 146 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ACA it buried in the Paraclete, of which she was abbess, with the view of reposing in death by his side. She was famous for her Latin letters, as well as ltye, and died in 1163. The ashes of both were carried to the Museum of French Monuments in 1800; and the museum having been subsequently broken up, they were finally removed to the burying-ground of Pbre La Chalise, in 1817. ABORIGINES, the original inhabitants of Italy; or, as others have it, the nation. conducted by Saturn into LatiumL, founclded by Jalnus, 1450 B. c. — UizV. History. Their posterity was called Latimji, from Latinus, one of their kings; and Rome was built in their country. They were calledl Asborigmes, beines, bei absque or'ig-ine, the primitive planters here after the flood.-St. Jeromne. The word signifies without origin, or whose or'ig'in is not lnown, and is generally applied to any original inhabitants. ABOUKIR, the ancient Canopus, the point of debarkation of the British expedition to Egypt under general Abercromby. Aboukir surrendered to the British, after an obstinate and sanguinary conflict with the French, March 18, 1801. The bay is famous for the defeat of the French fleet by Nelson, August 1, 1798. See Nile. ABRAHAM, ERA oF. Used by Eusebius; it began October 1, 2016 B. c. To reduce this era to the Christian, subtract 2015 years and three months. ABSTINENCE. St. Anthony lived to the age of 105, on twelve ounces of bread, and water. James the Hermit lived in the same manner to the age of' 104. St. Epiphanius lived thus to 115. Simeon, the Stylite. to 112; and Kentigern, commonly called St. Mungo, lived by similar means to 185 years of age.-Spottiswood. A maln may live seven, or even eleven, days without meat or drink.-Pliny Hist. NAt. lib. ii. Democritus subsisted for forty days by smelling honey and hot bread, 323 B. c.-Diog. Laert. A woman of No, nmandy lived for 18 years without foodl.-Petrts de Albano. Gilbert Jacksoof Carse-grange, Scotland, lived three years without sustenance of any kil 1719. A religious fanatic, who determined upon fasting forty cldays, died on the sixteenth, 1789. —Phillips. A country girl, of Osnabruck, abstained four years from all food and drink, 1799.-Hfeland's Practical Journralt. Ann Moore, the falsting woman of Tutbury, Staffordshire, supposed to have been an impostor, was said to have lived twenty months without food, Nov. 1808. At Newry, in Ireland, a man named Cavanagh uwas reported to have lived two years without meat or drink; Aug. 1840; his imposture was afterwards discovered in England, where he was imprisoned as a cheat, Nov. 1841. Se instances in latller's Eleslaentce Plt/siologice; Cornaro; C Pricier'S Surg4 Lib'crary', &c.; and in this volume, see Fai'sting. ABSTINENTS. The abstinents were a sect that wholly abstained from wine, flesh, and marriage and were a community of harmless and mild ascetics They appeared in France and Spain in the third century; and some authe rities mention such a sect as having been numerous elsewhere in A. D. 170.BossaeSt. AB:YSSINIAN ERA. This era is reckoned from the period of the Creation, which they place in the 5493d year before our era, on the 29th August, old style; and their dates consequently exceed ours by 5491 years and 125 ciys. To reduce Abyssinian time to the Julian year, subtract 5492 years and 125 days. ACADEMIES, or societies of learned men to promote literature, sciences, and the arts, are of early date. Acarldemia was a shady grove without the walls of Athens (bequeathed to Heocademus for gymnastic exercises), where Plato first taught philosophy, and his followvers tool the title of Acadesmics 378 B. c.-Stanley. Ptolemy Soter is said to have founded an academy at Alexandria, about 314 D. c. Theodosius the Younger and Charlemagne are a' aCH J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 147 namedl as founders. Italy has been celebrated for its academies; and Jarckius mentions 550, of which 25 were in the city of Milan. The first philosophical academy in France was established by Pbre MIlersenne. in 1135. Academies were introduced into England by Boyle and Hobbes: and the Royal Society of London was formed in 1660. The following ar'e among the principal acadceies:-i American Academy of Arts and Sciences, MIarseilles, Belles-Lettres, 1726. 1780. Milan, Architecture. 1380; Sciences, 1719. American Philosophical Society, 1769. Munich, Arts and Sciences, 1759. Ancona, of the Ctsglinosi, 1624. Naples, _Rossarna, 1540; Mathematics, 1560; Berlin, Rtoyal Society, 1700; of Princes, Sciences, 1695; Herculaaneum, 1755. 1703; Architecture, 1799. New York, Literature and Philosophy, t814.' Bologna, Ecclesiastical, 1637; Mrathematics, Nismes, Royal Academy, 1682. 1690;,Sciences and Arts, 1712. Padua, for Poetry, 1610; Sciences, 1792. Brescia, of the 1?rranti, 1626. Palermo, Medical, 1645. IBrest and Toulon, Military, 1682. Paris, S'orbonste, 1256; Painting, 1391; MuBrussels, Belles- Lettres, 1773. sic, 1543; French, 1635; Medals, 1663; Caen, Belles Letltes, 1750. Architecture, 1671; Surgery, 1731; MiliCopenhagen, Polite Arts, 1742. tary, 1751; Natural Philosophy, 1796. Cortona, Antiquities, 1726. Parma, the Innominati, 1550. Dublin, Arts, 171,9; Science and Literature, Perousa, Izsensati, 1561 Filirgiti, 1574. 1786; Painting, Sculpture, &c., 1823. Petersburgh, Sciences, 1725; Military, 1732; Erftirt, Saxony, Sciences, 1754. the School of Arts, 1764. Faenza, the.Philopozti, 1612. Portsmouth, Naval, 1722; enlarged, 1806. Florence, Lesles-Letlles, 1272; Delia cr'eus- Rome, Ussoristi, 1611; Fcsztascici 1625; ca, 1582: Antiquities, 1807. Ifecondli, 1653; Painting, 1665; Arcadi, G-eneva, Medical, 1715. 1690; English, 1752. Genoa, Painting, &c., 1751; Sciences, 1783. Spain, SRoyal, 1713; Military, 1751. Germany, Medical, 1617; Natural I-listory, Stockholm, of Science, 1741; Belles-Lettres, 1652; Military, 1752. 1753; Agriculture, 1781. Ilaerlem, the Sciences, 1760. Toulon, IMilitary, 1682. Lisbon, History, 1720; Sciences, 1779. Turin, Sciences, 1759; Fine Arts, 1778. London: its various Academies are de- Turkey, Military School, 1775. scribed tllrough the volume. Upsal, Royal Society, Sciences, 1720. Lyons, Sciences, 1700; had Physic and Ma- Venice, AIedical, &c., 1701. thematics added, 1758. Verona, Music, 1543; Sciences, 1780. Madrid, the Royal Spanish, 1713; History, Vienna, Sculpture and the Arts, 1705; Sur1.730; Painting and the Arts, 1753. gery, 1783; Oriental, 1810. Manheim, Sculpture, 1775. Warsaw, Languages and History, 1753. Mantua, the Vigilanti, Sciences, 1704. Woolwich, Military, 1741. ACCENTS. The nmost ancient tlaanuscripts are written without accents, and without any separation of words; nor was it until after the ninth century tlhat the copyists began to leave spaces betWeen the words. Michaelis, after Wetstein, ascribes the insertion of accents to Euthalius, bishop of Sulca, in Egypt, A. D. 458; but his invention was followed up and improved upon by other granmmarians in the various languages. ACHAIA. This country was governed by a race of lcings, but even their nimnes are all forgotten. The capital, Achaia, waas founded by Achnaus, the son of Xutlhus, 1080 a. c. The kingcdom was united with Sicyon or subiject to the iEtolians until about 284 B. c. The Achmi were descendants of Achitnns, and originally inhabited the neigllborhood of Argos; but when the Heraclidx drove themn thence, they retired among the Ionians, expelled the natives, and seized their thirteen cities, viz. Peleni, Xgira, sFEgeun, Bura, Tritmta, Leontium, Rhype, Ceraunia, Olenos, Helice, Patri, DynIm, and Pharm. The Achean league,. a. o. 281 Alliance with the Romans,. B. C. 201 Fortress of Athenneim built,.. 228 Philopoemen defeated bv Nabis. in a naDefeat of the Acthseans by the Spartans, val battle,... 9 and Lysiades illed,.. 226 Sparta joined to the leeage,. 191 Battle of Sallacia,.. 222 The AchEans overrun Messenia with The Social war begun,. 220 fire and sword,. 182 The Peloponnesus ravaged by the 2Eto- The Romans enter Achaia, 165 lians,.. 219 Metellus enters Greece, 147 Arattus poisoned at Egium,.. 215 The Achlian league dissolved, 146 Battle of Mantinea; Philopcnmen defeats Greece subjected to Rome, and named the Spaltan tyrant Mechanidas,. 208 the prosvice of Acllaia, 146 * Now extinct. 148 THE WORLD1S PROGRESS. [ADA The constitution of the United States of America bears some analogy to that of the Achman league; andl the Swiss cantons also had a great resemblance to it in their confbderacy. ACOUSTICS. The doctrine of the different sounds of vibrating strings, and the colmmunication of sounds to the ear by the vibration of the atmlosphere, was probably first explained by Pythagoras, about 500 B. c. Mentioned by Aristotle, 330 B. c. The speaking-trumpet is said to have been used by Alexander the Great, 335 B. c. The discoveries of Galileo were made about A. D. 1600. The velocity of sound was investigated by Newton before 1700. Galileo's theorem of the harmonic curve was demonstrated by Dr. Brook Taylor, in 1714; and further perfected by D'Alembert, Euler, Bernoulli, 9-ld La Grange, at various periods of the eighteenth century. See Soxlxd. ACRE, ST. JEAN D'. Taken by Richard I. and other crusaders in 1192, after a siege of two years, with the loss of 6 archbishops, 12 bishops, 40 earls. 50( barons, and 300 000 soldiers. Retaken by the Saracens, when 60,000'l1ristians perished, 1291. This capture was rendered memorable by the rurder of the nuns, who had mangled their faces to repress the lust of the Infidels. Acre was attacked by Bonaparte in July 1798; and was relieved by Sir Sydney Smith, who gallantly resisted twelve attempts during the memorab' siege by the French, between March 6 and May 27, 1799, when, baffled by the British squadron on the water and the Turks on shore, Bonaparte relinquished his object and retreated. St. Jean d'Acre is a pachalic subject to the Porte; seized upon by Ibrahim Pacha, who had revolted, July 2, 1832, It became a point of the Syrian war in 1840. Stormed by the British fleet under Sir Robert Stopford, and taken after a bombardment of a few hours., the Egyptians losing upwards of 2,000 in killed and wounded, and 3,00r prisoners, while the British had but 12 killed and 42 wounded, Nov. 3, 18: See Syriacc and Tan'/e2Jy. ACROPOLIS oF ATHENS. The citadel of Athens was built on a rock, anm. accessible only on one side: iVlInerva had a temple at the bottom.-Pau/es. i. Attic. The roof of this vast pile, which had stood 2.000 years, was destroye in the Venetian siege, A. D. 1687.-Aspixb. The Acropolis of Mycenm wa marked by terraces, and defended by ponderous walls, on which were higl towers, Gach au the distance of fifty feet.-Euripidces. ACTIUM, BATTLE OF, between the fleets of Octavianus Cmsar on the one sid,, and of Marc Antony and Cleopatra on the other, and which decided the f. of Antony, 300 of his galleys going over to Cesar; fought Sept. 2, 31 This battle nmade Augustus (the title afterwards conferred by the senat, upon Cmcsar) master of the world, and the commencement of the Ronma empire is colmmnonly dated from this year. In honor of his victory, the con queror built the city of Nicopolis, and instituted the Actian games.-B-lc? ACTRESSES. Women in the dcrama appear to have been unknown to the ar cients; men or eunuchs performing the female parts. Charles II. is said t have first encouraged the public appearance of women on the stage in Enp land, in 1662; but the queen of James I. had previously performed in a tF atre at court.- Tleat. Rioeg. ACTS of PARLIAMENT. The first promulgated, 16 John, 1215. See Palicarnent. For a great period of years the number of acts passed has bee annually large, although varying considerably in every session. Betwee the 4th and 10th of George IV. 1126 acts were wholly repealed, and 4-4 repoealed in part, chiefly arising out of the consolidation of the laws by M Peel (afterwards Sir Robert): of these acts, 1344 related to the kdingdom large and 225 to Ireland solely. ADAMITES, a sect that imitated Adam's nakedness before the fall, arosep ASI ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 149 130. They assemnibled'quite naked in their places of worship, asserting that if Adam had not sinned, there would have been no marriages. Their chief was named Prodicus; they deified the elements, rejected prayer, and said it was not necessary to confess Christ.-Ensesbis. This sect, with an addition of imany blasphemies, anad teaching from the text " increase and multiply," was renewed at Antwerp in the thirteenth century, under a chief named Tandeme, who, being followed by 3,000 soldiers, violated females of every age, calling their crimes by spiritual names. A Flandrian, named Picard, again revived this sect in Bohemia, in the fifteenth century, whence they spread into Poland and existed some time.-Bayle; Pacrdont. ADMINISTRATIONS. Successive administrations of the United States, since the formation of the governuent:FIRST ADnINISTRATION;-1789 to 1797;-8 years. George Washington, Virginim, April 30,1789 President. John Adams, Mastsachusetts, do. 1789 Vice President. -lppoir ted. Thomas Jefferson, Virginia, Sept. 26, 1789 Edmund Randolph, do. Jan. 2. 1794 Secretaries of State. Timothy Pickering, Pennsylvania, Dec. 10, 1795 Alexander IHamilton, New York, Sept. 11,1789 Secret.'ies of the Oliver WVolcott, Connecticut, Feb. 3,1795 Treasury. Ilenry Knox, Massachusetts, Sept. 12,1739) Timothy Pickering, P'ennsylvania, Jall. 2, 1795 Secretaries of War. Janles MSIlenry, iMaryland, Jan. 27, 1796 Sanmuel Osgood, SIassachusetts, Sept. 26, 1789 Timothy Pickering, Pennsylvania, Nov. 7, 1791 Post Masters en. Joseph Ha.lersham, Georgia, Feb. 25, 1795 Ed(mund Rantlolph, Virginia, Sept. 26, 1789 William Bradford, Pennsylvania, Jan. 27, 1794 Attorneys General. Charles Lee, Virginia, Dec. 10, 1795,Spealcers of tle House of Re?7'pesentatives. Frederick A. Muthlenberg, Pennsylvania, Ist Congress, 1789. Jonathan Trumbusll, Connecticut, 2d do. 1791. Frederick A. Muhlenberg, Pennisylvania, 3d do. 1793. Jonathan Dayton, New Jersey, 4th do. 1795. SEcoND ADMINISTRATION;-1797 to 1801; —4 years. John Adams, Massachusetts, March 4, 1797 President. Thomas Jeflerson, Virginia, 1797 Vice President. Appointed. Timothy Pickering, Pennsylvania, (continued in Oqg ce.) Secretaries of State John Marshall, Virginia, May 13, 1800 Oliver Wolcott, Connecticut, (continued in osice.) Secretaries of the Samuel Dexter, MIassachusetts, Dec. 31, 1800 Treasury. James M'Henry, MIaryland, (contiaued in otfice.) Samuel Dexter, MIassachusetts, May 13, 1800 Secretaries of War. Roger Griswold, Connecticut., Feb. 3,1801 George Cabot.* Massachusetts, May 3, 1798 Secretaries of the Benjamin Stodldart, MIaryland, SIay 21,1798 N, avy. Joseph IIabershaim, Georgia, (continued in of ice.) Post'Master Gen. Charles Lee, Virginia, (contiznued in o ice.) Attorney General. lpeaokers of the fHouse of.Representatives. Jonathan Dayton, New Jersey, 5th Congress,:797. Theodore Sedgwickl SIassachusetts, 6th do. 1799. THIRD ADnM!NISTRATION;-1801 to 1809;-8 years. Thomas.Teffeson, Virginia, March 4, 1801 President. A,:on liuier, lew Yorlk do. 180N i Vice Presidents. George Clinton, New VYorlk do, 1805 Aptpointed. Jalnes Mtadison, MVirgin., SIarch 5, 1801 Secretary of State. Saimuel Dexter, Miass. (coistianued in office.) Secretaries of the Albcrt Gallatin, Pennsylvania, Jan. 26, 1802 S Treasury. Ir. Cabot declined the appointment. The Navy Department was established in 1798. 150 THE WORLD IS PEOGRESS. [ AD7' Henry Dearborn, Massachusetts, March 5, 1801 Secretary of War. Benjamin Stoddart, MCd. (continued in offce.) Secretaries ofthe Robert Smith,* Maryland, Jan. 26, 1832 Navy. Joseph Habersham, Georgia, (continued in office.) Post Masters GeGideon Granger, Connecticut Jan. 26, 1892 neral. Levi Lincoln, Massachusetts, March 5,1 801 Johln Brecklenridge, Kentucky, Dec. 23, 1805 Attorneys General. Cesar A. Rodhney, Dulaware, Jan. 20, 1807 SI/ealkers of the Isousse of Representatives. Nathaniel Macon, North Carolina, 7th Congress, 1801. Joseph B. Varnum, Massachusetts, Sth do. 1803, Nathaniel Macon, North Carolina, 9th do. 1805. Joseph B. Varnum, Massachusetts, 10th do. 1807. FOURTH ADILIINISTnATION; —1809 to 1817;-8 yeas..ames Madison, Virginia, March 4,1809 President. George Clinton, New York, 1809, (died April 20, 1812) Vie n Elbridge Gerry, Mass. 1813, (died Nov. 23, 1814) Vice Prsidents Aplpoi ted. Robert Smith, Maryland, March 6 1809 James Monroe, Vrginia, Nov. 11 James Monroe, Virginia, Nov. 25, 1811 Secretaries of State. James Monroe,t Virginia, Feb. 25, 1815.Albert Gallatin, Pennsylvania, (continued i oice.) Secretaries of th George W. Campbell, Tennessee, Feb. 9, 1814 ce es o e Alexander J. Dallas, Pennsylvania, Oct. 6, 1814 T'reasury. William Eustis, BMassachusetts, March 7, 18U9 John Armstrong, New Yor Jan. 1318 13 foh Amston, New York, Jan. 13, 3813 Secretaries of War. James Monroe, Virginia, Sept. 27, 181.4 William 11. Crawford, Georgia, March 2 1815 Paul Haamilton, South Carolina, Marcll 7, 180 William Jones, Pennsylvania, Jan. 12, 1813 Secretaries of the Benj. W. Crowninshield, Massachusetts, Dec. 19, 1814 Navy. Gideon Granger, Connecticut, (conltinuzed inz osfice.) Post Masters GeReturn J. Meias, Ohio, March 17, 1814 neral. Ce-sar A. Roldney, Delaware, (continused io osice.) William Pinkney, Maryland, Dec. 11,1811 Attorneys General Richard Rush, Pennsylvania, Feb. 10, 1814 Slpeakers of the lsoutse of Represenstatives. Joseph B. Varnum, Massachusetts, 11Ith Congress, 1809. Henry Clay, Kentucky, 12th do. 1811. H-enry Clay, Kentucly, 13th do. 1812. Langtlont Cihces, South Carolina, 11814. Henry Clay, Kentucky, 14th do. 1815. IFTEI- ADMIINISTRATION;-1817 to 1825; -8 years. James Monroe, Virginia, MIarch 4, 1817 President. Danic D. Tompkins, New York, do. 1817 Vice President. Appozinted. John Q. Adams, Massachusetts, March 5, 1817 Secretary of State. William Hi. Crawford, Georgia, March 5,1817 Secretary of Treas, Isaac Shelby,' Kentucky, March 5,1817? John C. Calhoun, South Carolina, Dec. 16, 1817 J Secretartes of War. Benj. W. Crowninshield, Massachusetts, (continued iz office.) of tl Smith Thompson, ANew York, Nov. 30, 1818 et s of t Samuel L. Southard, New Jersey, Dec. 9, 1823 ) Navv. Return J. Meigs, Ohio, (continued in office.) Post Masters GeJohn McLean, do. Dec. 9, 1823 5 neral. Richard Rush, Pennsylvania, (continsued in oice.) ( William Wirt, Virginia, Dec. 16, 1817 Attorneys General. Robert Ssnfish was appointed Attorney General, and.Tcob C'arowsinshield, of Massachutset;ts. Secretary of tlle Navy, on the 2d of March, 1805, but they both declined tllese appoirtments; an.j Mvr. Smith continued in the office of Secretary of the Navy, till the end of IMr. Jefferson's adtni. gistration. t James Monroe was recommissioned, having for some time acted as Secretary of War. t Isaac Shelby declined the appointment. )D M] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 151 ADMINISTRATIONS (UNITED STATES) contiued. Speakers of the Hiouse of Repxresentatives. -Tenmy Clay, Kentucky, 15th Congress, 1817. Fenry Clay, Kentucliy, f lt do. 1819. John WV. Taylor, New York, 1820. Pllilip P. Barbour, Virginia, 17th do. 1821. Henry Clay, Kentucky, 18th do. 1823. SIXTI-I ADIINISTRATION;-1825 to 1829;-4 years. John Q. Adams, Massachusetts, March 4,1825 President. John C, Calhoun, South Carolina, (do. 1825 Vice President. Appointed. Henry Clay, Kentucky, 5March 8,1825 Secretary of State. Richard Rush, Pennsylvania, March 7, 1825 Sec'y of the Treas'y James Barbour, Virginia, do. 1825 Secretaries of War. Peter B. Porter, New Yorlk, May 26, 1828 Samnuel L. Southard, New Jersey, (continued inz office.) Sec'y of the Navy. John McLean, Ohio, (contitnted ins office.) Post Master Getl William Wirt, Virginia: (conrtislted tzn ofice.) Attorney General,. Speakers of the Iloeuse of Representatives. John WV. Taylor, New York, 19th Congress, 1827. Andrew Stephenson, Virginia, 20th do. 1828.. SEVENTI ADMINISTRATION; —1829 to 1837;-8 years. Andrew Jackson, Tennessee, MIarch 4, 1829 President. John C. Calhoun, South Carolina, do. 9 Vice Preside s. 3artin Van Buren, New York, 18533 Appointed. Martin Van Buren, New York, March G8 1829 Edward Livingston, Louisiana. 1531 Louis McILane, Delaware, 1833 John Forsyth, Georgia 1835, Samuel D. Ingham, Pennsylvania, March 6, 1829) Louis McLane, Delaware, 1831 Secretaries of the XVilliam J. Duane, Pennsylvania, 1833 rea Roger B. Taney, Maryland, 133 3 Treasury. Levi Woodbury, New Hlampshire, 1834J John H. Eaton, Tennessee, March 9, 129 Secretaries of War. Lewis Cass, Ohio, 131 Secretaries of War. John Branch, North Carolina, March 9, 1829 ) Levi Woolbury, New ampshe, 1831- Secretaries o the Maahlon Diclerson, New Jersey, 1834 Navy. WVilliam T. Barry, Kentucky, nMarch 9, 1829 Post Masters GeAmos Kendall, Kentucky, 1835 neral. John McP. Berrien, Georgia, March 9, 1829 Roger B. Taney, Maryland, 1831 Attorneys General. Benjamin F. Butler, New York, 1834) ~Speakers of the f-touse of Represenztatives. Andrew Stevenson, Virginia, 21st Congress, 1829. Andrew Stevenson, Virginia, 22d do. 1831. John Bell, Pennsylvania, 1835. EIGIITH ADIINISTRATION;-1837 to 1841 -4 years. Martin Van Buren, New York, 1837 President. Richard M. Johnson, Kentucky, 1837 Vice President. Appointed. John Forsyth, Georgia, (contionued in office.) Secretary of State. Levi Woodbury, New Hampshire, (continzued isn office.) Sec'y of Treasury. Joel R. 1 oinsett, South Carolina, 1837 Mahlon Dickerson, New Jersey, (cosntinzued in office.), Secretaries of War James K. Paulding, New York, 1385 Amos Kendall, Kentuciky, (continzued its ofice.) Post Masters GeJohn M. Niles, Connecticut, 1840 neral. Benjamin F. Butler, New Yorlr, (continzued in office.) Feliax Grund.y, Pennsylvaonia,l Itenry D. Gilpin, Pennsylvania, 1839,S'peakers of the Hosuse of Representatives. James K. Polk, Tennessee, 1837. Robert M. T. Hunter, Virginia, 1839. 152 TRE'WORLD9S PROGREWSS. [ADM ADMIVNISTRATIONS (UNITED STATES) coltithtced. NINTH ADnIINISTRATION;-1841 to 1845; —4 years. William I-T. Harrison, Ohio, 1841 President. Died one month after mauguration, and John Tyler, Virginia, 1841 b icae PactinegtPes became acting Pres. Samuel L. Southard, New Jersey, 1841 I Acting V. Pres. and Willie P. MIangunm, North Carolina, 1841 Pres. Senate. Aplpointed. Daniel Webster, Massachusetts, 1841 Abel P. Upshur, Virginia, 1841 Secretaries offState. Thomas Ewing, Ohio, 1841 Walter Forward, Pennsylvania, 1841 Secretaries of the John C. Spencer, New VYorc, 1841 Treasury. John1 Bell, Tennessee, 1841 John C. Spencer, New York, 1841 Secretaries of War. George E. Badger, North Carolina, 1841 S Abel P. Upshur, Virginia, 1S41) Secretaries of the David Henshaw, Massachusetts, 1841) avy. Francis Granger, New Vorl, 1841 Post Masters Gen. Charles A. Wickliffe, Kentuclky, 1841 eral. John J. Crittenden, Kentuclcy, 1841 Hugh S. Legare, South Carolina 1841 Attorneys General. john Nelson, Maryland, 1841) fpsaeakers of the slIouse of Rleepresentatives. John White, Kentucky, 1841 John W. Jones, Virginia, 1843 TENTH ADMINISTRaATION; -18415 to 1849;-4 years. James K. Polk, Tennessee, 1845 Presitlent. George M. Dallas, Pennsylvania, 1845 Vice President. ApsPoisnteld. James Buchanan, Pennsylvania, 1845 Secretary of State. Robert J. Walker, Missississippi, 1845 Secretary of Treas. William L. Marcy, New Tork, 1845 Secretary of War. George Bancroft, Massachusetts, 1845 Secretaries of the John Y. Mason, Virginia, 1847 Navy. Cave Johnson, Tennessee, 1845 Post Master Gen. John Y. Mason, Virginia, 1845 Isaac Toucey, Connecticut, 1847 Attorneys General. Speakers of the lHouse of Representatives. John W. Davis, Indiana, 1845. Robert C. Winthrop, Masstchusetts, 1847. ELEVENTH ADIINISTRATION;-1849 to 1853;-4 years. Zachary Taylor, Louisiana, 1849 President. Miillard Fillmore, New York, 1849 Vice President. Ai~)pointed. John M. Clayton, DIelaware, 1849 Secretary of State. Willianm E. Mereditll, Pennsylvania, 1849 Sec'y of Treasury. William B Preston, Virginia, 1849 Sec'y of the Navy. GIeorge W. Crawford, Georgia, 1849 Secretary of War. Thomas Ewing, Ohio, 1849 Sec'y of Interior.* Jacob Collamer, Vermont, 1849 Post Master Gen. leverdy Johnson, Maryland, 1849 Attorney General, Speaker of the HTlouse of Representatives. Howell Cobb, Georgia, 1849. ADMINISTRATIONS or ENGLAND, AND OF GREAT BRITAIN, from the accession of Henrly VIII. The following were the prime ministers, or favorites, or chiefs of administrations, in the respective reigns, viz.: KING HENtY VIII. Sir Thomas More avd Cranmer 1529 Bishop Fisher and Earl of Surrey. 1509 Lord Audley, chalzcellor; archbishop Cardinal Thomas Wolsey.. 1513 Craner.... 1532 *A new department, created by act of Conglress, 1849. 2Note. The dates of the appointments of the principal executive officers, in the several adrminis. trations, above exhibited, are the times when the several nominations, made by the Presidents, were confirmed by the Senate, as stated in the "' Journal of the Executive Proceedings of the Senate of the United States." AsZ., Almanoacs, &c. A.D ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 153 And lord Cromwell (earl of Essex) 1534 Duke of Marlborough, &c. 1705 Duke of Norfolk, earl of Surrey, and Lord Godolphin, lord Cowper, dukes bishop Gardiner. 1540 of Marlborough and Newcastle 1707 Lord WYriothesley, earl of Hertford. 1541 R. Harley, afJtelrwards earl of yb'lrd 1710 Earl of Rochester, lord Dartmouth, KING EDWARD VI. and I-enry St. John, esq. aJteerswads The earl of I-ertIord, contiznued viset. Bolingbroke; lord Harcourt 1710 John, duke of Northumberland. 1552 Charles, duke of Shrewsbury, &c.. 1714 QUEEN IARY. KING GEORGE I. Bishop Gardiner..,L3 Lord Cowper, dulke of Shrewsbury, marquess of Wharton, earl of OrQUEEN ELIZABETHI. ford, duke of Marlborough, vist. Sir Nicholas Bacon.. 115 Townshend, &c.. 1714 Sir Willlam Cecil, afterwcords lord Robert Walpole, esq. 1715 Burleigh; clsief minister during al- James, cj'lerwards earl Stanhope 1717 most stle whole of this lonrg reign Charles, earl of Sunderland, &c. 1718 Earl of Leicester, a favorite. 1564 Robert Walpole, esq. cftecrwarlds sir Earl of IEssex 1,538 Itobert and earlof Orford. 1721 Lord Burkhurst 1601 KING GEORGE II. KING JAMES. I. Lord Burklhurst (earl of Dorset)ord ateet, lord Wilmirtc lod Earls of Salisbury, Sufblli, and North- Bath, Mr. Sandclys, &c.. 1742 EarlptoSls.,. a r 08 Hon.Henry Pelham, lord Carteret, earl Sirp 11. Carr, cr eoted viScount Fiocres- of Harrington, duke of Newcastle. 1743 ter, aoferwaords earl of Somerset. 1612 Mr. Pelham, earl of Chesterfield, due Sir GeJrge Villiers, created earl, mar- of Becford, &c.. 1746 ouess, and duke of Buckingham. 1615 Duke of Newcastle, Sir Thomas Robinson, Henry Fox, &c., lord Anson 1754 KING CHARLES I. Duke of Devonshire, Mr. William Pitt, Duke of Buckingham conlinued earl Temple, Hon. H. B. Legge. 1756 Earl of Portland, archbishop Laud 1628 [Disiissed in April, 1757. Restored in Archbishop Laud, earl of Straffbrd, June, same year.] lordc Cottilrton. 1640 WVVillianm Pitt., Mr. Legge, earl Temple, Earl of Essex. 1640 duke of Newcastle, &c.. 1757 Lord vis. Falkland, lord Digby 1641 [The civil war commenced, and all KING GEOROE III. went into confusion.l Earl of Bute, earl of Egremont, duke of Bedlbrd. 1761 KING CIHARLES II. Earl of Bute, hon. George Grenville, Edward. earl of Clarendon. 1660 sir Francis Dashwood, &c. 1762 Dukes oflBuckingham and Lauderdale 1667 Right hon. George Grenville, earl of Lord Ashley, Lord. Arlington, Sir T. Halifax, earl of Sandwich, duke of Clifford, ctftetvacrds lord Clifford. 1667 Bedford, &G. 1763 Lord Arlington, lord Ashley, cleal/ed Marquess of Ilockingham, duke8 of earl Slhaitesbury, and Sir Thomas Grafton, earl of Sllelburne, &c. July 1765 Osborne. 1673 Dulke of1 Grafton, hon. Chas. TownsSir Thos-las Osborne. 1674 hend, earl of (Chatham, &c. Aug. 1766 Easrl of IEssex, dukes of Otmond, ea 1 Duke of Grafton, right honl. Frederick, cfterw sarCls marquess of Halifax, sir lord North. &c.. Dec. 1767 AVilliam Temple.. 1677 Lord Notll, lord Halifax, &c.. 1770 Duke of York. and his friends. 1682 Loid North, lord Dartmouth, lord Stortamont, locrd Iillsborough, lord St. YiING JAMIES II. Germain, &c... 17, 3 Earls of Sunderland and Tyrconnel, Marquess ofRockinghall,righ iht hdn'ble sir George cf/erwaords, lord Jeffries 1685 Charles James FIox, &c. Mar. 30, 1782 Lord.Jeffiies, earl of Tyrconnel, lord Earl of Shelburne, William Pitt, lord Bellasis, lord Arundel, earl of Mid- Grantltham, &c. July 10, 1782 dlleton, vist. Preston. 1. 687 Duke of Portland, lord Nolth, Mr. Fox, &c. (The Coalition Ministly. See KING WILLIAMI III. AND QUEEN MARY II. " Coaitison.)) 7 April 5, 1]783 Sir John, flterearrds lord Somers, lord Rt. hon. William Pitt, lord Gower, Godolplhin, earl of Danby, af/'er- lords Sidney, Carmarthen, and Thnursn(r7ds dulie of Leeds, &c.. 1688 low, right hon. W. tW. Grenville, The earl of Sunderland, &c... 1695 HI-enry Dundas, lord 1Mulgrave, dulke Charles Montagu, lez/erwards earl of of Richmond, &c. Dec. 27, 1783 HIalifax, earl of Pembrolke, viscount Mr. Pitt, lord Canmden, marq. of Staf-,onsdale, earl of Oxford, &c.. 1697 ford, lord ITawlesbbury, &c.. 1786,.Mr. Pitt, lord Grenville, dukee of Leeds, QUEEN ANNE. lord Camden, &c.. 1790 Lord Godolphin, R. 1Halley, esq., lord Mr. Pitt, lord Grenville, earl of' ChatPenllbroke, duke of Buckinglham ham, lord Loughborough, &c.. 1793 7 154 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. L ADE Mr. Pitt, duke of Portland, lord Gren- tHenry Hardinge, &c., (Mr. Huskisville, Mr. Dundclas, &c... 1795 son,vise Palmerston,Mr. Grant, earl Mr. Pitt, earl of Westmorland, earl of Dudley, &c. retiring) May 30, 1828 of Chatham, lord Grenville &c.. 1798 RIight hon. Henry Addington, duke of IKING WILLIAM Iv. Portland, lord Hawkesbury, lord Hobart, lord Eldon, &c. Mar. 17, 1801 Duke of Wellington and his cabinet, Mr. Pitt, lord Melville, rt. hon. George contre ued. Cannin-, lord Ilarrowby, lord West- Earl Grey, viscounts Althorpe, Melmorlsand, durke of Portland, Mr. DU1n- bourne, Goderich, and Palmerston, das, &c. may 12, 1804 marquess of Lansdovne, lord J HolLord Grenville, lord Henry Petty, earl land, lord Auckland, sir James CraSpencer, rt. hon. WVilliam Wind- ham, &c. Nov. 22, 1830 ham, Mr. Fox, lord Erskine, rt. hon. [Earl Grey resigns Say 9, but reslsmes Charles Grey, lord Sidmouth, &c. ofice Mlay 18, 1832.] (See "All the Talesnts.") Feb. 5, 1SOG Viscount Melbourne, viscount Althorp, Duke of Portland, MIr. Canning, lord, viscts. Palieton Hawklesbury, earl Camnden, rlghlst and Duncannon, sir J. C. Hobhouse, hon. Spencer Perceval. &c. Mar. 25, 1807 lord Hoxviclc, Sr. S. ice, SIr. PonDuke of Portland, earl Bathurst, lord lett Thlomson, &c. July 14, 1834 vicount Castlereagh, lord Granville Viscount Melbourn's amistlation Gower, &c.... -1808 i dissolved: the dulke of Wellington Mr. Perceval, earl of Liverpool, soar- talces the helm of state provisionally, quess Wellesley, viscount Pallmlers- ~waiting the return of' sir Robert Peel ton, Mr. Ryder, &c. Oct. 1809 from Italy Nov. 14 1834 Sir Robert Peel, dulke of Wellington, REGE NCY OF GEORGE, PRINCE OF WYALES. lord Lyndhurst, earl of Aberdeen, Mr. Perceval, the earl of Liverpool, lordl lienbolough, lord ltssln, 8&c. rscontisierl. lord Wharncliffe, sir George M aurray, Earl ofLiverpool, Earl Bathurst, visct. Mr. A. Baring, SI. IIerries, Mr. Sidmouth, viscount Castlereagh, Mr. Goulburn, &c. - 9 ec. 15, 1834 Ryder, earl of Harrowby, right hon. Viscount Melboulne aid his colleagues Nich. Vansittart, &c. June 8, 1812 return to ffice April 1, 83 CING GEORGE IV. QUEEN VICTORIA. Earl of Liverpool, viscount Sidlmomth, Visct. Melbourne and the same calbiMr. Vansittart, &c. corltisued. net, cosntimted. lRt. hlon. George Canning, lord viscount Viscount Melbourne resigns May 7, 1839 Goderich, lord Lyndhurst, Mr. Stur- Sir Robert Peel receives the queen's ges 3ourne, &c.. April 10, 1827 commands to formll a new admlnisViscount Goderich, duke of Portland, tration, May 8. right hon. William Iluslkisson, SMr. This command is withdrawn, and lord Herries, &c.. August 11, 1827 Melbourne and his friends are reinDulte of Wellington, right hon. Robert stated. ay 10, 1839 Peel, earl of Dudley, viscount Mel- Sir Robert Peel, dulke of Wellington, ville, earl of Aberdeen, Mr. Goul. earl of Aberdeen, earl of Haddingburn, Mr. Herries, Mr. Grant, &c. ton, earl of Ripon, lord Stanley, Mr'. January 25, 1823 Goulburn, &c.. Aug. 7, 1841 Duke of Wellngton, earl of Aberdeen, Lord John Russell's administration sir George Murray, lord Lowther, sir July 6, 1846 ADMI]RAL. The first so called in England was Richard de Lucy, appointed by Henry III. 1223. Alfred, Athelstan, Edgar, Harold. and other kings, had been previously the conmmacnders of their own fleets. The first was appointed in France, in 1284. The rank of admiral of the English seas was one of great distinction, and was first given to Williamn de Leybouine by Edward I. in 1297. —SpelsmaTa; Ryn' er. ADMIRAL LORD HIGH, or, ENGLAND. The first officer of this rank was created by Richard II. in December 1385; there had been previously high admirals of districts-the north, west, and south. See NaCvy. ADMIRALTY, COURT OF, erected by Edward III. in 1857. This is a civil court for the trial of causes relating to maritime affairs. ADRIANOPLE, BATTLE OF, which got Constantine the empire, was fought July 3, A.D. 323. Adrlianople nwas taken by the Ottomans from the Greeks in 1360; and it continued to be the seat of' the Turkish empire till the capture of Conistantinople in 1453. Mahomet II., one of the most distinguished of the sultans, and the -one who took Constantinople, was born here in 1430. ADv ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 155 Priestlep. Adrianople was taken by the Russians, Aug. 20, 1829; but was restored to the sultan at the close of the war, Sept. 14, same year. See Tulrkey. ADRIATIC. The ceremony of the doge of Venice wedding the Adriatic Sea was instituted in A.D. 1173. Annually, upon Ascension-day, the doge married the Adr~iaticcrb/ Mc/are, by dropping a ring into it from his bucentaur, or state barge, and was attended on these occasions by all the nobility of the state, and foreign ambassadors, in gondolas. This ceremony was intermitted, for the first time for centuries, in 1797. ADULTERY, ANCIENT LAWS AGAINST IT. Punished by the law of Moses with the death of both the guilty man and woman.-Leviticus xx. 10. This law was repealed, first, because the crime had become common; and secondly, because GoD's name should not be liable to be too often erased by the ordeal of the waters of bitterness. Leo, of Modena, says that the husband was obliged to dismiss his wife for ever, whether he willed it or not. —Calmet. Lycurgus punished the offender as he did a parricide, and the Locrians and Spartans tore out the offenders' eyes. The Romans had nQ formal law against adultery; the emperor Augustus was the first to introduce a positive law to punish it, and he had the misfortune to see it executed in the persons of his own children.-Lenglet. Socrates relates that women who were guilty of adultery were punished by the horrible sentence of public constupration. In England the legal redress against the male offender has been refined into a civil action for a money compensation.-Lord Mansfield. ADULTERY, ENGLISH LAWS AGAINST IT. The early Saxons burnt the adulteress, and erected a gibbet over her ashes, whereon they hanged the adulterer.Pardon. King Edmund punished the crime as homicide. It was punished by cutting off the hair, stripping the female offender naked, and whipping her through the streets, if the husband so demanded it to be done, without distinction of rank, during the Saxon Heptarchy, A.D. 457 to 828. —Stowe. The ears and nose were cut off under Canute, 1031. Ordained to be punished capitally, together with incest, under Cromwell, May 14, 1650; but there is no record of this law taking effect. In New England a law was ordained whereby adultery was made capital to both parties, even though the man were unmarried; and several suffered under it, 1662.-Hardie. At present this offence is more favorably viewed; to divorce and strip the adulteress of her dower, is all her punishment among us; but in Romlish countries they usually shut up the adulteress in a nunnery.-Ashe. ADVENT. In the calendar it signifies, properly, the approach of the feast of the Nativity; it includes four Sundays, the first of which is always the nearest Sunday to Saint Andrew (the 30th November), before or after. Advent was instituted by the council o'f Tours, in the sixth century. ADVENTURERS, MERCHANT, a celebrated and enterprising company of merchants, was originally formed for the discovery of territories, extension of commerce and promotion of trade, by John duke of Brabant, in 1296. This ancient company was afterwards translated into England, in the reign of Edward III., and queen Elizabeth formed it into an English corporation in 1564. —Andeso,. ADVERTISEMENTS IN NEWSPAPERS. In England, as now published, they were not general until the beginning of the eighteenth century. A penalty of 501. was inflicted on persons advertising a reward with "No questions to be asked" for the return of things stolen, and on the printer, 25 Geo. II. 1754. -Statates. The advertisement duty was formerly charged according to the number of lines; it was afterwards fixed, in England at 3s. 6d., and in Ireland at 2s. 6d. each advertisement. The duty was further reduced, in England to is. Gd., and in Ireland to Is. each, by statute 3 and 4 Will. IV. 1833. 156 TIIE WOR.LD S PROGR.:SS. [ ArFF EDILES, magistrates of Rome, first created 492 B.c. There were three degrees of these officers, and the functions of the principal were similar to our justices of the peace. The plebeian,ediles presided over the more minute affalirs of the state, good order, and the reparation of the streets. They procured all the provisions of the city, and executed the decrees of the people.- Varro. 2F,NIGMA. The origin of the vnigma is doubtful: Gale thinks that tile Jews borrowedcl.their -enigmatical forms of speech from the Egyptians. The philosophy of the Druids was altogether menigmnatical. In Nero's time thle Romans were often obliged to have recourse to this method of concealing truth under obscure language. The following epitaph on Fair Rosamond is an elegant specimen of the eunigma:lTic jacet in tombU, Rosa mundi, non Rosa munda; Non redolet, sed olet, quae redolere solet. 2EOLIAN IHARP. The invention of this instrumnent is ascribed to Kirche. 1653; but Richardson proves it to have been known at an earlier period than his tirme.-Dissertaltiou o? the Customns of the Ecast. There is a Rabbinical story of the aCrial harmony of the harp of David, which, when hung up at nig'ht, was played upon by the north wind.-Bars'c1c. AERONAUTICS. To lord Bacon, the prophet of art, as Walpole ca.lls him, has been attributed the first suggestion of the true theory of balloons. The ancient speculations about artificial mwings, whereby a man might fly as well as a bird, refuted by Borelli, 1670. Mr. Henry Cavendish ascertained that hydrygen air is at least twelve times lighter than common air, 1777. The true doctrine of aeronautics announced in France by the two brothers MIont golfier, 1782.-See Bcalloose. AEISOP'S FABLES. Written by the celebrated fabulist. the supposed inventor of this species of entertainment and instruction, about 565 B.c. sopl)'s Fables are, no doubt, a compilation of all the fables alnd apologues of witR both before and after his own time, conjointly with his own.-Plwtc'clh. _.ETOLIA. This country was named after AItolus of Elis, who, having accidentally killed a son of Phoroneus, king of Argos, left the Peloponnesus, and settled here. The inhabitants were very little known to the rest of Greece, till after the ruin of Athens and Sparta, when they assumed a consequence in the country as the opposers and rivals of the Achseans, to whom they made themselves formidable as the allies of Rome, and as its enemies. They were conquered by the Romans under Fulvius. The.Etolians begin to ravage the Pelo- Therma, Xenia, Cyphara, and other ponnesus... c. 282 cities, and destroy with fire all the They dispute the passage of the Mace- country they invadce B. c. 201 donians at Thermopylm. 23 They next invite tlhe kings of Macedon, Acarnania ceded to Philip as the price Syria and Sparta, to coalesce with of peace.. them against the lRonans.195 Battle of Lamiai the AEtoliars, com- They seize Calchis, Sparta, and Dememsanded by Pyrrhus, are deleated by trias in Thessaly... 194 Philip of Mahcedon 214 Their defeat near Thermopylm. 193 With the assistance of allies, they seize'hey lose Lamiat and Amphissa. 192 Oreum, Opus, Triboni and Dryne. 212 Made a province of Rome. 146 They put to the sword the people of AFFINITY, DEGREES OF. iMarriage witllin certain degrees of kindred waas prohibited by the laws of' alldost all nations, and in almost every age. Several degrees were prohibiited in scriptural law, as may be seen in Leviticks, chap. xviii. In England, a table restricting nmarriage within certain near degrees was set forth by authority, A.D. 1563. Prohibited marriages were adjudged to be incestuous and iunlawful by the ninety-ninth Canon, in 1603. All nmarriages celebrated withisn the forbidden delrees of kindred are declared to be absolutely void by statute 5 and 6 Will. IV. 1835. AGR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 157 AFFIRIATION or TI-IE QUAKERS. This was first legally accepted as an oath in England A.D. 1696. The affirmation was altered in 1702, and again altered and modified December 1721. AFGHANISTAN. Insurrection of the Afghans against the British power in India, January 5, 1842..-Sce Indica. AFRICA, called Libya by the Greeks, one of the three parts of the ancient world, and the greatest peninsula of the universe, first peopled by Ham. It was conquered by Belisarius in A.D. 553 et seq. In the seventh century, about 637, the lMahometan Arabs subdued the north of Africa; and their descendants, under the name of Moors, constitute a great ptart of the present population. See the several countries of Afriica through the volume. Among the late distinguished travellers in this quarter of the world, may be ilmenlioned Bruce, who commenced his travels in 1768; Mungo Park, who made his first voyage to Africa, MlAay 22, 1795; and his second voyage., January 10, 1804, but froml which lie never returned. See Parcr. Richard Lander died of shot-wounds (which he had received whenl ascending the river Nunn) at Fernando Po, Jan. 31, 1834. The African expedition, for which parliament voted 61,0001., consisting of the Albe'rt, W7'VibeSforce, and SotldaCt steam-ships, sailed in the summer of 1841. The vessels commenced the ascent of the Niger, Aug. 20; but when they reached Iddah, fever broke out among the crews, and they were successively obliged to return, the Albert having ascended the river to Egga, 320 miles from the sea, Sept. 28. The expedition was, in the end, wholly relinquished owing to disease, heat, and harclships, Oct. 17. AFRICAN COMPANY, a society of merchants trading to Africa. An association in Exeter. which was formecd in 1588, gave rise to this company. A charter wais granted to a joint stock company in 1618: a third company was created in 1631; a fourth corporation in 1662; and another formed by letters patent in 1672, and remodelled in 1695. The rights vested in the present company, 23 Geo. II. 1749. See Slave T?~rade. AGE: GOLDEN AGE, /[IDDLE AGE, &C. Among the ancient poets, an age was the space of thirty years, in which sens nsge ae aounts to nmuch the samne as generation. The interval since the first formlation of man has been divided into four ages, distinguished as the golden, silver, brazen, and iron ages; but a late author, reflecting on the barbarism of the first ages, will have the order assigned by the poets inverted-the first, being a time of ignorance, would be more properly dcenominated an iron, rather than a, golden age. VarioUs divisions of the duration of the world have been made by historians: by some the space of time comnmencing from Constantine, ancl ending with the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, in the fifteenth century, is called the middle age; the middle is also styled the barbarous age. The ages of the world may be reduced to three grand epochs, viz., the age of the law of nature, from Adam to Moses; the age of' the Jewish law, firom Moses to Christ; and the age of grace, from Christ to the present year. AGINCOURT, BATTLE Op, between the French and English armies, gained by Henry V. Of the French, there were 10,000 killed, and 14.000 were taken prisoners, the English losing only 100 men. Among the prisoners were the dukes of Orleans and Bourbon, and 7000 barons, knights, and gentlemen, and men nmore numnerous than the British themselves. Anmong the slain were the dukes of Alenqon, Brabant, and 1Bar, the archbishop of Sens, one marshal, thirteen earls, ninety-two barons, and 1500 knights, Oct. 25, 1415. - Goldszaitl/. AGRA, FORTRESS OP, termedl the key of Hindostan, surrendered, in the war with the Mahrattas, to the B3ritish forces, Oct. 17, 1803. This was once the 158'1mH WORmLD'S PROGRESS. IALE nmost splendid of all the Indian cities, and now exhibits the most magnificent ruins. In the 17th century the great mogul frequently resided here; his palaces, and those of the Omrahs, were very numerous; Agra then contained above 60 caravansaries, 800 baths, and 700 mosques. See Z~larsolevirs. AGRARIAN LAW, Awraria Lex. This was an equal division among the Roman people of all the lands which they acquired by conquest, limiting the acres which each person should enjoy, first proposed by Sp. Cassius, to gain the favor of the citizens, 486 a.c. It was enacted under the tribune Tibdrius Gracchus, 132 B.c.; but this law at last proved fatal to the freedom of Rome under Julius Cesar.-Livy; Vossiis. AGRICULTURE. The science of agriculture may be traced to the period immediately succeeding the Deluge. In China and the eastern countries it was, perhaps, coeval with their early plantation and governiment. Of the agriculture of the ancients little is known. The Athenians pretended that it was among them the art of sowing corn began; and the Cretans, Sicilians, and Egyptians lay claini, the last with most probability, to the honor. Brought into England by the Romans, as a science, about A.D. 27. AGYNNIANS. This sect arose about A.D. 694, and alleged that GOD forbade the eating of flesh, assuming the first chapter of Genesis to be the authority upon which the doctrine was founded. A revival of this ancient sect now flourishes at Manchester and other towns in England, and has been public there since 1814. AIR. Anaximenes of Miletus declared air to be a self-existent deity, and the first cause of every thing created, 530 B.c. The pressure of air was discovered by Torricelli, A.D. 1645. It was found to vary with the height by Pascal, in 1647. Halley, Newton, anc others, up to the present time, have illustrated the agency and influences of this great power by various experiments, and numeirous inventions have followed from them; among others, the air-gun by Guter of Nurembuirg in 1656; the air-pump, invented by Otho Guneicke at Magleburg in 16b0, and improved by the illustrious Boyle in 1657; and the air-pipe, invented by Mlr. Sutton, a brewer of London, about 1756. See Bedloob. AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, PEACE or. The first treaty of peace signed here wa8 between France and Spain, when France yielded Franche-Comt6, but retained her conquests in the Netherlands, MIay 2, 1668. The second, or celebrated treaty, was between Great Britain, Flance, Holland, Hungary, Spain, and Genoa. By this memorable peace the treaties of Westphalia in 1648, of Nimeguen in 1678 and 1679, of Ryswick in 1697, of Utrecht in 1713, of Baden in 1714, of the Triple Alliance 1717, of the Quadruple Alliance in 1718, and of Vienna in 1738, were renewed and confirmed. Signed on the part of England by John Earl of Sandwich. and Sir Thomas Robinson, Oct. 7, 1748. A congress of the sovereigns of Austria, Russia, and Prussia, assisted by ministers from England and France, wsas held a-t.Aix-la-Chapelle, and a convention signel, October 9, 1818. The sumn then due from lrance to the allies wa s settled at 265,000,000 fiancs. AL.ABAMA. One of the United States; most of its territory was included i1i the original patent of Georgia. It was made a part of the Mississippi territory in 1817; admitted into the Union as a State in 1820. Population in 1810 was less than 10.000; in 1816, 29.683; in 1820, 127,901; in 1830, 308,997; in 1840, 590.756, including 253,582 slaves. Exports of the State il. 1840 amounted to $12,854,694; imports, to $574,651 ALBA. Foundeld by Ascanius, 1152 B.c., and called Loe-ga, because the city extended alcorg the hill Alba.wrs. This kingdom lasted 487 years, and was :Th, J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 159 governed by a race of kings, the descendants of Eneas. When Amulius dethroned his brother, he condemned Ilia, the daughter of Numitor, to a life of celibacy, by obliging her to take the vows and office of a vestal, thereby to assure his safety in the usurpation. -His object was, however, fiustrated; violence was offered to Ilia, and she became the mother of twins, for which Amulius ordered her to be buried alive, and her offspring to be thrown into the Tiber, 770 B.c. But the little bark in which the infants were sent adrift stopped near Mount Aventine, and was brought ashore by Faustulus, the king's chief shepherd, who reared the children as his own, and called tbem Romulus and Remnus. His wife, Acca-Laurentia, was surnamed Luxpca; whence arose the fable that Romulus and his brother were sauckled by a she-wvolf. At sixteen years of age, Romululs avenged the wvrongs of Ilia and Numitor, 754 B.C., and the next year founded Rome.- VCrr0. kLBAN'S, ST. The name of this towq was anciently Verulaml; it was once the capital of Britain, and previously to the invasion of Julius Ciesar was th;e residence of British princes. It takes its present name from St. Alban, who was born here, and who is said to have been the first person who suffered martyrdom for Christianity in Britain. He is hence commonly styled the proto-martyr of this country, and was decapitated during the persecution raised by Diocletian, June 23, A.n. 286. A stately monastery was erected here to his memory by Offa, king of MBercia, in 793. St. Alban's swas incorporated by Edward VI. 1552. ALBAN'S, ST., B3ATVLES OI. The first, between the houses of York and Lancaster, in which Richard duke of York obtained a victory over Henry VI., of hisllose army 5000 were slain, while that of the duke of York suffered no material loss, fought May 22, 1455. The second, between the Yorkists under the earl of Warwick, and the Lancastrians, commanded by queen l/iargaret of Anjou, who conquered: in this battle 2500 of the defeated army perished; fought on Shrove Tuesday, February 2, 1461. ALBANY, city, capital of the State of New-York, founded by the Dutch in 1623; and by them named Beaverwyck; capitulated to the English in 1664, and then received its present name in honor of the Duke of York and Albany, its proprietor. Incorporated in 1686. Population in 1810, 9,356: in 1830, 24;238; in 1840, 33,721. ALBIGENSES. This sect had its origin about A.D. 1160, at Albigeois, in Lan-'uedcoc, and at Toulouse; they opposed the disciples of the Church of Rome, and professed a hatred of all the corruptions of that religion. Simon dce Montfort commanded against them, andcl at Bezieres he and the pope's legate put friends and foes to the sword. At Minerba, he burnt 150 of the Albigenses alive; and at La Vaur, he hanged the governor, and beheaded the chief people, drowning the governor's wife, and murdering other women. They next defeated the count of Toulouse, with the loss of 17,000 men. Simon de Montfort afterwards came to England. See Waldecxses. ALBION. The island of Great Britain is said to have been first so called by Julius Csesar, on account of the chalky cliffs upon its coast, on his invasion of the country, 54 B.c. The Romans conquered it, and held possession about 400 years. On their quitting it, it was successively invaded by the Scots, Picts, and Saxons, who drove the original inhabitants from the plain country, to seek refuge in the steeps and wilds of Cornwall and Wales; the Danes and Normans also settled at various times in England: and from a mixture of these nations the present race of Englishmen is derived. See Britai-n.-New Albion, district of California, was taken possession of by sir Francis Drake, and so named by him, in 1578; explored by Vancouver in 1792. ALBUERA, BATTLE OF, between the French, conmmanded by marshal Soult, 160 TIE WORLD S PROGRESS. [.ALa and the British and Anglo-Spanish army, commanded by marshal, now lord Beresford, May 16, 1811. After an obstinate and sanguinary engagement, the allies obtained the victory, justly esteemled one of the most brillianll achievements of the Peninsular war. The French loss exceeded 9000 men previously to their retreat. ALCHEjMY. This was a pretended branch of chemistry, which effected the transmutation of metals into gold, an alkahest, or universal menstruulm, a universal ferment. and other things equally ridiculous. If regard may be had to legend and tradition, alchemy must be as old as the Flood: yet few philosophers, poets, or physicians, from Homer till 400 years after Christ, mention any such thing. Pliny says the emperor Caligula was the first who prepared natural arsenic, in order to make gold of it, but left it off because the charge exceeded the profit. Others say the Egyptians had this mystery; which if true, how could it have been lost. Tlie Arabians are said to have invented this mysterous art, wherein they were followed by Ramoncl Lullius, Paracelsus, and others, who never found any thiing else but ashes in their furnaces. Another author on the subject is Zosimnus, about A. D. 410. —Fb. Bib. Grces. A license for practising alchemy with all kinds of imetals and minerals granted to one Richard Carter, 1476.- Ry2e1"'s Facd. Doctor Price, of Guilciford, published an account of his experiments in this way, and pretended to success: he brought his specimens of gold to the king, affirmingD that they were macde by imeans of a redi and white powder; but being a Fellow of the Royal Society, he was required, upon pain of expulsion, to repeat his experiments before Messrs. Kirwan and Woulfe; but after some equivocation, he took poison and died, August 1783. ALCORAN. The book which contains the revelation and cr edetnda of Mahomet: it is confessedly the standard of the Arabic tongue, and as the Mahometans believe, inimitable by any human pen; hence they assumne its divine origin. It is the common opinion of writers, that Maholnet was assisted by Batirac, a Jacobin, Sergius, a Nestorian monk,'and by a learned Jew, in composing this book, most of whose principles are the same with those of Arius, Nestorius, Sabellius, and other heresiarchs. The Mahometans say, that God sent it to their prophet by the Angel Gabriel: it was written about A. D. 610. -See Koracn, M/dovzelismn, ZIhecca, &c. ALDERMEN. The word is derived fiom the Saxon Ealdomazn., a senior, and among the Saxons the rank was conferred upon elderly and sage, as well as distinguished persons. on account of the experience their age had given them. At the time of the Heptarchy, aldermen were the governors of' provinces or districts. acnd are so mentioned up to A. D. 882. After the Danes were settled in England. the title was changed to that of carl, and the Norrnans introduced that of coIl.t, wrhich though clifferent in its original signification, yet meant the same thing. Henry III. may be said to have given its basis to this city distinction. In modern British polity, and also in the IJnitecl States, an aldermnan is a magistrate next in dignity to the mayor. ALE AND WINE. They are said to have been invented by Bacchus; the former where the soil, owing to its quality, would not grow grapes.-Too/ce's Pzt%/ceo't. Ale was known as a beverage at least 404 a. c. Herodotus ascribes the first discovery of the art of brewing barley-wine to Isis, the wife of Asyris. The Romans andC Germans very early learned the process of preparing a liquor from corn by imeans of fermentation, from the Egyptians.Tccitvts. Alehouses are made mention of in the laws of Ina, king of We — sex. Booths were set up in England A.D. 728, when laws were passed for their regulation. Alehouses were licensed 1621; and excise duty on ale and beer was imposed on a system nearly similar to the present, 13 Charles II., 1660. See Beer, WiF/e. ~tZi ] DICTIONARRY OF DATES. ]61 ALEMANNI, oR ALL MEN, (i. e. men of all nations,) a body of Suevi, defeated by Caracalla, A. D. 214. On one occasion 300,000 of this warlike people are said to have been vanquished, in a battle near 3Milan, by Gallienus, at the head of L0,000 Romans. Their battles were numerous with the Romans and Gauls. They ultimately submitted to the Franks.-Gibbon. ALEXANDER, ERA oP., dated firom the death of Alexander the Great, November 12, 323 B. c. In the computation of this era, the period of the creation was considered to be 5502 years before the birth of Christ, and, in consequence, the year 1 A. D. was equal to 5503. This conlputation continued to the year 284 A. D., which was called 5786. In the next year (285 A.n.), which should. have been 5787, ten years were discarded, and the date becamle 5777. This is still used in the Abyssinian era, which see. The date is reduced to the Christian era by subtracting 5502 until the year 5786, and after that timle by subtracting 5492. ALEXANDRIA, in Egypt, the walls whereof were six miles in circuit, built by Alexander the Great, 332 B. c.; taken by Cc sar, 47 B. c., and the library of the Ptolemies, containing 400,000 valuable worls in MS., burnt. Conquered by the Saracens, wht n the second library, consisting of 700,000 volumes was totally destroyed by the victors, who heated the water for their baths for.six months by burning books instead of wood, by command of the caliph Omar, A. D. 642. This was formerly a place of great trade, all the treasures of the East being deposited here before the discovery of the route by the Cape of Good Hope. Taken by the French under Bonaparte, when a massacre ensued, July 5, 1798; and fronl them by the British in the memorable battle mentioned in next art:icle, in 1801. Alexandria was agaain taken by the Bflitish, under General Frazer, March 21, 1807; but was evacuated by them, Sept. 23, same year. For late events, see Sy/rice and TaLr/?ey. ALEXANDRIA, BATTLE Oc, between the French, under Menou, who made the attack, and the British arnly, under Sir Ralph Abercrombie, amounting to about 15,000 men, which had but recently debarked,. fought March 21, 1801. The 13ritish were Victorious, but Sir Ralph Abercrombie was mortally wounded. ALEXANDRINE VERSE. Verse of twelve feet, or syllables, first written by Alexander of Paris, and since called, after himl, Alexandrines, about A. D. 1164. —1o0uv, Diet. Pope, in his EssaJ on C~riticism, has the following wellklinown couplet, in which an Alexandrine is Ilappily exempliiedc:" A needless Alexandrine ends the song, That like a wound-ed snake, drags its slow length a-long." ALGEBRA. Where algebra was first used, and by whoml, is not precisely known. Diophantus first wrote upon it, probably about A. D. 170; he is said to be the inventor. Brough-t into Spain by the Saracens, about 900; and into Italy by Leonardo of Pisa, in 1202. The first writer who used algebraical signs was Stifelius of Nuremberg, in 1544. The introduction of symbols for quantities Awas by Francis Vieta, in 1590, when algebra came into general use.-J-orer'i. The binomial theorem of Newton, the basis of the doctrine of fluxions, and the new analysis, 1668. ALGIERS. The ancient kingdom of Numidia, redauced to a Roman province, 44 a. c. It afterwards became independent, till, dreading the power of the Spaniards, the nation invited Barbarossa, the pirate, to assist it, and he seized the governleint, A. D. 1516; but it afterwards fell to the lot of Tur-. key.-Priestley. The Algerines for ages braved the resentiment of the most powerful states in Christendom, and the emperor Chlarles V. lost a fine fleet and army in an unsuccessful expedition against them, in 1541. Algiers was reduced by Admiral Blake, in 1653, and terrified into pacfic measures with England; but it repulsed the vigorous attacks. of other European powers, particularly those of France, in 1688, and 1761; and of Spain, in 1775, 162 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ ALYE 1783, and 1784. It was bombarded by the British fleet, under lord Exmouth, Aug. 27, 1816, when a new treaty followed, and Christian slavery was abolished. Algiers surrendered to a French armament, under Bourmont ani Duperre, after some severe conflicts, July 5, 1830, when the dey was deposed, and the barbarian government wholly overthrown. The French ministry announced their intention to retain Algiers, permanently, May 20, 1834. IMlarshal Clausel defeated the Arabs in two engagements (in one of which the duke of Orleans was wounded), and entered Mascara, Dec. 8, 1836. General Damremont attacked Constantina (which see), Oct. 13, 1837;" since when various other engagements between the French and the natives, hare taken place. Abd-el-Kader surrendered to General Lamoriciere, Dec. 22, 1847. See Mor'occo. ALI, SECT o0. Founded by a famous BMahomnetan chief, the son-in-law of Mahomet, (having married his daughter Fatima,) about A. D. 632. Ali was called by the Prophet, " the Lion of God, always victorious;" and the Persians follow the interpretation of the Koran according to Alli, while other Mahoinetans adhere to that of Abubeker and Omar. It is worthy of renlark, that the first four successors of Mahomnet-Abubeker, Omar, Othman, and Ali, whom he had enmployed as his chief agents in establishing his religion, anil extirpating unbelievers, and whom on that account he styled the " cutting swords of God," all died violent deaths; and that this bloody impostor's family was wholly extirpated within thirty years after his own decease. Ali was assassinated in 660. ALIENS. In England aliens were grievously coerced up to A. D. 1377. When they were to be tried criminally, the juries were to be half foreigners, if they so desired, 1430. They were restrained from exercising any trade or handicraft by retail, 1483. ALL SAINTS. The festival instituted, A. D. 625. All Saints, or All Hallows, in the Protestant church, is a clay of general commemoration of all those saiilrs and martyrs in honor of whom, indivicldually, no particular day is assigned. The Church of Rome and the Greek church have saints for every day in the year. The reformers of the English church provided offices only for very remarkable commemorations, and struck out of their calendar altogether a great number of anniversaries, leaving only those which ast their time were connected with popular feeling or tradition. ALLEGORY. Of very ancient composition. The Bible abounds in the finest instances, of which Blair gives Psalmc lxxx. ver. 8, 16, as a specimen. Spen.ser's Faerie Q'leenee is an allegory throughout; Addison, in his Spectator, abounds in allegories; and the Pilg'rieb's Progress of Bunyan, 1663, is perfect in its way. Milton, among other English poets, is rich in allegory. ALLIANCES, TREATIES OF, between the high European Powers: See Coalition, T-reaties, &c. Alliance of Leipsic.. April 9, 1631 Alliance of Versailles. May 1, 1756 Alliance of Vienna. May 27, 1657 Germanic Alliance. July 23, 1785 Alliance, the Triple. Jan. 28, 1668 Alliance of Paris.. ay 16, 1795 Alliance of Warsaw. March 31, 1683 Alliance of Petersburg. April 8, 1S0o Alliance, the Grand.. May 12, 1689 Austrian Alliance.. March 14, 18i2 Alliance, the HIague. Jan. 4, 1717 Alliance of Sweden. March 24, 1812 Allance, the Quadruple. Aug. 2,1718 Alliance of Toplitz. Sept., e1813 Alliance of Vienna. March 16, 1731 Alliance, the Holy. Sept. 26, 1813 ULTIANACS, The Egyptians computed time by instrulllents. Log calencdars were anciently in use. Al-mon-aght, is of Saxon origin. In the British Museum and universities are curious specimens of early almanacs. Michael Nostrodaluus, the celebrated astrologer, wrote an almlianac in the style of Merlin, 1566.-Ducfresnoy. The most noted early almanacs were: :U ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 163 ALMAN ACS, coltintted. Jolin Somer's Calendar, written in Ox- Poor Robin's Almanac. 1652 ilrd.. 1380 Lady's Diary.... 1705 One in Lambeth palace, written in 1460 Moore;s Almanac.. 1713 Fir;t printed one, published at lcuda. 1472 Season on the Seasons... 1735 First printed in England, by Richard Gentleman's Diary... 1741 Pynson... 1497 Nautical Almanac.. 1767 Tybault's Prognostications... 1533 Poor Ricltard's Almanac, tFranltlin's, Lilly's Ephemeris.'644 Philadelphia).... 1733 Of Moore's, at one period, upwards of 500,000 copies were annually sold. The Stationers' company claimed the exclusive right of publishing, until 1790, in virtue of letters patent from James I., granting the privilege to this company, and the two universities. The stamp duty on almanacs was abolished in England, 1834. ALUMEIDA, BATTLE or, between the British and Anglo-Spanish army, commanded by lord Wellington, and the French army under Massena, who was defeated with considerable loss, August 5, 1811. Wellington compelled Massena to evacuate Portugal, and to retreat rapidly before him; but the route of the French was tracked by the most horrid dcesolation. ALPHABET. Athotes, son of Menes, was the author of hieroglyphics, and wrote thus the history of the Egyptians, 2122 1. c.-Blair'. But Josephlus affirms that he had seen inscriptions by Seth, the son of Adam; though this is doubted, and cleemel a mistake, or fabulous. The first lettei of the Phoenician and Hebrew alphabet was aleplt, called by the Greeks cbphtd, and abbreviated by the moderns to A. The Hebrew is supposed to be derived fromn the Phcenician. Cadmus, the founder of Cadmea, 1493 B. c., brought the Phoenician letters (fifteen in number) into Greece; they were the following:A, B, r, A, I, K, A, M, N, 0, II, P, Z, T, T. These letters were originally either Hebrew, Phoenician, or Assyrian characters, and changed gradually in form till they became the ground of the Romian letters, now used all over Europe. Palamedes of Argos invented teac double characters, 0, X, a,;, about 1224 B. c.; and Simonides added Z, Yr, H, Q, about 489 B. c.-Ar'ldelicati Marbles. When the E was introduced is not precisely known. The Greek alphabet consisted of sixteen letters till 399 a. c., when the Ionic, of 24 characters, was introduced. The small letters are of late invention, for the convenience of writing. The alphabets of the different nations contain the following number of' letters:English..26 German.. 26 Greekl. 24 Turkish.. 33 French..23 Sclavonic.. 27 lHebrew.. 22 Sanscrit.. 50 Italian.. 20 Russian.. 41 Arabic.. 28 and Spanish.27 Latin.. 22 Persian.. 32 Chinese. 214 ALPHONSIPNE TABLES Celebrated astronomical tables, composed by command, and under the direction of, Alphonsus X. of Castile, surnamed the Wise. This learned prince is said to have expended upwards of 400,000 crownts in completing the work, whose value was enhanced by a preface, uritten by his own hand: he commencecl his reign in 1252. ALTARS, were first raised to Jupiter, in Greece, by Cecrops, who also instituted and regulated marriages, 1556 B. c. He introduced among the Greeks the worship of those deities which were held in adoration in Egypt.-Huce'odotxs. Christian altars in churches were instituted by pope Sixtus I. in 135; andI they wvere first consecrated by pope Sylvester. The first Christian altar in Britain was in G34.-Stowec. The Church of England, anid all the reformedl churches, discontinue the nalme, and have abolished the doctrine that supported their use. ALUM, is said to have been first discovered at Rocha, in Syria, about A. D. 1300; it was found in Tuscany, in 1460; was brought to perfection in England, in 164 THE WrOLD'S PROGIRESS. [ AME 1608: was discovered in Ireland, in 1757; and in Anglesey, in 1790. Alum is a salt used as a mordant in tanning; it is used also to harden tallow, and to ywhiten bread. It may be made of pure clay exposed to vapors of sulphusic acid, and sulphate of potash added to the ley; but it is usually obtained'by means of ore called alum slate. AMAZONIA, discovered by Francisco Orellana, in 1580. Coming fiom Peru, Orellana sailed down the river Amazon to the Atlantic, and observing conmpanies of women in arms oni its baInks, he called the country Amazonia, and gave tle name of Amazon to the river, which had previously been called Maranon. iT AZ-NS. Their origin is fabulous. They are said to have been the descend ants of the Scythians inhabiting Cappaclocia, where their husbands having made incursions, were all slain, being surprised in ambuscacdes by their enemies. Their -widows, reflecting on the alarms or sorrows they underwent on account of the fate of their husbands, resolved to form a female, state, and having firmly estabishecd themselves, they decreed that matrimony was a shameful servitude; but, to perpetuate their race, (hey, at stated times, adcmitted the embraces of their male neighbors.- Qnc1tCs C'itists. They were conquered by Theseus, about 1231 B. c. The Amazons were constantly employecl in wars; and that they might throw the javelin with morl -force, their right breasts were burned off, whence their name from the Greek, stoib and sesctmneCe. Their queen, Thalestris, visited Alexander the Great, while he was pursuing his conquests in Asia, and cohabited with lhim, in the hope of havingi issue by so illustrious a wvarrior; three hundred females were in her train.-He'odotsts. AMBASSADORS, accredited agents and representatives from one court to another, are referred to early ages, and to almnost all nations. In most countries they have great and pieculiar privileges; and in England, among others, they andc their servants are secured ag-ainst arrest. The Portugiese ambassaclor in England was imprisoned for debt, in 1653; and the Russian, by a lace-merchant, in 1709, when a law, the statute of 8 Anne, passed for their protection. Two men rwere convicted of arresting the servant of an asllbassador. They were sentenced to be conducted to the house of the almbassador, with a label on their breasts, to ask his pardon, andcl then one of them to be imprisoned three months and the other fined, May 12, 1780.-Plhillips. AMBER.. Of great repute in the world from the earliest time; esteemed as a imedicine before the Christian era: Theophrastus wrote upon it, 300 B. c. Upwards of 150 tons of amber have been found in one year on the sands of the shore near Pillau.-PAillips. Much diversity of opinion still prevails among naturalists and chemists respecting the origin of amber, some referring it to the vegetable, others to the mineral, and sonme to the animal kingdonl; its natural history and its chemical analysis affording sonmetling in' favor of each opinion. AMEN. This word is as old as the Hebrew itself In - that language it means tr'se, faitlfel, certarin. EmIployedc in devotions, at the end of a prayer, it implies, so be it; at the termlination of a creed, so it is. It has been generally used, botil in the Jewish and Christian churches, at the conclusion of prayer. AMiENDE HONORABLE, originated in France in the ninth century. It was first an infamous punishmient iinflficted oil taitors and sacrilegious persons: the ofifnder was delivered into the hands of the hangman; his shirt wVas strippedi off. a rope put about his neck, and a taper in his hand; lie was then led into coutrt and was obligecd to pray pardon of God, the ksing, and the country. Death or baisllllent soimetillles followed. Asctestde /teotocable is now a Jterm used for making recantation in open court, or in the presence of the injured party. AMII ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 165 AMERICA: See United States. Discovered by Christopher Colombo, a Genoese, better known as Christopher Columbus, A.D. 1492, on the 11th of October, on which clay he came in sight of St. Salvalor. See Baet/tca _sltcds. This great navigator foundl the continent of' America in 1497, andc tile eastern coasts were found by Anmcrigo Vespucci (Americuns Vespucius) in 1498: and from this latter discoverer cthe whole of Anmeric is nimed. Newfoundland, the first British colony INew England, the second, by the Plyin this quarter of the world, discover- mnouth conmpany. 162( ed by Cabot, and by him calledl New York, settled by tlhe Dutch.1614 Primea Vista..1497 [For other occurrences, see ITabular Virginia, the first English settlemeint Vieies- Uniterc Sates. See also on the main land. 1607 separate states, Mlaiie, &c. AMERICA, SOUTH. The Spaniards, as being the first discoverers of this vast portion of the Western World, had the largest and richest share of it. When' they landed in Peru, A. D. 1530, they found it governed by sovereigns called Incas, who were revered by their subjects as divinities, but the- were soon subdued by their invaders under the commaand of Francis Pizarro. The cruelties practised by the new adventurers wherever they appeared, will be a reproach to Spain for ever.* Spanish America has successfully asserted its fireedom within the present century. It first declared its independence in 1810; and the provinces assembled, and proclaimed the sovereignty of the people in July, 1814; since when, although the wars of rival and contending chiefs have been afflicting the country, it has released itself firom the yoke of Spain for ever. Its independence was recognized first by the United States, chiefly through the influence of H. Clay; by England, in 18238, et seq.; and by France, Sept. 30, 1830. See Bravzil, Colotbiai, Lisena, Perit, &c. AM3'ERICAN LITERATURE. The American Almanac for 1840 gives a list of 776 names of American authors who had died previous to that year. This did not include authors of mere pamphlets, w-hich would have swelled the number three-fold; but the "authorship" of many in the list was of very moderate amount or value. Of the 776 names, there were writers on Theology, Sermons, &c., 259; Poetry, 57; History and Biography, O80; Politics and Law, 77. [In these numbers, writers on two or more of the subjects are repeated.] AMETHYSTS. When this stone was first prized is not known; it was the ninth in place npon the breastplate of the Jewish high priests, and the name Issachar was engraved upon it. It is of a rich violet color, and according to Plutarch, takes its name from its color, resembling wine mixed with water. One worth 200 rix dollars having been rendered colorless, equalled a diaminond in lustre valued at 18,000 gold crowns.-De Boot Hist. GestzeIztsze?. Amethysts were cliscoveredl at Kerry, in Ireland, in 1755.-Biers' s. AMIENS, PEACF O, between Great Britain, Holland, France and Spain; the preliminary articles, fifteen in number, were signed by lord Hawlkesbury and Ml. Otto, on the part of England and France, Oct. 1, 1801; and the definitive treaty was subscribed on M[arch 27, 1802, by the marquis Cornwallis for Enigland, Joseph Bonaparte for France, Azara for Spain, and Schimmelpenninclk for Holland. AMMIONITES. Descended from Amemon, the son of Lot; they invaded the land of Canaan and made the Israelites tributaries, but they were defeated,as Casas, in describing thep, barbarity of the Spaniards while pursuing their conquests, records nmaiy instances of it that fill the nind with horror. In Janmaica, hlie says, they hanged thie unresisting natives by thirteen at a tilne, in honor of the thirteen apostles! and he has beheld them throw the Indian infants to their dogs for food l "I have heard them,' says Las Casas, "borrew the limb of a human being to feed thIeir dogs, and have seen them the next day return a quarter of'another victim to the lender!" 166 TH-I WORLD S PROGRESS. [ ANA by Jephthah, 1188 i. c. They again invaded Canaan in the reign of Saul, with an intention to put out the right eye of all those they subdued, butSaul overthrew them, 1093 B. c. They were afterwards many times vanquished; and Antiochus the Great took Rabboath their capital, and destroyed all the Awalls, 198 B. c.-Josephml~s. AMNESTY. The word as well as the practice was introduced into Greece by Thrasybulus, the Athenian general and patriot, who commenced the expulsion of the thirty tyrants with the assistance of only thirty of his friends: having succeeded, the only reward he would accept was a crown made with two branches of olive. 409 B. c.-Hugne's Essays. AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL: Established at Thermnopylm by Amlphictyon, for the management of all affairs relative to Greece. This celebrated council, which was composed of the wisest and most virtuous men of some cities of Greece, consisted of twelve delegates, 1498 B. c. Other cities in process of time sent also some of their citizens to the council of the Amphictyons, and in the age of Antoninus Pius, they were increased to the number of thirty. -SuLidas. AMPHITHEATRES. They may be said to be the invention of Julius Causar and Curio: the latter was the celebrated orator, who called the former;., full senate " 0O2s'ihnrg 716liCe'1L?, ViTirqnl,, Ct otMbiqW Vi'rorTz'e?soldiCT cit." In the Roman amphitheatres, which were vast round and oval buildings, the people assembled to see the combats of gladiators, of wild beasts, and other exhibitions; they were generally built of wood, but Statilius Taurus made one of stone, under Augustis Csesar. The anlphitheatre of Vespasian was built. A. D. 79; and is said to have been a regular fortress in 1312. The amphitheatre of Verona was next in size, and then that of Nismles. AMSTERDAM. This noble city was the castle of Amstel in A. D. 1100; and its building, as a city, was commenced about 1203. Its famous exchanlge vwao built in 1634; and the stadthouse, one of the noblest palaces in the world, in 1648; this latter cost three millions of guilders, a prodigious sum at that time. It is built upon 13,659 piles, and the magnificence of the structure is, for its size, both in external and internal grandeur, perhaps without a parallel in Europe. Amsterdam surrendered to the king of Prussia, when that prince invaded Holland in favor of the stadtholder, in 1787. The French were admitted without resistance, Jan. 18, 1795. The ancient government was restored in November, 1813. See Holland. AMULETS, on CHARMS. All nations have been fond of amulets. The Egyptians had a great variety; so had the Jews, Chaldeans, and Persians. Among the Greeks, they were much used in exciting or conquering the passion of love. They were also in estimation among the Romnans.-Pliny. Ovid. Among the Christians of early ages, amulets were madle of the woccd of the true cross, about A. D. 328. They have been sanctioned by religion and astrology, and even in modern times by medical and other scienceswitness the anodyne necklace, &c. The pope and Catholic clergy make and sell amulets and charms even to this day.-Ashe. ANABAPTISTS. This sect arose about A. D. 1525, and was known in England before 1549. John of Leyden, Muncer, Storck, and other German enthusiasts, about the time of the reformation, spread its doctrines. The anabaptists of Munster (who are, of course, properly distinguishled from the existing mild sect of this name in England) taught that infant baptism was a contriLrance of the devil, that there is no original sin, that men have a fiee will in spiritual things, and other doctrines still more wild and absulrd. Munster they called Mount Zion, and one Mathias, a baker, was declared to be the king of Zion. Their enthusiasm led them to the maddest practices, and AN ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 167 they, at length, rose in arms nnder pretence of gospel. liberty. MIUnster wad taken about fifteen months afterwards, and they were all put to death. The anabaptists of England differ iiom other Protestants in little more than the not baptizing children, as appears by a confession of faith, published by the 1rel'esentatives of above one hundred of their congregations, in 1689. ANACILEONTIC VERSE. Commonly of the jovial or Bacchanalian strain, namencd after Anacreon, of Teeos, the Greek lyric poet, about 510 n. c. The odes of Anacreon are much prized; their author lived in a constant round of' dl unkenness and debauchery, and was choked by a grape stone in his eighty-fifth year.-Stcaley's Lives of the Poets. ANAGRAM, a transposition of the letters of a name or sentence; as from Mceay, tile name of the Virgin, is made ca'mny. On the question put by Pilate to our Saviour, " Quid est ver'itas?" we have this admirable anagram, " Est vir qHi adest." The French are said to have introduced the art as now practised, in the reign of Charles IX., about the year 1560.-HenlcZtt. 1ANATHEMAS. The word had four significations among the Jews: the anathema, or curse, was the devoting some person or thing to destruction. We have a remarkable instance of it in the city of Jericho (see Joslztua vi. 17). Anathemas were used by the primitive churches, A. D. 387. 6.uch ecclesiastical denu.nciations caused great terror in England up to the close of Elizabeth's reign.-Rapin. The church anathema, or curse, with excommuLnication, and other severities of the Romish religion, are still practised in Catholic countries to this day.-Ashe. ANATOMY. The structure of the human body was made part of the philosophical investigations of Plato and Xenophon; and it became a branch of 1edical art undcer Hippocrates, about 420 B. c. But Erasisttatus and Herophilus may be regarded as being the fathers of anatomy: they were the first to dissect the human form, as anatomical research had been confined to brutes only: it is mentioned that they practised upon the bodies of living criminals, about 300 and 293 n. c. In England, the schools were supplied with subjects unlawfully exhumed from graves; and, until lately, the bodies of executed criminals were ordered for dissection. The first anatomical plates were designed by Vesalius, about A.D. 1538. The discoveries of Harvey were made in 1616. The anatomy of plants was discovered in 1680. — lFeind's listory of Physic. ANCHORITES. Paul, Anthony, and Hilarion were the first anchorites. Many of the early anchorites lived in caves and deserts, and practised great austerities. Some were analogous to the fakeers, who impose voluntary punishments upon themselves as atonement for their sins, and as being acceptable to GoD; and their modes of torture were often extravagant and criminal. The order first arose in the fourth century. ANCHORS seOR SHIPS, are of ancient use, and the invention belongs to the Tuscans-PinSzy. The second tooth,-or fluke, was added by Anacharsis, the Scythian.-Strcabo. Anchors were first forged in England A.D. 578. The anchors of a first-rate ship of war (of which such a ship has four) will weigh 90 cwt. each, and each of them will cost ~450. —Phillips. ANEMOMETER, to measure the strength and velocity of the wind, was invented by Wolfius, in 1709. The extreme velocity was found by Dr. Lind to be 93 miles per hour. See article Wi;nds. ANGELIIC KNIGHTS op ST. GEORGE. Instituted in Greece, A. D. 456. The An'gelici were instituted by Angelus Comnenus, emperor of Constantinople, 1191. The Angelicce, an order of nuns, was founded at Milan by Louisa,Torelli, A. D 1534. i68 TIiE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ ANT ANGELS. Authors are divided as to the time of the creation of angels. Some will have it to have been at the same timne with our world; others, before all ages, that is, from eternity. This latter is Origen's opinion. —C-1zc's tlist. Litcr-t. The Jews had ten orders of angels; and the popes hav:e recognized nine choirs and three hierarchies. ANGELS, IN COMMERCE. An ange!l was an ancient gold coin, wei-hing four pennyweights, and was valuecd at 6s. 8d. in the reign of Henry VI., ind( at 10s. in the reig'n of' Elizabeth, 1562. The angelot was an ancient gol-l coin, value half an a'n -el, struck at Paris when that capital was in. the hands of the English, in the reign of Henry VI., 1431. — Vood. ANGLING. The origin of this art is involved in obscurity; allusion is incvt to it by the Greeks and Romans, and in the most ancient books of the Bibl,as Amos. It came into general repute in England about the period of the Reformation. Wynkin de Worde's 7Treatyse of Pyssfbiigfe, the first book printed on angling, appeared in 1496. Isaac Walton's book was printed in 1653. ANIlMAL MI',4AGNETISM. This deception was introduced by father HIehl, at Vienna, about 1774; and had wonderful success in France, in 1788. It had its dupes in England also, in 1789; but it exploded a few years afterwardlc. It was a pretended mode of curing all manner of diseases by means of syqspcathetic rcffection between the sick person and the operator. The effect on the, patient was supposed to depend on certain motions of the fingers and features of the operator, he placing himself immediately before the patient, whos eyes were to be fixed on his. After playing in this maimnner on the imagiln: tion anc enfeebled mincl of the sick, and performing a number of clisto tions and grimaces, the cure was said to be completed. —IHaydn. ANGLO-SAXONS, oR ANGLES. The name of England is derived from a village near Sleswick, called Angl.en, whose. population joined the first Saun fieebooters. Egbert called his kingdom Anglesland. Anglia East was a kingdom of the heptarchy, founded by the Angles, one of whose chiefs, Ufal, assumed the title of king, A. D. 575: the king'dom ceased in 792.-See. Britai'n. ANNIHILATION. The doctrine of annihilation was unknown to the HebrBws, Greeks, and Latins: the ancient philosophers denied annihilation; the first notions of which are said to have arisen from the Christian theology.-Dr. ~Bo'net. ANNO DOMINI; in the year of our Lord; used by the Christian world, and abbreviated A.n. This is the computation of time from the incarnation o. ur1' Saviour' and is called the vilgar era; first adoptedl in the year 525. Sec rfeza. Charles III. of Germany was the first sovereign who added " in tlU ecar of our Lord " to his reign, in 879. i'4ARCTIC. The south pole is so called, because it is opposite to the north or arctic pole. A continent of 1700 miles of coast from east to west, anc 64 to 66 degrees south, was discovered in the Antarctic Ocean by Frenc, and American Exploring Expeditions, under D'Urville and Wilkes, res,>ec. tively on the same day, Jan. 19, 1840; a coincidence the more singular, a the discoverers were at a distance from each other of 720 miles. It wa! coasted by captain Wilkes for 1700 miles. Mr. Briscow, of the British Navy' fell in with land, which he coasted for 300 miles in lat. 67, long. 50, in th( year 1830. AINTEDILUVIANS. According to the tables of M1r. Whiston, the number o people in the ancient world, or world as it existed previous to the Fir reached to the enormous amount of 549,755 millions, in the year of the1482. Burnet has supposed that the first ihuman pair might have left, sa:,, .._iT I DICTIONARY OF DATES. 169 end of the first century, ten married couples; and from these, allowing them to multiply il the same decuple proportion as the first pair did, would rise, in 1500 years, a greater number of' persons than the earth was capable of holding. He tlseriobre sugg:ests a quadiuple multiplication only; and then exhibits the following' tnable of increase lduring the first sixteen centuries that preceded the Flood: — I. 10 V... 2,560 IX... 655360 XII.. 167,142,160 I.. 40 VI...10,240 X. 2,621,440 XIV. 671,0OS,640 III.. 160 VII.. 40,960 XI. 10,485,760 XV.. 2 684,354.460 IV.. 640 VIII.. 163,840 XII.. 41,943;,040 XVI.. 10,737,418,2! 0 This calculation, although the imost moderate made, exceeds, it will be seen, by at least ten times, the present number of mankind, which, at the higohest estimate, amounts to only a thousand millions. ANTHEMS, OR HYMNS. Hilary, bishop of Poitiers, ancl St. Ambrose, were the first who composed theim, about the middle of the fourth century.Leuglet. They were introduced into the church service in 386.-Balcer-. Ignatius is said to have introduced them into the Greek, and St. Ambrose into the Western church. They were introduced into the reformed churches in queen Elizabeth's reign, about 1565. ANTHROPOPHAGI. Eaters of human flesh have existed in all ages of the world. The Cyclops a.nd Lestrygones are represented as mlan-eaters, by Homer; and the Essedonian Scythians were so, according to Herodotus. Diogenes asserted that we might as well eat the flesh of men, as that of other animals; and the practice still exists in Africa, and the South Sea Islands, &c. ANTIMONY. This mineral was very early known, and applied by the ancients to various purposes. It was used as paint to blacken both men's and women's eyes, as appears from 2 Kixigs ix. 30, and Je'e'vsia/Z iv. 30, and in eastern countries is thus used to this day. When mixed with lead, it malakes types for printing; and in physic its uses are so various that, according to its preparation, alone, or in company with one or two associates, it is sufilcient to answer all a phlysician desires ill an apothecary's shop. —Bo lc. We are indebted to Basil Valentine f'or the earliest account of various pl'ocesses, about 1410. —Piesley?/. ANTINOMIANS, the name first applied by Luther to John Agricola, in 1538. The Antinomians trust, in the gospel, and not in- their deeds; alnd hold that crimes are lnot crimes when committed by thle, that thleir own good works are of no effect; that no ma1n should be troubled in conscience for sin, and other equally absurd doctrines. ANTIOCH, built by Seleucus, after the battle of Ipsus, 301 z. c. In one day, 100,000 of its people were slain by the Jewos, 145 B. c. In this city. once the capital of Syria, the disciples of the Redeemer were first called Christilnns. The Era of Antioch is much used by the early Christian write'rs attached to the churches of Antioch and Alexandria: it placed the creation 5492 years a. c. ANTIPODES. Plato is said to be the first who thought it possible that antipodes existed, about 308 a. c. Boniface, archbishop of Mentz, legate of pope Zachary, is said to have denounced a bishop as a heletic for maintaining this doctrine, A. D. 741. Tlhe antipodes of England lie to the south-east of' New Zealandcl; and near the spot is a slmall isla.l, callecl Antipodes Island. —Bs'oo/:es. ANTIQUARIES, AN ANTIQUE. The term'.oliquLe is applied to tile productions of' thle alrt.s from the age of Alexander to the time of the irruption of the Goths ilnto Italy, in A. D. 400. A college of antiquaries is said to have existed in hIeland 700 years a. c.; but this has very little pretensions to 8 170 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ AP credit. A society was founded by archbishop Parker, Camlden, Stowe, and others. in 1572.-Splelqcban. Application was made in 1589 to Elizabeth for a charter, but her death ensued, and her successor, Jamces I., was far frora favoring the design. In 1717 this society was revived, and in 1751 it received its charter of incorlporation from George II. It began to publish its discoveries, &c. 1under the title of A'cizccoliogia, in 1770. The Society ot Antiquaries of Edinburhgh was founded in 1780. ANTI-RENTISM. In PRensselaer and Delaware counties, State of New-York, an armed resistance of the tenants (chiefly those on the Van Rensselaer estates) to the demland for the payment of rents, commenced in 1846. See Riots. Gov. Young pardons eighteen anti-rent rioters, and releases thllem from prison, Jan. 27, 1847. ANTI-TRINITARIANS. Theodlotus of Byzantium is supposed to have been the first who advocated the simple humanity of Jesus, at the close of the second century. This doctrine spread widely after the reformation, when it was adopted by Lelius and Faustus Socinus. Bayle.-See Ari/ivLS, Sociniaits, and Unitc'ia,,s. ANTWERP. First mentioned in history in A. D. 517. Its fine exchafige built in 1531. Taken after a long and memorable siege by the prince of Parmas, in 1585. It was then the chief mart of Flemish commerce, but the civil war.' caused by the tyranny of Philip II. drove the trade to Amsterdam. The remarkable crucifix of bronze, thirty-three feet high, in the principal street, was formed from the demolished statue of the cruel dluke of Alva, which he had himself set up in the citadel. Antwerp was the seat of the civil war between the Belgians and the house of Orange, 1830-31. In the late revoln. tion, the Belgian troops having entered Antwerp, were opposed by th( Dutch garrison, who, after a dreadful conflict, being driven into the citadel, cannonaded the town with red-hot balls and shells, doing immense mischief Oct. 27, 1830. General Chasse surrendered the citadel to the French aftec a destructive bombardment, Nov. 24, 1832. See Belgiumsn. APOCALYPSE, the Revelation of St. John, written in the Isle of Patmos, about A. n. 95.-I-iereizs. Some ascribe the authorship to Cerinthus, the heretic, and others to John, the presbyter, of Ephesus. In the first centuries msany churches disowned it, and in the fourth century it was excluded from the sacred canon by the council of Laodicea, but was again received by other councils, and confirmed by that of Trent, held 1545, el seq. Rejected by Luther, Michaelis, and others, and its authority questioned in all ages from the time of Justin Marltyr, who wrote his first Apology for the Christians in A. D. 139. APOCRYPHA. In the preface to the Apocrypha it is said, " These books are neyther found in the Hebrue nor in the Chalde."-Bible, 1539. The history of the Apocrypha ends 135 n. c. The books were not in the Jewish canon, but they were received as canonical by the Catholic church, and so adjudged by the council of Trent, held in 1545, el seq.-Ashe. APOLLINARIANS, the followers of Apollinarius, bishop of Laodicea, who taught that the divinity of Christ was instead of a soul to him; that his flesh was pre-existent to his appearance upon earth, and that it was Senti down fi om heaven, and conveyed throgoh the Virgin, as througih a channel; that there were two sons, one born of God, the other of the Virgin, &c. Apollinauiris was deposed for his opinions in A. D. 378. APOLIO, Trl MprEs or. Apollo, the gocl of all the fine arts, of medicine, im-sic, poetry, and eloquence, had tenmples and statues elected to him in allmosit every country, particularly Egypt, Greece. and Italyr. His most splendidk; temple was at Delphi, built 1263 n. c. —See Delp pi. His tenmple at Daphn,. thA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 17 1 built 434 a3. c., during a period in which pestilence raged, was burnt in A. n. 362, and the Clhristians accused of the crime. —-Leiglet. ATPOSTLE'ES CREED. The stunmary of belief of the Christian faith, called the Apostle's Cr1eed, is generally believed to have been composed a great while after their time.-Pardeo. The repeating of this creed in public worship was ordacined in the Greek church at Antioch, and was instituted in the Roman church in the eleventh centuly; whence it passed to the church of England at the period of the reformation, in 1534. APOSTOLICI. The first sect of Apostolici arose in the third century; the second sect Awas founded by Sagarelli, who was burned alive at Parma, A. D. 300. They wandered about, clothed in white, with long beards, dishevelled hair, and bare heads, accompanied by women whom they called their spiritual sisters, preaching against the growing corruption of the church of Rome, and predicting its downfall. APOTHEOSIS. A ceremony of the ancient nations of the world, ny which they raised their kings and heroes to the rank of deities. The nations of the East were the first who paid divine honors to their great men, and the Romans followecd their example, and not only deified the most prudent and humane of their emperors, but also the most cruel and profligate.-Herodian. This honor of deifying the deceased emperor was begun at Rome by Augustus, in favor of Julius Cisar, B. c. 13. —7Til/lcWOcet. APPEAL or MURDER. By the late law of England, a man in an appeal of murder might fight with the appellant, thereby to make proof of his guilt or innocence. In 1817, a young maid, Mary Ashford, was believed to have been violated and murdered by Abraham Thornton, who, in appeal, claimed his right to his wager of battle, which the court allowed; but the appellant (the brother of' the mlaid) refused the challenge, and the criminal escaped, April 16, 1818. This law was imlmediately afterwardcs struck from off the statute book, 59 George III., 1819. APPRAISERS. The rating and valuation of goods for another was an early business in England; and so early as 11 Edward I. it was a law, that if they valued the goods of the parties too high, the appraiser should take them at the price appraised. 1282. APRIL. The fourth month of the year according to the vulgar computation, but the second according to the ancient Romans, Numa Pompilius having introclucecl JrbCC'iarus and,'brLc rins before it 713 B. c.-Pe0chaW?1. AQUARIANS. A sect in the primitive church, said to have been founded by Tatian in the second century, and who forbore the use of wine even in the sacrament, and used nothing but water. AQUEDUCTS. Appius Claudius advised and constructed the first aqueduct, which was therefore called the AppiCa?-w.ley, about 453. c. Aqueducts of every kind were amlong the wonders of Rome.-Livy. There are now sonre remarkable aqueducts in Europe: that at Lisbon is of great extent and beauty; that at Segovia has 129 arches; and that at Versailles is three miles long, and of immense height, with 242 arches in three stories. The stupendous aqueduct on the Ellesmere canal, in England, is 1007 feet in length, and 126 feet high; it was opened Dec. 26, 1805..AQUITAINE, formerly belonged (together with Normandy) to the kings of England, as descendants of William the Concqueror. It was erected into a principality in 1362, and was annexed to France in 1370. The title of duke of Aquitabine was taken by the crown of Enigland on the conquest of -this duchy by Henry V. in 1418; but was lost in the reign of Henry VI. ARABIA. This country is said never to have been conquered; the Arabians made no figure in history till A. D. 622, when, under the new name of Sarta 172 TI-IE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ARtW cens. they followed Mialholnet (a native of Arabia) as their general and prophet, and made considerable conquests.-Prcicstlcy. ARBELA, BATTLE OF. The third and decisive battle between Alexander the Great and Darius Codomenus, which decided the fate of Persia, 831.(. The army of Darius consisted of 1,000.000 of foot and 40.000 horse; the Macdcedonian army amiOlnted to only 400000 foot and 7,000 horse. —A'rzinb. The gold an(d silver found in the cities of Susa, Persepolis, and Babylon, which fell to Alexander friom this victory, amounted to thirty millions sterling; and the jewels and other precious spoil, belonging to Darius, sufficedl to load 20,000 mules and 5,000 camlels. —Plct'rcA?. ARCADIA. The people of this country were very ancient, and reckoned them. selves of longer standing than the moon; they were more rude in theio manners than any of the Greeks, from whom they were shut up in a valley, surrounded with mountains. Pelasgus taught them to feed on acorns, as being more nutricious than herbs, their former food; and for this discovery they honored him as a god, 1521 B. c. Arcadia had twenty-five kings, whose history is altogether fabulous. The Arcadians were {uond of military glory, although shepherds; and frequently hired themselves to fight the battles of other states.- Eistact/is. A colony of Arcadians was conducted by GCnotrus into Italy, 1710 i. c., and the country in which it settled was afterwardcl called McgCa Gi recic. A colony under Evander emigrated 1244 B. c.-IdeMl. ARCHBISHOP. This dignity was known in the East about A. D. 320. Athanasius conferred it on his successor. In these realms the dignity is nearly coeval with the establishment of Christianity. Before the Saxons came into England there were three sees, London, York, and Caerleon-upon-Usk; but soonl after the arrival of St. Austin, he settled the metropolitan see at Canterbury, A. n. 596. ARCHDEACONS. There are sixty church officers of this rank in England, and thirty-four in Ireland. The name was given to the first or eldest deos con, who attended on the bishop, without any power; but since the council of Nice, his function is become a dignity, and set above that of' priest, though anciently it was quite otherwise. The appointment is referred to A. D. 1075. The archdeacon's court is the lowest in ecclesiastical polity: an appeal lies from it to the consistorial court, stat. 24 Henry VIII. 1582. ARCHERY. It originated, according to the fanciful opinion of the poet Clauclian, fiom the porcupine being observed to cast its quills whenever it was offended. Plato ascribes the invention to Apollo, by whom it was coimmiunicated to the Cretans. The eastern nations were expert in archery in tilre earliest ages, and the precision of the ancient archer is scarcely exceeded by our skill in modern arms. Aster of Anophipolis, upon being slighted by Philip, king of Macedonia, aimed an arrow at himl. The arrow, on whict, was written "'Aimed at Philip's right eye," struck it, and put it out; and Philip threw back the arrow with these words: "If Philip take the town. Aster shall be hanged." The conqueror kept his world. ARCHERY IN ENGLAND. It was introduced previously to A. D. 440. and Hla sold and his two brothers were killed by arrows shot fir0om the cr0oss-boxi;n of the Norman soldiers at the battle of IIHastings, in 1066 that which killcki the king pierced him in the brain. Richard I. revived archery in Eilgl]an in 1190, and was himself killed by an arrow in 1199. TLe victories of Crecy. Poitiers, and Agincourt, were won chiefly by archers. The tlual rannge: oi the long-bow was fronm 300 to 400 yards. Robi, Hood acd Little Joln, iL is said, shot twice -that dlistance. Four thousancd aLchers surlro-s-idled the houses of Parliament, readcy to shoot the kin aund tie nlemllers 21 Richard II. 1897. —Stooe. The citizens of London were formed into companies of archers in the reign of Edward III.: they - were formed into a corporat ARG J DICTIONARY OP DATES. 173 body by the style of " The Fraternity of St. George," 29 Henry VIII. 1538. -NoeriT- oZldL's -fitsori/ (of LelodLn. ARTCH-ES, TRIuSInPIAIr, are traced to the era of the BMIacedonian conquest by thle hbsat Awritels. ZThe triumphal arches of the Rolans form a leading fCeaturo in their archllitecturei. ihose of Traj'it (erected A. D. 114) and Constantine were magnificedt. i-iRCHITECTURE w as cultivated by the Tyrians, about 1100 a.c. Their King, 1-inam, supplied Solomion wi i-th cedar, gold, silver, and other materials for the Temple, in the building of which he assisted, 1015 $. c. The art passed to Greece, and fiolm Greece to Rome. The style called Gothic canie into vogue in the nint;h century. The Saracens of Spain, being engaged (luring peace to build smiosques, introducecd grotesque carvings, &c., and the pondel-ous sublimity of bad taste; whlich species is known by elliptic arches and buttresses. The circular arch distinguishes the Norman-Gothic from the Saracenic, and came in with Henry I. The true Grecian style did not fully revive till about the reign of Jamnes I. 1603. A-RCHONS. When r1yalty was abolished at Athens, the executive government was vested in elective m1agistrates called archons, whose office continues for life. MITIedon, eldest soni of Codrus, is the first who obtained this dignity, 1070 D. C. ARCOLA, BAiTTiLE OF, betwveen the French under general Buonaparte, and the Austrians under field-marshal Alvinzy, fought Nov. 19, 1796. The result of this bloody conflict, which was fought for eight successive days, was the loss on the part of the Austrians of 12,000 men, in killed, wounded, and prisoners, four fdi.g's, and eighteen guns. ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS. Several have been undertaken by England, and some by Russia and other countries. Sir Martin Frobisher was the first Englishman who at;teiptecl to find a north-west passage to China, A. D. 1576. Davis's expedition to the Arctic regions was undertaken in 1585. After a number of similar adventui otus voya ges, Batfin, an Einglishman, attempted to find a north-w est passage, in 1616. See Baffin's Bcay. For the subsequent aicl dlate expeditions oftlis kiiind, includhing amliong the latter those of Buchan, Franklin, Ross, Parry, Liddol, Lyon, Back, &c., see 1ehTorl.A- TIst Pacssc$ge. AREOPAGITiE. A famnous coulcil saicd to have heard causes in the dark, because the j-dgoes were blind to all but facts, instituted at Athens, 1507 B. c. -Awnzid. dI ciMblzs. The lniamle is deived firom the Greek Areos fagCos, the firill of _c1a/s, because Mars was the first who was tried there for the murler of' Hallirhotilus, who had violated his dlaughter Alcippa. Whatever causes were pleaded befbre thiem, were to be civested of all oratory and fine speakinf, lest eloquence sliould eharn their ears, and corrupt their judgmlellt. Hence arose the lloe st ust and impartial decisioins. ARIGENTARIA, B3ATTIEv OF. One of the most renowned in its times, fought in Alsace, between the Alled:, —-!1nni ai l the Romians, the former being dclefeatedcl by the latter with the loss fc1 moie than 85,000 out of 40Q000 men, A. D. 378,,VanGONAUTIC EXPEDITION, undeirtaken by Jason to avenge the death of Phryxus, and recover his tretasures seized by the king of Colchis. The ship inl whicll P1ryxSis had sailCedl to Colchis having' been aclorned with the -eiure of a Il. iG indlluced the poet s to pretend t hat the journey of Jason was folrl thie recverly of tlhe g'o!l.n fleece. Tl'is is tile filst naial ealDedition on recordT; it made a great noise iii Greece, and many kings and the first hleroes of the oge anccompaniedl Jaason. whose ship was called Alqo, from its buildr, 1263 a. c.- Dlfeicsso/i. 5.RGOS. This hingidom was founded by Inachius, 1866 Bn. c., or 1080 years be 174 TIlE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ ARI fore the first Olympiad.-Blcair. The nine kings from the founder were called Inactcidce. of whom the fourth was Argus, and he gave his name to the country. When the Heraclidm took possession of Peloponnesus, B. c. 1102, Temenus seized Argos and its dependencies. Argos was afterwards a republic, and distinguished itself in all the waras of Greece.-Er,! epidcs. Inachus founds the kingdom. C. c. 1856 ypermnestra, whlo saved her husPhoroneus reigns sixty years. 1S0" band, while her forty-nine sisters saApis reigns thirty-five years. 1747 crificed theirs. (See Flat1nl1beazex)B.. B 1425 The city of Argos built by Argus, son Lynceus, son of Egyptus, whose -e of Niobe. 171 had been preserved by his wiIf, deCriasus, son of Argus, succeeds his thrones Danaus father, and reigns.... 1641 Reign- of Abas.. 1384 Reign of Triopas; Polycaon seizes Reitgn of Prctus, twin-brother ofAcripart of the kingdom, and calls it af- sius.13tl ter his wife, Mlessenia. 1552 Bellerophon comes to Argos; the pasReign of Crotopus.... 1506 sion for him of Sthenobcea. 13S1 Sthenelus reigns... 1485 Rebellion of Acrisius.. 1314 Gelanor is deposed by Danaus.. 1474 Perseus leaves Argos. and founds.yFeast of the Flambeaux, in honor of cenme (which see.) 13'3 Argos, in modern history, was taken from the Venetians, A. D. 1686. It was lost to the Turks in 1716, since when it continued in their hands until 1826. Argos became united in the sovereignty of Greece under Otho, the present and first king, January 25, 1833. See Greece. ARIANS. The followers of Arius, a numerous sect of Christians, who deny he divinity of CIHRIST: they arose about A. D. 315. The Arians were condemned by the council of Nice, in 325; but their doctrine became for a time the reigning religion in the East. It was favored by Constantine, 319. Carriend into Africa under the Vandals, in the fifth century, ancd into Asia under the Goths. Servetus published his treatise against the Trinity, 1531, and hence arose the modern system of Arianism in Geneva. Arius died in 336. Servetus was burnt, 1553.- Vacill cs, Hist de 1'H'rfsie. ARITHMETIC. Where first invented is not known, at least with certaintV. It was brought from Egypt into Greece by Thales, about 600 a. c. The oldest treatise upon arithmetic is by Euclid (7th, 8th, and 9th books of' his Elements), about 300 B. c. The sexagesimal arithmetic of Ptolemy was used A. D. 130. Diophantus of Alexandria was the author of thirteen books of Arithmetical questions (of which six are extant) in 156. Notation by nine digits and zero, known at least as early as the sixth century in Hindostanintroduced from thence illto Arabia. about 900-into Spain. 1050 —into England, 1253. The date in Caxton's Mieroer' of t/le Won'ld, Arabic claracters. is 1480. Arithmetic of decimals invented, 1482. First work printed ih England on arithmetic (de Ate Supputtceedi ) was by Tonstall, bishop of Duirham, 1522. The theory of decimal fractions was perfected by lord Napier in his Rabdologia, in 1617. ARK. Mount Ararat is venerated by the Armenians, from a belief of its being the place on which Noah's ark resteel, after the universal Deluge, 2347 a. c. But Apamea, in Phrygia, claims to be:e spot; and medals have been strlcek there with a chest on the waters, and the letters NOE, and two doves: this place is 300 miles west of Ararat. The ark was 300 cubits in length. fifty in breadth, and thirty high; but most interpreters suppose this cubitto be ab,;'iti1 a foot and a half, and not the geometrical one of six. There were, we aLre to]tli three floors-the first for beasts, the second for provisions. and the tlilrd i; birds. and Noah's fianily. It was not made like a ship, but came neall tSie figure of a square, growing gradually narrower to the top. There wtNa. a door in thle first floor, and a great wTindow in the third. ARKANSAS, one of the United States, was a part of the Louisitena puircllase. It was made a separate territory in 1819. and was admitted into the Union in 1836. Population in 1830, 30,388; in 1840, 97,574, including 19,935 slaves ARM ] DICTIONARY OF' DATES. 175 ARMADA, Tr- ITNVINCISLE. The famous Spanish armament so called consisted of 150 ships, 2650 great guns, 20,000 soldiers, 8000 sailors, and 2000 volunteers, uclder the duke of Meclina Sidonia. It arrived in the Channel, July 19, 1588, and was defeated the next day by Drake and Howard. Ten fire-ships having been sent into the enemies' fleet, they cut their cables, put to sea, and endeavored to return to their rendcezvous belgwveel Calais and Gravelines: the English fell upon them, took mllany ships, and admiral Howard maintained a rtullling fight from the 21st July to the 27th, obli-gi-g the shattered fleet to bear away for Scotland and Ireland, where a stori cdispersecl them, and the remainder of the armalnment returned by the North Sea to Spain. The Spaniards lost fifteen capital ships in the engagmelent. and 5,000 men; seventeen ships were lost or taken on the coast of Irelandl and upwards of 5000 men were drowned, killed, or taken prisoners. The English lost but one ship. —Reaia, Carlte, Ift1ie. ARMAGHI-I, SEE OF, the first ecclesiastical dignity in Ireland, was founded by St. Patrick, its first bishop, in 444. ARMED NEUTRALITY. The confederacy, so called, of the northern powers, against England, was coimmenced by tlie empress of Russia in 1780; but its objects were defeated in 1781. The pretension was renewed, alind a treaty ratified in order to cause their flags to be respected by the belligerent powers, December 16, 1800. The principle that neutral flags protect neutral bottoms being contrary to the lmaritime system of England, the British cabinet remonstrated, and Nelson and Parker destroyed the fleet of Denmiark before Copenhagen, April 2, 1801. That power, in consequence, was obliged to secede from the alliance, and acknowledge the claim of England to the empire of the sea; and the Armed Neutrality was soon after dissolved. ARMENIA. Here Noah and his people resided when they left the ark, 2347 a. c. After being subject successively to the three great monarchies, Armenia fell to the kings of Syria. The Armenians were the original worshippers of fire: they also paid great veneration to VennLs Amncaiis, to whose priests even the highest classes of the people prostituted their daughters, prior to marriage.-Mctin's Mmoeezies sir L'Ar'qnbic. City of Artaxarta built. B. B. 186 Artaxias is deposedi.. C. 30 i'ranes the Great reigns.. 93 -Ie is restored to his throne, and dies.iie is called to the throne of Syria, as- Blair 1 sumes the fastidious title of " King of Reign of Venones A. a. 16 Kings," and is served by tributary Zenon reigns. 18 princes... 83 Tigranes IV. reigns 36 Tigranes defeated by Lucullus. 69 Hle is cited to Rome, and deposed 37 Again defeated, and lays his crown at Tiridates dethroned, and RIoman power the feet of Pomipey.. 66 paramount in Armenia.. 62!His son, Artavasdes, reigns. 54 Armenia reduced to a Persian province Artavasdes assists Pompey against Ju- under Sapor.. 365 lius Caesar... 48 Subdued by the Saracens. 687 Artavasdes assists the Parthians against Irruption of the Turkls.. 755 Mlare Antony... 36 Again made a Persian province, under Antony subdues, and sends him loaded Uffan Cassanes. 1472 with silver chains to Egypt, to grace Subdued by Selim II... 1522 his triumph.. 34 Overrun by the Russians. 1828 The Armenian soldiers crown his son, Surrenler of Erzeroum. July 1829 Artaxias.. 33 (See Syria.) ARMENIAN ERA commllenced on the 9th of July, A. D. 552: the Ecclesiastical year on the 11th Aulgust. To reduce this last to our time, acld 551 years and 221 dclays; and in leap years subtract one ciday from Malch 1 to August 10. Tlhe Armenians use the old Julian style antd months in their correspondence with Europeans. ARMILLARY SPIHIERE. Commonly made of brass, and disposed in such a manner that the greater and lesser circles of the sphere are seen in their 176 TItE WVORLD'S PROGRESS. [ ARMi natural position andl motion, the whole being comprised in a fi'ame. It is said to have been invented by Eratosthenes, about 255 u. c. ARMINIANS (the) chiefly contend for the doctrine of universal redernption, and g0enerally espouse the principles of the Church of Engaland: especially asserting the subordination of the Christian church to the civil powels. T'hey also contend for the eficacvy of good works, as well as their seccssity/, in securing man's salvation. James I. and Charles I. fiavoled the doctrines ol thle Ariinians; and the principles of the sect prevail generally in HIollaind and elsewhere, though condemned at the synod of Dost (see Doet) in 1618, Areiniius, who was a divinity professor at Leyden, died in 1609. Brctldt. ARIMORIAL BEARINGS became hereditary in fainilies at the close of tlhe twelfth century. They took their rise firom the knights painting their banners with different figures, and were introduced by the Crusaders, in order at first to distinguish noblemen in battle A. D. 1100. The lines to denote colors in arms, by their direction or intersection, iwere invented by Colnhubiere in 1689. Armorial bearings were taxed in 1798-and again in 1808. ARMOR. The warlike Europeans at first t espised any othert:leience haln the shield. Skins and padded hides were first used; and brass and iroi armor, in plates or scales, followred. The first body-arinor of the Britons was skins of wild beasts, exchanged, after thle Roman conquest, for tle well-tanned leathern cui'rass.- Tcfcitqts. This latter con tieiiecl till thle AngloSaxon eca. Hengist is said to havae had scale armor, A. n. 4-19. The heavy cavalry were covered with a coat of mlail, Henry I!I. 1216. Solme horsenien had visors, and skull capns same reign. Armor became exceedinglhy splendid about 1350. The armor of plate commenced, 1407. Black arimolr, used, not only for battle, but for mourning, Henry V. 14183. The armor of Henry TII. consisted of a cuirass of steel, in the formn of a pair of stays, about 1500. P rmor ceased to reach below the knees, Charles I. 1625. In the reign of Charles II. officers wore lno other armor than a large gor5,get, which is commem l orated in the diminutivse ornament known at the present day.-L'yric/C. ARMS. The club wTas the first offensive weapon; then followed the mace, battle-axe, pike, spear, javelin, sword, and dclgger. Among ancient missiles were bows and arrows. Pliny ascribes the invention of the sling to th{e, Phoenicians. See t/e vC a'iols wccaptoss ~t/7noutg the voilseve. ARMY. Ninus and Semiramis had armies amounting to nearly two millions of fighting men, 2017, a. c. The first guards and regular troops as a standing army were formed by Saul, 1093 E. c.- Essscb is. One of the first standing armies of which we hasve any account, is that of Philip of Macedon. The first standing army, existing as such, in modern times, was maintained in France by Charles VII. in 1445. Standing armies were introduced by Charles I. in 1638; they were deelared illegal in England, 31 Charles II. 1679. The chief European nations have hacl in their service the following armies: Spain 150,000 men; Great Britain. 810,000; Prussia, 350,000; Turkey, 450,000; Austria,; 00,000; Russia, 560,000; and France, 680,000. ARMY, BRITISH. Statenment of the effective military strength of the United Kingdomn at the decennial periods respectively mentioned, and of the sums vote(d for military expenditure, drawn from parliamentary returns and other official records: 1780, Time of war; troops of the line. amount 110,000 men.. sum voted ~7,8-7,000 1S00, War.. ditto 16S,000 men. ditto 17,973,000i 18130, Wvar; army, including foreign troops ditto 300,000 men... ditto 26,7418,00C 1815, Last year of the war... litto 300,000 men. ditto 39,150,000 1820, Time of peace; war incumbrances ditto 89,100 men.. ditto 18,253,000 1830, Peace... ditto 89,300 men.. ditto 6,991,000 In 1845, the army, of all ranks, nlumbered 100,011 nen; and the sunl voted was ~4,487,753. See M7iliitia and Vohbstteess. ;sSSS j DICTIONALrY O]P DAT:ES,. 77 ARTILLERY. The lirst piece was a smnall one, contrived by Schwartz, a German cordlelier, soon after the invention of gtunpowder, in 1330. Artillery was used, it is said, by the 3Mfoors at Algoesiras, in Spain. in the siege of 1384:1 it wasI used, according to our historians, at the battle of Cressy, in 13146, when Edward III. had four pieces of' cannon. which cfained him the battle. We had artillery at the siege of Calais, 1847. Thle Venitians first emiployed artillery against the Genoese at sea, 1377.-Voltai'e. Cast in EnLgland, together with mortars for bomb-shells. by Flemish artists in Sussex, 1543-.-Ryafer's z1de'ca. Alade of brass, 1635; improvements by Brsowne, 1728. See- Iron. AIRTS. See LiteracttLce. In the eig-hth century, the whole circle of sciences w as complosed of these seven liberal arts, namnely —grlammar, rhetoric, logic, arlithmetic, music, geometry, aLnd astronoImy.-Hca,?-is. The Royal Society of' England (which see) obtainecl its cllharter April 2, 1663. The Society of Arts to promote the polite arts, comlllmece, manufactures, and mnechallics, wAa,s instituted in 1754; it originatedi in the patriotic zeal of Mr. Shipley, anc of its first president, lord Folkstone. TIhe first public exhibition by the artists' of the British metropolis took place in 1760, at the srooms of this society, and was repeated there for several years, till, in process of time, the Royal Academy was foundedl. See RGoytal Acadcl?/, The Society of British Artists was instituted May 21, 1823, and their first exhibition w as opened April 19, 1824.-See Br'itisli Ailsena; Britisrh / Is Jtitteior; actioatl GallerJ, L4c.,IRUND]ELIAN MARBLES; containing the chronology of ancient history fioml 1582 to 355 r. c., and said to have been sculptnied 264 B. c. They consist of 87 statues, 128 busts, ani 250 inscriiptions, and were -found in the Isle of Paros, in the reign of Janmes I., about 1610. They were purchased by lord Arlndel, and given to the unisrersity of Oxfordl, 1627. T'he characters are Greek. of liich there are two translations: by Seldef, 1628; by Psideai., 1676.-See Kdld's Tracts; and Porsso's Ti-catiSC, 1789. ASCALON, BATTLE OF; i wich Ricllhardcl I. of Engiand, commllnanding the Christian forces. defeated the sultan Saladin's army of 300,000 Saracens and other infidels. No less than 40. 00 of the enemy were left dead on the field of battle; and the victoious Richardcl marched to Jerusalellm, A. D. 1192.-R/'!Zc'sr. A6SH-WEDNESDAY. The primitive Christians lid not commence their Lent until the Sunday, now called the first in Lent. Pope Felix I1I. in t. D. 487, first addedl the four clays preceding tlhe old Le-nt Sunday, to complete the snumber of t'asting' days to forty; Gregory the Great intr oducecd the splrinkling of ashes on the fIrst of the four addlitional days. ancd hence the ncamle of Dies Cir1mC'sc, or Ash-Wednesday: at the Refollrmation this practice was abolished,' as being a mere shadow; or vain show." ASIA; so called by the Greeks, from the nymph Asia, the cdaughter of Oceanus and Tethys, a.nld wife of Japhet. Asia was the filst quarter of the world peopled; here the law of GOD was first promulgated; here many of the greatest monarchies of the,earth had their rise; and fioll henlce most of the arts and sciences have been clerived.-Pardois. _SPERNE, B.TvrTF OF, between the Austrian armly uncder the archdiuke Charles, and the Fresnch, fouglht on the 21st May, 1809, ancl two following days. -In this most san11ginary fight, thle loss of the former armwy exceeded 20,000 insl'n, inc t~1e loss of the French was msore than 30,000: it ended in the defeat of Bonaparte. who commnandled in person, and was the severest check that he Ihacl yet received. The bridge of the Danube was cdestroyed, and his retreat endan-erled; but tl-e success of the Austrianrs had no beneficial effect on the subsequent prosecCtion of the war. ASSASSINATION PLOT. A conspiracy so called, fornmed by the earl of Aylesbury and others to assassinate king William III., near Richmond., Surrey, as 8* 178 ThE WORLLD'S PROGRESS. [ ASS he came from hunting. The object of the conspiracy was to have been consummated February 15, 1695-6, but for its tinlely discovery by Prendergast. -Hist. Enlglalnd. ASSASSINS. A tribe in Syria, a famous heretical sect among the Mahometans, settled in Persia, in A. D. 1090. In Syria, they possessed a large tract of land among the mountains of Lebanon. They murdered the marquis of Montferrat in 1192; they assassinated Lewis of Bavaria in 1213; the khan of Tartary was murdered in 1254. They were conquered by the Tartars in 1257; and were extirpated in 1272. The chief of the corps assulmed the title of "Ancicnt of the Mo1n2tains." ASSIENTO. A contract between the king of Spain and other powers, for furnishing the Spanish clominions in America with negro slaves. —Bu1n-he. It began in 1689, and was vested in the South Sea Company in 1713. By the treaty of Utrecht it was transferred to the English, who were to furnish 4800 negroes annually to Spanish Alnerica. This contract was given up to Spain at the peace in 1748. See Guineca. ASSIGNATS. Paper currency, to support the credit of the republic during the revolution, ordered by the National Assembly of France, April, 1790. At one periodl the enormous amount of eight milliarcls, or nearly 350 millions of pounds sterling of this paper were in circulation in France and its depe? dencies.-Alison. ASSUMPTION. A festival observed by the church of Rome in honor of the Virgin Mary, who, as the Catholics believe, was taken up to heaven in her corporeal form, body and spirit, on August 15, A. D. 45. Mary is reported to have been in her 75th year. The festival is said to have been instituted in 813. ASSURANCE. See Insul rence. The practice is of great antiquity. Suetonius ascribes the contrivance to Claudius Cusar, A. D. 43. It is certain that assurance of ships was practised in the year 45. The first regulations concerning it are in the Len Ole'on, by which it appears to have been known in Europe very generally in 1194. The custom of Lomlbard-street was made a precedent for all policies at Antwerp, and in the Low Countries; but the first statute to prevent fiauds fiom private assurers was made 43 Elizabeth, 1601.-MlolinerLux's Ler laeJeriatoricL. ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. This is the earliest recorded empire-that of Bacchus wanting records. It commenced under Ninus, who was the Jupiter of the Assyrians, and the Hercules of the Chaldeans, 2069 B. c. It arose out of the union of' two powerful kingdoms, Babylon and Assyria, or Nineveh, the latter founded by Ashur, and ending with Sardanapalus, 820 B. c. When this lastnamed prince was conquered by Arbaees, he shut himself up in his palace, with his concubines and eunuchs, and causing it to be set on fire, they all perished in the flames. On the ruins of the empire were formed the Assyrians of Babylon, Nineveh, and the Median kingdom.-Lenglet. The tower of Babel built.-Genesis x. Babylon and makes it the seat of her 6 x Xi. L.-Btlairt - - B-. c. 2247 dominion.-Leszglet - B. C. 2017 The kingdom of Babylon begins - 22i45 Semilamis invades Libya, Ethiopia, Astronomical observations begun by and India.-Lenglet - -' - i. the Chaldleans - 2234 The Arabs seize NIineveh - - -19'37 Belus reigns 55 years.- Ushe. 2124 1Belochus, the last kinog of the race of Ninus, son of Belus, reigns in Assylia, Ninus. — Blair - - - -146 and naames his capital after himisceli- 2059) Ie makes his daughter, Artossa, surBabylon taken by Ninus, who, havin namled Semniramis II,, his associate subdued the Armneniatns, Persians, onl the throne - -14133 Bactrians, and all Asia Minor, estab- Belatores reigns -. -1421 lishes what is properly the Assyrian * * * monarchy, of whiclch Ninevehll was the The prophet Jonah appears in the seat of empire.-Blair - - 2059 strets of Nineveh-Blai? - - 840 Semiramis enlarges and embellishes Nineveh taken by Arbaces. ~ ST ] THE WOEILD S PROGRESS. 179 ASSYRIA, PR1oPER. After the destruction of the first Assyrian monarchy, Phul, the last king's son, was raised to the throne by the Ninevites, 777 B. c., and the kingdom continued until 621 B. c., when Sarac, or Sardanapalus II., being besieged by the Medles and Babyloniains, put his wife and children to death, and burnt himself in his palace, a fate somewhat similar to that of Sardanapalus I. See recedi'ng aertricle. Nineveh was then razed to the ground, and the conquerors divided Assyria.-Blabir. It was finally conquered by the Turks in 1637 A. o.-P- iestlIey. Phul raised to the throne, about the Sennacherib invades Judea, and his geyear.-Blair - - B..' 777 neral, Rabshalket, besieges Jerusat-e invades Israel, but departs without le,i when the aneel of the Lord in one drawing a sword.-Blair; 2 KIing's night destroys 18O,000 of his army.xv. 19, 20 - - 770 Isaiah xxxvii. - B. C. 710 Tielath-Pileser invades Syria, takes [Comnmentators suppose that this mesDamascus, and makes great con- senlger of death was the fatal blast quests.. - 740 known in eastern countries by the Shalmanezer takes Samaria, transports name of Samiel. ] the people, whom he replaces by a Esar-haddon invades Judea, and takes colony of Cutheans and others, and Babylon.-Blair - - 690 thus finishes the kingdom of Israel. I-Is invades Judea -Blair -. - 677 -Blair - - - - 721 Holofernes is slain by Judith - - 677 tIe retires from before Tyre, after a Saosduchinus reigns.- Usher 6 - 667 siege of five years.-Blair 713 Ninevelh taken, anld razed to the ground' 621 ASTROLOGY. Judicial astrology was invented by the Chaldeans, and hence was transmitted to the Egyptians, Greeks, and Ronmans. It was much in vogue in France in the time of Catherine de MAedicis, 1533.-3 lenaclt. The early history of astrology in England is very little known: Bedle was addicted to it, 700; and so was Roger Bacon, 1260. Cecil, Lord Burleigh, calculated the tiativity of Elizabeth; and she, and all the European princes, were the humble servants of Dee, the astrologer and conjurer. But the period of the Stuarts was the acmie of astrology in England.-Sir Walter Scott has made ample use of sir William Lilly, the noted astrologer, in his tales of this period; and it is certain that Lilly was consulted by Charles I. respecting his projected escape from Carisbrook castle in 16347.-Perxsol. ASTRONOMY. The earliest accounts wre lhave Qf this science are those of Babylon, about 2234 u. c. —Blair. The study of astroonomy was much advanced in Chaldtea under Nabonassur; it Jwas known to the Chinese about 1100 u. c.; some say many centuries before. Lunar eclipses were observed at Babylon with exceeding accuracy, 720 B. c. Spherical form of the earth, and the true cause of lunar eclipses, taught by'Thales, 640 a. c. Further discoveries by PIyt/atgoercas, who taught the doctrine of celestial motions, and believed in the plurality of habitable worlds, 500 B. c. Hfippjrcrchcas began his observations at Rllodes, 167 B. c.-began his newv cycle of the moon in 143, and muade great advances in the science, 140 B. c. The precession of the equinoxes confirmed, and the places and distances of tle planets discovered, by PtoteMy, A. D. 130. After the lapse of nearly seven centuries, during which time astronomy was neglected, it was resumed by the Arabs about 800; and was afterwards brought into Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain, but not sooner than 1201, when they also introduced geography. The Alphonsine tables (zohich see) were The transit of Venus over the sun's disk composed - - - D. 1284 first observed by Horrox, Nov. 24 A.D. 1639 Clocks first used in astrononm-y, about - 1500 Cassini draws his meridian line, after True doctrine of the miotions of the pla- Dante.-See Bologna - - - 16;55 netary bodies reviedil by Copecrnicus 1530 The aberration of the lilght of the fixed The science greatly advanced oby Tycllo stars discovered by Ilorrebow - 1659 1tralhe, about - - 1532 Discoveries of Picart - - - 1669 True laws of the planetary motions, by Map of the moon constructed by HeveKepler - - - 1619 lius -1670 Telescopes and other instruments used Motion of the sun round its own axis in astronomy, about - - 1627 proved by Halley - - - 1676 The discoveries of Galileo were made Discoveries of Huygens - - 1686 about - - - 631 Newton's Principia published, and thb 180 THIE'WORLD S PROGRESS. [ AT-i ASTRONOLY conltitnted. system as now taught incontrovertibly Iterschel, March 13-See Geor'iszns established -A. D. 1687 S'icls -.-17. Catalogue of the stars made by Flam- Ie'1cancsiqtue Celeste, published by La stead -1688 Place - - 1796 Satellites of Saturn, &c. discovered by Ceres discovered by Piazzi, Jan. 1 - 01 Cassini - - — 1701 PI'allas, by Dr. Olbers, March 2 - 1802 Aberration of the stars clearly explained Junlo, by Harding, Sept. 1 - - 10'-1 by Dr. Bradley. - - 1737 Vesta, by Olbers - - - 18 Celestial inequalities found by La Neptune, by Le Verrier Grange - -1780 Uniied States astronomical expedition Uranus and satellites discovered by to the SouthItemisphere, under Lieut. Gillies, left Baltimore July 18 - 1- 19 The distance of the fixed stars is supposed to be 400,000 timels greater froins us than we are from the sun, that is to say, 8S millions of millions of mniles; so that a cannon-ball would take near nine millions of years to reach one of them, supposing there were nothing to hinder it fiom pursuing its course thither. As light takes about eight lminutes and a quarter to reach us frioln the sun, it would be about six years in coming from one of those stars; bIlt the calculations of later astronomcrs prove some stars to be so distlant that their light niust take centuries before it cain reach us; and that every particle of light which enters our eyes left the star it comes firom three or four hundred years ago. —Objccts of Scieatce. ASYLUMS, OR PI)IILEcED PLACES. At first they were places of refstge for those who, by accidclent or necessity had dcone things that rendered thess obnoxious to the law. God commaianded the Jews to build certain cities for this purpose. The posterity of Hercules is said so have built one at Althenl, to protect themselves against such as their father had irritated. Cadlmus built one at The bes aud Romulus one on ilount t Palatine. A while after the comilig of Christianity into Englandcl, superstitious veneration ran so high, thlat churches, mlonasteries, Clurch-yarcds, and bishops' hotlses becaime asylunms to all that fled to themnl, let the crime lbe what it would; of' which vei, ill use was made, both by the clergy and laity. In London persons wsre sec-ure from arrest in particular localities: these were tihe Minories, Saiisbury-court, Whitefriars, Fulwood's-rents, Mlitre-court, Baldc inl's-gardens the Savoy, Cliniz, Iealsdman's-place, Montaranue-close, and thle Aint. I'lhs security was abolished A.n. 1(;60; bltt tile last was not wh0olly suppressed until the reign of George I.-See Porivileced Places andac SaCCcftca'ics. ATHANASIAN CREED AND CONTROVERSY. The great controversy regardling the divinity of Christ, arose and extended between A. D. 333 and 351 Atllanasius, who was a native of Alexandtia, encounterecd great persecutioi at the hasnds of' tle Arians for his reSligious cloctrines, and was exiled fti them again ancd agaain. The creecl which goes by his namnae is suplposed by most authorities to haave beeon w ritten about the yearL 340; but it is afrltelladby other writers to be the compilation of an Afitican bishtop in the fifth century. Die Piet. ATHEISM. This absurd doctline has had its votaries and its martyrs. Spinosa, a foreigner, was its noted defendlel in the 17th centuiy. Lucilio Vanini publicly tautght atheism in France, aild awas condemned to be bulrnt at To, lotse in 1619. Mathias Knutzen, of'Holstein, opaenly professecl atheism; aind had upwarcds of a thousandcl disciples in Ger-laany about i 67; he tiravelled to imake proselytes, and his Sollowers were called Coulsciccia.ess, becaulse they held that there is no other deity than conscience. c Many eminent mita of various countries have been professors of Atheism, and even in Englasnd we have had writers tincturecd wtl ith it.- ic/trdso,, Ass. "As l.'llThough a small draught of phlilosophy msay lead a mall into atheism, a decp dractugt wsill certainly brinog him back agauin to the belief' of a Gocd." —t ovlt Bacon.' Si' ATT ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 18 Diei qb'existcait pas il fauC'dr'it l'invente7:" If a God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent one.- Voltcai'e. ATHENZEA. These were great festivals celebrated at Athens in honor of MIlinerva. One of them was called Panatllenmea, and the other Chalcea they were first instituted by Erectheus or Orpheus, 1397 B. C.; and Theseus afterwards renewed them, and caused them to be observed by all the people of Athens, tile first every fifth year, 1234 B. c.-Plidtarclb. Al'HENREUM. A place at Athens, sacred to Minerva, where the poets and philosophers cleclaimed and recited their compositions. The most celebrated Athenuca were at Athens, Rome, and Lyons: that of Rome was of great beauty in its building, and was erected by the emperor Adrian, A. D. 125.Tillevoet's Life of AdriaCb. ATHENS. The once celebrated capital of ancient Attica, whose magnificent rLins vet attest its forller grancleul-the seat of' science and theatle of valo?'. Th'lle first sovereign of whomll we have any knowlecdge is Ogyges, who reigned in B3otia, and was master of Attica, then called Ionia. In his reign a deluge took llace (by some supposed to be no othlier tlhan the universal deluge, or iNoah's flood) that laid waste the country, in whlicl stte it remained two hundred years, until the arrival of the Eyvptian Cecrops aind a colony, by whom tile lancd was epeopled, and twelve cities founded, 1556 B. c. The first state of Atllens was uncle sevenllteen ki:gs, comprising a period of 487 yearsl but the'history of its first twelve mo1narchs is mostly ftbulous; in its second state it vwas governed by thirteen perpetual archllons a period of 316 years; in its tllirl1 state by seven decennial archons, whose rlule extended over 70 years, and,c. lastly, il its fourth state by annual archllos, who ruled for G0 years. Unlcder this demlocracy Atllhens became unrivallec, alnd herl people signalized themselves by their valor, munitlcence, and cultaure of the iine arts; and perhaps not one other single city in the world can boast, ill such a short space of time, of so gleat a number of illustriolus citizens. The ancients, to distinguish Atheins in a noorie peculiar illanner, called it Astit, one of the eyes of Greelce.-PhlLtcLchA. The Venetians got possession of Athens in A. D. 1204, and the Turks in 1687.-Piicstl ey. It becname the capital ofLivadia, a province of European Turley; anC is now that of the new kingdloill of Greece, antd the seat of its legislature, established unlder King Otllo I.: January 25th, 1833. —Se Greece. For events in the history of Atheis, see Tabdes from B. C. 1556 to a. c. 21. ATMOSPHERsE. Po sidonius first calculated the height of the atmoslphere, stating it to be 8030 staclia, nearly iagrieein- with our modernil ideas, about 79 B. c. Its weight was deterlmined by Galileo and Terricellius. about 1630; its clensity and elasticity by Boyle; andl its relation to light anci sound by Hoolke, Newton, and Derihalll. The comlposition of the atmosplhere was ascertained by IITales, Black, Priestley, Scheele, Lavoisier, and Cavendish; and its laws of refiaction were investigated by Dr. Bradley, 1737. ATTAINDER, ACTS OF, have been passed in numerous reigns: two witnesses in cases of high treason are necessary where corruption of blood is incurred, unless the parlty accusetd sliall confess, or stand mute, 7 and 8 Williaill III. 1691-5.-5 Blatc4slcone. The attailnder of Lord Russell, who was beheaded in Lincolsn's-inn-Fields, July, 21, 1683, was reversed unider William, in 1689. The rolls anld records of the acts of attainder passed in the reign of king Jamles II. were cancelled and publicly burnt, Oct. 2, 1695. Several acts were reversed in subsequent reigns. Amlong the last acts so reversedc, not the least interesting was -the attaint of the children of lord Eclwardi Fitzgerald (who was implicated in the rebel0llion ii Ireland of 1798), July 1, 1819. ATTILA, surnamled the:: Scouro e of God," and thus dlistinguishecd for his conquests and his crimes, ravaged all Europe, A. D. 447. He invaded the Ro 182 T'I-LE WORLD'S PRO0GRESS. [ AUG man empire writh an arlmy of 500 000 Huns, and laid waste all the provinces. He died on the night of his nuptials -with a beautiful virgin named Ildico, about A. D. 453. —- Gods/mitl/. ATTORNEY-GENERAL. A great officer of the crown, appointed by letters patent. It is among his duties to exhibit informations aud prosecute for the king in matters criminal; and to file bills in Exchequer, for any claims concerning the crown. in inheritance or profit; and others may bring bills against the king's attorney. The first Attorney-General was William lde Gisilham, 7 Edward I. 1278.-Bceatson. ATTORNEYS. The number practising in Edward III.'s reign was under 400 for the whole kingdom. In the 32d of HIenry YI. 1454, a law reduced the practitioners in Norfolk, Norwich, and Suffolk, from eighty to fourteen, and restricted their increase. The number of attorneys now practising inl Englancl, or registered, or retired, is about 13,000. The number sworn, and practising or retired. in Ireland, is stated at 2000. A list of 19,527' pr.acis-'ing1 lwycr s" in the United States is given in the Lcawyer's Directowy, 1850. ATTRACTION. Copernicus described attraction as an appetence or appetite which the Creator impressed upon all parts of matter, about 1520. It was described by Kepler to be a corporeal affection tending to union, 1605. In the Newtoeian philosophy, it is an original power which restores lost motion; a principle whereby all bodies mutually tend to each other.-See AstrvoJntomy. AUCTION, a kind of sale known to the Romans. The first in Britain was about 1700, by Elisha Yale, a governor of Fort George, in the East Indies, of the goods he had hrought homle wvith him. Auction and sales' tax began, 1779. AUERSTADT, BATTLE OF. In this most sanguinary conflict between the French and Prussian armies, they werse commanded by their respective sovereigns, and Napoleon obtained a deci-sive victory. The Prussians were routed on every side, and lost 200 pieces of cannon, thirty standards, and 28,000 prisoners, leaving 30,000 slainr upon the field, Oct. 14, 1806. The French emperor immliediately afterwarids enteredc Berlin, fiom whence he issued. his lmemorable Berlin decree.-See Bt/'li? Decree. AUGSBURG CONFESSION or FAITH. The confession of articles of fith dlraw n up at Augsburg by Melancthon, and by himl and Luther presented te the emperor Charles V. in 1530. It was divided into two parts, the first consisting of twenty-one articles, and the second of seven, directly opposed to the abuses that had crept inlto the Chulrich of Rome. The elector of Saxony, his son, and several other princes of' Germany, signed this confession, which was d'elivered to the emperor in the palace of the bishop of Augsburg, and hence it is called the Confession of Augslburg. AUGSBURG, EFAGUE OIr. A mlemorable treaty concluded between Hollanfl and other Eur opean powers, which lhacd for its obiject the causing the treaties of Munster and Nimeguen to be respectecd, 1686.-See MiJnstcr and Ni-??Ze uCe'l. AUGURY. Husbleandry was in part reg-ulatecl by the coming or going of birds, long before the time of Hesiocl. Agurs instituted at Rome, with vestals and several orders of the priesthood, by Nulal, 710 u. c. There wras a COlnmIunity of them, appointed to foretell events by the flig'ht of birds. and other circumstances. The king Car, fi'oiw whom Caria inl Asia:Minor is namled, was the inventor of augurT by blirds.-Toussints. The augurs of' Rome drewl' omlIs hfrom t le phenonmena of the hlea'vens, the chirping and flight of lbirds, and various strange casualties.-Livy. AUGUST. The eighth month of the year. It was dedicated to the honor of Ang-ustus Casar, friom whom it was named in the year 8. c., because in this imont-h lie was bolrn, was created consul, or chief magistrate, thrice AIS ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 183 triumphed in Rome, subdued Egypt to the Roman empire, and made an end of the civil wars. It was previously called Sextilis, or the sixth from Mlarch. AUSTERLITZ, BATTLE OF, between the French and Austrian armies, gained by tlhe former. Three emperors commanlded at this battle. Alexander of Russia, Francis of Austria, and Napoleon of France. The killed and wounded exceecled 40,000 on the side of the allies, who lost, besides, forty standards, 150 pieces of cannon, and many thousands of prisoners. This decisive victory of the French led to the treaty of Presburg, which was sig'ned Dec. 26, same year. The battle was fought Dec. 2, 1805. See Ps'esbzrtg. ATUSTRALASIA, includes New Holland, Van Diemen's Land, New Guinea, New Britian, New Zealandcl, &c., mlostly discovered within two centuries. Of a population of twenty-two millions, the native inhabitants are not supposecl to exceed one hundred thousand. Several settlements froml Europe have been made since the commllencement of' the present century. Act to provide for the go.vernment of Western Australia, 10 George IV. 1829. Act to erect South Australia into a British province, 4 and 2 William IV. 1834. New act, 5 and 6 William IV. 183iS5. Several companies and institutions connected with Australia hasve lately been formedl in London. A.JSTRIA, anciently the Belgic Gaul of the Romans. It was taken froim Hungary and annexed to Germany, when it received its present name, about.. D. 1040. This ras after Charlemaglne had re-established the Western Empire, Austria being a part of xrwhat xwas called Eastern France, which its namel in the German langauagte iimplies. Itodolphi, count of tIapsburg, seizes The emperor issues his declaration Austria firom iBohemia, anrd makes against France - - Au. 5, 1805 himliself archduke - 1273 Napoleon, after many victories. enters RIevolt of' Switzerland fi'om the house Vienna - - Nov. 14,1805 of Austria, in the reign of Albert I. - 1307 Vienna evacuated by the French, Albert 1I. dulke of Austria, succeeds to Jan. 12, 1806 three crowns-the imperial, and They again capture it - MIay 13, 1809 those of IIsn-ary antd ohlemia; his But restore it at the peace Oct. 24, 1809 family still possess the empire, - 1438 Napoleon marries the archduclless Burgundy accrues to Austria by the i Maria Iouisa, the daughter of the iuarria-e of' Maximilian with the' emperor April 1, 1810 heiZess of that province - 1477 Congress at Vienna Oct. 2, 1814 Also Spain, by the marri.ge of Philip Treaty of Vienua. eb. 25, 1815 i. ol' Austria wvith the heiress of Ara- Death of Francis I., and accession of gon and Castile - - - 14,1 Ferdinand - - March 2, 1835 CIarlces V. reigning over Germany, New treaty of conmmierce with England Austria, Bohemia, Itutalyar, Slain, Jlly 3,1833 tie Netherlandlllls. and their dependen- Ferdinandl is crowned with great splencies, abdicates, andl retires fi-om the;dor at M1illn Sept. 6,1838 woric, leavint his German dominions Tumnult at Vienna, agitation for roeto ihis brother Ferldinandand Spain fob s; Metternich resigns and flies; and the Netherlands to his son, Philip freedom of the press and national II.-See SIpaine - 1557 guard oranted by the emperor The Protestant princes of Germany, a yMarch 13, 1848 being oppressed by the house of Aus- The emperor publishes, at MIilan, abotria, call in the aid of Gustavus Adol- lition of the censorship and convenphus of Swreden, and this leads to the tion of the states; the people demand treaty of WVestphaliat - - - 168 more, and are refstted March 18, Leopold I reigns. —See Gelzaniy - 1658 Mlilan revolts, and contends successflully Accession of Ftrancis, duke of Lorraine, with the soldiery - March 23, who marries the celebrated queemn ofi Austrians retire to Manltua; Milan enIfungary, T!aria Theresa., datughter of tered by Charles Albert of' Sardinia the deceased elmperor, Charles VI. - 1745 March 23, Reign of Joseph II. - - 1765 Iomardy and the Tyrol in rebellion nteligious toleration g'ranted - 1776 Mtarch, T'he emperor controls the pope - 1782 The emlaperor retires to Innsbruclc 1leign of I,eopold II. - 1790 May 18, " Reign of IFrancis II. - 1792 Austrian army under Radetsky holds in Austria becomes a distinct empire, and clleck Charles Albert of Sardinia, in Francis II. of Germany takes the title Lotnbaurdy - - May- - of I. of Austria - Aug. 9, 1804 Is deieated and driven to Mantua May 29, " 184 THE WORL)D S PPROGRESS. A az AUSTRIA, contsiqnted. Diet of the Croatian-Sla-vonic nation Ferdinand I. abdicates; his brother, summoned by tile Ban of Croatia Francis Charles, declines the throne; 1May 20, 1848 it is taken by his son, Francis Joseph Insurrection at.Rome; order re-esta- Dec. 2, 184E blished after bombardmient, June 12-15" The emperor gives a neow constitution' Vicenza and 1Padlua subdued by Ra- tIarch 4-l, 1849 detslky June " Iaynan takes Brescia, aftier great Mfilan retaken Autg. 4, slaughter, and sacks it March 30, The emperor returns to Vienna " 12, " Bologna taken, alter a siege of 8 days Insurrection at Vienla; Count Latour, hIay 16, minister of var kiilled by the mob; IHaynau takes comnmand of the Austhe diet demands the retraction of the trian army in Huntary June —, measures a-asinst H-ung'ary, and a Ancona taken, after bombardmlent new ministy,; the eimperor flies Junle11,' Oct. 6, " Venice taken by Radetsky Aug. 22, Thle Itunarian army advanced within Ihungarialn war finishlled by the surrensix miles of Viellsat - Oct. 1, " tier of Glirgey Au. 11, Prince VWindisch-ratz appointed cotn- Followed by nusmerous executionts. mtander-in-clhief, Oct. 16; and be- See Getrma-ty, VietrCa, &c. siegres Vienna, 1l7th; bomtbards the city and mlasters it Nov. 2, " Before the establishment of the Confeideration of the Rhine in 1806, Francis ceased to be emperor of Germany, and became hereditary emperor of Austria, under the title of Francis I. Upon the formation of the Germante Confederation in 1815, the emperor of Austtia was dleclared herecitary head of that body. AUTHORS. For laws securing copyright, see Copyright and L iiterar Propesty. AUTO DA F:E. See Inoqsuisitione. The punishment, often by burning alive, of a heretic. This is called atn act of Faith, and is coeval with the Inquisition; and since its first practice in A. D. 1203, mi-ore than one hundred thousand victims have been sacrificecl by the sentence of the Incquisitions of Roman Catholic countries on the burning' pile. One of the last executions of thtis kind was at Goa, where, for the glory of the Chlllistiant religion (!) and in vindication of the Catholic faith. twrenty sufferer s perished in the flames, 1787. These horrible sacrifices have ceased in Spain.-As/se. AVIGNON, ceded by Philip III. of France to the Pope in 1273. The papal seat was removed for seventy years to Avignon, in 1308. It was seized several times by the French, by whomr it was taken friom the pope in 1769, but was restored on thse suppression of the Jesuits, 1773. Declared to belong to France by the National Assembly, 1791. -Iorriible msassacres in October of that year. Continued to France by the Congress of sovereigns, in 1815. AXE, WEDGE, WIMBLE, &c. These instruments, with the lever, and various others of a coarse construction, and still in commlllon us'e, are said to have been invented by Dmdalls, an artificer of Athens, to whom also is ascribed the invention of masts and sails for ships, 1240 3. c. AZORES, on WESTERN ISLES, supposed to be the site of the ancient Atalantis: they were discovered by VaLndenburg, A. D. 1439; and were settiled by the Portuguese, in 1448. MIartin Behem found one of them covered with beech-trees, and he called it thelrefore Fc.ayal; another abounding in sweet flowels, and he therefore called it FPlores; and all full of hawkls, and he therefore named them thle Azores. A violent concussion of tl;he earth took place here for twelve clays, in 1591. A devastating earthquake, in 1757. Here are fountains of boilin-g water. A volcano at St. George's c destroyed tihe town of Ursulina. MAay, 1808; and in 1811, a volcano appeared near St. Mltichael's in the sea,, where the water was eighty fathoms deep. An island called Sabrilla gradlually disappeared, Dec. 1812. IAC 1 DICTIONARY O DATES, 185 B. BABEL, THE TOWER or, built by Noah's posterity, 2247 B. c. The temple of Belus, originally this celebrated tower, was the most magnificent in the world; it had lofty spires, and was enriched with many statues of gold, one'of them forty feet high. In the upper part of this temple was the tomb of the founclder, Belus (the Nimrod of the sacred ScriptU-res), who iwas deified after death; and in an adjoining apartment was a magnificent bed, whither the priests daily conducted a ibmale, who, as they pretended, was there honored with the company of the god.-Blai'r. BABINGTON'S CONSPIRACY, formed in the cause of Mary against Elizabeth, for which the chief conspirator, with thirteen others, suffered death. Babington was a gentleman of Derbyshire, and he associated with persons of his own persuasion (the Roman Catholic), with a design to assassinate the queen, and deliver Mary. He seems to have been principally induced to this rash conspiracy by a romantic hope that Mlary, in gratitude, would accept of him as a husband. 1586. BABYLON, EMPIRE OF, founded by Belus, supposed to be the Nimrod of holy writ, the son of Chus, and grandson of Ham, 2245 a. c.-Leng-let. Ninus of Assyria seized on Babylon, and established what was properly the Assyrian empire, by uniting the two sovereignties, 2059. c. According to Eusebius this emlpire existed 1240 years; according' to Justin, 1300 years; according to Herodotus, 500 or 600 years. Of these opinions Blair has adopted the first, which calculates from the foundation of the empire by Ninus, B.C. 2059, to the close of the reign of Sardanapalus, who was cethroned by his generals, and his kingdoim divided into the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Median kingdoms, 820 E. c.-See Assyria. The tower of Babel built B. c. 2247 and names his capital after himself, The kingdom of Babylon begins - 2245 Ninevteh.-Lenglet -. c. 2069 Ashur builds a city, afterwards called Babylon taken by Ninus - 2059 Nineveh -- - 2245 The Assyrian empire ends - 820 The astronomical observations are be- Belesis governs in B'abylon - 766 gun at Babylon by the Chaldeans.- Babylon talken by LEsar-huaddon 680 Blair; Les.glet - - 2234 Nebuclhadnezzar reigns - - 604 Belus, kinag of Assyria, extends hlis emr- lIe takes Jerusalem. -Leglet 587 pire over the neig-hboring states, dce- He is driven firom among mnen 569 feats the Babylonians, and malkes Babylon talken by the Aiedes and Perthem tributary.- Usher - - 2124 sians, under Cyrus - - - 53 Ninus, son of Belus, reigns in Assyria, Taken by Darius.- Us/' - - 51 The city of Babylon was, anciently, the most llagnificent in the world; and in later times famous for the empire established under the Seleucidmc. Its greatness was so reduced in succeeding ages, that Pliny says, in his time it was but a desolate wilderness; and at present the place where it stood is scarcely known to travellers.-Rolli'a's Asecienlt Hist. BACCHANALIA, games celebrated in honor of Bacchus. They arose in Egypt, and were brought into Greece by Melampus, and were there called Diosslsia, about 1415 n. c.-Diodor's. They were celebrated in Rome under the name of Bacclhacalica. BA.CHELORS. The Roman censors frequently imposed fines on unmnarried men;'and men of full age were obliged to marry. The Spartan women at certain games laid hold of old bachelors, dragged them round their altars, and inflicted on them various muarks of inlfamy acld disgrace.- Vossi7cs. After twenty-five years of age, a tax was laid upon bachelors in England, 121. 10s. for a duke, andcl for a common person, one shilling, 7 Williamn III. 1695. Bachelors were subjected to a double tax on their nmale and female servants, in 1785. BACKGAMMON. Palamedes of Greece is the reputed inventor of this game (decidedly one of the oldest known to our times), about 1224 -. c. It is 186 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ BLR stated by some to have been invented in Wales in the period preceding tlhe Conquest.-HeqJy. BADAJOS, SIEGE OF. This important barrier fortress had surrendered to the French, Mlarch 11, 1811, and was invested by the British under lord Wellington on Mlarch 18, 1812, and stormed and taken on April 6, following. Thils victory was not only a glorious military achievement in itself, but it obliged the French, who had entered Portugal for the purpose of plunder, to commence a precipitate retreat fiom that kingdom. BADEN, HousE orF, descended from Herman, son of Berthold I. duke of Zahringen; who died A. D. 1074. From Christopher, who united the branches of Hochberg and Baden, and died in 1527, proceed the branches of Baden — Baden, and Baden-D)ourlach. This family makes a most conspicuous figure in the annals of Germlany, and is allied to all the principal families in the empire. BADEN, TREATY or, between France and the emperor, when Landau was ceded to the former, Sept. 7, 1714. Baden was formerly a marglravate; it was erected into a grand duchy, as a member of the Rhenish Confederation, in 1806. Its territorial acquisitions by its alliances with France, were guaranteed by the congress of Vienna, in 1815. The grand Duke granted his people freedom of the press, a burgher guard, trial by jury, and the right of public meeting, Feb. 29. Troops revolt at Rastadt, May, 1849. Insurrection at Carlsrue; —the grand Duke flees, May 13, 1849. Insurrection subdued by the Prussians, June, 1849. BAFFIN'S-BAY, discovered by William Baffin, an Englishman, in 1616. The nature and extent of this discovery were much doubted until the expeditions of Ross and Parry proved that Baffin was substantially accurate in his statement. These voyagers returned home in 1818. See article Nortl/ West Passage. BAGDAD, built by Almansor, and made the seat of the Saracen empire, A. O. 762-taken by the Tartars, and a period put to the Saracen rule, 1258. It has since been often taken by the Persians, and. from them again by the Turks.-Blcair. BAGPIPE. This instrument is supposed by some to be peculiar to Ireland a-d Scotland; but it must have been known to the Greeks, as, on a piece of Grecian sculpture of the highest antiquity, now in Rome. is represented a bagpiper dressed like a modern highlander. Nero is said to have played upon a bagpipe, A. D. 51. BAHAMA ISLES. These were the first points of discovery by Columbus. San Salvador was seen by this great navigator on the night of the 11th October, 1492.-The Bahamas were not known to the English till 1667. Seized for the crown of England, 1718, when the pirates who inhabited themn surrendered to Captain Rogers. BAIL. By ancient common law, before and since the Conquest, all felonies were bailable, till murder was excepted by statute; and by the 3d Edward I. the power of bailing in treason, and in divers instances of felony, was laken away, 1274. Bail was further regulated, 23 HIenry VI.; 2 Philip and Maury, and in later reigns. BAILIFFS OR SHERIFFS, are said to be of Saxon origin. London had its s/ir'erecve prior to the Conquest, and this officer was generally appointed for counties in England in 1079. Sheriffs were appointed in Dublin under the name of bailiffs, in 1308; and the name was changed to sheriff. 1548. There are still some places where the chief-llagistrate is called bailiff, as the high bailiff of Westminster. The term Butn-bailiffis a corruption of bound-bailiff, every bailiff being obliged to enter into bonds of security for his good behavior.-Blac/cstone. BAL DICTIONARY OF DATES. 187 BALANCE or POWER, to assure the independency and integrity of states, and control ambition; the principle is said to be a discovery of the Italian politicians of the fifteenth century, on the invasion of Charles VIII. of FranceRobeitson. By the treaty of Mlunster, the principle of a balance of power was first recognized by treaty October 24, 1648. BALLADS. They may be traced in British history to the Anglo-Saxons. — 2Tinlner. Anllclhele, who died A. D. 709, is mentioned as the first who introducecd ballads into England. "The harp was sent round, that those might sing- who could.;'-Bede. Alfred sung ballads.-.M3Cldlsb'ry~J. Canute composed one.-Tnneer. Minstrels were protected by a charter of Edwardl IV.; but by a statute of Elizabeth they were made punishable ansong rogues, vagabonds, and sturdy beggars.- Viner. BALLADS, NATIONAL. " Give ule the writing of the ballads, and you may malke the laws."-flletcer' of Sciltoeb. A British statesman has said, " Give ume the writing of the ballads of the country, and while I place at youi conmmancl every other species of comllposition, I will fix public opinion, and rule public'feeling-, and sway the popular sentiment, more powerfully than all your writers, political and moral, call do by any other agency or influence." The beautiful and fiequently touching ballads of Dibdin, particularly those of the sea, inspired lssany a brave defender of his country in the late war; Dibdin died Jan. 20, 1833.:BALLETS. They arose in the meretricious taste of the Italian courts. One performed at the interview between Hen. VIII. of Eng. & Francis I. of France, in the field of the Cloth of Gold, 1520.-Gluiccic/lrdili. In the next century, they reached the suinmit of their glory in the splendici pomps of the courts of Tuscany and Lorraine; and their most zealous patron, Louis XIV., bore a part in one, 1664. BALLOON. Galien of Avignon wrote on aerostation, in 1755. Dr. Black gave the hint as to hydrogen, in 1767. A balloon was constructed in France by 3'IMM. TMontgolfier, in 17803, wheln Rozier and the msarquis d'Arlandes ascended at Paris. Pilatre Desrozier and M. RoLnain perished in an attemlpted voyage frons Boulogne to Englancid, the balloon having taken fire, June 14, 1785. At the battle of Fleurus, the French made use of a balloon to reconnoitre the enemy's armiy, and convey the observations by telegraph, June 17, 1794. Garnerin ascended in a balloon to the height of 4;000 feet,. and descended by a parachute, Sept. 21. 1802. Cay-Lussac ascended at Paris to the height of 23.000 feet, Sept. 6, 1804. Maclame Blanchard ascended from Tivoli at night, and the balloon, being surrounded by fire-works, took fire, and she was precipitated to the grounod, and killed, July 6, 1819. BALLOON, TIIE NAsssu. The great Nassau balloon. of imniense dimensions, anld wrhich had for sonime time previously been exhibited to the inhabitants of London in repeated ascents from Vauxhall aardens, started fromn that place on an experimsental voyage, having three individuals in the car, and, after lhaving been eigohteen hours in the air, descended at Weilburg, in the duchy of Nassau, Nov. 7, 1836.;'ALTIMORE, the third city in population and fifth in commerce in the United States; foundlecl 1729; inamecl from lord Baltimore, the proprietor of the Marlyl,ad patent. In 1765 it contained but 50 houses; charterecd as a city in 1797. Population in 1790, 13.503; in 1810, 35.588; in 1830, 80:62.5; in 1840, 102:8 313, inclding 3,199 slaves. A hlandsomee imonlumsent in the city commem oriat, e s its successful dcefence agminst the attack of the British unlder general Ross, Sept. 12, 1814. BALTDIMORE, BATTLE OF, between the British army under general Ross and the seiicanss the British in umakiang an attack upon the town were unsuc t88 TIEI S WOLD7S PROGRESS. L BAN cessful, and after a desperate engagement were repulsed with great loss; the gallant general who led the enLterprise was killed, Sept. 12, 1814. BANK. T:le first established was in Italy, A. a. 800, by,the Iombard YJeTws, of whom some settled in Lombaird-stieet, London, where many bankers still reside. The nanme bank is cleivecld fiom?enco, a bench, which was erected in the maraket-place fosr thle exchange of money. The lint in the tolwer!.f London was anciently the depository for merchants' cash, until Charles I. laid his hands upon the money, and dccstroyed tthe credit of the mint, in 1640. The traderls i were thus dcrivenl to some other place of security for their gold, which, when kept at home, their apprentices frequlently absconlecl with to the arlmyr. In 1645, therefore, they consented to lodge it with the goldsmitiss in Lombard-street, crwho wrere providcld with strlong chests for their own valuable wares; and this becam'e the origin of bankling in England.Bank of Venice lbrmed - - 1157 Bank of Hamburgh - 1619 Bank of Genea -. 1345 Bank of liotterdam - - 16t1 Bank of Barcelona -1401 Bank of Stockholmn L. -1683 Bank of Genoa 1407 Bank of1 ELnland - - 694 Bank of Amsterdam - 1607 Bank of the United States - 1791 and 1816 BANeK oi EANGLAND, (See p~'ecedciagr es/icc,) originally projected by a merchlat nanmeld Patterson. It was incorporated by Williamc III. in 1694, in coosiCderation of 1,200.0001., the then a'mount of its capital, being lent to goverinent. Thlle capital has gone on increasing fronm one periocd to another up to the present time, as the discretion of parliament allowedcl; and the salBe authority has also at diffLerent intervals prolonged the privileges of the bank, and renewecl its charter. When first established the notes of the bank were at 20 per cent. discount; and so late as 1745, they were under par. Bank bills were paid in silver, 1745. The first balcnk post-bills were issuecd 1754; small notes were issuec 1759; cash payiments were cliscontinued February 25, 1797, wlhen notes of one and c tao pounds were put into circulation. Silver tokens appea ed in January, 1798; andl afterwarfds Spanish dollars, with the head of Georgle IIi. stamlpecd oin the neck of Charles IV., were made current. Cash paymenlts w-ere resueculed partially, Sept. 20,) 1817, ancd the restriction had altogether ceased in 1821. For a numiber of years the financial tneasures of the crown have been largely aided by loans fi om this great reselvoir of vwealth. The average amlount of the 3Bank of Eanglandc notes in circulation is as follows:In 1718 (earliest account) - 1.829;930 In 1815 - ~26,803,20 1778 - 7,030,G80 1820 -. - 27,174,000 1790 - - - - 10,217,000 1830 - o - 20,620,00, 1800 - 15,450,000 1835 - 18,215,220 1810 - - - -23,904,000 1840 - - -17,231,000 The circulation of notes, in 18415, exceeded 27 millions, and tlhe bullion in tlhe bank fluctuated between 15 and 16 scillilons. The retlurcns of issues, &c. are now made weeldly. To secure the credit of the Bank it was enacted, " that no other banking comepany should consist of more than six persons," 6 Anne 1707. There are branch banks of the Bank of England in many of tlhe chief towns of the kingdom; as Birmlingham, Bristol, Exeter, Gloucester, Hull, Leeds, Liverpool, IManchester, Newcastle, Norwich, Swvansea, &e..: all formecd since 1828. See Fltnds. BANK oP TrII UNITED STATES. flrst one establisled 1791. Cap. $10,000,000. -A iewr one with cap. of ~853o.000.000, 1816. The tct of Congress recharterina' it vetoed by president; Jaclkson, July 10, 1882. The " removarl cf tlhe deposiis " of the U. S. governlment foiom the batnlc, by order of president Jack.son, signed by R. B. Taney, secretary of the Treasuey, (IW. J. D'eane thle late secretary lhaving refnusel to sigln the older,.) Sept. 23, 1833. Resolution of tfhe Senate that the rellloval cwas nucalled for, and the responsibility assum'ecd by thle presiclenlt unconstitutional, &c., introcluced by Mi BAP J DICTIONArIY OF DATES. 189 Webster and passed (26 to 20) March 28, 1884. Senate refused.c to enter on their journal the president's protest'aoainst their resolution, May 7, 1884. Noted resolution of the Senate "cxpungin g" fiom their journals their resolution of 1834, passed 24 to 19, Jan. 16 11873.-Sub-Treasury B3ill passed Jain. 1840, repealed Aug. 9, 1841. The U. S. Bank newly incolrporated by Pennsylvania, l\archl 29, 103 6: susplended payent Feb. 5, 1841. Bill Rbr establishing a " Fiscal Bank of the U. S." passed the I-Iouse of RIepresentatives Aug. 6, 1841; vetoed by president Tyler Ang. 16. Another bill for a "Fiscal Corporation " vetoed Sept. 9, 1841, followecl by a resignation of all the Cabinet, except Mlr. Webster. BANKRUPTCY. Suspension of specie payments by the banks of New England and New-York, M2ay 10-16, 1837;-legalized for one year by legislature of N. Y. Banks of Philadelphllia, Baltimore, &c., also suspended sanome month. General bankruptcy law passed by Congress Aug. 9, 1841. BANKRUPTS, IN ENGLAND, first law enacted regarding them, 85 Henry VIII. 1548. Again, 3 of Elizabeth, 1560; again, 1 James I. 1602; again, 1706; and more recently. It was determined by the King's Bench that a bankrupt may be arrested except in going and, coming from any examination before the commissioners, May 18, 1780. The lord chancellor (Thurlow) refuseci a bankrupt his certificate because he had lost five pounds at one time in gailling, J:uly 17, 1788. Enacted that members of the house of comlmonls becoming bankrupts, and not paying thleir debts in full, shall vacate their seats, 1812. The new bankrupt bill, constituting a new bankrulpt court, passed October 1.831 -S-ate/es at Lctrg'e. NUMBEnR OF BANKRIUPTS IN GREAT BRITAIN AT DIFFERENT PERIODS. 1700 ~ - - - 3811800 - - - 1339 1830 - -1467 1725 - - - -416 1810 - 2000 1835 - - 954 1750 - - - 4:32 1820 - - -135 135 10 - - 1308 1775. 520 1825 - 2683 18-4 - - - 1064 According to a returiln to parliament made at the close of February 1826, there had become bankrupt ins the fo-r iaOnttlts pnrecedigz, 59 banking-housles, comprising 144 partners; and 20 otiler banking establishments had been declared insolvent. Every succeeding week continued to add from seventy to a hunidreci merchants, traders, and lmanu:facturers to the bankrupt list. This was, however, the period of' bubble speculation, and of unprecedented comilmercial embarrassmllent ancd ruin. BANNOCKBURN, BATTLE Op, between king Robert Bruce, of Scotland,. and Edward II. of England; the army of Bruce consisted of 80,000 Scots, and that of Eclwrrd of 100,000 English, of whoml 52,000 were archers. The Englishl crossed a rivulet to the attack, and iBruce having dug pits, which he had covered, they fell into them, and were thrown into confusion. The rout was comlplete, the king narrowly escaping, andcl 50,000 English wvere killed or taken prisoners, June 25, 1314.-Baaboati. BANNS. In the feudal law, banns were a solemn proclamation of any thing, andcl hence arose the customll of asking banns, or giving notice before marriage. The use of matrimonial banns is saidc to have been introduced into the CGallican church, about A. D. 1210; and banns of marriage are proclaimed in the church of England to this day. BAPTISM. The sacramlenlt of admission instituted by Christ and practised by all sects professing Clristianity, except Qualters. St. Jolln, the forerunner of our Saviour, is eminently called th/e Bapttist, as being the first that publicly baptized v with a spiritual intention. Christ camlle froio Galilee to Jordan, and was baptized by Johnl A. a. 30. Originally the people were baptized in rivers; but in the reign of Constantine, A. D. 319, in great cities they built chapels, or places specially to bap,-tize in, which in the eastern countries was 190 TEIE VORLLD S PROGRESS. L BAR by dipping the person all over. Now, in the western and colder parts, they use sprinkling; at first every church had not a baptistery belonging to it; our fonts answer the same end.-Pardobn. BAPTISTS, oR ANABAPTISTS, a sect distinguished from other Chiistians by their opinions respecting baptism, began their doctrine about A. D. 1525, but much ear-lier dates are mentioned. They suffiecrd much persecution in England in the sixteenth century. Rhode Island, America, was settled by Baptists in 1635. Of Baptist missions. it may be said, that the Moravrian brethren led the way to their benevolent enterprises, about 1732.-See A labacpists. B ARBADOES, the first English settlement in the West Indies. This mother plantation gave rise to the sugar trade in England about 1605; and was, with other Caribbee islands, settled by charter granted to the earl of Marlborough, 2 Charles I. 1627. Barbadoes has suffered severely from elemental visitations: in a dreadful hurricane in 1780, more than 4000 of the inhabitants lost their lives. A large plantation with all its buildings was destroyed, by the land removing froniom its original site to another, and covering eveiy thing in its peregrination, Oct. 1784. An inundation, Nov. 1795; and two great fires, May and Dec. 1796. Awful devastation, with the loss of thousands of lives, and of immense property, by a hurricane, August 10, 1831. The history of I/b/le anid Yar-ico, which Addison, in his Spectator, has.iecorded for the detestation of mankind, took its rise in this island. BARBER. This trade was practised at Rome in the third century B. c. In England, barbers formerly exhibited a eacd, or pole, at their doors; and the barber's pole until lately used by them Awas a burlesque imitation of thle former sign. BARBER-SURGEONS. Formerly the business of a surgeon was united to that of a barber, and he was denorminated a barber-surgeon. A company was formed under this name in 1308. and the London company was incorporated, 1st Edward IV. 1461. This union of profession was dissolved by a statute of Henry VIII. BARDS. The profession of bard appeared with great lustre in Gaul, Britain, and Ireland. Demodocus is mentioned as a bard by Homer; Alexander the Great hacd a bard named Cherylus; and we fincd bards, according to Strabo, among the Romans before the age of Augustus. The cldruis among the English were philosophers and priests, anrcl the bards were their poets. They were the recorders of heroic actions, in Ireland and Scotland, almnoK(:. down to our own times. Ossian flourished in the third century, Merlin in the fifth. The former speaks of a prince who kept a hundred bards. Irish sonnets are the chief foundations of the ancient history of Ireland. —See Ballads. BARNET, BATTLE OF, between the houses of York ancl Lancaster, when Edward IV. gained a decisive and memorable victory over the earl of Whirwick, Easter-day, April 14, 1471. —Broofcs. BAROMETERS. Torricelli, a Florentine, having discovered that no principle of suction existed, and that water did not rise in a pump owing to nature's abhorrence of a vacuumni, imitated the action of a pump with mercury, a -4 made the first barometer, in 1643, and Descartes explained the phenomenel. Wheel barometers were contrived in 1668; pendant barometers in 1695; marine in 1700. kRONS. The dignity of baron is extremely ancient: its original name. in England wvas Vac;vasour, xwhich, by the Saxons was changed iilto T/tzlt'e, and by the Normans into Baron1. Many of this rank are named in the history of England, and undoubtedly had assisted in, or had been summone( to parliament; but such is the deficiency of public records, that the fir. AT ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 191 precept to be found is of no higher date than the 49th Henry III., 1265. The first who was raised to this dignity by patent was John dce Beauchamp, created Baron of Kidderminster, by Richard II., 1387. Barons first summooned to parliament, 1205. Took arms against king John, and compellecl him to sign the great charter of our liberties, and the charter of tile forests, at Runnymccde, near;Vindsor, June 1215. Charles II. granted a coronet to barons on his restoration: they attended parliament in complete armlor in the reign of Henry III.-Bcaltson. BARO)NETS, the first among the gentry, and the only knighthood that is hereditary: instituted by James I., 1611. The baronets of Ireland were created in 1619. Baronets of Nova Scotia were created, 1625. i3ARRISTERS. They are said to have been first appointed by Edward I. about 1291; but there is earlier mention of professional advocates in England. There are various ranks of barristers, as King's Counsel, Sergeants, &c. BAhRROW'S STRAITS. Discovered by Parry, who penetrated as far as Melville Island, in lat. 740 26' N., and long. 113~ 47' W. The strait was entered on the 2cd August, 1819. The lowest state of the thermometer was 55~0 below zero of Fahrenheit. BARTHOLOMEW, MASSACRE oF ST. This dreadful massacre in France commenced at Paris on the night of the festival of St. Bartholomew, August 24, 1572. More than seventy thousand Hugonots, or French Protestants, were imurdered throughout the kingdom, by secret orders from Charles IX., at the instigation of the queen-dowager, Catherine de Medicis, his mother. The masaacre was attended with circumstances of demoniacal cruelty, even as regarded the female and the infant. BASTILE oF PARIS. A royal castle, built by Charles V. king of France, in 1369, et seq. for the defence of Paris against the English, completed in 1383. It was afterwards used as a state prison, like the Tower of London, and became the scene of the most deplorable suffering and frightful crimes. It was of such strength that Henry IV. and his veteran army assailed it in vain in the siegoe of Paris, during the intestine war that desolated France between the years 1587 and 1594; yet it was pulled down by the infuriated populace, July 14, 1789, and thus was commenced the French revolution. On the capture of this great monument of' slavery, the governor and other officers were seized, and conducted to the Place de Gr6ve, and having had their hands cut off, they were then beheaded. The furious citizens having fixed their heads on pikes, carried them in triumph through the streets. "The man 7with the iron mask," the most mysterious prisoner ever known, cliedl here, November 19, 1703.-See Iroes M.askl. BATAVIA. The capital of Java, and of all the Dutch settlements in the East Indies, fortified by that people, 1618. Twelve thousand Chinese massacred here in one day, 1740. Taken by the English, January, 1782. Again, by the British, under general sir Samuel Auchmuty, to whom the garrison surrendered, Aug. 8, 1811. BRLTHS, long used in Greece, and introduced by M5 fcenas into Rome. The therame of the Romans and gynmnasia of the Greeks were sumptuous. The marble Laocoon was found in the baths of Titus, and the Farnese Hercules in those of Caracalla. —Stracbo. BATTEL ROLL. After the battle of Hastings, which decided the fate of England, aCnd subjected it to the Norman yoLe, a list was taken of Willians's chiefs, amounting to 629, and called the Battel-roll; and among these chiefs the lands and distinctions of the followers of the defeated Harold were distributed, 1066. 192 THE WVORLDtS PROGRESS. L[ BATTLE, WAGER oF. A trial by combat, formerly allowed by English laws, where the defendant in an appeal of mlurdcer might fight with the appellant, and make proof thereby of his guilt or innocence. In a case of' appeal of murder, Asl4/o'd, v.'rv eoerl to0b, before the King's Bench in London, April 1818, the court allowied that the law gave the defendant a right to his wager of battle; but the appellant, the brother of a lovely girl, whom Thornton had first violated and then murdered, not accepting the challenge, the mcurderer was discharged. A statute was immediately passed, putting an end to this nmode of trial, 59 George III., 1819.-Staticles at large. B ATTERING-RAM. T'Pestuldo Arietarica, with other military implements, some of which are still in use, invented by Artemones, about 441 B. c. These ponderous engines by their own weight exceeded the utmost effucts of bour battering cannon.-Desaoo-dierss. Sir Christopher Wren employed a battering-ram in demolishing the old walls of St. Paul's church, previously to rebuilding the new edifice in 1675. BATTLES. Palamedes of Argos was the first who ranged an army in a regular line of battle, and placed sentinels round a camp, ancl excited the soldier's vigilance by giving him a watch-worcl.-Lekglet. The following are the principal and most memorable battles mentioned in ge-neral history, and are those also that are most commonly referred to; sB. C.A. D. Actium (the ezpjire of 2ome is con- Berwick - - 1378 firzeed to Acgzustes) - - - 31 Bilboa (British legion) De. 24, 1836 Arbela (I'all of Per-sia) - 331 Blackheath (Conicsh _Rebels defeated) 1497 A. D. Blaclkrock (A?7eer. 4t B2rit.) - Dec. 3, 1813 Aboukir (Toieks) July 26, 1.799 Bladensburg - - Aug. 24, i14 Acre (Siege ( cosomeencerd) - lar. 1, 1799 Blenheim (lairclborouglh) Aug. 2, 1704 (,Sir Sycdieey S',ith) Mlay 27, ibid Borodina - Sept. 7, 1812 (,S'torming ofg) -'iov. 3, 1840 Bosworth - - Aug. 22, 14.: Adrianople (Conostanztine) - - 323 Bothwell Bridg e, Scotland - 1679 Albuera - - - May 16, 1811 Boyne, Ireland - - July 1, 1690 Alford (Covenzanters) - July 2, 1645 Bovines (Fr-ench acnd Genroze? s) - - I 14 Alexandria (Aberc'oebie) - SMar. 21, 1801 Boxtel - Sept. 17, 1794 (Abercerombie) May 17, 1799 Brandywine - - Sept. 11, 1777 Algiers (veee0zoehL) - - Aug. 27, 181. Brechin, Scotland - - 1452 ( (Fre.ech) July 4, 1830 B 3renau (Azestelrias and Beavacrians) - 1743 Alclerton MIoor - - 1643 Breslau - - Nov. 22, 1757 A'incourt - Oct. 25, 1415 Briar's Creek - - - - 1779 Aliwal (izdia) - - 3n. 20, 19816 rienne - - - Feb. 29, 1814 Alnmanza., in Spain - April 4, 1707 lBridgewater (Awei'icanls ad Br1itish) Amoy (City taCee2) - - Au'. 27, 1841 July 25, 1814 Alineida - Au'. 5. 1811 Buena Vista (Aner. and 3Idexicans) Anjou, or BTreagne - 1421 Fel). 22, 1.47 Antoig - - - Aug. 13, 1792 Buenos Ayres (Popha2) - June 21, 1806 Arcola Nov. 19, 1796 (TYhiteilock) July 6, 1807 Ascalon (lichtarod I.) - Sept., 1191 Blnelrer's Hill June 17, 1775 Assaye ( J'tellesley) - Sept. 23, 1.803 Busaco - - - Sept. 27, 1810 Auerstadt - Oct. 14, 18i5 Brvowenstownr (Canada) Aug. 8, 1851 AugsbLrg - Aug. 24, 1796 5.. Austerlitz - Dec. 2, 1805 Cannae ( Viclo?ry )of Iazeibal) - 21 Badajos - - - la. 11, 1811 Calrthage (tlaene by PetbliuZs Scipio) 14( Ballkan, passage of the - July 26, 1829 Chceronea (7'otlziclas) - 447 Baltinore - - Sept. 12, 1814 (Phtili) 33.18) Bannoclburn - - June 25, 1314t (1yla) - 86 Biarnot (EdZvarC' d IV.) Aprit 14, 1471 Cnidos (Lysanzler killed) "-.. 994 Blarrosa - - - ar. 6, 1811 Cranol, i Thessly - - Bautzen - - 5ay 20, 1813 Cyzicou- 4f!( BIayonne - ] lar. 19, 1794 _A. D. Ielgradce -156 Ca.lais taken - 7, 15;) - 1717 Calcuttall (DIdia) J-n.Ie 175cr Bennlington (A-zer. - tDrit.) A- urr. 1.77 C'amlden (Aler. ~ tre i.) - Auoe.!6, 1781' erlgerlc - - pri 13,p 17.59 p — (ell'3e7. ~' 13 lit.) Ap-il 25!78i Sept. 19 an(l Oct. 2, 1799 Calmpo S;to - - 17io Bergell-op-Zo n (tale'.) - - 1747 Cancton (Boeg e,be'ts talen) Feb. 26, 184 - - S c G. 1 1-4 Castel Nuovo Sept. 29. ]S0" Bleresina - - Sept. 7, 1,12 Castella - April 3. 181' BAT ] DIC)TIONARY OF DATES. 193 BATTLES, contbiued. A. D. A. D. Cassano (Prince Eiugene) - 1705 Jarnac - Mar. 3, 1569 Castlebar (French) - Aug. 28, 1798 Jemappo - Nov. 5, 1792 Castiglione July 2, 1796 Jena -. - Oct. 14, 1806 Castillon. in Guienne - - 1453 Ket and Warwick - - 1549 Charleroi - - - 1690 Killiecrankie, Scotland - July 27, 1689 Charleroi Fleurus - June 17, 1794 Kowno - - - Dec. 14, 1812 Charleston (taken by the British) Krasnoi -. Nov 16, 1812 IMay 12, 1780 B. o. Chepultepec (Am.nluMex.) Sept. 12-14, 1848 Leuctra. - - 370 Chippewa - July 5 and 25, 1814 A. D. - - - Oct. 1814 Laffeldt (Dueke of Cumberland) - - 1747 Ciudad Rodrigo (invested) June 11, 1812 Landshut (Prussians and Austrians) 1745 -- (stored) - Jan. 19, 1812 - (Austrians) - April 21, 1809 Clontarf, Ireland - - 1039 Lanside - - May 13, 1568 Constantina (Algiers) - Oct. 13, 1837 Leipzic - - - Oct. 16, 1813 Contreras (Amer. and M1lexicans) - 1848 Lepanto (Greeks) - - May 9, 1829 Corunna, (l/oolre) - - Jan. 16, 1809 Lewes - - - Mlay 14, 1264 Cowpens (Aner. cJ' Brit.) - 1781 Lexington (Agzer.?evolzution) April 19, 1775 Craney island (Anzericans and Brit.) Ligny. - June 16, S15 June 21, 1813 Lincoln - - Fel 2, 1141 Cressy (Iclh Dien) - Aug. 25, 1346 - - - May 19, 1217 Culloden (Pretenzder) April 16, 1746 Lisle (taken by the Allies) - 1708 Cunnersdorf- - - Aug. 12, 1759 Lissa - - Dec. 5, 1796 Detroit (surrendered) - Aug. 16, 1812 Lodi - - - May 10, 1757 Dettingen (George II.) - 1743 Long Island - - Aug. 27, 1776 Dresden - - Aug. 26, ]813 Lutzen - - - May 2, 1813 Dreux. in France - - - 1562 Lutzingen (Gustavus slain) - 1632 Drogheda (taken by storm) - - 1649 B.. Dumblain (Sheriff lMluir) - Nov. 12, 1715 Mantinea (Epaminondas slain) - 363 Dunbar - - - Sept. 3, 1650 Munda, in Spain - - - - 45 (Kinsg of Scots takeon) - - 1296 A. D. -, iege of, - 1337 McHenry, Fort (Americasns and BDit.) Dungan Hill - - July 10, 1647 Oct. 13, 1814 Dunkirlk - Sept. 7, 1793 Malplaquet (Maiarlboorsgh) - - 1709 Dunsinane - - - 1054 Manheim May 30, 1793 Durham, Nevil's Cross - 1346 - - July 12, 1794 Eastport (Asnzericanzs and British) - - Sept. 23, 1795 July 1814 Mantua - - May 29, 1796 Edgehill fight - Oct. 23, 1642 - - - Jan. 31, 1797 Erie, Fort - - Aug. 15, 1814 Marengo - - - June 14, 1800 Erzeroum (Turcks and Prussians) - 1745 Marignan, Italy Sept. 15, 1515 Eutaw Springs - - - 1781 Marston Moor - July 3, 1644 Evesham - Aug. 4, 1265 Mexico - - Sept. 12-14, 18-48 Eylau - - Feb. 8, 1807 Milan - - - April 27, 1799 Fairfield (Asmer. $~ Brit.) - - 1779 Minden - - - Aug. 1, 1759 Falkirk, (W>Vallace) - - July 22, 1298 Mittau (Sweedes anzd R2ssians) - 1705 Flatbush, L. I. (Amn. ( Bilt.) Aug. 27, 1776 Mockern - April 1, 1813 Flodden - - - Sept. 9, 1513 - Oct. 14, 1813 Fontainebleau - Feb. 17, 3814 Mohartz, Hungary - - - 1687 Fontenoy - - April 30, 1745 Molwitz - April 10, 1741 Fort du Quesne - July 9, 1755 Monmouth (Amzer. 13 Bit.)- June 28, 1778 French Town, Canada Jan. 22, 1813 Monterey (Mlexico) Sept. 24, 1846 Friedburg June 4, 1745 Montmorenci - Aug. 10, 1759 Friedland - - June 14, 1807 Moodlcee, India - - Dec. 18, 1845 a. c. Morea (Castle surrenders) Oct. 28, 1828 Granicus- - 334 Moscow (burnt) Sept. 4, 1812 A. D. Moskwa - Sept. 7, 1812 Germantown - - Oct. 4, 1777 Moscow (retaken) Oct. 22, 1812 Gisors (Dieu et seson droit) - 1198 Narva (Charles XII. of Sweden) - 1700 Guilford - - Mar. 16, 1781 Naseby - - June 14, 1645 Halidon Hill, Berwick - July 19, 1333 Newark - - 1644 Halle (Bernadotte) - Oct. 17, 1806 Newbury - 1643 Hanau (V rede) - Oct. 29, 1813 -(seconld batte). Oct. 20, 1646 Hastings (Conquest) - Oct. 14, 1066 New London (buront by the British) - 1781 Hexhan (Yorkists defeated) May 15, 1464 New Orleans - Jan 8, 1815 Hochkirchen - Oct. 14, 1758 Niagara, Fort - - Nov. 1813 liohenlinden - Nov. 3, 1800 Nisbet - - - May 7, 1402 B. C. Norfolk (burnt by the British) June 1779 Ipsus (Antigonues slainz) - 301 Northallerton, (or the battle of the Issus (110,000 Persians slain) - 333 Standard) - 1138 9 194 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. L BAV BATrtLES, continued. A. D. A. D. Norwalk (burnt by the Brit.) Aug. 22, 1779 Sobraon (India) - Feb. 1', 13t16 Novi (Suwarrow) - Aug. 16, 1799 Solway Moss - - Nov. 25, 1342 - - - -J -n Jan. 8, 1800 St. Albans (York and Lancaste) - 14155 Ogdensburg (British and Americans) -- (second) - - 14 Feb. 22, 1813 St. Denis (Mlsonlzaorenci) - 1567 Oporto - - - May 11, 1809 St Dizier, FIance - Jan, 27, 1814 Otterburn (Chevy Chase) - - - 1308 j St. Sebastian - - May 5, 1736 Oudenard (1i2artlborough) July 11, 1708 SStaford - - - Mar. 13, 1470 1s. C. Stoy Point (takeen by the Asssericzsns) 1779 Pharsalia - - 48 Stratton (poet atlller) May 16, 16d13 Philippi (Roaszan Re pzblic ezds) - 42 talavera de la Reyna - July 27, 1809 A.D. Tarra-ona - - - Jan. 24, 1812 Pcalo Alto (Ist ofAner. Mfe.zx.) MIay 8, 1816 Tewkesbury - - May 4, -- 1 Parma (Austriazns and Freenlch) - 1734 Thames (Anerica.* asnd EBrit.) Sept. 1813 (Suwarroow)- - July 12, 1799 Thermopylae (Greeks) - July 13, 1822 Patay (Joan of Ace and the Egsglish) 1429 Tirlernont (French acnd Allies) - 1705 Pavia (Ferench andAustriaezs) Feb. 24, 1525 Toplitz (Austrians asd Priussians) - 1762 Pensacola (takeen by general Jackson) - - - Aug. 30, 1813 Nov. 20, 1814 Tournay - * May 8, 1,'93 Peterwarden - Aug. 5, 1717 Toulon - - Oct. 1, 1793 Pfaffendorf - - Aug. 15, 1760 Toulouse - April 10, 1814 Pinley - - - Sept. 10, 1547 Towton - - - Mar. 29, 1461 Plattsburg (Asssericans aszd British) Trenton (Ailer. - Brit.) - Dec. 26, 7, 1776 Sept. 11, 1814 Turin (Frelch and Gersnasns) - 1706 Poitiers - - Sept. 19, 1356 Ulm - - - - June 21, 00 Prague - - - Nov. 9, 1620 - (ssurrenderedC). Oct. 29, 1805 _ -___ - - IMay 6, 1757 Valenciennes - - Iay 23, 1793 Princeton (Amzer.' Brit.) Jan. 2, 1777 Varna (surrenders) - Oct. 11, 515 Pultowa (Charles XI.) -.uly 8, 1709 Vera Cruz (takez by Asner. Gess. Scott) Pultusk - Dec. 26, 1806 March 27, 1847 Pyrenees - July 28, 1813 Villa Franca - April 10, 1812 Quatre Bras - - June 16, 1815 Vimiera ( lWellington) - Oct. 21, 1808 auebec (or the plains of Abrahamlz) Vittoria, Spain - - - 1702 Sept. 13, 1759 -. June 21, 181. (death ofI1onstgonzery)Dec. 21, 1775 Wagram - - July 5, 1809 - -.- - -April 28, 1760 Wakefield Dec. 31, 14C1q queenstown (Asner. f Brit.) Oct. 13, 1812 Warsaw - Oct. 10,:;94 Ramilies (111Marlborough) - May 23, 1706 - - Nov. 8, ibid IPesaca de la Palma (lVexico) -May 9, 1846 - (taken) - Sept. 8, 1831 Rosbacl - - Nov. 17, 1382 Washington (burnt by the British) - Nov. 5, 1787 Aug. 1814 asclkett's IIarbor (Americans and Waterloo - - June 18, 1815 British) - - 1813 White Plains (Aener. y Brit.) Oct. 28, 1776 Salamanca - - - July 22, 1812 - Nov. 30, ibid 5nan Maretal (Spaniards) Aug. 4, 1813 Wilna (Poles) - June 12, 183s Saratoga (Burgoyne's surrender) Worcester - Sept. 13, 16'2 Oct. 17, 1777 -- (Charles II)'* - 1051 Savannah (taken by the British) Wyoming massacre - - July':77 Dec. 29. 1778 York (Canada) captured by AnleriSchwerdcnitz - Aug. 16, 1762 cans - April 27, 1813 Sedgemoor - July 5, 16%5 York Town (ssurrenzder of Corznwallis) Seidlitz (Poles) - - 3ar. 31, 18.31 Oct. 19, 1781) Sermpach - - July 9, 1386:. Seringapatan - - - - 1791 Zama (Scipio aesd Ilannibal) 20:; - (Tippoo reduced) - - 1791 Zela (Caesar: veni, vidi, vici) - 4' - - ----- ((Tippoo killed) MIay 4,1799 I A. J. Shrewsbury - - July 21, 14,03 Zeuta, Hungary (Prince Etugene) - 1697 Slkenesborough - July 7, 1777 Zurich.- 199 Smolensko - - Aug. 27, 1812 BAVARIA, HOUSE oF. The dukedom founded in the eleventh century: ihis house has the same origin as that of Saxony, and is a branch of the Guel.. phian family; Henry Guelph was made duke of Bavaria by Conrad II., emperor of Germany, who reigned in 1024. Otho, count Wittelpatch, nw.r made duke in 1179; and Maximilian I. elector in 1624. Bavaria was * This battle and defeat of Charles put a period to the civil war in England. N. B. —Many of the above battles are described more fully under each name. biEA A DICTIONARY OF DATES. i95 erected into a kingdom by Bonaparte in December 1805; and obtained by the treaty of' Presburg the incorporation of the whole of the Italian and Geriman Tyrol, the bishopric of Anspach, and lorciships in Gerlmainy. This kingdom joined the coalition against France in Oct. 1813. Bavarian chamber recommends freedom of the press, &c., by almost unanimnous vote, Oct. 17, 1847. Riots at Munich on account of Lola Montes, the king's mistress, Feb. 9, 1848. Violent movemnent at Munich; the king abdicates in favor of his son, Iaximillian II., Malrch 22, 1848. KINGS OF BAVARIA. I 1825 Louis, 13th October;-abdicated, 1805 Maximilian Joseph, the preceding elec- March 22, 1848. tor, created king. 1&8 Maximilian II.'BAYEUX TAPESTRY. This important historical document was wrought by Matilda, the queen of William I., and represents the facts of the Conquest, from the signature of the will of the Confessor down to the crowning of William, 1066.-RRaepi. This curious monument of antiquity embroidered by Matilda, is 19 inches wide, 214 feet long, and is divided into compartments showing the train of events, commencing with the visit of Harold to the Norlman cour't, and ending with his death at Hastings; it is now preseit ed in the town-house of Rouen. —Agsres Stt'icklaeled. BAYONETS. The short sword or dagger fixed at the end of a musket. This weapon was invented at Bayonne, in France (whence the name), about 1670. According to the abbe Lenglet, it was first used in battle by the French, in 1603, " with great success against an enemy unprepared for the encounter with so formidable a novelty." BAZAAR, OR COVERED MARKET. The word is of Arabic origin. The bazaar of Ispahan is magnificent, yet it is excelled by that of Tauris, which has several times held 30,000 men in order of battle. BEADS. The Druids appear to have used beads. They were early used lby Dervises and other holy men of the East. They were in general use in Roman Catholic devotions, A. D. 1213. The bead-roll was a list of deceasedc persons for the repose of whose souls a certain nujmer of prayers were recited, which the devout counted by a string of beacds.-Bzetler. BEARDS. Various have been the customs of most nations respecting them. The Tartars, out of a religious principle, waged a long and bloody war with the Persians, declaring them infidels, because they would not cut their beards after the rites of Tartary. The Greeks wore their beards till the time of Alexander, who ordered the Macedonians to be shaved lest the beard should give a handle to their enemies, 330 s. c. Beards were worn by the Romans, 297 B. c. They have been worn for centuries by the Jews. In England, they were not fashionable after the Conquest. A. D. 1066, until the thirteenth century, and were discontinued at the Restoration. The Russians, even of rank, did not cut their beards until within these few years; and Peter the Great, notwithstanding his enjoining them to shave, was obliged to keep officers on foot to cut off the beard by force. BEARDS ON WOMEN. A bearded woman was taken by the Prussians at the battle of Pultowa, and presented to the Czar, Peter I. 1724: her beard nmeasured I1 yards. A woman is said to have been seen in Paris with a bushy beard, and her whole body covered with hair.-Dict. de T'rvox.z'. The great Margaret, governess of the Netherlands. had a very long stiff beard. In Bavaria, in the time of Wolfius, a virgin had a long black beard. BEAUVAIS, HIIEOINES OF. On the town of Beauvais being besieged by Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, at the head of 80,000 men, the women under the conduct of Jeanne de la Hachette, or Laine, particularly distinguished themselves, and the duke was obliged to raise the siege, July 10, 1472. In memory of their noble exploits during the siege, the females of 196 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. BaiF Beauvais walk first in a procession on the anniversary of their deliverance -IenaulCt. BECKET'S MURDER. Thomas, archbishop of Canterbury, was murdered'a. the altar, Dec. 29, 1171. Four barons hearing Henry II. say, in a momen% of exasperation, " What an unhappy prince am I, who have not about me one man of spirit enough to rid me of this insolent prelate," resolved upon Becket's assassination; and rushing with drawn swords into the cathedmial of Canterbury, where he was at vespers, they announced their design, when he cried out, "I charge you, in the name of the Almighty, not to hurt any other person here, for none of them have been concerned in the late transactions." The confederates then strove to drag him from the church; but not being able to do so, on account of his resolute deportment, they killed him on the spot with repeated wounds, all which he endured without a groan. The bones of Becket were enshrined in gold and set with jewels, in 1220; and were taken up and burned in the reign of IHenry VIII. 1539.l-owe. BED. The practice was universal in the first ages, for mankind to sleep upon the skins of beasts.- W/hittcacer. This was the custom of the early Greeks and Romans, and of the Britons, before the Roman invasion. They were after-wards changed for loose rushes and heather. Straw followed, and was uce,in the royal chambers of England so late as the close of the fifteenth century. The Romans were the first who used feathers. BEER. See Ale. A beverage of this sort is made mention of by Xenophon, in his famous retreat, 401 B. c. Beer was drunk generally in England in the thirteenth century. By a law of James I., when there was a kind of duty paid on " ce called bere," one quart of the best thereof was to be sold for a penny. Subjected to excise in 1660. In England the number of retailers il 1834 amounted to about 60,000. See Brewers. BEES. Mount Hybla, on account of its odoriferous flowers, thyme, and abu,~dance of honey, has been poetically called the " empire of bees." Hymettus, in Attica, is also famous for its bees and honey. The economy of bees was admired in the earliest ages; and Eumelus, of Corinth, wrote a poem on bees, 741 B. c. There are 292 species of the bee, or capis genus, and 111 in England. Strange to say, bees were not originally natives of New England: they were introduced into Boston by the English, in 1670, and have since spread over the whole continent; the first planters never sawvany.-Hardie's America. BEET-ROOT. It is of recent cultivation in England. Margraff first producer, sugar from the white beet-root, in 1747. M. Achard produced excellent, sugar froml it in 1799; and the chemists of France at the instance of Bonaparte, largely extracted sugar from the beet-root in 1800. A refinery om sugar from beet-root was lately erected at the Thames-bank, Chelsea. BEGUINES. Nuns, first established at Liege, and afterwards at Nivelle, in 1207. The' Grand Beguinage " of Brutes is the most extensive of modern times.-Some of these nuns once fell into the extravagant error that they could, in this life, arrive at the highest moral perfection, even to imp. cability. The council of Vienne condemned this error, and abolished.:i branch of the order in 1311. BEHEADING-or Decollatio of the Romans, introduced into England from Normandy (as a less ignomlinious'mode of putting high criminals to deatllh)'by Williamn the Conqueror, 1074, when Waltheof, earl of Huntingdon, Northampton, and Northunmberland, was first so executed. -S'almon's ClAron. English history is filled with instances of this mode of execution, particu BIL ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 19/ larly in the reigns of Henry VIII., and Mary, when even women of the noblest blood, greatest virtues. and most innocent lives, thus suffered death.*,L]HRING'S STRAIT. Explored by a Danish navigator in the sdrvice of Russia whose name it bears. Behring thus established that the continents of Asia and America are not united, but are distant from each other about thirty-nine miles, 1728. BELGIUM. Late the southern portion of the kingdom of the Netherlands, and anciently the territory of the Belg,, who were conquered by Julius Ciesar, 47 B. c. Under the dominion of France so late as A. D. 1369; formed into a kingdom in 1831. Became an acquisition of the house of by the Allied Powers, announced by Austria 1477 Van der Weyer - - Dec. 26, 1830 Charles V. annexed the Netherlands to Dule de Nemours elected Iking; but the crown of Spain - - - 1556 his father, the king of France, refuses Seven provinces, under William, prince his consent - - Feb: 3, 1831 of Orange, revolt, owing to the tyranny M. Surlet de Chokier is elected regent of Philip I..; freed - 1579 of Belgium - - Feb. 24, 1831 The ten remaining provinces are given Leopold, prince of Coburg, is elected to the archduke - -1598 king -. July 12, 1831 These again fall to Spain - - - 1.648 e enters Brussels - - July 19, 1831 Seven again ceded to Germany - 1714 The ling of the Netherlands recomAnd three to France - 1748 mences the war A Aug. 3, 1831 Austrians expelled; but their rule after- [France sends 50,000 troops to assist wards restored - - 1789 Belgium, and an armistice ensues.] The French entered Belgium Nov. 1, 1792 A conference of the ministers of the five United to France - Sept. 30, 1795 great powers is held in I.ondon, which Placedl under the sovereignty of the terminates in the acceptance of the house of Orange - - - 1814 24 articles of pacification - Nov. 15, 1831 The revolution commences at Brussels Leopold marries Louise, eldest daughter Aug. 25, 1830 ot Louis Philippe - - Au. 9,1832 The Provisional Government declares The French army returns to France Belgium independent - Oct. 4, 1830 Dec. 27, 1832 The Belgian troops take Antwerp; the Riot at Brussels (see Bruessels); much Dutch are driven to the citadel, from Inischief ensues - - April 6, 1834 whence they cafinonade the town, Treaty between Holland and Belgium, Oct. 27, 1830 signed in London - April 19, 1839 Belgian independence acknowledged This last treaty arose out of the conference held in London on the Belgian question; by the decision of' which, the treaty of November 15, 1831, was maintained, and the pecuniary compensation of sixty millions of francs, offered by Belgium for the territories adjudged to Holland, was declared inadmissible. BELGRADE, BATTLE OF, between the German and Turkish armies, in which the latter was defeated with the loss of 40,000 men, fought 1456. Belgrade was taken by Solymaan, 1522; and re-taken by the Imperialists in 1688, froom whom it again reverted to the Turks in 1690. Taken by prince Eugene in 1717 (see next article), and kept till 1739, when it was ceded to the Turks. It was again taken in 1789, and restored at the peace of Reichenbach, in 1790. BELGRADE, SIEGE OF. The memorable siege, so often quoted, was undei. taken in [May, 1717, under prince Eugene. On August 5, of that year, the Turkish army, of 200,000, a)proached to relieve it, and a battle was fought, in which the Turks lost 20 000 men; after which Belgrade surrendered. Belgrade has been frequently besieged. See Sieecs. * Among other instances (besides queens of England), may be mentioned the Lady Jane Grey, belhc.tded, Feb. 12, 1554; and the venerable countess of Salisbury —the latter rernarkablue for her,esistance of the executioner. When lhe directed her to lay her head on the bloclk, she refused to do it; telling him, that she knew of no guilt, and would not submit to die lilce a criminal. He pursued her round and round the scaffold, aiming at her hoary head, and at length tool it off, after mangtling the neck and shoulders of the illustrious victim in ahorrifying manner. She was daughter )f Georgse, duke of Clarence, and last of the royal line of Planta-enet. MIay 27, 1541. —Hume. 198 THE WORLD9S PROGRESS. [ BEN BELL, BOOK, AND CANDLE; an ecclesiastical ceremony of the Romish churchll; used in excommunication, whticb see. BELLES-LETTRES, OR POLITE LEARNING.'We owe the revival of the belles lettres in Europe, after the darkness of previous ages to Brunetto, Latini and other learned men in different countries, about A. D. 1272. —Geml. His' Learning greatly promoted by the Mledici family in Italy, about 1550. —1i'oe tante. Literature began to flourish in France, Germany, and England, about this time. The belles-lettres commenced in England in the reign of' Elizabeth, and flourished in that of Anne. BELLOWS. Anacharsis, the Scythian, is said to have been the inventor o:; them, about 569 3. c. To him is also ascribed the invention of tinder, tb1, potter's wheel, anchors for ships, &c. Bellows were not used in the fi\rnaces of the Romans. BELLS. Used among the Jews, Greeks, Roman Catholics, and heathens. The responses of the Dodonrean oracle were in part conveyed by bells. —Stra.bo. The monument of' Porsenna was decorated by pinnacles, each surnmounted by bells.-Pliny. Introduced by Paulinus, bishop cf Nole, in Camlpagna, about A. D. 4(Q0. First known in France in 550. The army of Clothair II., king of Franoce, was frighted from the siege of Sens by the ringing of thr bells of St. Stephen's church. The second Excerption of our kling Egbe commands every priest, at the proper hours, to sound the bells of his churche. Bells were used in churches by order of pope John IX., as a dcfetce, byo rilsgincg 1l]te, cgoceiglst t/hllLde' Cnd lio-htnivzg, about 900. First Cast in En gland by Turkeytel, chancellor of England, under Edmund I. Ills successor improved the- invention, and caused the first tunable set to be put up at Croyland abbey, 960. —Stowe. Great Bell of St. Pauls, weighs - lbs. 8,400 St. Peter's, at Route lbs. 18 66. Great Tom of I,itocoln - - 9,894 Great Bell at Erfrti - 28,22 Great Tom of Oxford - - - 17,000 St. Ivan's Bell, Moscow - - 127 Q` Bell of the Palazzo, Florence 17,000 3oell of the Kremlin - 443;.%i'4 The last is the great unsuspendclecl bell, the Awonder of travellers. Its met,,. alone is valled, at. a very low calellation, at ~66.565 sterling. In its fusion, great quantities of gold and silver were thrown in as votive offerings by the people. BELLS, BAPTISM Of. They were early anointed and baptized in churches.Dutc F''csLto?/. The bells of the priory of Little Duntow, in Essex, Telre baptized by the name of St. Michael, St. John, Virgin Mary, Holy lTrinity, &c., in 1501. —Weever. The great bell of Notre Dame, in Paris, was'r,' tized by the namne of Duke of Angouleme, in 1816. On the Continent., the Catholic states, they baptize bells as we do ships, but with religious solemunity.-Aslte. BENEDICTINES. An order of monkls founded by Benedict, who wasthit first that introduced the monastic life into the western part of Europe, in the beginning of the sixth century. No religious order has been so remarkable for extent, wealth. and men of note, as the Benedictine. It spread over a large portion of Europe, but was superseded in the vast influence ih possessecl over other relig-ious communities, about A. D. 1100. The B& dictines appeared early in Englancl and William I. built them an abl)ey the plain where the battle of Halstings was fougfht, 1066. Williaml de Warrenne. earl of Warren, built them a convent at Lewes, it Essex. in 107 7. At Hammersmith is a nunnery, whose inmates are deno111inated Benedictine dcames.-Ltiys. Of this order, it is reckoned that thert have been 40 popes, 200 cardinals,,50 patriarchs, 116 archbshops, 4601 bishops, 4 emperors, 12 empresses, 46 kings, 41 queens, and 8600 saints, Their founder was canonized.-Ba?'onliss. iEN ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 199 BENEFICES. Clerical betefices originated in the twelfth century; till then the priests were supported by alms and oblations at mass. All that should h.:om e vacant in the space of six months were given by pope Clement VIT. to his nephew, in 1534.-Notiti(a Mocallsticac. The number of benefices in England, according to parliamentary returns, is 10.533, and the number of glebe-houses 5,527; these are exclusive of bishoprics, deaneries, canonries, prebendaries, priest-vicars, lay-vicars, secondaries, and similar church preferments. The number of parishes is 11,077, and of churches and chapels about 12,000. The number of benefices in Ireland is 1456, to which there are not more than about 900 glebe-houses attached, the rest having no glebe-houses.-See C/aluncl of EJtgglcand. WENEFIT or CLERGY. A privilege first enjoyed only by clergymen, but afterwards extended to lettered laymen, relating to divers crimes, and particularly manslaughter. The ordinary gave the prisoner at the bar a Latin book, in a black Gothic character, from which to read a verse or two; aidcl if the ordinary said " Legit t clceric.ts," the offender w, as only burnt in the hand, otherwise he suffered death, 3 Edclarcl I., 1274. This privilege was abolished with respect to murderers and other great criminals, as also the claim of sanctuary, by Henry VIII., 1513. —S/owe. Benefit of clergy was wholly repealed by statute 7 and 8 George IV., June 1827. BENEVOLENT INSTITUTIONS, PUBLIC CHARITIES, &C., IN THE UNITElc STATES. The known voluntary contributions by citizens of Boston alone, during 45 years, ending 1845, was ascertained to be (see details in American Almanac, 1846) as follows: For theological education and other For miscellaneous objects (such as religious objects - - $1,054,966 I monuments, &c.) - -. 438,321 For purposes of instruction - 1,095,594 For charitable purposes - 2,162,412 Total - $4,751,293 [Exclusive of the contributions in churches, for the poor, &c. The population of Boston, in 1800, was about 25,000; in 1845, about 114,000. Few cities can boast of such munificence, in proportion to the number of inhabitants.] BENEVOLENT SOCIETIES-some of the principal in the United States. Fo"rmned. Isncone, Forrmzed. Income. Amer. Board ofCom. Foreign 1849. 1849. Missions - - - 1810 - 5260,897 Amer. Education Society - 1816 - $32,754 Amer. Sunday Sch. Union - 1824 207,764 4' Colonization Society 1819 17,414 "' Bible Society - -1816 - 284,514 " Seamen's Friend Society - 23,497 " Tract Society - - 1814 - 308,428 Miss. Soc. Methodist Church 1819 - 99,635 " Home Miss. Society - 1826 - 157,460 Presbyterian Board Missions 126,013 United States ship, Jamestown, sailed from Boston for Cork, loaded with provisions, to be given to the distitute Irish, March 28th, 1847. The frigate Macedonian sailed friom New York on same errand, July 8, 1847. Abbott Lawrence gave $50,000 to Harvard College, for scientific department, June, 1847. BENGAL. Of the existence of Bengal as a separate kingdom, there is no record. It was ruled by governors delegated by the sovereigns of Delhi in 1340, when it became independent, until 1560. It afterwards fell to the Mogul empire.-See Idia. The English were first permitted to Calcutta taken by Surrjah Dowla; and trade to Bengal A- -. D. 1534 the dreadful affair of the Black-hole - 1756 Factories of the French and Danes - 1664 Retaken by Colonel Clive - 1757 First factory at Calcutta - - 1690 Imperial grant, vesting the revenues of The settlements first placed in a state Bengal in the Company, by whtch of defence - - - - 1694 the virtual sovereignty of the country Calcutta bought, and fortified - - 1700 was obtained - - Aug. 12, 1765 Its garrison consisted of only 129 sol. Celebrated India-bill; Bengal made the diers, ofwhom but 55 were Europeans 1706 chief presidency - - June 16, 1773 See India. 200 THlE WORLD'S PROtGRESS. [ BEr BERESINA, BATTLE OF. Total defeat of the French main army by the Russians on the banks of the Beresina, followed by their disastrous passage of it when escaping out of Russia. The French lost 20,000 men in the battle and in their retreat the career of their glory was closed, Nov. 28, 1812. BERGEN, BATTLE OF, between the French and allies, the latter defeated, April 14, 1759.- The allies again defeated by the French with great loss, Sept. 19, 1799. In another battle, fought Oct. 2, same year, the allies lost 4,000 men; and on the 6th, they were again defeated before Alkmaer, losing 5,000 men. On the 20th, the duke of York entered into a convention by which he exchanged his army for 6,000 French and Dutch prisoners in England. BERGEN-OP-ZOOlM, whose works were deemed impregnable, taken by tlhe French, Sept. 16, 1747, and again in 1794. Here a gallant attempt was made by the British, under Graham, to carry the fortress by storm, but it was defeated; after forcing an entrance their retreat was cut off, and a dreadful slaughter ensued; nearly all were cut to pieces or made prisoners, March 8, 1814. BERLIN. Founded by the margrave Albert, surnamed the Bear, in 1163. Its five districts were united under one magistracy, in 1714; and it was subsequently made the capital of Prussia. This city was taken by an army of Russians, Austrians, and Saxons, in 1760, ibut they were obliged to retire in a few days. On Oct. 27, 1806, thirteen days after the battle of Jena, the French entered Berlin, and from its palace Napoleon issued his famous Berlin decree.-See e.xt article. BERLIN DECREE, a memorable interdict against the commerce of Englancl. It declared the British islands to be in a state of blockade, and all Englishmen found in countries occupied by French troops were to be treated as prisoners of war; the whole world, in fact, was to cease from any communication with Great Britain: issued by Bonaparte from the coult of the Prussian king, shortly after the battle of Jena' (which, for the time, decided the fate of Prussia), Nov. 21, 1806.-See Joenn. BERMUDAS, on SOMMERS' ISLES, discovered by Joao Bermudas, a Spaniard, in 1527; but they were not inhabited until 1609, when sir Gborge Sommers was cast away upon them. They were settled by a statute of 9 James I., 1612. Awful and memnorable hurricane here, October 81, 1780. Another, by which a third of the houses was destroyed, and all the shipping driven ashore, July 20, 1813. BERNARD, MOUNT ST. Hannibal, it is said, conducted the Carthaginian allrmy by this pass into Italy; and it was by the same route that Bonaparte led his troops to the plains of Lombardy, before the battle of Marengo, fought June 14, 1800. BERNARD1NE MONKS. This order was founded by Robert, abbot of Moleme, in the twelfth century. On the summit of the Great St. Bernard is a large community of monks, who entertain in their convent all travellers gratis for three days.-Br'ooke. BERWICK. This town was the theatre of many bloody contests between the English and Scots; and while England and Scotland remained two kingdoms, was always claimed by the Scots as belonging to them, because it stood on their side of the river. Berwick was burned in 1178, and again in 1216. It was taken from the Scots, and annexed to England, 1338; and after having been taken and retaken many times, was finally ceded to England in 1502. The town surrendered to Cromwell in 1648, and afterlwards to general Monk. Since the uhion of the crowns (James I. 1603), the fortifications, which were formerly very strong, have been much neglected. BETHLEHEM11, the birth-place of CHRIST. The Bethlehemite monks, who BIJB J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 20 1 had an order in England in 1257, are named from this once distinguished city. It now contains a church, erected by the famous St. Helena, in the form of a cross; also a chapel, called the Chapel of the Nativity, where they pretend to show the manger in which Christ was laid; another, called the Chapel of Joseph; and a third, of the Holy Innocents. Bethlehem is much visited by pilgrims.-Ashe. BEYROUT. This city, which was colonized from Sidon, was destroyed by an earthquake, A. D. 566. It was rebuilt, and was alternately possessed by the Christians and Saracens; and after a frequent change of masters, fell into the power of Amurath IV., since when it remained with the Ottoman empire up to the revolt of Ibrahim Pacha, in 1832. Total defeat of the Egyptian army by the allied British, Turkish, and Austrian forces, and evacuation of Beyrout, the Egyptians losing 7000 in killed, wounded, and prisoners, and 20 pieces of cannon, Oct. 10, 1840. BIARCHY. When Aristodemnus, king of Sparta, died, he left ~wo sons twins, Eurysthenes and Procles; and the people not knowing to whom precedence should be given, placed them both upon the throne, and thus established the first biarchy, 1102 a. c. The descendants of each reigned alternately for 800 years.-IHerodotxls. BIBLE. The first translation from the Hebrew into the Greek was made by seventy-two interpreters, by the order of Ptolemy Philadelplhus; it is thence called the Septuagint version, and was completed in seventy-two days, at Alexandria, 277 B. c.-J-oseplis. It was commenced 284 a. c.-Lexglet. In 283.-Blair. The Jewish sanhedrinm consisted of seventy or seventy-two members; and hence, probably, the seventy or seventy-two translators of Josephus.-Hewlett. The seventy-two were shut up in thirty-six cells, and each pair translated the whole; andc on subsequent comparison, it was found that the thirty-six copies did not vary by a word or a letter.-JLst'irb Martyr?'. BIBLE, ANCIENT COPIES OF THE. The oldest version of the Old and New Testament belonging to the Christians, is that in the Vatican, which was written in the fourth or fifth century, and published in 1455. The next in age is the Alexandlrine 3MIS., in the British Museum, presented by the Greek patriarch to Charles I., and said to have been copied nearly about the same time. The most ancient copy of' the Jewish Scriptures existed at Toledo, about A. D. 1000; and the copy of Ben Asher, of Jerusalem, was made about 1100. BIBLE, BisuIOPs'. Bishop Alley prepared the Pentateuch; bishops Davis and Sandys, the Historical Books: bishop Benthaui, the Psalls, &c.; bishop Horne, the prophets; bishop Grindal, the Minor Prophets; bishops Parkhurst and Barlow, the Apocrypha; bishop Cox, the Gospels and Acts; and archbishop Parker, the remainder. Printed A. D. 1568. BIBLE, DIvIsIoN OF THE. The Bible was divided into twenty-two books by the Jews, the number of letters in their alphabet. The Christians divided the Bible into thirty-nine books. The Hebrew division into chapters was made by the rabbi Nathan, about 1445. Our Bible was divided into chapters, and a part into verses, by archbishop Langton, who died in 12-28; and this division was perfected by Robert Stephens, about 1534. BIBLE, ElDITIONS OF THE. The vulgate edition, in Latin, was made by St. Jerome, A. D. 405; and is that acknowledged by the Catholic church to be authenltic: it was first printed by Guttenberg at Mayence, 1450-55. (See Bool/s.) The first perfect edition in English was finished, as appears from the colophon, by Tindal and Coverdalhe, Oct. 4, 1535. A revision of this edition was made, 1538-9. This last was ordered to be read in churches, 9* 202 TIE WORLD'S PROGRESS. L[ l 1549. In 1604, at the conference at Hampton-court (see Conference), a new translation was resolved upon; which was executed 1607-11, and is that now generally used in Great Britain. J. Eliot's Indian Bible, one of the firm' books printed in North America, at Cambridge, 1663. The Bible was first printed in Ireland, at Belfast, in 1704. Permitted by the pope to be translated into the language of the Catholic states, 1759. The Bible was printed in Spanish -1478 Russian - 1581 Manks- -1771 German - -1522 Hungarian. - 1589 Italian - - 1776 English - 1534 Polish - - 1596 Bengalee - 1801 French - - -1535 Modern Greek -1638 Tartar - - -1813 Swedish - 1541 Turkish - - 166 Persian o -1815 Danish - -1550 Irish - - 1685 African - 1895 D utch - 150 j Portuguese - - - 1748 Chinese - 1820 Editions of the Old and New Testament. separately, appeared in several instances at earlier dates, particularly in European languages. The Polyglot Bible, edited by Walton, bishop of Chester, in the Hebrew, Syriac, Chaldee, Samaritan, Arabic, Ethiopic, Persic, Greek, and Latin languages, 1657.TW~ood's Facsti. Oeson. BIBLE SOCIETIES. Among the principal and oldest societies which have made the dissemination of the Scriptures a collateral or an exclusive object, are the following:-The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge wa s formed 1698; Society for Propagating the Gospel in Foreign Parts, 1701; Society, in Scotland, for Promloting Christian Knowledge, 1709; French Bible Society, 1792; British and Foreign Bible Society, 1801; Hibernian Bible Society, 1806; City of London Auxiliary Bible Society, 1812; Americen Bible Society (which now has numerous branches), founded 1816; American and Foreign Bible Society (Baptist), founded at New-York, 1838. A bull from the pope against Bible Societies appeared in 1817. BIGAMY. The Romans branded the guilty parties with an infamous mark: with us, the punishment of this offence, formerly, was death. The first act respecting it was passed 5 Edward I. 1276.-Viner"s Statutes. Declared to be felony, without benefit of clergy, I James I. 1602. Subjected to the salme punishments as grand or petit larceny, 35 George III. 1794.-Statutes at lacge. BILL oF RIGHTS. One of the great foundations of the British constitution, was obtained from Charles I. by parliament, 1628. This bill recognized the legal privileges of the subject; and notwithstanding- the employment of all manner of arts and expedients to avoid it, Charles was constrained to pass it into a law. The Bill of Rights, declaratory of the rights of British subjects, passed 1 William and Mary, February 1689. This is the only v-ritteab law respecting the liberties of the people, except MlfaLa CIGceatcc.-Viner's SlatbLtes. BILLS oF EXCHANGE. Invented by the Jews, as a means of removing their property from nations where they were persecuted, A. D. 1160.-Anderson. Bills were used in England, 1307.-The only legal mode of sending money from Engsland, 4th Richard II., 1381. Regulateld, 1698-first stamped, 1782 -duty advanced, 1797-again, June 1801; and since. It was made capital to counterfeit bills of exchange in 1734. In 1825, the year of disastrous speculations in bubbles, it was computed that there were 400 millions of pounds sterling represented by bills of exchange and promissory notes. The present amount is not supposed to exceed 50 millions. The many statutes regarding bills of exchange were consolidated by act 9 George IV. 1828. A new act regulating bills of exchange, passed 3 Victoria, July 1839. BILLS OF MORTALI'TY FoR LONDON. These bills were first compiled about A. D. 1536, but in a more formal and recognized manner in 1593, after the ..IS ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 200 great plague of that year; and however imperfect they still are, they yet afford valuable materials for computation on the duration of life; no complete series of them has been preserved. The following are returns, showing the numbers at decennial distances, within the last sixty years:In the year 1780, Christenings - 16,634 In the year 1780, Burials - - 20,507 1790, Christenings - 18,980 - 1790, Burials - - 18,038 1800, Christenings - 19,176 1800, Burials - 23,068 1810, Christenings 19,930 1810, Burials - 19,892 1820, Christenings 26,158 1820, Burials 19,348 1830, Christenings 27,028 1830, B13urials - 23,524 1840, Christenings - 30,387 1840, Burials - - 26,774 BILLIARDS. Invented by the French, by wihom, and by the Germans, Dutch, and Italians, they were brought into general vogue throughout Europe.JNostv. Dict. The French ascribe their invention to Henrique Devigne, an artist, in the reign of Charles IX., about 1571. Slate billiard-tables were introduced in England in 1827. BIRDS. Divided by Linnueus into six orders; by Blumenbach into eight; and by Cuvier into six. Man is especially enjoined not to harm the nest of the bird: " If a bird's nest chance to be before thee in the way in any tree, or on the ground, wohether they be young ones or eggs, and the dam sitting upon the young, or upon the eggs, thou shalt not take the dalm with the young."-.Drtee?'onosy, xxii. 6. BIRMINGHAM, ENGLANDn. This town existed in the reign of Alfred, A. D. 872; but its importance as a manufacturing town commenced in the reign of William III. Birmingham was besieged and taken by prince Rupert in 1643. The great works of Soho were established by the illustrious engineer, Matthew Boulton, in 1764. BIRTHS. Parish registers of them, and of marriages and burials, were instituted by Cromwell, earl of Essex, 28 Henry VIII. 1536. The births of children were taxed in England, viz.: birth of a duke, 301.-of a common person, 2s.-7 William III. 1695. Taxed again, 1783. The instances of four children at a birth are numerous; but the most extraordinary delivery recorded in modern times is that of a woman of Konigsberg, who had five children at a birth, September 3, 1783.-Phillips. The wife of a man named Nelson, a journeyman tailor, of Oxford-market, London, had five children at a birth, in October 1800.-Ansls of LoEdob. BISHOPS. The name was given by the Athenians to those who had the inspection of the city. The Jews and Romans had also a like officer; but now it means only that person who has the government of church affairs in a certain district. In England, the dignity is coeval with Christianity. St. Peter, the first bishop of Rome, was martyred A. D. 65. The bishops of Rome assumed the title of pope in 138, the rank was anciently assumed by all bishops; but it was afterwards ordained that the title of pope should belong only to the occupant of St. Peter's chair.- Waerner. BISHOPS or ENGLAND. The first was appointed in A.D. 180. See Yorlc, London,. They were made barons, 1072. The Congb d' Elire of the king to choose a bishop originated in an arrangement of king John with the clergy. Bishops were elected by the king's Cosegd d' Elire, 26 Henry VIII. 1535. Seven were deprived for being married, 1554. Several suffered martvrdom under queen Mary, 1555-6. See Crrmnizer. Bishops were excluded from voting in the house of peers on temporal concerns, 16 Charles I. 1640. Twelve were committed for high treason, in protesting against the legality of all acts of parliament passed while they remained deprived of their votes, 1641. Regained their seats, Nov. 1661. Seven were sent to the tower for not reading the king's declaration for liberty of conscience, contrived to bring the Catholics into ecclesiastical and civil power, and were tried and acquit 204 THE WORLD S PROGREss. [ BLA ted, June 29-30, 1688. The archbishop of Canterbury (Dr. Sancroft) and five bishops were suspended for refusing to take the oaths to William and Mary, 1689, and were deprived 1690.- Wacrner's Eccles. j1rist. The sees of Bristol and Gloucester were united, and that of Ripon created, in 1836. An order in council, in Oct. 1838, directed the sees of Bangor and St. Asaph to be united on the next vacancy in either, and Manchester, a new see, to be created thereupon. This order, as regarded the union of the sees, rescinded in 1846.-See Manchester. BISHOPS or IRELAND. Bishops are said to have been consecrated in this country as early as the second century. The bishopric of Ossory, first planted at Saiger, was founded A. n. 402, thirty years before the arrival of St. Patrick. BISHOPS oF SCOTLAND. They were constituted in the fourth century. The see of St. Andrew's was founded by Hergustus, king of the Picts, who, according to a legendary tale of this prelacy, encouraged the mission of Regulus, a Greek monk of Patrre, about A. D. 370. The bishops were deprived of their sees, and episcopacy abolished in Scotland at the period of the revolution, 1688-9. Wcarner's Eccles. Hist.-There are now, however, six bishops belonging to the Scotch Episcopal Church, viz: Aberdeen, Brechin, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Moray, and St. Andrew's. BISHOPS, PRECEDENCY OF, was settled by statute 31 Henry VIII. to be,ext to viscounts, they being barons of the realm, 1540; and they have the title of Lord, and Riol-t Rev. Father? in God. The archbishops of Canterbuiry and York, taking place of all dukes, have the title of Grace. The bishops of London, Durham, and Winchester have precedence of' all bishops; the others rank according to the seniority of consecration. A late contest in Ireland between the bishops of Meath and Kildare for precedency was decided in favor of the former, who now ranks after the archbishop of Dublin. The others rank according to consecration. BISHOPS IN AMERICA. The first was the Right Rev. Doctor Samuel Seabury, consecrated bishop of Connecticut by four nonjuring prelates, at Aberdeen, in Scotland, Nov. 14, 1784. The bishops of New-York and Pennsylvania were consecrated in London, by the archbishop of Canterbury, Feb4. 1'787; and the bishop of Virginia in 1790. The first Catholic bishop of the United States was Dr. Carroll of Maryland, in 1789. BISSEXTILE on LEAP YEAR. An intercalary day was thrown into every fourth year to adjust the calendar, and make it agree with the sun's course. It originated with Julius Cmesar, who ordered a day to be counted beforel the 24th of February-, which amo1g01 the Romans was the 6th of the calends, and which was therefore reckoned twice, and called bissextile: this added day we name the 29th of February every fourth year, 45 B. c.-See Calendar and Leapc Year. BITHYNIA. Conquered by Crcesus, about 560 a. c.; and again by Alexander, 332 B. c. It afterwards recovered its liberty; but its last king bequeathed it to the Romans, 40 B. c. In modern history Bithynia makes no figure, except that fiom its ruins rose the Othman Turks, who, in A. D. 1327, took Prusq its capital, and made it the seat of their empire before they possessed Constantinople. BLACK BOOK, a book kept in the English monasteries, wherein details of the scandalous enormities -practised in religious houses were entered for the inspection of visitors, under Henry VIII., 1535, in order to blacken them and hasten their dissolution; hence the vulgar phrase " I'll set you down in the black book." BLASPHEMY. This crime is recognized both by the civil and canon law of tLO ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 205 England. Justinian adjudged it the punishment of death. In Scotland, the tongue was amputated. Visited by fine and imprisonment, 9 & 10 William Ill., 1696-7.-Statutes at laige. In England this offence has been subjected, on some late occasions, to the visitation of the laws. Daniel Isaac Eato.n was tried and convicted in London of blasphemy, 13th March, 1812. A protestant clergyman, named Robert Taylor, was tried in London twice for the same crime, and as often convicted. Taylor was last brought to the bar, and sentenced to two years' imprisonment, and largely fined, for (among other things) reviling the Redeemer in his discourses, July, 1831. Even as late as in Dec. 1840, two prosecutions against publishers of blasphemous writings, subjected the offenders to the sentence of the court of Queen's Bench. BLAZONRY. The bearing coats-of-arnms was introduced, and oecame hereditary in families in France and England, about A. D. 1192, owing to the knights painting their banners with different figures, thereby to distinguish them in the crusades.-Duegdale. BLEACHING. This art was known early in Egypt, Syria, and India. Known in ancient Gaul.-Plin?/. In the last century an improved chemical system was adopted by the Dutch, who introduced it into England and Scotland in 1768. There are now immense bleachfields in both countries, particularly in Lancashire, and in the counties of Fife, Forfair, and Renferew, and in the vale of the Leven, in Dumbarton. The chemical process of Berthollet was introduced in 1795.-Blanclmtiameat des Toiles. BLENHEIM, BATTLE OF; between the English and confederates, commanded by the duke of Marlborough, and the French and Bavarians, under marshal Tallard and the elector of Bavaria, whom Marlborough signally defeated with the loss of 27,000 in killed, and 13,000 prisoners, Tallard being among the latter: the electorate of Bavaria became the prize of the conquerors. The nation testified its gratitude to the duke by the gifts of the honor of Woodstock and hundred of Wotton, and erected for him one of the finest seats in the kingdom, known as the domain and house of Blenheim. Fought Aug. 2, 1704. —fme. BLINDING, by consuming the eyeballs with lime or scalding vinegar, a punishment inflicted anciently on adulterers, perjurers, and thieves. In the middle ages they changed the penalty of total blindness to a diminution of sight. Blinding the conquered was a practice in barbarous states; and a whole army was deprived of their eyes by Basilius, in the eleventh century. See Btldgarians. Several of the Eastern emperors had their eyes torn from their heads. See article Easterne Empire. BLISTERS. They were first made, it is said, of cantharides.-TFeind. Blisters are said to have been first introduced into medical practice by Aretmus, a physician of Cappadocia, about 50 B. c.-Le Clerc's I-ist. of Physic. BLOOD, CIRCULATION OF THE, through the lungs, first made public by Michael Servetus, a Spanish physician, in 1553. Cisalpinus published an account of the general circulation, of which he had some confused ideas; improved afterwards by experiments, 1569. Paul of Venice, commonly called Father Paolo, whose real name was Peter Sarpi, certainly discovered the valves which serve for the circulation; but the honor of the positive discovery of the circulation of the blood belongs to Harvey, an English physician, by whom it was fully confirmed, 1628.-Freind's Hist. of Physic. BLOOD, DRINKING oF. Anciently a mode was tried of giving vigor to the systen) by administering blood as a draught. Louis XI., in his last illness, drank the warm blood of infants, in the vain hope of restoring his decayed 206'TE WO]ILD'S o PROGRESS. L WEi strength, 1488. —Henuecelt. Eating blood was prohibited to Noah, Ge.' ix. and to the Jews, Lev. xvii. The prohibition repeated by the apostles.t the council of Jerusalem, Acts xv. BLOOD, TRANsFusIoN OF. In the fifteenth century an opinion prevailed that the declining strength and vigor of old people might be repaired by tranlsfusing the blood of young persons, draxwn from their veins, into those of the infirm and aged. It was countenanced in France by the physicians, ancprevailed for many years, till the most fatal effects ensued from the operation. Some of the principal nobility having died, and others turned raving mad, it was suppressed by an edict. Attempted in France in 1797. Practised more recently there, in a few cases, with success; and in Englan:d (but the instances are rare) since 1823.-i- ed. Jour. " One English physician, nalmed Louver, or Lower, practised in this way; he died in 1691."hr'eiecd's Hist. of Physic. BLOOD'S CONSPIRACY. Blood, a discarded officer of Oliver Cromwell's household, and his confederates, seized the duke of Ormlond in his coach, and had got him to Tyburn, intending to hang him, when he was rescued by his friends. Blood afterwards, in the disguise of a clergyman, stole the regal crown from the Jewel-office in the Tower: yet, notwithstanding these and other offinces, he was not only pardoned, but had a pension of ~500 per aeCoLnZL settled on him by Charles II. 1673. BLUE STOCKING. This term is applied to literary ladies, and was originally conferred on a society of literary persons of both sexes. One of the most active promoters of the society was Benjamin Stillingfleet, the distinguished naturalist and miscellaneous writer, who alhays wore blue worsted stockings, and hence the name: the society existed in 1760, et seq.-A.aec. of Bowye'. The beautiful and fascinating Mrs. Jerningham is said to have worn blue stockings at the conveiscacziones of lady Montague; and this peculiarity also fastened the naime upon accomplished women. BOARD oF TRADE AND PLANTATIONS. Charles II., on his restoration, established a council of trade for keeping a control over the whole cooimerce of the nation, 1660; he afterwards instituted a board of trade and plantations, which was remodelled by William III. This board of superilspection was abolished in 1782; and a new council for the affirs of trade w-as appointed, Sept. 2, 1786. BOATS. Their ilvention was so early, and their use so general, the art cannot be traced to any age or country. Flat-bottomed boats were made in England in the reign of the Conqueror: the flat-bottomed boat was ag'ain brought into use by Barker, a Dutchman, about 1690. The life-boat was first suggested at South Shields; and one was built by Mr. Greathead, the inventor, and was first put to sea, Jan. 30, 1790. BOCCACCIO'S BOOK, IL DECAMERONE, a collection of a hundred stories or novels, not of moral tendency: feigned to have been related in ten days, and, as is said by Petrarch, "possessing many charms." A copy of the first edition (that of Valdclafer, in 1471) was lnocked down, at the duke of Roxburgh's sale, to the duke of Marlborough, for ~2260, June 17, 1812. Th'; identical copy was afterwards sold, by public auction, for 875 guineas, June 5, 1819. B(EOTIA, the country of which Thebes was the capital. Thebes was equally celebrated for its antiquity, its grandeur, and the exploits and misfortune, of its kings and heroes. The country was known successively as Aonia Messapia, Hyantis, Ogygia. Cadcleis, and Bceotia; and it gave birth to Pindalt, Hesiod, Plutarch, Democritus, Epaminondas, and the accomuplished and beautiful Corinna. D3 J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 207 B(EOTIA continaeoed. Arrival of Cadmus, the founder of Cad- Thebes besieged and taken - B. c. 1216 mnea B. c. 1493 Thersander rei2ns in Thebes - - 1215 Reign of Polydore -. - 1459 The Thebans abolish royalty, and ages Labdacus ascends the throne - 1430 of obscurity follow - - 1128 Amphion and Zethus besiege Thebes, * * * * * and dethrone Laius - - - 1388 Battle of Chteronea, in which the The(Edipus, not knowing his father Laius, bans defeat the Athenians - - 447 ikills him in an affray, confirming the Epaminondas defeats the Lacedernooracle as to his death by the hands of nians at Leuctra, restores his country his son -1276 to independence, and puts it in a con(Edipus encounters the Sphinx, and re- dition to dictate to the rest of Greece 371 solves her enigmas - - 1266 Philip, king of Macedon, defeats the TheWVar of the Seven Captains - 1225 bans and Athenians, near Chweronea - 338 Here the greatness of this country ends. Alexander destroyed Thebes, the capital, 335 B. c., when the house of' Pindar alone was left standing, and all the inhabitants were either killed or sold as slaves. —Stcabo. BOGS. Commonly the remains of fallen forests, covered with peat and loose soil. Moving bogs are slips of land carried to lower levels by accumulated water. Acts relating to Ireland, for their drainage, passed, March, 1830. The bog-land of Ireland has been estimated at 3,000,000 acres; that of Scotland, at upwards of 2,000,000; and that of England, at near 1,000,000 of acres. d3H, a fierce barbarian general, son of Odin, lived 60 B. c. The exclamation of his name petrified his enemies, and is yet used to frighten children. BOHEMIA. This country was originally governed by dukes: the title of king was obtained firom the emperor Henry IV. The kings at first held their territory of the Empire, but they at length threw off the yoke: the crown was elective till it came into the house of Austria, in which it is now hereclitary.-See Geroeasyg. The Sclavonians, seizing Bohemia, are John Hiuss and Jerome of Prague, two ruled by dules - A.D. 550 of the first Reformers, are burnt for City of Prague founded - - 795 heresy, which occasions an insurrecintroduction of Christianity - 894 tion; when Sigismund, who betrayed Bollemia conquered by the emperor them, is deposed, and the Imperialists Henry III., who spreads devastation are driven fiom the kindom 1415 & 1416 through the country - - - 1041 Albert, duke of' Austria, marries the The regal title is conlbrred onl Uratislas, daughter of the late emperor and the first ing - - 1061 Icing, and receives the crowns of Bo3Tihe regal title is farther confirmed to hemia and Hungary - - - 1437 Ottoacre 1. - - 1199 The succession inlfiinged by Ladislas, Iteign of Ottoacre II., who carries his son of the ting of' Poland, and George arms into Prussia - - - 1258 Podiebrad, a protestant chief' 1440 to 1458 Ottoa.'re, refusing to do homage to the Ladislas,VI., Iking of Poland, elected emperor Rodolphus, is by him van- king of Bohenmia, on the death of Poquished, and deprived of Austria, diebrad -1471 Styria, and Carniola - - -1282 The emperor Ferdinand 1. marries In the reign of' Winceslas III. mines of Anne, sister of Louis the late king, silver are first discovered, and agri- and obtains the crown - -1527 culture is encouraged and improved The elector palatine Frederick is driven (et seq.) - - - -1284 fiomn Bohemia - - - 1618 Winceslas IV. becoming odious for his The crown is secured to the Austrian vices, is assassinated - - -1305 family by the treaty of - -1648 John, count of Luxemburgh, is chosen Silesia and Glatz ceded to Prussia - 1742 to succeed - - - - 1310 Prague talcken by the Prussians - - 1744 Silesia is made a province of Bohemia 1342 The memorable siege of Prague -1757 King John slain at the battle of Crecy, Revolt of the peasantry - - 1775 fought with the English - - 1346 The Frenchl occupy Prtgue - - 1806 See Gern-anoy. BOILING TO DEATH. A capital punishment in England, by statute 23 Henry VIII., 1532. This act was occasioned by seventeen persons haviang been poisoned by Rouse, the bishop of Rochester's cook, when the o-ffnce of poisoning waNts mlade treason, nacd it was enacted to to be punished by boiling the crininal to death! Marg-aret Davie, a young woman, suffered in the same imanner fort a similar crime, in 1541. 208 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ BOe' BOLOGNA. Distinguished for its many rare and magnificent specimens of architecture. Its ancient and celebrated university was founded by Theodosius, A. D. 433. Pope Julius II., after besieging and taking Bologna, madea his triumphal entry into it with a pomp and magnificence by no means fitting (as Erasmus observes) for the vicegerent of the meek Redeemer, Nov. 10, 1506. Here, in the church of St. Patronius, which is remarkable for its pavement, Cassini drew his meridian line, at the close of the seventeenth century. Taken by the French, 796; by the Austrians, 1799; again by the French, after the battle of Marengo, in 1800; restored to the pope in 1815; Austrians expelled by the people, August 8, 1848. BOMBAY, INDIA. Given as part of the marriage-portion of the princess Catherine of Portugal, on her marriage with Charles II., 1661. Granted by Wiiliam III. to the East India Company in 1688, and it now forms one of the three presidencies. An awful fire ra~ged here, and a number of lives were lost, Feb. 27, -1803.-See Inbdica. BOMBS, invented at Venlo, in 1495, but according to some authorities near a century after. They came into general use in 1634, having been previously used only in the Dutch and Spanish armies. Bomb-vessels were invented in France, in 1681. —Voltaire. The Shrapnel shell is a bomb filled with balls, and a lighted fuse to make it explode before it reaches the enemy; a thirtee-,inch bomb-shell weighs 198 lbs. BONDAGE, oa VILLANAGE, was enforced under William I. A villain in ancient times meant a, peasant enslaved by his lord. A release from this species of servitude was ordered on the manors of Elizabeth, in 1574. See Villain. BONE-SETTING. This branch of the art of surgery cannot be said to have been practised scientifically until 1620, before which time it was rather imperfectly understood.-Bell. The celebrity obtained by a practitioner at Paris, about 1600, led to the general study of bone-setting as a science. -Il'reind's Hist of Physic. BOOKS. Ancient books were originally boards, or the inner bark of trees; and bark is still used by some nations, as are also skins, for which latter parchment was substituted. Papyrus, an Egyptian plant, was adopted in that country. Books whose leaves were vellum, were invented by Attalus, king of Pergamlus, about 198 a. c., at which time books were in volumes or rolls. The MSS. in Herculaneum consist of papyrus, rolled and charred, and matted together by the fire, and are about nine inches long, and one, two, or three inches in diameter, each being a separate treatise. The Pentateuch of Moses, and the history of Job, are the most ancient in the world; and in profane literature, the poems of Homer, though the names of others still more ancient are preserved. BOOKS, PRICES oF. Jerome states that he had ruined himself by buying a copy of the works of Origen. A large estate was given for one on cosmography, by Alfred, about A. D. 872. The Ronman de la Rose was sold for above 301.; and a Homily was exchanged for 200 sheep and five quarters of wheat; and they usually fetched double or treble their weight in gold. They sold -;t prices varying from 101. to 401. each, in 1400. In our own times, the value of some volumes is very great. A copy of Mlacklin's Bible, ornamented by Mr. Tomkins, has been declared worth 500 guiheas.-Buttler. A yet more superb copy is at present insured in a London office for 3,0001. —Timzes. II Decamerodne of Boccacio, edition of 1471, was bought at the duke of Roxburgh's sale by the duke of Marlborough for 22601.. June 17, 1812. —Phillips. A copy of the " Mazarin Bible," being the first edition and first book ever printed (by Guttemberg at Mentz in 1455) was sold at auction in London ~OO ] )DICTIONARY OF DATES. 209 in April 1846 for 5001. This copy, the only one known to exist except 19 in public libraries, is now in a private library in New York. B3OOKS, PRINTED.' The first printed books were trifling hymns and psalters, and being printed only on one side, the leaves were pasted back to back. The first printing was, as a book, the Boo/k of Psalms, by Faust and Scheffer, his son-in-law, Aug. 14, 1457. Several works were printed many years before; but as the inventors kept the secret to themselves, they sold their first printed works as manuscripts. This gave rise to an adventure that brought calamity on Faust; he began in 1450 an edition of the Bible, which was finished in 1460. See article Devil and Dr. FauSt'zls. The second printed was Cicero de Oficiis, 1466. —Blair. The first book printed in England was The Game and Play of the Chesse, by Caxton, 1474. The first in Dublin was the Litr'gy, in 1550. The first classical work printed in Russia was Corn. lNepotis Vite, in 1762. Lnucian's Dialogues was the first Greek book printed in America (at Philadelphia), 1789. Books of astronomy and geometry were all destroyed in England as being infected with magic, 6 Edward VI. 1552.Stowe's Chr'onicles. The above is from HIydn; but according to Petligyrew, (Diblio. Sessex.) the first book printed with movable types was the Latin Bible, printed by John Guttemberg at Mayence, about 1455. It was in two folio volumes; and so excellent was the workmanship, both in type, ink, paper, and presswork, that it has scarcely been surpassed since. The succeeding editions for 200 years were much inferior. This edition is called the Mazarin Bible, as a copy was first found in the library of cardinal Mazarin. Only 20 copies are now known to exist-all but one being in public libraries in Europe. [See previous article.] Specimens of the block books, printed with engraved wooden blocks, instead of type, are now very rare. Of the Blibliac Pacpnermnz, done in this way, only two copies exist, one of which belongs to a citizen of New York. BOOK-BINDING. The book of St. Cuthbert, the earliest ornamented book, is supposed to have been bound about A. D. 650. A Latin Psalter in oak boards was bound in the ninth century. A MS. copy of the four evangelists, the' book on which our kings fiom Henry I. to Edclwarcl VI. took their coronation oath, was bound in oaken boards, nearly an inch thick, A. D. 1100. Velvet was the covering in the fourteenth century; and silk soon after. Vellum was introduced early in the fifteenth century; it was stamped and ornamented about 1510. Leather came into use about the same time. Cloth binding superseded the common boards, generally, about 1831. Caoutchouc, or India-rubber backs to account-books and large volumes introduced 1841. BOOK-KEEPING. The system by double-entry, called originally Italian bookkeeping, was taken from the course of algebra which was published by Burgo, at Venice, then a great commercial state, in the fifteenth century. It was made known in England by James Peele, who published his Bookkcceping in 1569.-Ander'son. BOOK TRADE of Great Britain, France, and Germany. The number of new works published in successive years is thus stated: Gt. Brit. France. Germany. Gt. Brit. France. Germany. 1828 842 - 5,654 1816 1 332 -. 7,891 1830 - 1,142 - 5,926 1849 -. - 1834 - 1,220 -- 6,074 1850 - -. 7,208 - The number of printed books received from 1814 to 1847 inclusive, under the copyright acts, from the trustees of the British Museum, amount to 55,474, or 1681 each year. England.-The whole number of books printed in England during 14 years, from 1666 to 1680, was 3,550; equal to 253 yearly;-but deducting the 21 0 THiE WORLD'7S PROGRESS. [ Bos. reprints, pamphlets, single sermons, and maps, the ann-ulI average of new books may be computed at much less than 100. The number of new works, exclusive of "all pamphlets and other tracts;'( issued during 56 years, as appears from a " Complete Catalogue of Modern Books published from the beginning of the century (1700) to 1756," was 5,280; equal to a yearly average of 94. The number of new works, exclusive of reprints and plamphlets, issued during eleven years, from 1792 to 1802 inclusive, was 4,096; equal to 372 each year. The number of new publications issued in 27 years, from 1800 to 1827, including reprints altered in size and price, but excluding pamphlets, was. according to the London Catalogue, 19,860:-deducting one fifth for reprints, we have 15,888, equal to 588 each year. MIr. McCulloch estimates the number of volumes of new publications produced annually in Great Britain (exclusive of reprints, pamphlets, and periodical publications not in volumes) at about 1,500; and the average impression of each volume at 750 copies;-annual total, 1,125,000 volumes: -value at 9s. a volume, ~506,250. " The number of reprinted volumes, particularly of school-books, is very great; and if to these we add the reviews, magazines, pamphlets, and all other publications, exclusive of new:.papers, the total publication value of the new works of all sorts, and new copies of old works that are annually produced, may be estimated at about ~750,000." France.-The activity of the French press has been very greatly increased since the downfall of Napoleon. The count Daru, in a very instructive work (Notions Statistiqes sur' lac Librarie), published in 1827, estimated the number of printed sheets, exclusive of newspapers, produced by the French press in 1816 at 66,852,883; and in 1825, at 128,011,483; and we believe that the increase from 1825 down to the present period has been little if,y thing inferior. The first six months of the year 1837, as stated by the "Foreign Quarterly review," there were printed in France, 3,413 works, in French and other languages; also 571 engravings and lithographs. Germavny.-The book-trade of Germany is greatly facilitated by the bookfairs held at Leipsic at Easter and Michelmnas, which are attended by the booksellers of Germany, and by many of those of the neighboring countries, as France, Switzerland, Denmark, &c. This trade began to flourish in 1814; the number of works then annually offered for sale was about 2,000; bttl the number has been gradually increasing, having for the first time exceeded 5,000 in 1827; and it now exceeds 7,000.' An Augsburg paper states," (says the " Foreign Quarterly Review," 1886,) " that, on a moderate calculation, 10,000,000 of volumes are annually printhd in Germany, and as every half-yearly fair catalogue contains the names of more than 1,000 German writers, it may be assumed, that there are now living upwards of 50,000 persons who have written one or more books. Thle total value of all the books published annually in Germany is estimatec fiom 5 to 6,000,000 dollars." RPssia.-In the year 1836, 674 original works, and 124 translations were published in Russia, exclusive of 46 periodicals. Sweden. —There are only 28 or 30 printing presses in Sweden; 10 in Stockholm, 3 in Gottenburg, 2 in Upsal, 2 in NorkSping, and 1 in several other places. BOOK-TRADE o0 THE UNITED STATES. The number of new works which appeared in the United States, in 1834 and 1835, amounted to 1,013, formi:le lIOR] I DICTIONARY OF DATES. 21 1 1,300 volumes, and the cost of which may be estimated at $ 1.220,000. In 1836, the number was considerably increased, and the cost of the books,published in that year cannot be computed at less than $ 1,500,000. Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Hartford furnished 19 20ths of the amount. Another statement for the years 1833, 1834, and 1835, is as follows:-originals 1,030, reprints, 854; total, 1,884;-number of volumes printed (1,000 for each edition), 1,884,000. In most cases the editions of one and the same work are larger and more frequent in the United States than in any other country. Many reprinted English works have here passed three or four editions, while the publishers of the original in England have but one. In one instance, the sale cf a book in America amounted to 100,000 copies, whereas in England only four editions, of 1,000 copies each, were disposed of. The amount of literary productions in America has more than doubled during the last ten years. The sales of five book-selling establishments amounted in 1836, to $ 1,350,000. The following statement will show the relative proportion of native and imported literary productions in 1834: Original. Reprint. Plzgznai. Reprint. Education - - 73 - 9 Poetry - - 3 Divinity - - 37 - 18 Travels - 8 10 Novels and Tales 19 95 Fine Arts - 8 0 History and Biography - 19 o 17 Miscellaneous works - 59 - 43 Jurisprudence - - 20 3 Thus it appears in American literature the scientific and practically useful predominate, and that works of imagination are chiefly derived firom foreign sources. The school-books are almost all written or compiled in the United States; and some idea of the extensive business done in them may be formed from the circumstance, that, of some of the most popular comip-iitions in geography, from 100,000 to 300.000 copies have been sold in ten years; so that, in many instances, works of this kind produce a permanent income, as well to the author as the publisher. During the last five years, the number of American original works in proportion to reprints, has nearly doubled. [The preceding paragraph is derived from statistics in the Booeksellers' Advertiser, edited by G. P. Putnam, New York, 1835. Since then, no complete register has been kept of publications in successive years: but the following list is compiled from the semi-monthly register in the Literary Wsorld.] AnaMERICAN PUBLICATIONSs-JaltGCary to June, 1849. Original. Reprint. Original. Reprint. Education - 36 - 7 Travels - - 21 - 7 Divinity - - 25 - 25 Metaphysics - - 3 8- Novels and Tales 18 28 Miscellaneous - 25 10 History - - 20 - 12 Law Biograrphy - 15 - 6 Juvenile not ascertained. Political Economy 3 - 0 Periodical Medicine 12 - 11 Science - 11 - 9 For six months - 200 - 128 Poetry - 11 - 6 Total, 323. The number of new publications for the year 1849 would thus be 656, exclusive of law and juvenile books, and occasional pamphlets and periodicals. BOOTS. They are said to have been the invention of the Carians. and were made of iron, brass, or leather; of the last material some timle after their invention, boots were known to the Greeks, for HIomer lnentions them about 907 B. C. BORODINO oR MOSKWA, BATTLE OP, one of the most sanguinary in the records of the world, fought Sept. 7, 1812, between the French and Russians; commanded on the one side by Napoleon, and on the other by Kutusofi, 212 TIHE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ BOT 240,000 men being engaged. Each party claimed the victory, because the loss of the other was so immense; but it was rather in favor of Napoleon,, for the Russians subsequently retreated, leaving Moscow to its fate. The road being thus left open, the French entered MVloscow. Sept. 14, with little opposition. But a signal reverse of fortune now tool place, which preserved the Russian empire from ruin, and paved the way to the downfall of the French military power over Europe. See /oscow. BOROUGH. Anciently a company of ten families living together. The term has been applied to such towns as send members to parliamnent, since the election of burgesses in the reign of Henry III. 1265. Burgesses were first admitted into the Scottish parliament by Robert Bruce, 1326-and into theIrish, 1365. BOROUGH ENGLISH. This was an ancient tenure by which the younger son inherits. Its origin is thus explained: in feudal times the lord is said to have claimed the privilege of spending the first night with the vassal's bride and on such occasions the land was made to descend to the next son, in consequence of the supposed illegitimacy of the elder. This kind of tenure is mentioned as occulrring A. D. 834. It existed in Scotland, but was abolished by Malcolm III. in 1062. —Hiaydb. BOSPHORUS, now called Circassia. The history of this kingdom is involved in obscurity, though it continued for 530 years. It was named Cimmerian, from the Cimmerze'i, who dwelt on its borders. The descendants of Archeanactes of Mytilene settled in this country, but they were dispossessed by order of the emperor Spartacus, in 438 B. C. Mithridates conducted a prisoner to Rome, by Claudius, and his kingdom soon afterwards made a province of the empire, A. D. 40. The strait of the Bosphorus was closed by the Turks, Sept. 8, 1828. It was blockaded by the Russian squadron under admiral Greig, Dec. 31, same year. See Dcartdanlcles. BOSTON, the capital of Massachusetts, founded in August 1630. Here commencedc the American Revolution. British soldiers fired on the people, 1770. The celebrated "Tea-party" here, toolk place 1773. The port closed by parliament 1774. British army evacuatedcl Boston in March 1776. [See Lexinigton and Bnnler' Hlill.] The cause of American freedom was nowhere more actively sustained than by the people of Boston. Benjamin Franklin was born here, Jan. 17, 1706. John Hancock, the first signer of the Declaration of Independence, was a Bostonian. Boston incorporated as a city, 1822. Population in 1700, 7000; in 1790, 18,038; in 1810, 33,250; in 1820, 43,298 - in 1830, 61,391; in 1845, 114,366. Tonnage of vessels in 1840, 220,243 tons. BOSWORTH FIELD, BATTLE OF, the thirteenth and last between the houses of York and Lancaster, in which Richard III. was defeated by the earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII., the former being slain, Aug. 22, 1485.. The crown of Richard was found in a hawthorn bush, on the plain where the battle was fought, and Ilenry was so impatient to be crowned, that he had the ceremony performed on the spot with that very crown. In the civil contests between the "Roses," many of the most ancient families in the kingdom were entirely extinguished, and no less than 100,000 human beings lost their lives. BOTANY. Aristotle is considered the founder of the philosophy of botany. The Historia Plantarsds of Theophrastus, written about 320 B. c. Authors on botany are numerous fromn the earlier ages of the world, to the close of the 15th century, when the science became better understood. The study was advanced by Fuchsius, Bock, Bauhin, Cmsalpinus, and others, between 1535 and 1600.-Melchior Adamn. The system and arrangement of Linnmeus, the first botanist of modern times, made known about 1750. Jussieu's sys BOU ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 213 tem, in 1758. At the time of Linn.eus's death, A. D. 1778, the species of plants actually described amounted in number to 11,800. The number of species of all denominations now recorded cannot fall short of 100,000. BOTANY BAY, originally fixed on for a colony of convicts from Great Britain. The first governor, Phillips, who sailed from England in May, 1787, arrived at the settlement in January, 1788. The bay had been discovered by captain Cook in 1770, and the place took its name from the great variety of herbs which abounded on the shore. The colony was fixed at Port Jackson, about thirteen miles to the north of the bay. See New SoutbC Wales and Tr'aensportation. POTTLES, of glass, were first made in England, about 1558.-See Glass. The art of making glass bottles and drinking glasses was known to the Romans at least before 79 A. D., for these articles and other vessels have been found in the Ruins of Pompeii. A bottle which contained two hogsheads was blown, we are told, at Leith, in Scotland, in January, 1747-8. BOULOGNE, FRANCE. Taken by the British in 1542, but restored to France uepon the peace, 1550. Lord Nelson attacked Boulogne, disabling ten vessels, and sinking five, Aug. 3, 1801. Prince Louis Napoleon made a descent here with about fifty followers, 4g. 6, 1840.-See e.xt article and Frwance. BOULOGNE FLOTILLA. This celebrated armament against England excited much attention for some years, but the grand demonstration was made in 1804. In that year, Bonaparte had assembled 160,000 men and 10 000 horses, and a flotilla of 1300 vessels and 17.000 sailors to invade England. The coasts of Kent and Sussex were covered with martello towers and lines of defence; and nearly half the adult population of Britain was formed into volunteer corps. It is supposed that this French armament served merely for a demonstration, and that Bonaparte never seriously intended the invasion. BOUNDARY QUESTIONS, IN THE UNITED STATES. Award of the king of the Netherlands on the boundary between Maine and the British possessions, Jan. 10, 1831 (rejected by both parties). Collisions between the people of Maine and New Brunswick in the disputed territory on the Aroostock, 1838-9, suspended by a mutual agreement between sir J. Harvey, Governor of New Brunswick, governor Fairfield, of Maine, and general Scott, of the U. S. army, March 21, 1839. This boundary settled by the Treaty of Washington, 1842. Oregon boundary-49th parallel agreed upon as the northern boundary of the United States, in Oregon, by treaty signed at Washington, June 1846. BOUNTIES. They were first granted on the exportation of British commodities-a new principle introduced into commerce by the British parliament. The first bounties granted on corn, were in 1688. First legally granted in England for raising naval stores in America, 1703. Bounties have been granted on sail-cloth, linen, and other goods.-Elements of Commerce. BOUNTY, MUTINEERS oF THE SHIP. Memorable mutiny on board the Bounety, armed ship returning from Otaheite, with bread-fruit. The mutineers put their captain, Bligh, and nineteen men into an open boat, near Annamooka, one of the Friendly Islands, April 28, 1789, and they reached the Island of Timor, south of the Moluccas, in June, after a perilous voyage of nearly 4000 miles, in which their preservation wras next to miraculous. The mutineers were tried Sept. 15, 1792, when six were condemned, of whom three were executed. See Pitcaiir's Islanvd. BOURBON, HousaE or. Anthony de Bourbon was the chief of the branch of Bourbon, so called from a fief of that name which fell to them by marriage with the heiress of the estate. Henry IV. of France and Navarre, justly 214 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ BOY styled the Great, was son of Anthony, and came to the throne in 1589. The crown of Spain was settled on a younger branch of this family, and guaranteed by the peace of Utrecht, 1713. —RIpirn. The Bourbon Family Compact took place, 1761. The Bourbons were expelled France, 1791, and were restored, 1814. -Re-expelled, and again restored, 1815. The elder branch was expelled once more, in the persons of Charles X. and his family in 1830, a consequence of' the revolution of tile imemorably days of July in that year.-See Fria'~nc. BOURBON, ISLE oP, discovered by the Portuguese, in 1545. The French first settled here in 1672, and built several towns. The island surrendered to the British, July 2, 1810. It is near the Isle of France, and the two are styled the Mauritius. There occurred an awful hurricane here in February 1829, by which immense mischief was done to the shipping, and in the Island. See Z[lcar?'itiues. BOURDEAUX (or BORDEAUX) was united to the dominions of Henry II. of England, by his marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine. Edward the Black Prince brought his royal captive, John, king of France, to this city after the battle of Poitiers. in 1356, and here held his court during eleven years: his son, Richard II., (of Eng.) was born at Bourdeaux, in 1362. The fine equestrian statue of Louis XV. was erected in 1743. LBourdeaux was entered by the victorious British army, after the battle of Orthes, fought Feb. 25, 1814. BOURIGNONISTS, a sect founded by Madame Antoinette Boig'/'non, a fanatic, who, in 1658, took the habit of St. Augustin, and travelled into France, Holland, England, and Scotland. In the last she made a strong party and some thousands of sectarists. about 1670. She maintained that Christianily does not consist in faith or practice, but in an inward feeling and supernatural impulse. This visionary published a book entitled the Liyht of the Worild, in which, and in several other works, she maintained and taught her pernicious notions. A disciple of hers, named Court, left her a good estate. She died in 1680. BOWLS, oR BOWLING, an English game, played as early as the thirteenth century, and once in great repute among the higher ranks. Charles I. played at it. It formed a daily share in the diversions of Charles II., at Tunbridge.-ZTniieoircs dle Gralnonont. BOWS AND ARROWS. See Archer'y. The invention of them is ascribed to Apollo. Known in England previous to A. D. 450. The use of them was again introduced into England by the Conqueror, 1066; and greatly encouraged by Richard I., 1190. —Bclcer's C'hronicle. The usual range of the lono bow was from 300 to 400 yards; the length of the bow was six feet, and the arrow three. Cross-bows were fixed to a stock of iron or wood, and were discharged by a trigger. BOXING, oR PRIZE-FIGHTING, the pnogilaltns of the Romans, and a favorite sport with the British, who possess an extraordinary strength in the arm, an advantage which gives the British soldier great superiority in battles decided by the bayonet. A century ago, boxing formed a regular exhibition, and a theatre was erected for it in Tottenlham-court-Broughton's anmphitheatre., behind Oxford-road, built 1742. Schools were opened in England to tears boxing as a science in 1790. Owing to the dishonest practices in the " ring," selling the victory, and one combatant allowing the other to beat him, &c., the fights have been fewer of late, and the number of the patrons of boxing have declined. BOYLE LECTURES. Instituted by Robert Boyle (son of the great earl of Cork), an exceedingly good man and philosopher, distinguished by his genius, virtues, and unbounded benevolence. He instituted eight lectures in vindication of the Christian religion, which were delivered at St. Mary-l - BRA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 215 Bow church, 6n the first Monday in each month, from January to May, and September to November-endowed 1691. BOYNE, BATTLE OP, between king William III. and his father-ini-law, James II., fought July 1, 1690. The latter was signally defeated, his adherents losing 1500 men, and the Protestant army about a third of that number. James immediately afterwards fled to Dublin, thence to Waterford, and escaped to France. The duke of Schomberg was killed in the battle. HABANT. It was erected into a duchy A. D. 620, and devolved upon Lambert I. count of Louvain, in 1005, and from him descended to Philip II. of Burgundcly, and in regular succession to the emperor Charles V. In the seventeenth century it was held by Holland and Austria, as Dutch Brabant, and Walloon. These provinces underwent many changes in most of the great wars of Europe. The Austrian division was taken by the French 1746 -again in 1794 by their Republic; and it now forms part of the kingdom of Belgium, under Leopold, 1831. See Belgitan. RACELETS. They were early worn and prized among the ancients; we read of them in almost all nations; those that were called cnttillce were usually distributed as rewards for valor among the Roman legions.-Non/v. Dict. Those of pearls and gold were worn by the Roman ladies; and armliets are female ornaments to the present day. BRAGANZA, HousE op, owes its elevation to royalty to a remarkable and bloodless revolution in Portugal, A. D. 1640, when the nation, throwing off the Spanish yoke, which had become intolerable, advanced John, duke of Braganza, to the throne, on which this family continues to reign.-Abb6 Fertot. BRAHMINS, a sect of Indian philosophers, reputed to be so ancient that Pythagoras is thought to have learned from them his doctrine of the Metempsyc/osis; and it is affirmed that some of the Greek philosophers went to India on purpose to converse with them. The modern Brahmins derive their name from Brahme, one of the three beings whom God, according to their theology, created, and with whose assistance he formed the world. They never eat flesh, and abstain from the use of wine and all carnal enjoyments. —Strabo. The modern Indian priests are still considered as the depositaries of the whole learning of India.-Holwell. BRANDENBURGH, FAMILY OF, is of great antiquity, and some historians say it was founded by the Sclavonians, who gave it the name of Banbber, which signifies Guar'd of the Forests. Henry I., surnamed the Fowler, fortified Brandenburgh, A. D. 923, to serve as a rampart against the Huns. He bestowed the government on Sifroi, count of Ringelheim, with the title of Margrave, which signifies protector of the marches or frontiers, in 927. The emperor Sigismund gave perpetual investiture to Frederick IV. of Nuremberg, who was made elector in 1417. See Prussia. BRANDYWINE, BATTLE OF, between the British royalist forces and the Americans, in which the latter were defeated with great loss, and Philadelphia fell to the possession of the victors, September 11, 1777. /iASS. Its formation was prior to the Flood, and it was discovered in the seventh generation from Adam. LIBible. Brass was known among all the early nations.- Us/Ler. The Britons from the remotest period were acquainted with its use.- Wlittakeer. When Lucius Mumonius burnt Corinth to the ground, 146 B. c., the riches he found were immense, and during the conflagration, it is said, all the metals in the city melted, and running together, formed the valuable composition since known under the name of Corinthians Brass. This, however, may well be doubted, for the Corinthian artists had long before obtained great credit for their method of combining gold 216 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [R BtR and silver with copper; and the Syriac translation of the Bible says, tha' Hiram made the vessels for Solomon's temple of Corinthian brass. Article! made of this brilliant composition, though in themselves trivial and insig nificant, were yet highly valuedl.-Dar Pr[resnoy. BRAZIL. It was discovered by Alvarez de Cabral, a Portuguese, who was driven upon its coasts by a tempest in 1500. He called it the Land of the Holy Cross; but it was subsequently called Brazil on account of its ree wood, and was carefully explored by Amerigo Vespucci, about 1504. Th, guld mines were first opened in 1684; and the diamond mines were discov ered 1730 (see Diamzonds). The French having seized on Portugal in 180i the royal family and most of the nobles embarked for Brazil. A revolutin, took place here in 1821. Brazil was erected into an empire, when Do Pedro assumed the title of emperor, in November 1825. He abdicated th throne of Portugal, May 2, 1826; and that of Brazil, in favor of his infar Son, now emperor, April 7, 1831, and returned to Portugal, where a civ: war ensued.-See Portebgal..BREAD. Ching-Noung, the successor of Fohi, is reputed to have been th first who taught men (the Chinese) the art of husbandry, and the metho, of making bread from wheat, and wine from rice, 1998 B. c.- Univ. His& Baking of bread was known in the patriarchal ages; see Exodnus xii. l;. Baking bread became a profession at Rome, 170 B. c. During the siege of Paris by Henry IV., owing to the famine which then raged, bread, which had been sold whilst any remained for a crown a pound, was at last made from the bones of the charnel-house of the Holy Innocents, A. D. 1594.IFenaalt. In the time of James I. the usual bread of the poor was made of barley; and now in Iceland, cod-fish, beaten to powder, is made into bread; and the poor use potato-bread in many parts of Ireland. Earth has been eaten as bread in some parts of the world: near Moscow is a portion of land whose clay will ferment when mixed with flour. The Indians of Lenisiana (l) eat a white earth with salt; and the Indians of the Oronooko eat a white unctuous earth.-Greig; PAillips. BREAKWATER AT PLYMOUTH. The first stone of this stupendons work was lowered in the presence of the army and navy, and multitudes of the great, August 12, 1812. It was designed to break the swell at Plymouth, and stretches 5280 feet across the Sound; it is 360 feet in breadth at the bottom, and more than thirty at the top, and consumed 3,666,000 tons of granite blocks, from one to five tons each, up to April, 1841; and cost al million and a half sterling. The architect was Rennie. The first stone vthe lighthouse on its western extremity was laid Feb. 1, 1841. BREAST-PLATES. The invention of them is ascribed to Jason, 937 B. c. The breast-plate formerly covered the whole body, but it at length dwindled in the lapse of ages to the diminutive gorget of modern times. See Arnmor. BREDA. This city was taken by prince Maurice of Nassau in 1590; by the Spaniards in 1625; and again by the Dutch in. 1637. Charles II. resided here at the time of the Restoration, 1660. See.Restoration. Breda was taken by the French in 1793, and retaken by the Dutch the same year. Tic; French garrison was shut out by the burgesses in 1813, when the power of France ceased here. BREECHES. Among the Greeks, this garment indicated slavery. It was worn by the Dacians, Parthians, and other northern nations; and in Italy, it is said, it was worn in the time of Augustus Cm.sar. In the reign of Honorius, about A. D. 394, the bracca~ri, or breeches-makers, were expelled from Rome; but soon afterwards the use of breeches was adopted in other countries, and at length it became general. UI:] DICTIONARY OF DAT1':rS. 217 iREMEN, a venerable Hanse town, and duchy, sold to George I. as elector of Hanover, in 1716. It was taken by the French in 1757; they were driven out by the Hanoverians in 1758; and it was again seized in 1806. Bremen was annexed by Napoleon to the French empire in 1810; but its inclependence was restored in 1813. See HIanse To.Vws. RESLAU, BATTLEi Or, between the Austrians and Prussians, the latter under prince Bevern, who was defeated, but the enogagement was most bloody on both sides, Nov. 22, 1757, when Breslan was taken; but was regained the same year. This city was for some time besieg:ed by the French, and surrendered to them January 5, 1807, and again in 1813. REST. It was besieged by Julius C-esar, 54 a. c.-possessed by the English, A. D. 1378-given up to the duke of Brittany, 1391. Lord Berkeley and a British fleet and army were repulsed here with dreadful loss in 1694. The magazine burnt, to the amount of some millions of pounds sterling, 1744. The marine hospitals, with fifty galley-slaves, burnt, 1766. The magazine again destroyed by a fire, July 10, 1784. From this great depot of the French navy, numerous squadrons were equipped against England during the late war. RETHREN IN INIQUITY. The designation arose from persons covenanting formerly to share each other's fortune, in any expedition to invade a country, as did Robert de Oily and Robert de Ivery, in William I.'s invasion of England, 1066. BRETIGNY, PEACE OF, concluded with France at Bretigny, and by which England retained Gascony and Guienne, acquired Saintonge, Agenois, Perigord, Limousin, Bigorre, Angoumois, aud Rovergne, and renounced her pretensions to Maine, Anjou, Touraine, and Normandy; England walas also to receive 3;000,000 crowns, and to release king John, who had been long prisoner in London, May 8, 1360. BREVIARIES. The breviary is a book of mass and prayer used by the church of Romle. It was first called the cucstos, and afterwards the breviary; and both the clergy and laity use it publicly and at home. It was in use among the ecclesiastical orders about A. D. 1080; and was reformed by the councils of Trent and Cologne, and by Pius V., Urban VIII., and other popes. The quality of type in which the breviary was first printed gave the name to the type called brevier at the present day. BREWERS. The first are tracedl to Egypt. Br1ewing was known to our AngloSaxon ancestors.- Tidarl. "One William Murle, a rich maultman or bruer, of Dunstable, had two horses all traped with gold, 1414."-S/owe. There are about 1700 public brewers in England, about 200 in Scotland, and 250 in Ireland: these are exclusively of retail and intermediate brewers, of which there are in England about 1400; there are, besides, 28,000 victuallers, &c.,'who brew their own ale. In London, there are about 100 wholesale brewers, many of them in immense trade. Various statutes relating to brewers and the sale of beer have been enacted from time to time. See Beer. B2IBERY. In Englanclan indictable offence to bribe persons in the administration of public justice. Thomas de Weyland, a judge, was banished the land for bribery, in 1288; he was chief justice of the Common Pleas. William de Thorpe. chief justice of the King's Bench, was hanued for bribery in 1351. Another judge was fined 20,0001. for the like offence, 1616. Mr. Walpole, secretary-at-war, was sent to the tower for bribery in 1712. Lord Stranigford cwas suspended fiom voting in the Irish I-louse of Lords, for soliciting a bribe, January 1784.:RIBERY AT ELECTIONS, as in the preceding cases, made an indictable "Tence. Messrs. Sykes and Rumbold fined and imprisoned for bribery at 10 218 THE WOR LD'S PROGRESS. L BI; an election, March 14, 1776. An elector of Durham convicted, July 1803 and several similar instances have occurred since. BRICKS, for building, were used in the earliest times in B1abylon, Egyp. Greece, and Rome. Used in England by the Romans, about A. D. 44. MBad. under the direction of Alfied the Great, about 8$6. —Saxzo, Chkroem. Th size regulated by order of Charles I. 1625. Taxed, 178-4. The number bricks which paid duty in Englanci in 1820 was 949,000,000; in 1830, th: number exceedl 1,100,000,000; and in 1810 it anmounted to 14,000,000,00( See Building. BRIDAL CEREMONIES. Anmong the more rational ceremonies observed I the ancients, was the practice of conducting the bride to the house of h( spouse on a chariot, which was afterwards burned; it originated with tl Thebans, and was intended as a symbol of the bride's future dependence her husband, from whom there was no chariot to convey her back to h. parents; it is mentioned 880 B. c. BRIDEWELL. Originally the name of a royal palace of king Jot l, ne: Fleet-ditch, London; it was built anew by HI-enry VIII. in 1522, and w,' given to the city by Edward VI. in 1553. There are several prisons of th name throughout England. The first London Briclewell was in a localil near to Bride's well; but this is no reason, as is justly observed, why sim lar prisons, not in a similar locality, should have this name. BRIDGES. So early and general, and the expeclients for their construction so various, their origin cannot be traced; they were first of wood. The ancient bridges in China are of great mlagnitude, and were built of stone. Abydos. is famous for the bridge of boats which Xerxes built across the Hellesponlt. Trajan's magonificent stone bridge over the Danube, 4770 feet in length, was built in A. D. 103. The Devil's brsidge in the canton of Uri, so called from its frightful situation, was built resting on two high rocks, so that it could scarcely, be conceived how it was erected, and nmany fabulous stories were invented to account for it. At Shaff hausen an extraordinary bridge was built over the Rhine, which is there 400 feet wide: there was a pier in the middle of the river, but it is doubtful whether the bridge rested upon it; a man of the lightest weight felt the bridge totter under him, yet wagons heavily laden passed over without danger. This bridge was destroyed by the French in 1799. Suspension bridge at Niagara Falls completed July 29, 1848. BRIDGES IN ENGLAND. The ancient bridges in England were of wood, and were fortified with planks and mlerlined; the first bridge of Stone was bW at Bow, near Stratford,- A. D. 1087. Westminster bridge, then the finest erected in these realms, and not surpassed by any in the world, except in China, was completed in twelve years, 1750. The other London bridges are Blackfiiars, completed 1770; London, (rebuilt) 1831; Southwark, of iron, 1819. The first iron bridge, on a large scale, was erected over the Sevein, in Shropshire, 1779. The finest chain suspension bridge is that of the Menai Strait, completed in 1825. Hungerford suspension bridge, 1845. BRIDGEWATER CANAL, the first great work of the kind in England, was begun by the duke of Bridclgeater, styled the father of canal navigation i;l that country, in 1758: 3Mir. Brindley was the architect. The canal comnmences at Wor'Sley, seven mliles frornm Manchester; and at Barton-bridge is an aqueduct which, for upwarcds of 200 yards, conveys the canal across the navigable river Irwell; its length is twienty-nine miles. BRIEF. A written instrument in the Catholic church, of early but uncertain date. Briefs are the letters of the pope dispatched to princes and others on public affatirs, and are usually written short, and hence the name, and alwithout preface or preamble, and on paper; in which particulars they.. P~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~/ hi;tI j DICTIONARPY OF DATES. 219 distinguished from balls. The latter are ample, and always written on parchment; a brief is sealed with red wax, the seal of the fisherman, or St. Peter il a boat, and always in presence of the pope; they are used for graces and dlisipensations, as well as business. tRIENNE, BAT'rLI Ot, between the allied armies of Russia and Prussia, and the French. fought on the 1st. and resumec on the 2cl February, 1814. The allies weri e defeated with g'reatt loss; this was one-of the last battles in which the French achieved victory, previously to the fall of Napoleon. WRISTOL. This city, one of the prlincipal in England, was built by Brennus, a p1)ince of thle Britons, 380 B. c. It was granted a charter and becarime a distinct county in the reign of Edward III. Taken by the earl of Gloncester. in his defernce of his sister Maude, the empress, agailist king Stephen, 1138. Bristol was attacked with great fury by the forces of Cromwell, 1655. Riot at Bristol, on the entrance of sir Charles Wetherell, the;ecorder, into the city, attended by a large police and special force, to opena the sessions, He being politically obnoxious to the lower order of the citizens, a riot ensued, which w as of several days' continuance, and which did net terminate until the lnansion-house, the bishop's palace, several merchants' stores, some of the prisons (the inmates liberated), and nearly 100 houses were burned, and many lives lost; Oct. 29, 1831. Trial of the rioters, Jan. 2, 1832; four were executed, and twenty-two transported. Suicide of col. Brereton during his trial by courtu-martial, Jan. 9, same year. BRITAIN. The earliest records of the history of this island are the manuscripts and poetry of the Cambrians. The Celts were the ancestors of the Britons and modern Welsh, and were the first inhabitants of' Britain. Britain, including England, Scotland, and Wales, was anciently called Albion, the nanme of Britain being applied to all' the islands collectively-Albion to only one.-Pl/?ny. The Romans first invaded Britain under Julius Cmesar, 55 B. c., but they mnade no conquests. Tho emperor Claudius, and his generals, Plaltius, Vespasian andc Titus, subdued several provinces after thirty pitched battles with the natives, A. D. 43 and 44. The conquest was completed by Agricola, in the reig'n of Domitian, A. D. 85. First invasion ofBritainby the RIomans, Constantius, emperor of IRome, dies at under Julius Cwsar 55 York - - - A.D.. 306 Cymbeline, king of Britain 4 The Roinan forces are finally withExpedition of Claiudius into Britain, A. D. 40 drawn from Britain - 420 to 426 London founded by the Romans 49 The Saxons and Angles are called in to Caractacus carried in chains to Rome - 51 aid the natives against their northern The Itomans cdefeated by B3oadicea; neioghbors the Picts and Scots - 449 70,000 slain, and London burnt - 61 Having expelled these, the Anglo-SaxA vast army of Britons is delsated by ons attack the natives themselves, Suetonius, and 80,000 slain - - t6l driving them into Wales - 455 Reign of Lucius. the first Chrlistian king Many of the natives settle in Armorica, of Britain, and in the world -179 since called Brittany - - - 457 Severus keeps his court at York, then The Saxon Ieptarchy; Britain divided called Eoracum - - 207 into seven ilngdonoms 457 IIe dies at Yorkl - -211 Reigrn of the renowned Arthur - - 506 Catausius, a tyrant, usurps the throne Arrival of St. Augustin (or Austin), and of Britain.286 establishlment of Christianity - - 596 lie is ikilled by Alectus, wsho continues Cadwallader, last king of the Britons, the usurpation -293 began his reign - 678 Constantius recovers Britain by the de- The Saxon lIeptarchy endls - 828 feat ofAlecus - - 296 See ti?2qland, and also Tabular Views, p. 7i5 &c. That Britain formerly joined the Continent has been inferred from the similar cli['s of the opposite coasts of thlle English Chanmel, and from the coI1t encroachnieme nts of the sea in still wiclening the channel. For instance, arlge part of the cliffs of Dover fifl, estimated at six acres, Nov. 27, 1810. Phillips's AnLnals.,ITISH MIIUSEUM. The origin of this great national institution was tho 220 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ BRb grant by parliament of 20,0001. to the daughters of sir Hans Sloane, in payment for his fine library, and vast collection of the productions of nature and art, which had cost him 50,0001. The library contained 50,000 volumles, and valuable MSS., and 69,352 articles of vertul were enumerated in the cataloguc of curiosities. The act was passed April 5, 17,3; and in the same year Montagu-house was obtained by government as a place for the reception of these treasures. The museum has since been gradually increased to an immense extent by gifts, bequests, the purchase of every species of curiosity, MSS., sculpture and work of art, and by the transference to its: rooms of the Cottonian, Harleian, and other libraries, the Elgin marbles, &c. George IV. presented to the museum the library collected at Buckingham-house by George III.-See Cottonian Library', and oteer collectionls. BROAD SEAL oF ENGLAND, first affixed to patents and other grants of the crown, by Edward the Confessor, A. D. 1048.-Baker's C/,'onb. BROCADE. A silken stuff variegated with gold or silver, and raised and enriched with flowers and various sorts of figures, originally made by the Chinese.-Johnson,. The trade in this article was carried on by the Venetians. -Anderso7n. Its manufacture was established with great success at Lyons, in 1757. BROCOLI: an Italian Plant.-Pacrbdon. The white and purple, both of which are varieties of the cauliflower, were brought to England fionom the Isle of Cyprus, in the seventeenth century.-Ande'rson-. About 1603.-Bc?'rn s. The cultivation of this vegetable was greatly improved in the gardens of Eng4 land and came into great abundance about 1680.-Anderson.,, BROKERS. Those both of money and merchandise were known early in England. See Appraisers. Their dealings were regulated by law, and it war enacted that they should be licensed before transacting business, 8 and 9 William III. 1695-6. The dealings of stock-brokers were regulated by.':t 6 George I. 1719, and 10 George II. 1736.-lStatules at lar-e. See Pawnb ookers. BRONZE, known to the ancients, some of whose statues, vessels. and varior other articles, made of bronze, are in the British Museum. The equestria, statue of Louis XIV., 1699, in the Place Vendlme at Paris, (demlolished Au)-? 10, 1792,) was the most colossal ever mnade; it contained 60,000 lbs. weig:' of bronze. Bronze is two parts brass and one copper, and the Greeks adde.-. one fifteenth of lead and silver. BROTHELS, were formerly allowed in Londlon, and considered a necessary e, 1, under the regulation of a good police. They were all situated on the Bankside, Southwark, and subject to the jurisdiction of the bishop of Winche:ster; and they were visited weekly by the Sheriff's o-ficers. and the severest penalties being enacted against keeping infected or married w omen, S Hemr II. 1162. —Snrvey of Lonedon. Brothels tolerated in France, 1280. Poy Sixtus IV. licensed one at Rome, and the prostitutes paid him a weekly tawhich amounted to 20,000 ducats a year, 1471. —Itl. Ch/ion. BROWNISTS, a sect founded by a schoolmaster in Southwark. named Roheirt Brown, about 1615. It condemned all ceremonies and ecclesiastical distinctions, and affirmed that there was an admixture of corruptions in all ethr-lr communions. But the foundcle subsequently recanted his doctrines foir a benefice in the church of Englancl.-Collis's s Ecclcs. irist. BRUCE'S TEAVELS. undertaken to discover the sonurce of the Nile. T' ill-ustrious Bruce. the " Abyssinian Traveller,"' set out- in June 1768, andl T)r, ceeding first to Cairo, he navigated the Nile to Syene, thence crossed the desert to the Red Sea, and, arriving at Jidda, passed some months in Arabia Felix, and after various detentions, reached Gondar, the capital of Akt.. TJ'C ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 221 sinia, in Feb. 1770. On Nov. 14th, 1'770, he obtained the great object of his wishes-a sight of the sources of the Nile. Bruce returned to England in 1773, and died in 1794. BRUNSWICK, House op. This house owes its origin to Azo, of the family of Este. Azo died in 1055, and left, by his wife- Cunegonde (the heiress of Guelph III., duke of Bavaria). a son wsho was Guelphl IV., the great-grandfather of Henlrv the Lion. This last mnaried Maudcle, daughted of Henry Ii. of England, and is always looked upon as being the founder of the Brunswick family. The dominions of Henry the Lion were the most extensive of any prince of his time; but having rsefused to assist the emperor Frederick Barbarossa in a war against pope Alexander III., he drew the emperor's resentment on him, and in the diet of Wurtzburg, in 1179, he was proscribed. The duchy of Bavaria was given to Otho, from whom is descended the family of Bavaria; the duchy of' Saxony, to Bernard Ascanius, founder of the house of Anhalt; and his other territories to different persons. On this, he retired to England; but on Henry's intercession, Brunswick and Lunenburg were restored to himl. The house of Brunswick has divided into several branches. The present duke of Brunswick-Wolfelibuttel is sprung fiiom the eldest; the duke of Brunswick-Zell was fromi the seconid; and from this last sprang the royal famiily of England. A revolution took place at Brunswick, when the clucal palace was burnt, and the reigning prince obliged to retire and seek shelter in England, Sept. 8, 1830. BRUSSELS, founded by St. Gery of Cambray, in the seventh century. The meniorable bombardlment of this city by Marshal Villeroy, when 14 churches and 4000 houses were cdestoyed, 1695. Talen by the French, 1746. Again, by Dumouriez. 1792. The revolution of 1830 commencecd here, Aug. 25.-See Bel —iilm. Thllis towrn is celebrated for its fine lace, camlets, and tapestry. There is ere a iioble building-, callecld the I:diel de /Vi le, whose turret is 364 feet in hleight; and on its top is a copper figure of St. lichael, 17 feet high, which turns uwithl the winid. Riot in Brussels, in which the costly furniture of 16 principal houses was demlolished, in consequence of a display of attachlment to the house of Orange, 5th April, 1834. BTTBBLE COMPANIES, in commerce, a namlie given to projects for raising money upon false alnd iimaginary grounds, much practised, often with disastrous consequences, in France and England, in 1719 and 1721. Many such projects were formed in England and Ireland in 1825. See Coacpaniecs, and Laez's Bbfble. BUCCANEERS. These piratical adventurers, chiefly French. English, and Dutch, commlencecld their depredations on the Spaniards of America, soon after the latter had taken possession of that continent and the West Indies. The principal commanders of the first expedition were, Montbar, Lolonois, Basco, and Morgan, who murdered thousanids and plundered millions. The expedition of Van Horn, of Ostend, was undertaken in 1603; that of Gramlont. in 1685; and that of Pointis, in 1697. XUCHANITES. IHundrelds of leluded fanatics, followers of Margaret Buehan, who promised to conduct thltm to the new Jerusalem, and prophesied the end of the world. She apipeire.d. in Scotland in 1779, and died in 1791, when her foliowers dispersed. iBUCHAREST, TREAuTY OF. The preliminaries of peace ratified at this place between Russia and Tuirkey, it dbeing stipulated that the Pruthi should be -lthe fron:tie limit of those empires, signed May 28, 1812. Thle subsequeent t war between those powers altered many of the uprovisions of this treaty. BUCKINGHAM PALACE, LeNoN.DO Buckingiham-house, built 1703, was rpeuleld down in 1825, and the new palace comnimenced on its site; and after 222 TI-HE WORLD S PRtOGRESS. [ L expenditure which must have approached a million sterling, it was completed, and was taken possession of by queen Victoria, July 13, 1837. BUCKLERS. Those used in single combat were invented by Prcetus and Acrisius, of' Argos, about 1370 B. c. When Lucius Papirius defeated the Samnites, he took from them their bucklers, which were of gold and silver, 309 B. c. Slee article Armor. BUCKLES. The wearing of buckles commenced in the reign of Charles II.; but people of inferior rank, and such as affected plainness in their garb, wore strings in their shoes some years after that period: these last were, however, ridiculed for their singularity in using them. BUDA; once called the Key of Christendom. It was taken by Solyman II. at the memolrable battle of Molihatz, when the Hungarian king, Louis, was lkilled, and 200,000 of his subjects were carried away captives, 1526. Buda was sacked a second time, when the inhabitants were put to the sword, anci Hungary, as annexed to the Ottoman empire, 1540. Retaken by the Imperialists, and the Mahometans delivered up to the fury of the soltdiers, 1686. See Hmq-.ccsmI. BUENA VISTA, BATTLE 01F, between the American force, of abou-t 5.000 men, under general Taylor and general Wool; and the 2M\exicans, about 20)000, unlr' Santa Anna: the latter defeated with the loss of 2500 killed and wounded. American loss, 264 killed, 450 wounded. This victory securing to the Americans the whole of' the northern provinces of Mexico, Feb. 22, 18t7. BUENOS AYRES. The capital was founded by Pedro Mendoza, in 1535. It was taken by the British under sir Home Po)hanm, June 21, 1806; and was retaken, after an attack of three dclays, Aug 12, the same year. The Britislsuffered a great repulse here under geneiral Whiteloclk, whAo was disgraced, July 6, 1807. Declaration of independence of this province, July 19, 1816: the treaty was signed February 1822. To put a stop to a war between Buenos Ayres and Monte Video. Englaiul and France blockaded the port of B uenos Ayres, Oct. 24, 18415; the troops of Buenos Ayres under general Rosas, defeated by thie combined forces, Nov. 20, 1815. BUFFOONS. These were or iginally mountebanks in the Roman theatres. The shows of the buffoons were discouraged by Domitian, and were finally abelishecl by Trajan, A. D. 98. Ouri ancient kings hadcjestlrs, who are lescribed as being, at first, practitioners of indecent raillery and antic postures; tfhey were employed unuder the Tuclors. Some writers state that James I. emnverted the jesters into poet-laureates; but poet-laureates existed long before; Selden traces the latter to 1251. — rento[e. BUILDING. The first structures wTere of wood and clay, then of rougeh stont and in the end tihe art aclvanced to polished marble. Building with stonei was early among the Tyrians; and as ornaments and taste arose, ever', nation pursued a different system. The art of building with stone lnmay b-. referred in England to Benedlict, or Benet, a monlk, about A. D. 670. Thle first bridge of this imlaterial in England was at Bow, in 1087. Building with b:Iicik was introduced by the Romans into their provinces. Alfred encouriae0,,e it in England, in 886. Brick-builcling was generally introduced by the earl:o Arulndel, about 1598, London being then almost built of wood. Tile incret se of building in London was prohibitecl within three miles of the city ~ltes m\5 Elizabeth, who ordlered that one family only should clwell in one house, 1i 80. BULGARIANS. They defeat Justinian, A. D. 687; and are subdued by thde: emperor Basilins, in 1019. On one occasion, this emperor having takeL 15,000 Bulgarians prisoners, he caused their eyes to be put out, leaving olv1eye only to every hundredth man, to enable him to conduct his countrys.... BUo ] DICTIONARIY OP DATES. 223 home. Bulgaria was governed by Roman dukes till 1186; subdued by Bajazet, 1896. —Ueiv. hi/st. vol. xvii. BUELL, on EDICT oP TIIE POPE. This is an apostolical rescript, of ancient use, and generally written on parchllent. Thle bull is, properly, the seal, deriving its name from bultla, and has been made of gold, silver, lead, and wax. On one side are the heads of Peter and Paul; and oll the other, the name of the pope, and the year of his pontificate. The celebrated golden bull of the emperor Charles IV. nwas so called because of its golden seal; and was macle the fundamlental law of the German empire, at the diet. of Nuremburg, A. D. 1356. Bulls denouncing' queen Elizabeth and her abettors, and consigning thenm to hell-fire, accompanicd the Spanish Armada, 1588. BULL-BAITING, on BULL-FIGHTING. This atrociously criminal sport of Spain and Portugal is somewhat equivalent in those countries to the fights of the gladiators among the Romlans. It is recordled as being an anLusement at Stamforibd so early as the reigen of Jolln, 1209. Bull-running was a sport at Tutbury in 1374. In the Splvl/ls of o-lCarL.d, wa e read of the'' Easter fierce hunts, when foaming boars fought for their heads, and lusty bulls and huge bears were baited withl dogs;" and near the C/icnL London, was the Paris, or Bear Garden, so celebrated in the'time of Elizabeth for the exhibition of bear-baiting, then a fashionable amlusement. A bill to abolish bull-baiting was thrown out in the Commons, chiefly tlhrouogh the influence of the late Mr. Winclham, who made a singular speech in fivor of the custom, May 24, 1802. —Bzl/e. It has since been declared illegal. See Cruelty to Aimealcs. Bull-fights wree introduced into Spain about 1260: abolished there, " except for pioecs and patr/iotic purposes," in 1784. There was a bull-fight at Lisbon, at Campo de Santa Anna, attended by 10,000 spectators, on SinCeday, Juno 14, 1810. BULLETS. Those of stone were in use A.D. 1514; and iron ones are first mentioned in the PF/dc'a, 1550. Leaden bullets were made before the close of the sixteenth century, and continue to be those in use in all nations for musketry. The cannon-ball in some Eastern countries is still of stone, instead of iron.-Ashe. BUNKER HILL, BATTLE OF, (near Boston,) between the British under Howe, and the Americans under Prescott and Putnam, June 17, 1775. British loss, 1054 killecl and oundled; American, 453. The latter obliged to retreat for want of powder. But this, the first important battle of the revolution, has always justly been regarded as a great victory for the American cause, and is so commemorated by the granite obelisk on the battle-ground, of which the corner-stone was laid by general La Fayette, in 1825. It was finished July 23, 1842, at the cost altogether of about $100.000, raised by voluntary contributions. The height is 220 feet. Its completion celebrated by a procession, &c., and an oration by Daniel Webster; president Tyler and 50,000 people present, June 17, 1843. BUONAPARTE:S EMPIRE op FRANCE. Napoleon Bonaparte, the most extraordinary man of modern times, ruled over France, anclsubdued most of the nations of the Continent, in the early part of the present century. See his various military and other achievements under their respective heads throughout the volunle:Napoleon born at Ajaccso, in Italy, Deposes the French directory, and beAug. 15, 1769 comes first consul - Nov. 9, 1799 lie first distinguishes Ihimself in the Senlds overtures of peace to the king of command of the artillery at Touloi? - 1793 England - - - Jan. 1, 1800 IHe embarks for Egypt - May 10, 179S His life attempted by an " infernal mraIs repulsed before Ace - ay 27, 1799 chine" - - Dec. 24, 1800 Hie returns from Egypt - Aug. 23, 1799 224 T''E WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ BUf BUONAPARTE'S EMPIRE of FRANCE, contitued. Elected president of the Italian, late Is defeated at Waterloo June 1S, 1815 Cisalpine, republic - Jan. 25, 1802 Returns to Paris June 20, iSJ. Elected consul for 10 years - Itay 8, 1802 And abdicates in favor of his infant Made first consul ior life Aug. 2, 1802 son - - - June 22, 1815 Accepts the title of emperor from the Intending to eilbark for America, lihe senate in name of the people May 18, 180S arrives at Roclheort - July 3, 1815 Crowned emperor by the pope Dec. 2, 180)4 Ile surrenders to Uapt. Maitland, of the Crowned king of Italy - May 26, 1805 Bellerohoz - - July 15, 1815 Divorced fiom the eampress Josephine Transferred at Torbay to the t1e.fotlvtDec. 16, 1809 betland,and sails for St. IHelena Aur. 8, 1815 Marries Maria Louisa - April 7, 1810 Arrives at St. Helena (where it is deA son, the friuit of this marriage, born, creed by the allied sovereigns le shall and styled kcing of tome - March 20, 1811 remain for life) - Oct. 15, 1581 I-is overtures of peace to England re- The family of Bonaparte excluded for jected April 14, 1812 ever fiom France by the law of am[The reverses of Bonaparte now follow nesty - - Jan.'2, 1816 in quick succession.] Death of Bonaparte - May 5, 1621 e-I renounces the thrones of France His will registered in England - Aug. IS24 and Italy, and accepts of the Isle of His son, ex-kling of Rotle, dies July 22, 1812 Elba for his retreat - April 5, 181!4 The French chambers decree, with the Embarks at Fr6jus - - April 28, 1814 consent of England, that the ashles of Arrives at Elba - - MIay 3, 1314 Napoleon be renmoved fronom St. HoeleAgain appears in France; he quits Elba na, and brought to France - Mlay 12, 1840 and lands at Cannes - Miarch 1, 1815 They are exhumed - Oct. 16, 184( Enters Lyons - - MCarch 10, 1815 Thle Belle Potle, French frig-ate, arrives Arrives at Fontainebleau March 20, 1815 at Cherbourg with the'etlnains of Joined by all thle army - March 22, 1815 Napoleon, in the care of Lhe p1,rice The allies sign a treaty for his exter- de Joinvile - - Nov. 30, 1840 mination - - MIach 25, 1815 They are interred with great solemnnity He abo4ishes the slave-trade March 29, 1815 in the HItel des Invalides - Dec. 15, 1840 Leaves Paris for the army - June 12, 1815 BURGESS, firom the French Bor.c-eois, a clistitnction coeval in Englandl with its corporations. Burgesses were called to parlialnent in Engladci A. A. 1265; in Scotland, in 1326; and in Ireland, about 1365. Burgesses to be resident in tle places which they are elected to represent in parliament, 1 Henry V, 1413.- Viozers's Statutes. See Boerogleqh. BURGLARY. Until the reign of George IV. tllis crime, in England, was punished with death. BURGOS, SIEGFc oF. Wellington entered Burgos after the battle of Salamancet, which was folght July 22, 1812, and the castle was besieged by the British anti allied arny, and several attempts were maadale to carry it by assaullt, but the siege was abandoned in October, sanme year. The castle and fortifications were blowian up by the French in June 1813. BURGUNDY. This kingdonm begins in Alsace, A.D. 413. Conrad I[. of Gelmany being declared heir to the kingdolll, is opposed in his attempt to annex it to tlhe elapire, when it is dismnemberecrd, andc on its ruins are formaed the four provinces of Burgundy, Provence, Viennes, and Savoy, 1034. Burgundy becomes a circle of the Germnan empire, 1521. It falls to Philip IT. of Spain, whose tyranny and religious persecutions cause a revolt in the Batavian provinces, 1566. After various changes, Burgundy annexed to France, and forlmed into departments of that kingdom. BURIAL. The earliest and most rational mode of restoring the body to earth. The first idea of it was formed by Adalm, on his observing a live bird covering a dead one with leaves. Barrows were the nmost ancient graves. See Ba'-o'ows. Places of burial were consecrated under pope Calixtus I. in 210. — Eqrsebhirqs. The first Christian hurial-place was instituted in 596; burial in cities, 742; in consecrated places, 750; in church-yards, 758. Vaults were erected in chlancels first at Canterbury, 1075. Woollen shrouds used in England, 1666. Linen scarsf introduced at funerals in Ireland, 1729; and woollen shrouds used, 1733. Burials were taxed, 1695-again, 1673.. See Cesaetes'ies. BURIALS. Parochial registers of them, and of births and marriages, were it. :,BiuI ] DICTIONAR~Y OF DATES. 225 stituted in England by Cromwell, Lord Essex, about 1536. —-Stowe. A tax was exacted on burials in England: for the burial of a duke, ~50, alnd foi that of a common person 4s., under William III., 1695, and Geo. III. 1783.Statites. See Bills of l r0.al-ity. BURKING. A new and horrible species of murder committed in England. It was thus namled from the first known criminal by whom the deed was perpetrated being called Bwrlke. His victims were strangled, or made lifeless by pressure, or other modes of suffocation, and the bodies, which exhibited no marks of violence, were afterwards sold to the surgeons for the purpose of dissection. Burke was executed at Edinburgh in February, 1829. The crime has been more recently perpetrated by a gang of murderers in London. The monster named Bishop was apprehended in November 1831, and executed with Williams, one of his accomplices, for the murder of a poor Italian boy, named Carlo Ferrari, a fiiendless wanderer, and therefore selected as being less likely to be sought after (they confessing to this and other similar nmurders), Decemnber 5, same year. BURMESE EMPIRE. Founded in the middle of the last century, by Alomeprm, the first sovereign of the present dynasty.-See Inbdia. BURNING ALIVE. This punishment was inflicted among th- Romans, Jews, and other nations, on the betrayers of councils, incendiaries, and for incest in the ascending and descending degrees. The Jews had two ways of burning alive: one with wood and faggots to burnl the body, the other by pouring scalding lead down the throat of the criminal, cosubestio aCisace, to burn the soul.-See Slcttees. BURNING ALIVE, IN ENGrLAND. Even ini England (see preceditng a rticle) burninug alive was a punishment upon the statute-book. The Britons punished heinous crimes by burning alive in wicker baskets. See Stonesbeeg'oe. This punishment was countenanced by bulls of the pope; and witches suffered in this manner.-See Witches. Many persons have been burned alive on account of religious principles. The first sufferer was sir William Sawtree, parish priest of St. Osith. London, 8 Henry IV., February 9, 1401. In the reign of the cruel Mary numbedrs were burned, among others, RidLey, bishop of London; Latimer, bishop of Rochester; and Cranmler, archbishop of Canterbury, who were burned at Oxford in 1555 and 1556. Numerous others suffered this dreadful death in Mary's reign.* BURNING Tri DEAD. The antiquity of this custom rises as high as the Theban war; it wvas practised among the Greeks and Romans, acnd the poet Hois-er abounds with descriptions of such funeral obsequies. The practice was very general about 1225 n. c., and was revived by Sylla, lest the relics of the dead in graves should be violated; and to this day the burning of the dead is practised in many parts of the East and West Indies. BURNING-GLASS AND CONCAVE MIRRORS. Their power was not unknown to Archimedes, but the powers of these instruments are rendered wonderful by the modern improvements of Settalla: of Tehirnhausen, 1680; ofBuffon, 1737; and of Parker and others, more recently. The following are experi-:iaents of the fusion of substances made with Mfr. Parker's lens, or burning mirror I* t is computed, that during the three years of Mary's reign in which these shockcing violences an'barbarities were carried on, there were 277 persons brought to the stake; besides those who were punished by imprisonmnent, fines, and confiscations. Among those who suelTered by fire were bishops, 21 clergymen, S lay gentlemnen, 84 tradesmen, 100 husbandmen, servants, and laborers, a5' women, and 4 children. The unprincipled agents of this merciless queen were the bishops Gardirer and Bonner. The latter especially was a man of brutal character, who seemed to derive a vlge pleasure in witnessing the torture of the sufferers. 10* 226 TIIE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [BYZBURNING-GLASS AND CONCAVE MIRRORS, continued. Subslta;.cesfsed. s Weight. Tihne. Sibstancesfused. VWeight. Time. Pure gold 20 frains 4 seconds. A topaz - - 3 grains 45 seconds,. Silver - - 20 grains 3 seconds. An emerald - 2 grains 25 seconds. Copper - 33 grains 20 seconds. A crystal pebble - 7 grins 6 seconds. Platina - 10 grains 3 seconds. Flint - 10 grains 30 seconds. Cast iron 10 grains 3 seconds. Cornelian - 10 grains 75 seconds. Steel 10 grains 12 seconds. Pumice stone - 10 grains 24 seconds. Green wood takes fire instantaneously; water boils immediately; bones are calcined; and things, not capable of melting, at once become redl-hot like iron. BURYING ALIVE. A mode of death adopted in Bceotia, where Creon ordered Antigone, the sister of Polynices, to be buried alive, 1225 B. c. The Roman vestals were subjected to this horrible kind of execution for any levity in dress or conduct that could excite a suspicion of their virtue. The vestal Minutia was buried alive on the charge of incontinence, 337 B. c. The vestal Sextilia was buried alive 274 s. c. The vestal Cornelia A. D. 92. Lord Bacon gives instances of the resurrection of persons who had been buried alive; the famous Duns Scotus is of the number. The assassins of Capo d'Istria, President of Greece, were (two of them) sentenced to be iumlureci in brick walls built around them up to their chins, and to be supplied with food in this species of torture until they died, October, 1831.-See Greece. BUSTS. This mode of preserving the remembrance of the human features is the same with the he'-temc of the Greeks. Lysistratus, the statuary, was the inventor of moulds from which he cast wax figures, 328 B. c.-Pliny?. Busts from the face in plaster of Paris were first taken by Andrea Verrochi, about A. D. 1466. —Vasc s'i. BUTCHERS. Among the Romans there were three classes: the StcLaii proviaed hogs, the Bocrii oxen, and the Lanii, whose office was to kill. The butchers' trade is very ancient in England; so is their company in London, although it was not incorporated until the second year of James I. 1604.Ailxcas of London. BUTTER. It was late before the Greeks had any notion of butter, and by the early Romans it was used only as a medicine-never as food. The Christians of Egypt burnt butter in their lamps, instead of oil, in the third century. In 1675, there fell in Ireland, during the winter time, a thick yellow dew, which had all the medicinal properties of butter. In Africa, vegetable butter is made from the fruit of the shea tree, and is of richer taste, at Kebba, than any butter made frtonm cow's milk.-Mltego Pacrc. BUTTONS, of early manufacture in England; those covered with cloth were prohibited by a statute, thereby to encourage the manufacture of metal buttons, 8 George I. 1721. The manufacture owes nothing to encouragement from any quarter of late years, although it has, notwithstanding, much improved.-Phtillips. BYRON'S VOYAGE. Commodore Byron left England, on his voyage round the globe, June 21, 1764, and returned May 9, 1766. In his voyage he discovered the populous island in the Pacific Ocean which bears his name, August-16, 1765. Though brave and intrepid, such was his general ill fortun at sea, that he was called by the sailors of the fleet, " Foul-weather Jack."Bellchtaaeber's. BYZANTIUM. Now Constantinople, founded by a colony of Athenians, 715 B. c. —Eusebilts. It was taken by the Romans, A. D. 73, and was laid in ruils by Severus in 196. Byzantium was rebuilt by Constantine in 338; and after him it received the name of Constantinople. See ConlstacntiCnople: 'CAD ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 227 C. CABAL. A Hebrew word, used invarious senses. Therabbinswx eee cabalists, and the Christians so called those who pretended to imagic. In Elnglish history, the Cabal was a council which consisted of five lords in administration, supposed to be pensioners of France, and distinguished by the appellation of the Cabal, from the initials of their names: Sir Thomas Clifford, the lord. Ashley, the duke of Buckinghasm, lord Arlington, and the duke of Lauderdale, 22 Charles II. 1670.-Hi;lnme. CABINET COUNCIL. There were councils in England so early as the reign of Ina, king of the West Saxons, A. D. 690; Oft, king of the lMercians, 758, and in other reigns of the Heptarchy. The cabinet council, in which secret deliberations were held by the king and a few of his chosen fiiends, and the great officers of state, to be afterwards laid before the second council, nlow styled the privy council, was instituted by Alfred the Great, about A. D. 896. Spelra'erl. The modern cabinet council, as at present constituted, was reconstructed in 1670, and usually consists of the following twelve members:* Lord president. HI-ome, foreign, and colonial secretaries of state. Lord chancellor. President of the board of control. Lord privy seal. President of the boarn of trade. First lord of the treasury. Master of the mint. Chancellor of the exchequer. First lord of the admiralty. In 1841 the number was 14, and included the Secretary at War, the Woods and Forests, and Chief Secretary for Ireland, the Mint and the Board of Trade being united in right hon. H. Labouchere. The cabinet ministers of the various reigns will be found under the head AdlviiLisatrCions of Eniglaaod. CABLES. Their use was known in the earliest times: a machine for making the largest, by which human labor was reduced nine'-tenths, was invented in 1792. This machine was set in motion by sixteen horses, when making cables for ships of large size. Chain cables- were introduced into the British navy in 1812. CADDEE, OR LEAGUE OF GOD',-HOUSE. The celebrated league of independence in Switzerland, formed by the Grisons, to resist domestic tyranny, A. D. 1400 to 1419. A second league of the Grisons was called the Grise or Gray league, 1424. CADE'S INSURRECTION. Jack Cadcle, an Irishman, a fugitive from his country on account of his crimes, assumed the name of' Mortiner, and headed 20;000 Kentish men, who armed " to punish evil ministers, and procure a redress of grievances." Cade entered London in triumph, and for some time bore down all opposition, and beheaded the lord treasurer, Lord Saye, and several other persons of consequence. The insurgents at length losing ground, a general pardon was proclaimed; and Cade, finding himself deserted by his followers, fled: but a reward being offered for his apprehension, he was discovered, and refusing to surrender, was slain by Alexander Iden, sheriff of Kent, 1451. CADIZ, formerly Gades, was built by the Carthaginians 530 i. c. —Priestley. One hundred vessels of the armament preparing, as the Spanish Armada, * The term canbiet council is of comparatively modern date, and originated thus: the affairs of state, in the reign of Charles I. were principally managed by the archbishop of Canrterbury, the earl of Strat-olrd, and the lord Cottington; to these were added the earl of Northhumberland, for ornamrent; the bishop of Iondont for his place, being lord treasurer; the two secretaries, Vas:e and Windebanlk, for service and intelligence; only the marquis of' Hamilton, by his skill and interest, meddled just so far, and no further, than he had a mind. These persons made up the committee of state, reproacllfully called thejzento, and afterwards, enviously, the cabinet council.-LoRD CIARENDON. 228 THE AVORLD'S PROGRItES. L CAL against England, were destroyed in the port by sir Francis Drake, 1587. Cadiz was taken by the English, under the earl of Essex, and plundered, September 15, 1596. It was attempted by sir George Rooke in 1702, but he. failed. Bombarded by the British in 1797, and blockaddd by their fleet, under lord St. Vincent, for two years, ending in 1799. Again bombarded by the British, on board whose fleet were 18,000 land forces, October 1800. Besieged by the French, but the siege raised after the battle of Salamanca in 1812. Massacre of-the inhabitants by the soldiery, March 10, 1820. Cadiz was declared a free port in 1829. CESARS, ERA OF THE; OR SPANISH ERA, is reckoned from the first of January 38 B. c., being the year following the conquest of Spain by Augustus. It was much used in Africa, Spain, and the south of France; but by a synod held in 1180 its use was abolished in all the churches dependent on Barcelona. Pedro IV., of Arragon, abolished the use of it in his dominions in 1350. John of Castile did the same in 1383. It continued to be used in Portugal till 1455. The months and days of this era are identical with the Julian calenclar, and to turn the time into that of our era, subtract thirty-eight from the year; if before the Christian era subtract thirty-nine. CAI-FONG, in China. This city being besieged by 100,000 rebels, the cornmander of the forces who was sent to its relief, in order to drown the enemlly, broke down its embankments: his stratagem succeeded, and every man of the besiegers perished; but the city was at the same time overflowed by the waters, and 300,000 of the citizens were drowned in the overwhelming flood, A. D. 1642. CAIRO, OR GRAND CAIRO. The modern capital of Egypt, remarkable foi the minarets of its mosques, andcl the splenclicd sepulchres of its caliphs in what is called the city of the dead: it was built by the Saracens, in A. D. 969. Burnt to prevent its occupation by the Christian invadlels, called Crusaders, in 1220. Taken by the Turks from the Egyptian sultans, auld their empire subdued, 1517. Ruined by an earthquake and a great fire, June, 1754, when 40.000 persons perished. Set on -ire by a lady of tlle beglerbeg, Dec., 1755. Taken by the French under Napoleon Bonaparte, July 23, 1798. Taken by the British and Turks. when 6000 French capitulated, June 27, 1801. CALAIS. Taken by Edward III. after a year's siege, Aug. 4, 13847, and held by England 210 years. It was retaken in the reign of Mary, Jan. 7, 155., and the loss of Calais so deeply touched the queen's heart, historians say it occasioned her death, which occurred soon afterwards. Calais was boln-, barded by the English, 1694. Here Louis XVIII. landed after his long exile from France, April 24, 1814. See LF'aicce. CALCUTTA. The first settlemlent of the English here w as made in 1689. It was purchased as a Zemindary, and Fort William built in 1698. Calcutta was attacked by a large army of 70,000 horse and foot, and 400 elephants, in June, 1756. On the capture of the fort. 146 of the British were crammed into the Black-hole prison, a dunneon about 18 feet square, from whence twenty-three only came forth the next morning alive. Calcutta was retaken the following year, andl the inhuman Soubah put to death. Supremn' court of Judicature established 1773. College founded here 1801.-See Ben,?gal and Ilbdia. CALEDONIA. Now Scotlgcad. The name is supposed by some to be derived fi'om Gael or Gaelbleue, or Gadel-doie, corruptecl by the Romans. Tacitus, who died A. D. 99, distinguishes this portion of Britian by the appellation of Calcedonica; but the etymology of the word seems unletermined. Venerable Bede says, that it retained this name until A. D. 258, when it was invaded by a tribe fiom Ireland, and called Scotia. The ancient inhabitants appear rAL ] DICTIONIARY OF DATES. 229 to have been the Caledonians and Picts, tribes of the Celts, who passed over from the opposite,coasts of Gaul. About the beginning of the fourth century of the Christian elt,, they were invaded (as stated by some authorities), by the Scuyths or Scythians (since called Scots), who, having driven the Picts into the north, settled in the Lowlands, and gave their name to the whole country. Hence the origin of that distinction of language, habits, customs, and persons, which is still so remarkable between the Highlanders and the inhabitants of the southern borders, Caledonian monarchy, said to have been The country is invaded by the Scuyths, founded by Fergus 1., about - B. c. 330 or 6cots. and the government is overThe Picts from the north of England thrown, about - - A. D. 306 settle in the southern borders - - 140 The (aledonia monarchy is revived by Agricola carries the Roman arms into Fergus II. -404 Caledonia, with little success, in the After many sanguinary wars between reign of Galdus, otherwise called Cor- the Caledonians, Picts, and Scots, Kenbred II. A. D. 79 netll 1I. obtains a victory over the Picts, HIe is signally defeated by the forces of unites the whr;e country under one Corbred - 80 monarchy, and gives it the namte of Christianity is introduced into Caledonia Scotland - 838 to 843 in the reigi of Donald I.' - 201 See SCOTLAND. The origin of the Scots, it shoulcl be stated, is very uncertain; and thle his.tory of tihe country until the eleventh century, when Maalcolm III., surnamed Canmore, reigned (1057) is obscure, and intermiixed with many and improbable fictions. CALEDONIAN CANAL, from the NTorth Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. By means of this mag-nificent canal, the nautical intercourse between the western ports of Great Britain, and those also of Ireland, to the North Sea and Baltic, is short;enecd in solme instances 800, and in others, 1000 miles. A sumi exceeding a million sterling was grantecl by parliament fiom time to time;, and this safe navigation for ships of nearly every tonnage was completed, ancl opened in 1822. CALENDAR. The Roman calendar, which has in great part been adopted by almost all nations, iwsas introdlucedi by Romnulus, who divided the year into ten months, comlprising 301 days, A. D.738 -.. c. The year of Romulus was of fifty dclays less duration than the lunar year, and of sixty-one less than the solar year, and its comnmencement (lid not, of course, correspond with any fixed season. Nulua Ponmpilius, 713 B. c. corrected this calendar, by adding two months; and Julius Cr sar, desirous to make it more correct, fixed the solar year as being 365 days and six hours, 45 B. c. This almost perfect arrangement was denominated the Julian style, and prevailed gener. ally throughout the Christian World till the time of pope Gregory XIII. The calendar of Julius Caesar was defective in this particular, that the solar year consisted of 365 days, five hours, and forty-nine minutes: and not of 865 days six hours. This difference, at the time of Gregory XIII. had amounted to ten entire days, the vernal equinox failling on the 11th, instead of the 21st of March. To obviate this error, Gregory ordained, in 1582, that that year should consist of 365 days only; and to prevent further irregularity, it was determined that a year beginning a century should not be bissextile, with the exception of that beginning each fourth century: thius, 1700 and 1800 have not been bissextile, nor wvill 1900 be so; but the year 2000 will be a leap year. In this manner three days are retrenched in 400 years, because the lapse of eleven minutes makes three days in about that period. The year of the calendar is thus made as nearly as possible to correspond with the true solar year; and future errors of chronology are avoided. See Nez Style. CALICO. The well-known cotton cloth, is named fi-om Calicut, a city of India, which was discovered by the Portuguese, in 1498. Calico was first brought to England by the East India Company, in 1631. Calico printing, and the 2t30 T-1iE VWORLD'S PROr iESS. [ CAL Dutch loo1l engine, were first used in 1676.-Andrclson. Calicoes were prohibited to be printed or worn, in 1700; and again, in 1721. They were first made a branch of' maniaufliacture in Lancashire, in 1771. See Cottoa. CALIFORNIA, LowERn, discovered by Grigalon, sent by Cortes, the conqueror of' 3/Iexico, 1534; explored by Cortes himself, 1536, and by his subordinate Ulloa, 1538. First settlement by Viscaino and a small colony sent out by Philip II. of Spain, 1596. Viscaino explored the coast and founded St. Diego and Monterey, and was the first Spacnia'rd in Upper California, 1602. CALIFORNIA, UPPER, discovered by sir Francis Drake, and named New Albion, 1596. The Spanish colonists havinig been expelled by the ill-used' natives, the country was granted by Charles II. of Spain to the Jesuits. iLa 1.697. Jesuit missions and Pesidios established in New'alifornia 1769. Eighteen missions established up to 1798. California a province of Mexico, 1824; the Mexican governor expelled fiom Monterey, 1836. California explored by the United States expecdition, under Wilkes, co-operating with ti;hat of Fremont, overland, in 1841-3. wAnother expedition utlnder Fremont, 1845-6. Mexican wars began 1845. San Francisco taken possession of by Corn. Montfgomeryl July 8, 1845. Conm. Stockton takes possession of Upper California MN!ay-August, 1846, and institutes United States military government. Movements of' general Kearney, lieutenant Emory, &c.,. 1846. Cal-. fornia secured to the United States by the treaty with Mexico, 1848. Gold placers first discovered on the grounds of captain Suter, February, 1848. Great emigration fioomn the United States commenced November, 1848. Convention at Monterey for forming a state constitution, Aug. 31, 1849. Constitution adopted by popular vote, andci P. H. Burnet chosen first governor, Dec. 1849. CALIPH. In Arabic, vicar, or apostle; the title assunled by the Sophi of Persia, in the succession of Ali, and by the Granid Seigniors as the successors of Mahomet. The caliphlat was adopted by Abubeker, the father 6f the Prophet's second wife, in whose arms he died, A. D. 631. In process of time the soldans or sultans engroossed all the civil power, and little but the title was left to the caliphs, andc that chiefly in matters of religion. —S'ir. T. Herbert. CALLI GRAPHY. Beautiful mriting, in a small compass, invented by Callicrates, who is said to have written an elegant distich on a sesanmum seed, 472 B. c. The modern specimlens of this art are, many of them, astonishing and beautiful. In the sixteenth century, Peter Bales wrote the Lord's Prayer,. creed, decalogue, two short Latin prayers, his own namnie, motto, day of the month, year of our Lord, and of the reign of queen Elizabeth, to whom he plresented it at Halmpton-cou t, all within the circle of a silver penny, enchased in a ring and border of gold, and covered with crystal, so accurately done as to be plainly legible, to the great adlmiration of her majesty, the whole of the privy council, and several ambassadors then at court, 1574. -Holineshed. CALLAO, IN PEnu. Here, after an earthquake, the sea retired from the shore, and returned in miioitntainolus waves. which destroyed the city, A.D. 161. T The same phenomenon took place in 1746, when all the inllhabitanlts peiishedh. wvith the exception of one mian, who was standing on an emlinence, and to whose succor a wave providentially threw a boat. Ct ALOIMEL. The mercurial conlpound termed calomel is first mentioned by Crollius; early in the seventeenth century, but must have been previously known. Tihe first directions given for its preparation were those announced by Beguin, in 1608. It is said that corrosive sublimate was known some centus ies before. CA1] ] DICTIONiARY OF DATES. 2 31 CALVARY, MOUNT. The place where the REDEEMER suffered death, A. D. 33. Calvary was a small eminence or hill adjacent to Jerusalem, appropriated to the execution of malefactors. See LuBle xxiii. 33. Adrian at the time of his persecution of the Christians erected a temple of Jupiter on Mount Calvary, antd a temple of Adonis on the manger at Bethlehem, A. D. 142. Here is the church of the Holy Sepulchre, whither pilgrims flock fromn all Christian countries. CALVINISTS. Named after their founder, John Calvin, the celebrated reformer of the Christian church fiom the Romish superstition and doctrinal errors. Calvin was a native of Noyon, in Picardy; but adopting the principles of the Reformers, he fled to AngoulOnie, where he composed his Iastithdio C6risticdame Religion7is, in 1533, published about two years afterwards. He subsequently retired to Basle, and next settled in Geneva. Although he differed fiom Luther in essential points, still his followers did not consider themselves as different on this account from the adherents of Luther. A formal separation first took place after the conference of Poissy, in 1561, where they expressly rejected the tenth article of the confession of Augsburg, besides some others, and took the name of Calvinists. CAMBRAY. The town whence the esteemled mlanufacture called cambric takes its naime. This city was taken by the Spaniards by a memorable surprise, in 1595. Caimbray was taken and retaken several times. In the war of the French revolution it was invested by the Austrians, August 8, 1793, when thoe republican general, Declay, replied to the Imperial summions to surrender, that " he knew not how to do tVat, but his soldiers knew how to fight." In the late war it was seized by the British under general sir Chas. Colville, June 24, 1815. The citadel surrendered the next day, and was occupied by Louis XVIII. and his court. CAMBRAY, LEAGUE or. This was the celebrated league against the republic of Venice, comprising the pope, the emperor, and the kings of France and Spain; and whereby Venice was forced to cede to Spain her possessions in the kingdom of Naples, entered into Dec. 10, 1508. CAMBRICS. A facbric of fine linen used for ruffles.-S/taksapeare. Camubrics were first worn in England, and accounted a great luxury in dress, 22 Elizabeth, 1580. —Stole. The imlportation of them was restricted, in 1745; and was totally prohibited by statute of 32 George II. 1758. Readmitted in 1786, but afterwards again prohibited: the importation of callbrics is now allowed. CAMBRIDGE, once called Granta,, and of most ancient standing, being fiequently mlentioned in the earliest accounts of the oldest British historians. Roger de Montgomery destroyed it with fire and sword to be revenged of king William Rufus. Tile university is said to have been commenced by Sigebert, king of East Angles, about A. D. 631; but it lay neglected during the Danish invasions, from which it suffered much. Cambridge now contains thirteen colleges and four halls, of which first, Peter-house is the most ancient, and King's College the noblest foundation in Europe. and the chapel one of the finest pieces of Gothic architecture in the world. CAMERA LUCIDA. Invented by Dr. Hooke, about 1674.- Wood's At/A. Ox. Also an instrument invented by Dr. Wollaston, in 1807. The camera obscura, or dark chamber, was invented, it is believed, by the celebrated Roger Bacon, in 1297; it was imnproved by Baptista Porta, the writer on natural maTgic, about 1500. —M' rcrvi. Sir I. Ne+wton remodelled it. By the recent invemntion of AL. Daguerre, the pictures of the camera are rendered permanent; the last was produced in 1839. CAMERONIANS. A sect in Scotland which separated from the Presbyterians, and continued to hold their religious meetings in the fields.-Burnet. 232 TIHE WORLD'S PRIOGRESS. | CA'I CAMP. All the early warlike nations had camps, which are consequently most ancient. The disposition of the Hebrew encamlplment was, we are told, at first laid out by God himself. The Romans and Gaulls had ilttrenched camps in open plains; and vestiges of' such Roman encamplllments are existing to this clay in numerous places in England and Scotland. The last camp in England. was formed at Hydle Park in 1745. CAMPEACHY-BAY. Discovered about A, D. 1520; it was taken by the Enrlish in 1659; and was taken by the Buccaneers, in 1678; and by the fieebooters of St. Domingo, in 1685. These last burnt the town and blew up the citadel. The English logwood cutters made their settlement here, in 1662. CAMPERDOWN, BATTLE OF. Memorable engagement off Camperdown, south of the Texel, and signal victory obtained by the British fleet under admiral Duncan, over the Dutch fleet, commanded by admiral de Winter; the latter losing fifteen ships, which were either taken or destroyed, Oct. 11, 1797. CAMPO FORMIO, TREATY OF, concluded between France and Austria, the latter power yielding the Low Countries and the Ionian Islands to France, and Milan, Mantua, and Modena to the Cisalpine republic. This memnorable and humiliating treaty resulted firom the ill success of Anstria on the Rhihne. By a secret article, however, the emperor took possession of tles Venetian dominions in comp)ensation for the Netherlands, Oct. 17, 1797. CANADA. This country was discovered by John and Sebastian Cabot, A. D. 1499, and was settled by the French, in 1608. but it had been previously visited by them. Canada was taken by the English, in 1628, but wnas restored in 1631. It was again conquered by the English, in 1759, and was confirllled to them by the peace of 1763. This country was divided into two provinces, Upper and Lower Canada, in 1791; and it was during the debates oin this bill in the British parliament, that the quarrel betoween Mr. Burke and Mr. Fox arose. CANADIAN INSURRECTION. The Papineau rebellion commenced at Montreal, Dec. 6, 1837. The Canadian rebels came to an engagement at St. Eustace. Dec. 14, following. The insurgents surrounded Toronto, and were repulsed by the governor, sir Francis Head, Jan. 5, 1838. Lord Durham, governor general, Jan. 16, 1838. Lount and TMathews haanged as traitors, April 12, 1838. Lord Durham resigned, Oct. 9, 1838. Rebellion again manifested itself in Beauharnais, Nov. 3, 1838. The insurgents concentrated at Napierville under command of Nelson and others, Nov. 6; some skirmishes took place, and they were routed with the loss of many killed and sevei al hundred prisoners. Sir John Colborne announiced the suppression of the rebellion in his dispatches dated Nov. 17, 1838. Lord Gosford, governor of Lower Canada, proclaims martial law, and a reward of ~1,000 for Papineau, Dec. 5, 1837. M Leod (charged with the destruction of the Ccreoli'ec, American steamer, at Schlosser, Dec. 30, 1837) acquitted at Utica, Oct. 12, 1841. President Van Buren's proclamation warning citizens of the United States against meddling with the Canadian insurrection. Sir Charles Metcalfe, governor-general, 1814. Earl of Elgin appointed governor-general, took the oath, Jan. 30, 1847. Riots at Montreal, and burning of the Parl. - ment House by a mob (caused by the dissatisfaction about the act for paying losses by the late rebellion to some of the rebels themselves), Aug. 15, 1849. Movements in l'avor of annexation to the United States. Warning against such movements as high treason, proclaimed in the dispatch of earl Grey, the British colonial secretary, Feb. 1850. CANALS. The most stupendous in the world is a canal in China, which passes over 2000 miles, and to 41 cities, commenced in the tenth century. The canal of Languedoc which joins the Mediterranean with the Atlantic Ocean CAN ] DICTIONARY OP DATES. 233 was commenced in 1G666. That of Orleans, from the Loire to the Seine, commenced in 1675. That between the Caspian Sea and the Baltic, commenced 1709. That fronm Stoclkholm to Gottenburg, commenced 1751. That between the Baltic and North Sea at Kiel, opened 1785. That of Bourbon, between the Seine and Oise, commlenced 1790. The first canal made in Engllanld was by Henry I., when the river Trent was joined to the Witham, A, D. 1134. That from the Durance to Marseilles, France. 83,000 metres, of which 17,000 are subterranean passages through the Alps, finished Je ly 8, 1847. In England, there are 2800 miles of canals, and 2500 miles of rivers, taking the length of those only that are navigable-total, 5300 miles. In Ireland, there are but 300 miles of canals; 150 of navigable rivers, and 60 miles of the Shannon, navigable below Limerick, making in all 510 miles.- Williamns. CANALS IN TIHE UNITED STATES. Act for commencing the great Erie canal in New York, passed chiefly through the influence of De Witt Clinton, 1817. The canal (3863 miles long) completed; a grand celebration, 1825. Chesapeake and Delaware canal opened, &c., July 4, 1829. CANARY ISLANDS. These islands were known to the ancients as the FortuRate Isles. The first meridian was referred to the Canary isles by Hipparchus, about 140 B. c. They were re-discovered by a Norman, named Bethencourt, A. D. 1402; and were seized by the Spaniards, who planted vines, which flourish here, about 1420. The canary-bird, so much esteemed in all parts of Europe, is a native of these isles; it was brought into England in 1500. CANDIA, the ancient Crete, whose centre is.Mount Ida, so famous in history. It was seized by the Saracens, A. D. 808, when they changed its name. Taken by the Greeks, in 961; sold to the Venetians, 1194, and held by them till the Turiks obtained it, after a 24 years' siege, during which more than 200,000 men perished, 1669. CANDLE. The Roman candles were composed of strings surrounded by wax, or dipped in pitch. Splinters of wood, fatted, were used for light among the lower classes in England about A. D. 1300. At this time wax candles were little used, and esteemed a luxury, and dipped candles usually burnt. The wax-chandlers' company was incorporated, 1484. Mould candles are said to be the invention of the sieur Le Brez of Paris. Spermaceti candles are of modern manufacture. The Chinese candles (see Ceandlebe'rrly Myrtle) are made from the berries of a tree, and they universally burn this wax, which is fragrant, and yields a bright light. CANDLEMAS-DAY. A feasi instituted by the early Christians, who consecrated on this day all the tapers and candles used in churches during the year. It is kept in the reformed church in memory of the purification of the Virgin Mary, who, submitting to the law under which she lived, presented the infant Jesus in the Temple. Owing to the abundance of light, this festival was called Candlemas, as well as the Purification. The practice of lighting the churches was discontinued by English Protestants by an order of council 2 Edward VI. 1548; but it is still continued in the church of Rome. J.ANNLE, BATTLE OF. One of the most celebrated in history, and most fatal to the Romans. Hannibal commanded on one side 50 000 Africans. Gauls, and Spaniards; and Paulus Amilius and Terentius Varro, 88.000 Romans, of whom 40;000 were slain.-Livy. The victor, Hannibal, sent three bushels of rings, taken from the Roman knights on the field, as a trophy to Carthage. Neither party perceived an awful earthquake whiich occurred driing the battle. The place is now denominated the field of blood; fought SrMay 21, 216 B. c.-Bosseet. CANNIBALISM has prevailed fiom the remotest times. The Greeks inform us that it was a primitive and universal custom, and many of the South 234 THEl WORLD S PROG'RESS. [CAN American tribes and natives of the South Sea Islands eat human flesh at the present day, and the propensity for it prevails more or less in all savage nations. St. Jerome says, that some British tribes ate human flesh; and the Scots from Galloway killed and eat the English in the re.ign of Henry I. The Scythians were drinkers of human blood. Columbus found cannibals in America. See Ant/oepopolAcgi. CANNON. They are said to have been used as early as A. D. 1388. According to some of our historians they were used at the battle of Cressy in 1346; but this Voltaire disputes. They are said to have been used by the English at the siege of Calais, 1347. Cannon were first used in the English service by the governor of Calais, 6 Richard II. 1383. —Ryymer's Fdecra. Louis XI'V,[ upon setting out on his disastrous campaign against the Dutch, inscribed upon his cannon, " The last argument of kings." See Ar'tillery. CANNON, REMARKABILE. The largest known piece of ordnance is of brass, cast in India in 1685. At Ehrenbreitstein castle, one of the strongest forts in Germany, opposite Coblentz on the Rhine, is a prodigious cannon eighteen feet and a half long, a foot and a half in diameter in the bore, and three feet four inches in the breech. The ball made for it weighs 180lbs. and its charge of powder 941bs. The inscription on it shows that itflas made by one Simon, in 1529. In Dover castle is a brass gun called queen Elizabeth's pocketpistol, which was presented to her by the States of Holland; this piece is 24 feet long, and is beautifully ornamented, having on it the arms of the States, and a motto in Dutch, importing thus, " Charge me well, and sponge me clean, I'll throw a ball to Calais Green." Some fine specimens are to be seen in the Tower. A leathern cannon was fired three times in the King's Park, Edinburgh, Oct. 23, 1788. —Plillips. CANON. The first ecclesiastical canon was promulgated, A. D. 3880.- UshE;. Canonical hours for prayers were instituted in 391. The dignity of canon existed not previously to the rule of Charlemagne, about 768.-Pacsclier. Canon law was first introduced into Europe by Gratian, the celebrated canon law authoar, in 1151, and was introduced into England, 19 Stephen, 1154.Stowe. CANONIZATION of pious men and martyrs as saints, was instituted' in the Romish church by pope Leo III. in 800. —Tallet's'lables. Saints have so accumulated, every day in the calendar is now a saint's dclay.-Heatczalt. CANTERBURY. The Dr'overasna of the Romans, and capital of Ethelbert, king of Kent, who reigned A.D. 560. Its early cathedral was erected during the Heptarchy, and was several times burnt, and rebuilt. It was once famlous for the shrine of Becket (see Becket) and within it are interred Henry IV. and Edward the Black Prince. CANTERBURY, AncHBISHOPRIC or. This see was settled by St. Austin, who preached the gospel in England A. D. 596, and converted Ethelbert, Iing of Kent. The king, animated with zeal for his new religion, bestowed great favors upon Austin, who fixed his residence in the capital of Ethelbert's dominions. The church was made a cathedral, and consecrated to Christ, although it was formerly called St. Thomas, from Thomas C Becket, mlurdered at its altar, December 1171. The archbishop is primate and metropolitan of all England, and is the first peer in the realm, having precedency of all officers of state, and of all dukes not of the blood royal. C anterbury had formerly jurisdiction over Ireland, and the archbishop was styled a patriarch. This see hath yielded to the church of Rome, 18 saints and 9 caldinals; and to the civil state of England, 12 lord chancellors and 4 lord treasurers. St. Austin was the first bishop, 596. The see was made superior to York, 107 3 c-AP ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 235 -See Yor*k. The revenue is valued in the king's books at ~2816. 1, s. 9d.Beatsoe,. CANTHARIDES. A venomous kind of insects which, when dried and pulverized, are used principally to raise blisters. They were first introduced into medical practice by Aret'cus, a physician of Cappadocia, about 50 B. c.FPreji0'd's fisltoy of PI/ysic. C.ANTON. The only city in China with which Europeans have been allowed up to the present time to trade. Merchants first. arrived here for this purpose in 1517. Nearly every nation has a factory at Canton, but that of England surpasses all others in elegance and extent. Various particulars relating to this!tity will be found under the article China. In 1822, a fire destroyed 15,000 houses at Canton; and an inundation swept away 10,000 houses and more than 1000 persons in October 1833. CAOUTCHOUC, or INDIAXN IRUBBER, is an elastic resinous substance that exudes by incision from two plants that grow in Cayenne, Quito, and the Brazils, called I atsvica caoltchouc and Siphoenia eclastica, and vulgarly called syringe trees. It was first brought to Europe from South America, about 1733.See JIdica Ralbbe-r. C XP. The Romans went for many ages, without regular covering for the IBead, and hence the heads of all the ancient statues appear bear. But a, one period the cap was a symbol of liberty, and when the Romans gave it to their slaves it entitled them to freedom. The cap was sometimes used as a mark of infamy, and in Italy the Jews were distinguished by a yellow cap, and in France those who had been bankrupts were for ever after obliged to wear a green cap. The general use of caps and hats is referred to the year 1449; the first seen in these parts of the world being at the entry of Charles VII. into Rouen, from which time they took the place of chaperons or hoods. A statute was passed that none should sell any hat above 20d. (40 cts.) nor cap above 2s. Sd. (66 cts.) 5 Henry VII. 1489. CAPE BRETON, discovered by the English in 1584. It was taken by the French in 1632, but was afterwards restored; and again taken in 1745: and re-taken in 1748. It was finally possessed by the English, when the garrison and marines, consisting of 5600 men, were made prisoners of war, and eleven ships of the French navy were captured or destroyed, 1758. Ceded to Eng land at the peace of 1763. CAPE COAST CASTLE, settled by the Portuguese, in 1610: but it soon fell to the Dutch. It was demolished by admiral Holmes, in 1661. All the British settlements, factories, and shipping along the coast were destroyed by the Dutch aclldmiral, de Ruyter, in 1665. This Cape was confirmed to the English by the treaty of Breda, in 1667. CAPE OF GOOD HOPE; the geographical and commercial centre of the East Indies: it was discoveredcl by Bartholomew Diaz, in 1486, and was originally called the " Cape of Temlpests," and was also named the " Lion of the Sea," alid the "Head of Afiica." The name was changed by John II., king of Portugal, who augnured favorably of future discoveries from Diaz having reached the extremity of Aftiica. The Cape was doubled, and the paasage to India discovered by Vasco da Gama, Nov. 20, 1497. Planted by the Datch,, 1651. Taken by the English, under admiral Ell-lphinstone and cenrcial Clarke, Sep)t. 16, 1795, and restored at the peace in 1802; agtin taken by sir David Ba3ird and sir Home Popllan, Jan. 8, 1806; and finially celed to Elngland in 1814. Emigrants begaon to arrive iere from Britain in March, 1820. The Catfies have made several irruptions on the British settlements here; and they commlittdcl dclreadcful ravag es at Gr ahamstown, in Oct. 1834. Battle between the English and the Boors, Aug. 2, 18148. 236 TIE WORLD S PROGRFESS. [ CAP CAPE DE VERD ISLANDS. These islands were known to the ancients under the ndale of Gorgadces; but were not visited by the modernls till discoverer. by Antonio de Noli, a Genoese navigator in the service of Portugal, A. D. 1446. CAPF ST. VINCENT, B3TTI ES OF. Admiral Rooke, with tw enty ships of war, and the Turkey fleet under his convoy, Aas attackedl by admiral Tourville, with a force vastly superior to his own, off Cape St. Vincent, when twelva English and Dutch men-of-war, and eighty meclhantlm en, were captured or destroyed by the French, June 16, 1698. Battle of Cape St. Vincent, one of the most glorious achieverments of the British navy. Sir John Jervis, being in command of the Mediterranean fleet of fifteen sail, gave battle to thq Spanish fleet of 27 ships of the line off this Cape, and signally defeated the enemy, nearly double in strength, taking four ships, and destroying several others, Feb. 14, 1797. For this victory Sir John was raised to the English peerage, by the titles of baron Jervis and earl St. Vincent, with a pension of 30001. a year. CAPET, HoUSE or, the third race of the kings of France. Hugo Capet, count of Paris and Orleans, the first of this race (which was called from him Capevigians), was raised to the throne for his military valor, and public virtues,,A. D. 987. —Hccull. CAPITOL, the principal fortress of ancient Ronie, in which a temple was builto Jupiter, thence called Jalpiter CCqaitolinLcs. The foundation laidc by Tarquinius Priscus, 616 B. c. The Roiman Consuls made large donations to this temple, and the emperor Augustus bestowed 2000 pounds weight cf gold, of which precious metal the roof was composed, whilst its thresholds were of brass, and its interior was decorated with shields of solid silver. Destroyed by lightning, 188 B. c.; by fire, A. D. 70. The Capitoline games instituted by Domlitian, A. D. 86. CAPPADOCIA. This kingdom was foundted by Pharnaces, 744 n. c. The successors of Pharnaces are almost wholly unknowin, until about the time of Alexancier the Great, after whose ldeath Eumenes, by defeating Ariarathes II. became king of Cappadocia. Pharnaces is declared king - B. c. 744 ng the throne, poisons five of her own Hiis successors are unknown for nealy children, the sixth and only remaining three centuries. child is saved, and the queen put to * *" * * * death.153 Reign of Ariarathes I. - 362 This young prince reigns as Ariarathes Perdiccas takes Cappadocia, and Aria- VII. - - rathes is crucified - 322 Gordius asseaSiinates Ariarathes VII. 97 Defeat of the Parthians - 217 Ariarathes VIII. assassinated - 96 Irruption of the Trocmi - 164 Cappadocia declared a fiee country by Mithridates, surnamed Philopator, as- tle senate of Rome - - 95 cends the throne - 162 The people elect a new lcing AriobarOrophernes dethrones Philopator - 161 zanes I. 911 Attalus assists Philopator, and Oro- Itis son, Ariobarzanes II. reigns - 65 phernes dethroned - - 1514 Ie is dethroned by Marc Antony - 38 Philopator joins the Romans against Archelaus, the last king of Cappadocia, Aristonicus, anld perishes ii battle - 153 dies, and bequeathes his kingdom to His queen, Laodice, desirous of usurp- the Roman empire A. D. 17 CAPRI. The Caprein of the Romans, and memorable as the residence of Tiberius, and for the debaucheries he committed in this once cleligihtful retreat, during the seven last years of his life: it wTas emnbellisllhcl by him with a sumptuous' palace, and most muagnificent woriks. Capri was taken by sir Sidney Smith, April 22, 1806. CAPIUCHIN FRIARS. A sort of' Franciscans to whom this nlame Iwsas given, firom their wearing a great Capibuchose, or cowl, which is an odd kind of cap, or hood, sewn to their habit, and hanging down upon their backs. The Capuchins were founded by Matthew Basehi, about A. 0. 1525. Although the CAR 3 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 2337 rigors of this order have abated, still the brethren are remarkable for their extreme poverty and privations.-Ashe. CAR. Its invention is ascribed to Eriethonius of Athens, about 1486 B. c. The covered cars (Cn'rrqs arcnatti) were in use among the Romans. Trinumphal cars wvere introduced by Romulus, according to some; and by Tarlquin the Elder, according to others. CARACCAS. One of the early Spanish discoveries, A. D. 1498. The province declared its independence of Spain, May 9, 1810. In 1812, it was visited by a violent convulsion of nature; thousands of human beings were lost; rocks and mountains split, and rolled into valleys; the rivers were blackened or their courses changed; and many towns swallowed up, and totally destroyed. CARBONARI. A dangerous and powerful society in Italy, a substitute for freemasonry, which committed the most dreadful outrages, and spread terror in several states; they were suppressed, however, by the Austrian government in Sept. 1820. CARDINALS. They are properly the council of the pope, ar.d constitute the conclave or sacred college. At first they were only the principal priests, or incumbents of the parishes in Rome. On this footing they continued till the eleventh century. They did not acquire the exclusive power of electing the popes till A. D. 1160. They first wore the red hat to remind them that they ought to shed their blood, if required, for religion, and were declared princes of the church. by Innocent IV., 1243. Paul II. gave the scarlet habit. 1464; and Urban VIII. the title of Eminence in 1630; some say in 1623.-Dit GCalutge. CARDS. Their invention is referred to the Romans; but it is generally supposed that they were invented in France about the year 1390, to amuse Charles VI. during the intervals of a melancholy disorder, which in the end brought him to his grave.-Mliezr'ai, Il-ist. de lPrance. The universal adoption of an amusement which was invented for a fool, is no very favorable specimen of wisdom.-Mal/iin. Cards are of Spanish, not of French origin.-Dacnes Barrine'gton. Picquet and all the early games are French. Cards first taxed in England, 1756. 428,000 packs were stamped in 1775, and 986,000 in 1800. In 1825, the duty being then 2s. 6d. per pack, less than 150,000 packs were stamped; but in 1827, the stamp duty was reduced to is., and 310,854 packs paid duty in 1830. Duty was paid on 239,200 packs, in the year ending 5th Jan. 1840.-Pcarl. Reports. CARICATURES originated, it is said, with Bufalmaco, an Italian painter: he first put labels to the mouths of his figures with sentences, since followed by bad masters, but more particularly in caricature engravings, about 1330.De Piles. A new and much improved style of caricatures has latterly set in; and the productions ifi this way of a clever but concealed artist, using the initials H. B., are political satires of considerable humor and merit.-Irc-aydn. CARLISLE. The frontier town and key of England, wherein for many ages a strong garrison was kept. The castle, founded in 1092, by William II., was made the prison of the unfortunate Mary queen of Scots, in 1568. Taken by the parliament forces in 1645. and by the pretender in 1745. CARLSBAD, CONGRESS or, on the affairs of Europe: The popular spirit of emancipation that prevailed in many of the states of' Europe against despotic government, led to this congress, in which various resolutions were come to, denouncing the press, and liberal opinions, and in which the great continenlal powers decreed imeasures to repress the rage for limited monarchies and frce institutions, Aug-ust 1, 1819. CARM1ELITES. OR WHITe FRIARs, named from Mount Carmel, and one of the four orders of mendicants, distinguished by austere rules, appeared in 1141. Their rigor was moderated about 1540. They claim their descent in an un 238 THE WORILD'S PROGRESS. [ CAtki interrupted succession fromn Elijah, Elisha, &c. Mount Carimel has a monastery, and the valley of Sharon lies to the south of the mount, which is 2000 feet high, shaped like a flatted cone, with steep and barren sides: it is often referred to in Jewish histories. " See spicy clouds froiom lowly Shiaron rise, And Cannel's flowery top perfumes the sklies." —Pope. CAROLINA, discovered by Sebastian Cabot, in 1550. A body of English, amounting to about 8.50 persons, landed and settled here in 1667; andc Carolina was granted to lord Berkeley and others a few years afterwards. See N. 4- S. Carolicna. CARPETS. They were in use, at least in some kind, as early as the days $f Almos, about 800 B. c. —Aos ii. 8. Carpets were spread on the ground, on which persons sat who dwelt in tents; but when first used in houses, even in the East, we have no record. In the 12th century carpets were articles of luxury; and in England, it is mentioned as an instance of Becket's splendid style of living, that his sumptuous apartments were every dclayin winter strewn with clean straw or hay; about A. D. 1160. The manufacture of woollen carpets uwas introduced into France from Persia, in the reign of Henry IV., between 1589 and 1610. Some artisans who hadl quitted France in disgust went to England, and established the carpet lmanufacture, abe:t 1750. There, as wit llmost nations, Persian and Turkey carpets, especiaily the former, are most prized. The famous Axminster, Wilton, and Kidderminster mauufacture is the growtll of the last hundred years. The manufacture of Kidderminster and Brussels carpets has much advanced within fifteen years, at Lowell, Mass. and Thomsonville Conn. CARRIAGES. The invention of them is ascribed to Ericthonius of Athens. who.rocduced the first chariot about 1486 B. c. Carriages were known in France in the reign of Henry II. A. D. 1547; but they were of very rude construction and rare. They seem to have been known in England in 1555; but not tie. art of making them. Close carriages of good workimanship began to be used by persons of the highest quality at the close of the sixteenth century. Henry IV. had one, but without straps or springs. Their construction was various: they w-ere first made in England in the reign of Elizabeth, and were then called whirlicotes. The duke of Buckingham, in 1619, drove six horses; and the duke of Northumberlancd, in rivalry. drove eight. They were first let for hire in Paris, in 1650, at the Hotel Fiacre; and hence their name. See Coaches. CARTESIAN DOCTRINES. Their author was Rene des Cartes, the FrenCh philosopher, who promulgated therm in 1647. He was an original thinker: his metaphysical principle' I think, therefore I am," is refuted by iMr. Locke; and his physical principle, that " nothing exists but substance," is disprov- [ ed by the Newtonian. philosophy. His celebrated systemn abounds in greatsingularities and originalities; but a spirit of independent thought prevails throughout it. and has contributed to excite the same spirit in others. Des Cartes was the most cdistinguished philosopher of his time andl country.D1?, f eseoy. CARTHAGE, founded.by Dilo, or Elissa, sister of Pygmalion, king of Tyre, 809. c. Shle fled fiorn that tyrant, who had killed her husband, andcl took refugge in Africa. Carthage became so powerful as to dispute the emlpire of the worldl with Rome, whllich occasioned the Punic wars. and the total demolition of that city. Taken by Scipio, and burned to the ground, 116 B. C. when the flames raged during seventeen days, and many of the inhllabitants perished in them, rather than survive the subjection of their country. The Roman senate ordered the walls to be razed, that no trace miglht remain of this once powerful republic.-EursebiuLs. S j] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 239 CARTHAGE, conhti/etsd. Dido arrives in Aftica, and builds Byrsa. lHannibal, at the age of nine years, — Blir - - - B. c. 869 having first made him swear an eterFirst alliance of the Carthaginians with nal enmity to the Romans - a. c. 237 tihe Romans - - - - 509 tIamilcar is killed in battle by the VetTlle Cartllasinians is Sicily are defeated tones - 227 by Gelo; thel elder Ilamilcar perishes. Asdrubal is assassinated - - - 220 2lerlodolzts, 1. vii. - - 480 Iannibal subjects all Spain, as far as They send 300,000 mlen into Sicily 407 the Iberus - - - - 219 Tile siege of Syracuse 396 The second Punic war begins - - 218 The Carthaginlians land in Italy - 379 First great victory of Han-nibal - - 217 Their defeat by Timoleon - - 340 HIannibal crosses the Alps, and enters They are defeated by Agathocles, and Italy with 100,000 men - - 217 immolate their children on the altar of Great battle of CannTe (which see) - 216 Saturn, thereby to propitiate the gods - 310 New Carthage taken' by Pub. Scipio - 210 Tihe Iirst Punic war begins - 264 Asdrubal, brother of Hannibal, defeated The Carcthaginians defeated by the Ro- and slain in Italy - - - 207 mans in a naval engagement 260 The Carthaginians expelled Spain - - 206 Xantippus defeats Regulus 255 Scipio arrives in Afiica, and lays siege Regulus is crucified - 256 to Utica - 204 Asarubal defeated byMetellus - 251 Hannibal recalled from italy - - 203 Romans defeated before Lilybeum - 250 Great battle of Zama (w'hich see) - 202 End of the first Punic war 241 An ignominious peace ends the second'War between the Carthaginians and Punic war - 201 African mercenaries - - 241 The third Punic war begins - - 149 Hamilcar Barecas is sent into Spain; he Destruction of Carthage, which is burned takles with him his son, the fam~Lous to the ground - - - - 146 CARTHAGENA, or New CARTHAGE, in Spain; built by Asdrubal, the Cat thaginian general, 227 a. c. From here Hainnibal set out in his memorable march to invade Italy, crossing the Alps, 217 a. c. Carthagena, in Colombia, was taken by sir Francis Drakle in 1584. It was pillaged by the French of ~1,200,000 in 1697; and was bombarded by admiral Vernon in 1740-1, but h was obliged, though he took the forts, to raise the siege. CARTHUSIANS. A religious order founcded by Bruno of Cologne, who retired from the converse of the world, in 1084, to Chartreuse, in the mountains of Dauphine. Their rules were formed by Basil VII., general of the order, and were peculiarly distinguished for their austerity. The monks could not leave their cells, nor speak, without express leave; and their clothing was two hair cloths, two cowls, two pair of hose, and a cloak, all coarse. The general takes the title of prior of the Chartreuse, the principal monastery, from which the order is nanmed..-ALbeteti; Mirsvci Origisces Ccartulus. CARTOONS oP RAPHAEL. They were designed in the chambers of the Vatican, under Julius II. and Leo X., about 1510 to 1515. The seven of them that are preserved were purchased in Flanders by Rubens for Charles I. of England, for Hampton-court palace, in 1629. These matchless works represent-1, The miraculous draught of Fishes; 2, the Charge to Peter; 3, Peter and John healing the Lame at the gate of the Temple; 4, the Death of Ana-.nias; 5, Elytnas, the Sorcerer, struck with Blindness; 6, the Sacrifice to Paul and Barnabas, by the people of Lystra; 7, Paul preaching at Athens. CARVING. We have scriptural authority for its early introduction. See Exocits xxxi. The art of carving is first mentioned in profane history 772 B. c. and is referred to the Egyptians. It was first in wood, next in stone, and afterwards in marble anad brass. Dipcenus and Scyllis w ere eminent carvers and sculptors, and opened a school of statuary, 568 B. c. —Plity. See article Scrltptltc1es. Carvers of imeat, called by the Greeks dezriSbita es, are mentioned by Homer. C3SHMERE SH-IAWLS. The disltrict from whence come'these costly shawls is describecd as being " the happy valley, and a pcaradise in perpetual pring'." The true Cashmaere shawls can be manufactured of no other wool tllan that Thibet. They were first brought to England in 1666; but they were well imaitatecld by the spinning at Bradford, and the looms of Huddersfield. 240 THE WVORLD'S PROGRESS. [CA'l Shawls for the omrahs, of the Thibetian wool, cost 150 rupees each, about the year 1650.-Bernier. CASTEL NUOVO, BATTrLE OF. The Russians defeated by the French army, Sept. 29, 1806. Castel Nuovo has several times suffered under the dreadiful visitation of earthquakes: in the great earthquake which convulsed all Naples and Sicily, in 1783, this town was almost obliterated. It is recorded that an inhabitant of Castel Nuovo, being on a hill at no great distance, looking back, saw no remains of the town, but only a black smoke; 4000 persons perished; and in Sicily and Naples, more than 40,000. CAST'IGLIONE, BATTLE OF. One of the most brilliant victories of the Frence arms, under general Bonaparte, against the main army of the Austria;.,, commanded by general Wurmser: the battle lasted five days successively, from the 2d to the 6th July, 1796. Bonaparte stated the enemy's loss in this obstinate conflict at 70 field-pieces, all his caissons, between 12 and 15,000 prisoners, and 6000 killed and wounded. CASTILE. The most powerful government of the Goths was established here about A. D. 800. Ferdinand, count of Castile, assumed the title of king in 1020. Ferdinand of Arragon married Isabella of Castile, and nearly the whole of the Christian dominions in Spain were united in one monarchy, 147$. See Ar'rag'oa and Spain. CASTLES. Anciently British castles were tall houses, strongly fortified, and built on the tops of hills, with gates and walls. The castle of the AngloSaxon was a tower-keep, either round or square, and ascended by a flight of steps in front. There were eleven hundred castles built in England by the nobles, by permission of king Stephen, A. n. 1135, and 1154: most of these were demolished by Henry II., who deprived the barons of such possess'in, on his accession, in 1154. CATACOMBS; the early depositories of the dead. The name first dene' the tombs of Saints Peter and Paul at Rome, and afterwards the burial-placen of all martyrs. They were numerous in Egypt; and Belzoni, in 1815 and 1818, explored many catacombs both in that country and Thebes, built 3000 years ago: among others, a chef-d'e2'xre of ancient sculpture, the temple of Psammaticus the Powerful, whose sarcophagus, formed of the finest oriental alabaster, exquisitely sculptured, he brought to England. Many other nations had their catacombs; there were some of great extent at Rome. The Parisian cataconmbs were projected A. D. 1777. The bodies found in catacombs, especially those of Egypt, are called mummies. See EnLbaqniagLg CATANIA, on CATANEA. At the foot of mount Etna. Founded by a colony from Chalcis, 753 a. c. Ceres had a temple here, in which none but women were permitted to appear. This ancient city is remarkable for the dreadful overthrowvs to which it has been subjected at various times from its vicinity to Etna, which has discharged, in some of its eruptions, a stream of lava four miles broad and fifty feet deep, advancing at the rate of seven miles in a day. Catania was almost totally overthrown by an eruption of Etna, in 1669. By an earthquake which happened in 1693, Catania was nearly sw —'[ lowed up, and in a moment more than 18.000 of its inhabitants were bumie.. in the ruins of the city. An earthqualke did great damage, and a number of persons perished here, Feb. 22, 1817. CATAPHRYGTANS. A sect of heretics, so called because they were Phrygians, who followed the. errors. of Mlontanus. They made up the bread of the eucharist with the blood of inf-nts, whom they pricked to death with needles. and then looked upon them as ilartyrs.-Paerdon. CATAPULTYE. Ancient military engines for throwing stones of immense, weight, darts, and arrows; invented by Dionysius, 399 n. c.-Josepmtns. TVle 'AU.] DIOCTIONABlY OF DATES. 241 were capable of throwhing cdarts and javelins of four and five yards length. — Pcb'adon. CATLHOLIC MAJESTY. The title of Catholic was first given by pope Gregory III. to Alphonsus I. of Spain, -who was thereupon surnanmed the CttheoIic; A. D. 7893. The title of Cattaolic was also given to Ferdlinancd V., 1474. See SpainC?. CATILINE'S CONSPIRACY. Sergius L. Catiline, a Roman of noble family, having squandered away his fortune by his debaucheries and extravagance, and having been refused the consulship, he secretly meditated the ruin (f his country, and conspired with many of the most illustrious of the Romans, as dissolute as himself, to extirpate the senate, plunder the treasury, and set Rome on fire. This conspiracy was timely discovered by the consul Cicero, whom he had resolved to murder; and on seeing five of his accomplices arrested, he retired to Gaul, where his partisans were assembling an army. Cicero punished the condemned conspirators at home, while Petreius attacked Catiline's ill-disciplined forces, and routed them, and the conspirator was killed in the engagement, about the middle of December, 63 B. c. His character has been branded with the foulest infamy, and to the violence he offered to a vestal, he added the murder of his own brother; and it is said that he and his associates drank human blood to render their oaths more firm and inviolalble.-Sallust. CATO, SUICIDE oF. Termed as the " era destructive of the liberties of Rome." Cato, the Roman patriot and philosopher, considered freedom as that which alone " sustains the name and dignity of man:" unable to survive the independence of his country, he stabbed himself at Utica..By this rash act of suicide, independently of all moral considerations, Cato carried his patriotism to the highest degree of political fiensy; for Cato, dead, could be of no use to his country; but had he preserved his life, his counsels might have moderated Csesar's ambition, and have given a different turn to public affairs. Feb. 5, 45 B. c. -AIontesqniein. CATO-STREET CONSPIRACY. The mysterious plot of a gang of low and desperate politicians, whose object was the assassination of the ministers of.the crown, with a view to other sanguinary and indiscriminate outrages, and the overthrow of the government: the conspirators were arrested Feb. 23, 1820; adcl Thistlewood and his four principal associates, Brunt, Davison, lgles, and Ticld, after a trial commenced on April 17th, which ended in their co.viction; were executed according to the then horrid manner of traitors, on May 1, following.l-Haydn. CAUCASUS. A mlountain' of immense height, a continuation of the ridge of Mount Taurus, between the Euxine and Caspian seas, inhabited anciently by various savage nations who lived upon the wild fruits of the earth. It'was covered with snow in some parts, and in others wias variegated with fruitful orchards and plantations: its people were at one time supposed to gather gold on the shores of their rivulets, but they afterwards lived without making use of money. Prometheus was tied on the top of Caucasus by lupiter, and continually devoured by vultures, according to ancient authors, 1548 B. c. The passes near the mountain were called Canucasiie Po?'ice, and it is supposed that through them the Sarmatians, called Huns, made their way, when they invaded the provinces of Rome, A. D. 447. —Sh'abo. HT?'edotbs. CAUSTIC.N PAINTING. The branch of the art so called is a method of burning the colors into wood or ivory. Gausias, a painter of Sicyon, was the inventor of this process. He made a beautiful painting of his mistress Glycere, whom he represented as sitting on the ground, and making gar-,ahndcs. of flowers; and from this circumstance the picture, which was -I ] 242 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. r CEk boufght afterwards by Lucullus for two talents, received the name of;Stepreqoplocs09, 335 B. c.-PliAlii iist. Nat. CAVALIERS. This appellation was given as a party name in England to those who espoused the cause of the king during the unhappy war which brought Charles I. to the scaffold. They were so called in opposition to the Roundheads, or friends of the parliament, between 1642 and 1649. —Hueme. CAVALRY. Of the ancient nations the Romans were the most celebrated for their cavalry, and f'or its discipline and efficiency. Attached to each of the Roman legions was a body of horse 300 strong, in ten turmne; the coinmmander was always a veteran, and chosen for his experience and valor. In tlb: early ages, the Persians brought the greatest force of cavalry into the fielu: they had 10,000 horse at the battle of Marathon, 490 B. c.: and 10,000 Persian horse were slain at the battle of Issus, 333 B. c.-Plttarch. CAYENNE. First settled by the French in 1625, but they left it in 1654. It was afterwards successively in the hands of the English, French, and Dutch. These last were expelled by the French in 1677. Cayenne was taken by the British, Jan. 12, 1809, but was restored to the French at the peace in 1814. In this settlement is produced the cacpsicnb bcaccaltmez, or cayenne pepper, so esteemed in Europe. &ELESTIAL G-LOBE. A celestial sphere was brought to Greece firom Egypt, 368 B. c. A planetarium was constructed by Archimedes.before 212 a. c. The celestial globe was divided into constellations after the age of Perseus. The great celestial globe of Gottorp, planned after a design of Tycho Brache, and erected at the expense of the duke of Holstein, was eleven feet in diameter: and that at Pelmbroke-hall, Cambridge, erected by Dr. Long, is eighteen feet. See Globes. CELESTINS. A religious order of monks, reformed fiom the Bernardins by pope Celestine V. in 1294. The order of' nuns was instituted about tie same period. CELIBACY, and the monastic life, preached by St. Anthony in Egypt, about A. D. 305. The early converts to this doctrine lived in caves and desolate places till regular monasteries were founded. The doctrine was rejected at the council of Nice, A. D. 325. Celibacy was enjoined on bishops only in 692. The Romish clergy generally were compelled to a vow of' celibacy in 1073. Its observance was finally established by the council of Placentia, held in 1095. Among the illustrious philosophers of antiquity, the following were unfriendly to matrimony:-Plato, Pythagoras, Epicurus, Bion, Anaxagoras, Heraclitus, Democritus, and Diogenes; and the following among the moderns:-Newvton, Locke, Boyle, Gibbon, Hume, Adam Smith, Harvey, Leibnitz, Bayle, Hobbes, Hampden, sir F. Drake, earl of Esse-, Pitt, Michael Angelo, the three Caraccis, sir Joshua Reynolds, Haydn,. Handel, Wolsey, Pascal, Fenelon, Pope, Akenside, Goldsmith, Gray, Collins, Thompson, and Jeremy Bentham. CEMETERIES. The ancients had not the unwise custom of crowding all *their dead in the midst of their towns and cities, within the narrow cincts of a place reputed sacred,, much less of amassing them in the bosoll. of their fanes and temples. The burying places of the Greeks and Romans were at a distance from their towns; and the Jews had their sepulchres in gardens-Johnv xix. 41; and in fields, and among rocks and mountainslIatthew xxvii, 60. The present practice was introduced by the Roibish clergy, who pretended that the dead enjoyed peculiar privileges by being, interred in consecrated ground. The burying-places of the Turkls are handsome and agreeable, and it is owing chiefly to the many fine plants that grow in them, and which they carefully place over their dead. It is onlx: 'eY j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 243 within a very few years that public cemeteries have been formed in these countries, although the crowded state of our many churchyards, and the danger to health of burial-places in thle midst of dense populations, called for some similar institutions to that of the celebrated Plre la Chlaise at Paris. Six public cemeteries have been recently opened in London suburbs. The inclosed area of' each of these cemeteries is planted and laid out in walks after the nlanner of Pbre la Chaise.* Th'llere are similar cemeteries in Matnchester, Liverpool, and other towns; and in lreland, at Cork, Dublin. &c. Some of the rural cemeteries of the United States, especially that at Mount Auburn, near Boston (opened 1831), Laurel Hill, Philadelphia (183-), and Greenwood, near New-York (1839), are far more beautiful in their natural features than any of those near London or Paris. CE NSORS. Roman magistrates, whose duty it was to survey and' rate, and correct the manners of the people; their power was also extended over private families, and they restrained extravagance. The two first censors were appointed 443 B. c. The office was abolished by the emperors. CENSUS. In the Roman polity, a general estimate of every man's estate and personal effects, delivered to the government upon oath every five years: established by Servius Tullius, 566 B. c.-Legal Polity of the Romoa State. In England the census, formerly not periodical, is now taken at decennial periods, of which the last were the years 1811, 1821, and 1831; and the new census, 1841. CENSUS OF THE UNITED STATES, has been taken at six different periods, viz. 1790, 1800, 1810, 1820, 1030, and 1840. The seventh census is taken this year, 1850.-See Population. CENTURION. The captain, head, or commander of a subdivision of a Roman legion, which consisted of 100 men, and was called a cesetllia. He was distinguished by a branch of vine which he carried in his hand. By the Roman census, each hundred of the people was called a ceatrta'ia, 566 B. c. CENTURY. The method of computing by ceinturies was first generally observed in ecclesiastical history, and commenced from the time of our Redeemer's incarnation, A. n. 1. It is a period that is particularly regarded by churcl historians.-Pcardob. CERES. This planet, which is only 160 miles in diameter, was discovered by 3M. Piazzi, astronomer royal at Palermo. on the 1st. of Jan. 1801. To the naked eye it is not visible, nor will glasses of a very high magnifying power show it with a distinctly defined diameter. Pallas, discoveredl by Dr. Olbers, is still smaller. CEYLON. The natives claim for this island the seat of paradise; it was discovered by the Portuguese A. D. 1505; but it was known to the Romans in the time of CGaudius, A. D. 41. The capital, Colombo, was taken by the Hollanders in 1603; and was recovered by the Portuguese in 1621. The Dutch again took it in 1656. A large portion of the country was taken by the British in 1782, but was restored the next year. The Dutch settlements * PNre la Chaise takes its name from a French Jesuit, who was a favorite of Louis XIV., and hlis confessor. IIe died in 1709; and the site of his house and grounds at Paris is now occupied by this beautiful cemetery. It was a practice of high antiquity to plant herbs and flowers about the graves of the dead. The women in Egypt go weelly to pray and weep at the sepulchres, and it is then usual to throw a sort of herb (our sweet-basil) upon the tombs; which in Asia Minor, and Turkley in Europe, are also adorned either with the leaves of the palmn-tree, boughs of myrtle, or cypresses plaented at the Iead and feet. Between some of the toimbs is placed a chest of orLnamented stone, filled with earth, in which are planted herbs and aromatic flowers. These are regularly cultivated by females, who assemble in groups lor that duty. At Aleppo, there grow many myrtles, which they diligently propagate, because they are beautiful, and remain long green, to put abthq their graves. —.lailet; Gndler; C eand ctl; otlee. 244 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ CHA were seized by the British; Trincomalee Aug. 26, 1795, and Jaffnapatam, in Sept. same year. Ceylon was ceded to Great Britain by the peace of Amier — in 1802. The British troops were treacherously massacred, or imprisonect by the Adigar of Candy, at Colombo, June 26, 1803. The complete sovereignty of the island was assumed by England in 1815. CHlE-2RONEA, BATTLES OF. The Athenians are defeated by the Boeotians, and Tolmidcas, their general, is slain, 447 B. c. Battle of Chmronea, in which Greece lost its liberty to Philip, 32,000 MaCedonians defeating the confederate army of Thebans and Athenians of' 30,000, Aug. 2, 338 B. c. Battle of Cheuronce in which Archllelaus, lieutenant of Mithridates, is defeated br Sylla, and 110,000 Cappadocians are slain, 86 B. c. CHAIN-BRIDGES. The largest and oldest chain-bridge in the world is said to be that at Kingtung, in China, where it forms a perfect road from the top of one mountain to the top of another. The honor of constructing the first chain-bridge on a grand scale belongs to Mr. Telford, who commenced the chain-suspension bridge over the strait between Anglesey and the coast of Wales, July 1818.-See Mencai Bridge. CHAIN-CABLES, PUMPS, AND SHOT. Iron chain-cables were in use by the Veneti, a people intimately connected with the Belgae of Britain in the time, of Coesar, 55 B. c. These cables came into modern use, and generally in the royal navy of England, in 1812. Chain-shot, to destroy the rigging of an enemy's ships, was invented by the Dutch admiral De Witt, in 1666. Chainpumps were first used on board the'lorca, British fiigate, in 1787. CHAISE oR CALASH. The invention of the chaise, which is described as a light and open vehicle, is ascribed to Augustus CLesar, about A. D. 7. Aurelius Victor mentions that the use of post-chaises was introduced by Trajan. about A. D. 100. The chariot was in use fifteen centuries before. See CGlcbiot. CHALDEAN REGISTERS. Registers of celestial observations were commenced 2234 B. c., and were brought down to the taking of Babylon by Alexander, 331 B. c., being a period of 1903 years. These registers were sent by Callisthenes to Aristotle. CHALDEAN CHARACTERS: the Bible w'as transcribed from the original Hebrew into these characters, now called Hebrew, by Ezra. CHAMP DE MARS: an open square space in front of the Military School at Paris, with artificial embankments raised on each side, extending nearly to the r;ver Seine, with an area sufficient to contain a million of people. Here was held, on the 14th July, 1790, the famous "f6deration." or solemnity of swearing fidelity to the " patriot king" and new constitution. In the evening great rejoicings followed the proceedings; public balls were given by the municipality in the Clamlps Elysces and elsewhere, and Paris wras illuminated throughout. 1791, July 17, a great meeting of citizens and others held here, directed by the Jacobin clubs, to sign petitions on the altar of the country"-left standing for some time afterwards-praying for the enforced abdication of Louis XVI. Another new constitution sworn to here, under the eye of Bonaparte, May 1, 1815, a ceremony called the C/atmpti de f-'" CHAMPION or ENGLAND. The championship was instituted at the coronation of Richard II. 1377. At the coronations of English kings the champion still rides completely armed into Westminster-hall, and challenges any one that would deny their title to the crown. The championship is hereditary in the Dymocke family. CHANCELLORS, LORD HIGH, oF ENGLAND. The Lord Chancellor ranks after the princes of the Blood Royal as the first lay subject. Formerly, the office was conferred upon some dignified clergyman. Maurice, afterwards bishop of T,ondon, was created chancellor in 1067. The first personage v:-ho JiA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 245 was qualified by great legal education, and who decided causes upon his own judgment, was Sir Thomas More, in 1530, before which time the office was umore that of a high state functionary than the president of a court of justice. Sir Christopher Hatton, who was appointed chancellor in 1587, was very ignorant, on which account the first reference was 1made to a master in 1588. In England, the great seal has been firequently put in commission; but it was not until 1813 that the separate and co-existent office of Vice-Chtacncellor was permanently held. LORD CHANCELLORS OF ENGLAND, 1692 Sir John Somers, cpterwards lord (t1;'ro?, thIle time o' Cardinal /Violsey.) Somers. 1515 Cardinal Wolsey. 1702 Sir Nathan Wright, L. K., 1530 Sir Thomas Miore (beheaded). 1705 Lord Cowper, L. IC. 1533 Sir Thomas Audley. 1710 In commission. 1534 Thomas, bishop of Ely. 171.3 Lord Harcourt. 1545 Lord WVriothesley. 1714 Lord Cowper again. 1547 Lord St. John. 1718 In commission. 1547 Lord Rich. 1713 Viscount Parker, cftertards earl of 1551 Bishop of Ely again. Macclesfield. 1551 Sir Nich. HIare, Lord IKeepler. 1725 Sir Peter King, L. K. afterwvards lord 1653 Bishop of Winchester. King. 1555 Archbishop of York. 1733 I,ord Talbot. 1559 Sir Nicholas Bacon. 1737 Philip, lord Hardwicke. 1579 Sir Thomas Bromley. 1761 Sir Robert Ienley, afJerewards lord 1587 Sir Christopher Ilatton. t Henley, and earl of Northington. 1592 Sir John Paclkerlig. 1766 Charles Pratt, lord Camden. 1596 Sir Thomas Eerlton. 1770 Ion. Chas. Yorke, Jan. 18; died next 1616 Sir Francis Bacon, cfterrards lord day. Verulal. 1770 In commission. 1625 Sir Thomas Coventry. 1771 Henry Batllurst, lord Apsley, succeed1639 Sir John Finch. ed as earl Bathurst. 16L40 Sir Eldward Littleton, afterzoards lord 177'8 Lord Thurlow. Littleton. 1783 Lord Loughborough and others 1645 Sir Richard Lane. (in commneission) - - April 9 1648 In commission. 1"83 Lord Thurlow agai - - Dec. 23 1653 Sir E]dward Herbert. 1792 In commission. 1658 Sir Edward Hyde, cfteertareds earl of 1793 I,ord Loughborough again. Clarendon. 1801 Lord Eldon. - April 14 1667 Sir Orlando Bridgeman, L. IC. 1806 Lord Erskine. -. Feb. 7 1672 Earl of Shaftesbury. 1807 1Lord Eldon again. - March 25 1673 Sir Heneage Finch, afteerwards earl of 1827 Lord Lynclllurst. - April 20 Nottingham. 1830 Iord Brougham. Nov. 22 1682 Lord Guillbrd, L. I. 1834 TIord I,yndhurst again - Nov. 14 1685 Sil George Jeifreys, lord Jeffreys. 1835 In commission. 1690 In commission, 1836 Lord Cottenham. - - Jan. 16 1690 Sir John Trevor, Sir WVilliam Rawlin- 1841 Lord Lyndhurst again. - Au-. 31 sol, and Sir Geo. Hutchlins, L. K. 1816 Lord Cottenham again July 6 C'LIANCELLOR or IRELAND, LORD HIGH. The earliest nomination was by Richard I. AD. 1186, when Steplhen Ricel was elevated to this rank. The office of vice-chancellor was known in Ireland, but not as a distinct appointment, in the reign of Henry III., Geffi ey Turville, archdeacon of Dublin, being so named, 1232. JIIANCELLOR OF SCOTLAND.' In the laws of Malcolm II. who reigned A. D. 1004, this officer is thus mentioned: "The Chancellar sal at al tymles assist the king in giving him counsall mair secretly nor of the rest of the nobility. The Chancellar,all be ludgit near unto the kingis Grace, for keiping of his bodie, and the seill, and that he may be readie, baith day and nicht, at the kringis command. "-Sir JYcetes Bczlfole.. James, earl of Seafield, afterwsards Findcllater, was the last lord high Chlancellor of Scotlacnd, the office having been abolish-ed in 170(j.-Scolt. CHANCERY, COURT or'. Itlstiutletd as early ats A. D. 605. Settled upon a better footing by William I., in 1067.-eSlo.. This court hlad its origin in the desire to render juistice complete, and to moderate the rigor of other courts that are bound to the strict letter of the law. It gives relief to or against i ifants, notwithstanding their minority; and to or against married 246 THE WORLD'S PROGIRESS. L eCHi women, notwithstanding their coverture; and all frauds, deceits, breaches of trust and confidence, for which there is no redress at common - law, are relievable here.-Blaclcstone. EFPFECTS OF SUITORS LODGED IN COURT AT THE FOLLOWVING DECENNIAL PERIODS. 1770 - Amount locged - ~.,300,000 1810 - Aiount lodged - ~26,212,000 1780 - ditto - 7,741,000 1820 - ditto - - 34.208,785 1790 - ditto - 13.338 000 1830 - - ditto 38,886,135 1800 - ditto - - 19,834,000 1840 - ditto - 39,772,746 There are about 10;000 accounts. By the last official returns the number of committals for contempt was ninety-six persons in three years. —Pca,'L{ Retlo'as. CHANTRY. A chapel endowed with revenue for priests to sing mass for +' souls of the donors. —-Sl/alcspecare. First mentioned in the commencement oi the seventh century, when Gregory the great established schools of chanters.-See C/t2atii g. CHAOS. A rude and shapeless mass of matter, and confused assemlblage of inactive elements which, as the poets suppose, pre-existec the formation of the world, and from which the universe was formed by the hand and power of a superior being. This doctrine was first advanced by Hesiod, from whom the succeeding poets have copied it; and it is probable that it wAas obscuret' — drawn firom the account of Moses, by being copied from the annals of S. lichoniathon, whose age is fixed antecedent to the siege of Troy in 1193 a. c. See Geolog'?y. CHARIOTS. The invention of chariots, and the manner of harnessing horses to draw them, is ascribed to Erichthonius of Athens, 1486 a. c. Chariot racing was one of' the exercises of Greece. The chariot of the Ethiopian officer, mentioned in Acts viii. 27, 28, 81, was, it is supposed, something in the form of our miodern chaise with four wheels. CSsar relates that Casslbelanus, after dismissing all his other forces. retained no fewer thlan 4000 war chariots about hIis person. The chariots of the ancients were like our phlltons, and drawn by one horse. See CcLa'iaeics, Cocaches, 4-c. CHARITIES in the United States.-See Bcbevolc'zce. In England there are tens of thousands of charitable foundations; and thle charlity commission rel)portedc to parliament that the endowed charities alone of Great Britain amouliteJ1 to ~ 1500,000 annually, in 18L40. —Parl. Iep. Charity schools were institutted in London to pirevent the seduction of thle infant poor into Roman Catholic seminaries, 3 James II. 1687.-Rcapi. CHARLESTON, S. C., was first settled in 1680. In 1690 a colony of Frie -:ci. refugees, exiled in consequence of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes settled in Carolina, and some of theml in Charleston: from them are de scended many of the most respectatble of the inhabitants. At the close c 1779, the city was taken by the British. and held by them until TMay folloing. Population in 1790, 16:359; in 1810, 24,711; in 1820, 24[780; in iS) 80;289; in 1840, 29261 —(a decrease of 1,028 in ten years) including 14 67.slaves. CHARTERS oF RIGHTS. The first charters of rights granted by the kings'i England to their subjects, were by Edward the Confessor, and by He110e A. n. 1100. Tile famoIus bulwark of English liberty, knowun as 3aice..lcl C/tfbr't/; or the great cllarter. was granted to the barons by king John, June 15. 12!' The rights and privileiges granted by thlis charter were renewed and rat ifie{ by Henry III. in 1224. ct seq. Sir Edward Colke says that even in his cIays ihad been confirmled above thirty times. Charters to corporations swere o frequent grant from the reign of William I. See Mra,.ica C/ta'tC. CHARTERS. to the American colonies. That to Virginia granted by James I. 1606; to Massachusetts, by the same, 1620, but withdrawn by Charles II CHE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 247 1684; that granted to Connecticut by Charles II., 1665, was concealed in an oak to preserve it from the tyrannical Andros. General suppression of charter governments in America, 1688. CHARTER PARTY. The same species of deed or agreement as the ancient chirograph. A covenant between merchants and masters of ships relating to the ship and cargo. It was first used in England in the reign of Henry III., about 1243. CHARTISTS. The agitators for radical political reforms in England were so called firom the C/csrter which they drew up and urged for adoption as the law of the land, 1838. The petition for it, signed by about 5,000.000 names. Proclamation against tumultuous assemblies of the Chartists, Dec. 12, 1838. Chartist attack on Newport, Wales, headed by John Frost, an ex-magistrate, defeated, Nov. 4, 189. Frost and others taken prisoneri triecl, and transported. Another Chartist deronstration on Kennington Common, near London, exciting great alarm (chiefly because of the recent revolution in Paris), April 10, 1848. The six chief demands of the Chartists are: 1. Universal suffrage. 2. Vote by ballot.. 3. No property qualification. 4. Annual parliaments. 5. Payment of members. 6i. Equal electoral clistricts. CHARTS. Anaximander of Miletns swas the inventor of geograplical and celestial charts, about 570 a. c. Mrodern sea-chlarts were brought to England by Bartholonmew Columbus, with a view to illustrate his brother's theory respecting a western continent, 1489. Mercator's chllart, in which the world is taken as a plane, was drawn, 1556. CHARYBDIS, a dangerous whirlpool on the coast of Sicily, opposite another whirlpool called Scylla, on the coast of Italy. It was very clanger ous to sailors, and it proved fatal to part of the fleet of Ulysses. The exact situation of the Charybdis is not discovered by the moderns, as no whirlpool sufficiently tremendous is now found to correspond to the description of the ancients. The words Incid'it in Sccyllcoa qui?/t ritacie C/har?bdit, became a proverb, to show that in our eagerness to avoid an evil, we fall into a greater. CHANTING, Chanting the psalms'waas adopted by Ambrose from. the pagan ceremonies of the Romans, about A. D. 350.-Leav4o'let. Chanting in churches'was introduced into the Roman Catholic service in 602, by Gregory the Great, who established schools of chanters, and corrected the church song.-Dmifr esnoy. CHEATS. The convicted cheat punishable by pillory (since abolished), imprisonment, and fine, 1 Hcw/z. L. C. 188. A rigorous statute was enacted against cheats, 33 Henry VIII. 1542. Persons cheating at play, or winning at any time more than 10/., or any valuable thing, were deemed infamous, and were to suffer punishment as in cases of perjury, 9 Anne, 1711.-Blackstoze's Coznm. CHEESE. It is supposed by Camden and others that the English learned the process of making cheese from the IRomans (who brought many useful arts with them) about the Christian era. Cheese is made by almost all nations. Wilts, Gloucester, and Cheshire, mnake vast quantities; the last alone. annually, about 31,000 tons. The Cheddar of Somerset, and Stilton of H-untingdon, are as much esteemed as the cheese of Parma, and Gruy6re of Switzerland. In 1840 England imported, chiefly from the U. States, for home use, a quantity excebeding 10)000 tons. CHE\IISTRY AND DISTILLING. Introduced into Europe by the Spanish Moors, about A. D. 1150; they had learned them from the African Moors, and these from the Egyptians. In Egypt, they had, in very early ages, extracted salts friom their bases, separated oils, and prepared vinegar and wine; 248 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ CHI and embalming was a kind of chemical process. The Chinese also claim an early acquaintance with chemistry; but the fathers of true chemical philosophy were of our own country; Bacon, Boyle, Hooke, Mayow, Newton, &c. The modern character of chemistry was formed under Beecher and Stahl, who perceived the connection of the atmosphere and the gases, with the production of phenomena. Bergman and Scheele were cotemporary with Priestley in England, and Lavosier in France; then followed Thomson, Davr, alnd other distinguished men. CHERRIES. They were brought from Pontus, to Lucullus, to Rome, about 70 B. C. Apricots from Epirus: peaches from Persia; the finest plums from Damascus and Armenia; pears and figs from Greece and Egypt; citrol:s fiom Media; and pomegranates from Carthage; 114 B. c. The cherry tree was first planted in Britain, it is said, about A. D. 100. Fine kinds were brought fiom Flanders, and planted in Kent, and with such success that an orchard of thirty-two acres produced in one year ~1000, A. D. 1540. See Gardening. I CHESAPEAKE, BATTLE OF. At the mouth of the bay of that name, between the British admiral Greaves, and the French admiral De Grasse, with the naval force sent to assist the United States; the former was oblized to retire. 1781. The Chesapeake and Delaware were blockaded by a British fleet in 1812. The C/Iesapecake American fiigate struck to the SlcanL,7 British frigate, commanded by captain Broke, after a severe action, June 2, 118:3. CHESS, GAME OF. Invented, according to some authorities, 680 B. c.; and according to others, in the fifth century of our era. The learned Hyde and Sir William Jones concur in stating (as do most writers on the subject) that the origin of chess is to be traced to India. The automaton chess-player was exhibited in England in 1769. CHEVALIER D'EON. This extraordinary personage, who had been actipg-nli a diplomatic capacity in several countries, and who was for some time a minister plenipotentiary from France in London, was proved upon a trial had in the King's Bench, in an action to recover wagers as to his sex, to be a woman, July 1, 1777. He subsequently wore female attire for many year-s; yet at his death, in London, in 1810, it was manifest, by the dissection of his body, and other undoubted evidence, that he was of the male sex.Bio. Dic. CHILDREN. Most of the ancient nations had the unnatural custom of exposing their infants-the Egyptians on the banks of rivers, and the Greeks on highways-when they could not support or educate them; in such cases they were taken care of, and hlnumanely protected by the state. The custonm which long previously existed of English parents selling their children tc the Irish for slaves, was prohibited in the reign of Canute, about 1017. — Mat. Parlis. At Darien, it was the practice when a widow died, to bury with her, in the same grave, such of her children as were unable, from their tender years, to take care of themselves. And in some parts of China, superstition has lent her hand to sanction the horrid deed of offering infants to the spirit of an adjoining river, first attaching a gourd to their necks to prevent them from immediately drowning. CHILI. Discovered by Diego de Almagro, one of the conquerors of Peru, A. D. 1535. Aimagro crossed the Cordilleras, and the natives, regarding the Spaniards on their first visit as allied to the Divinity, collected for them gold and silver, amounting to 290,000 ducats, a present which led to the subsequent cruelties and rapacity of the invaders. Chili was subdued, but not wholly, in 1546. The Chilians fought for liberty at various times, and with various success, until 1817, when, by the decisive victory gained by San Martin ovc' cHI ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 249 the royal forces, Feb. 12, in that year, the province was released fronm its oppressors, and declared independent. CHILTERN HUNDREDS. An estate of thle crown in England, on the chain of chalk hills that pass fromu east to west through the middle of' Buckinghallshire, the stewardship whereof is a nominal office, conferred on members of parliament when they wish to vacate their seats, as, by accepting an office under the crown, a member becomes disqualified, unless he be again returned by his constituents: this custom has existed time ime imemorial. CHIMNEYS. Chafing-dishes were in use previous to the invention of chimneys, which were first introduced into these countries in A. D. 1200, when they were confined to the kitchen and large hall. The family sat round the stove, the funnel of which passed through the ceiling, in 1800. Chimneys were general in domestic architecture in 1310. The ancients made use of' stoves, although Octavio Ferrari affirms that chimneys were in use among them; but this is disputed. CHINA. This empire is very ancient, and the Chinese assert that it existed many thousands of years before Noah's flood; but it is allowed by some author.ities to have commenced about 2500 years before the birth of Christ. By others it is said to have been founded by Fohi, supposed to be the Noah of the Bible, 2240 B. C. We are told that the Chinese knew the periods of the sun, moon, and planets, and were acute astronomers, in the reign of Yao, which is set down 2357 B. c. But dates cannot be relied upon until towards the close of' the seventh century, B. C. whten the history of China becomes more distinct. In the battle between Phraates and the Scythians 129 B. c., the Chinese aided the latter, and afterwards ravaged the countries on the coasts of the Caspian, which is their first appearance in history.-Leegledt. The Chinese state their first cycle to Jesuit missionaries endeavor to estahave commenced - B. c 2700 blish Christianity - - - - 1692 The first of thle 22 Chinese dynasties The Jesuits are expelled through their commllenced - - -2207 own misconduct - 1724 ENGLISHI INTERCOURSE WITH CHINA. In the history of Chlina, the first dates Earl Miacartney's embassy; lie leaves which are fixed to his narrative, by Englandl Sept. 26, 1792 Se-ma-tsien, begin - - 651 IIe is ordered to depart from Pekin, Confucius, the father of the Chinese Oct. 7, 1793 philosophers, born - - 551 Edict against Christianity - - 1812 Stupendous wall of China completed - 211 Lord Amherst;s embassy; he leaves The dynasty of Han 206 England - Feb. 8, 1816 Literature and the art of printillg encou- [HI-is lordship faited in the objects of raed - - - - - 202 his tmission, havin' reltused to make Religion of Ta tse colmmenced - - 15 the prostration of the kozu-tou, lest lie Religion of the'ollowers of Fo, com- should thereby comprolnise the mia-nenced about - - A. D. 60 jesty of England.] Embassy friom Rome - - - 166 The exclusive rights of the East India Nankin becomes the capital - - 420 Company cease - April 22, 1834 The atheistical philosopher, Fan-Shin, Lord Napier arrives at AIacao, to sutperflourishes - - - - 449 intend British commerce - July 15, 1834 The Nestortian Christians permitted to Opium trade interdicted by the Chinese, preach their doctrines - - 63.5 Nov. 7, 18.34 They are proscribed. and extirpated - 8:5 Commnissioner Lin issues an edict for The seat of the imperial government is the seizure of opium - Marlch 18, 1839 transferred to Peliin, - - ~ 1260 British and other r1esidents forbidden to Wonderful canal, called the Yu -Io, leave Canton - - larch 19, 1839 completed about - - 1400 The factories surrounded, and outrages Eucr; —aan s first arrive at Canton - 1517 committed - - March 24, 1839 MIa.cao is granted as a settlement to the The opium destroyed during several Poytuulese -1536 days by the Chinese - June 3, 1839 Jesuit missionaries are sent by the pope The British trade with China ceases, by from lome - - - - 1575 an edlict of the empleror, and the last The country is conqcuered by the East- servant of the company leaves the ern Tartars, who establish the pre- country this day - - Dec. 6, 1839 sent reigning house - - 1644 Edict of the emperor interdicting all An eartlhquake throughout China buries trade and intercourse with England 300,000 persons at Pekin alone.1662 for ever -. Jan. 5, 1840 11' 250 THE WORLD1S PROGRESS. [ CmI CHINA, contofim-ed. Blockade of Canton by a British fleet of Treaty of peace signed before Nankin, 1.] sail and several war steamers, hav- on board the Cornszotcllis by sir Henry ing 4,000 troops on board, by orders Pottinger for England, and Keying fiom Sir Gordon Bremer - June 28, 1840 Elepoo and Neu-Kien on the part of Seizure of Capt. Anstruther - Sept. 16t;, 1840 the Chinese emperor - Aug. 29, 1842 Lin deprived of his authority, and CONDITIONS OF TvE T'rEATY. finally degraded; Keshin appointed Lasting peace and friendship between imperial commissioner - Sept. 16, 18-10 the two empires. Capt. Elliott declares a truce with the China to pay 21,000,000 of dollars, part Chinese - - - Nov. 6,1840 forthwith and the remainder within Hong-Kong ceded by Keshin to Great three years. Britain, and 6,000,00l0 dollars agreed to The ports of Canton, Amoy, Foo-choobe paid within lten days to the British foo, Ning-po, and Shang-hae to be authorities - - Jan. 20, 1841 thrown open to the British. Imperial edict from Peliin rejecting the Consuls to reside at these cities. conditions of the treaty made by Ke- Tarif's of import and export to be estashi- - - - Feb. 11, 18-11 blished, &c. &c. Hostilities are in consequence resumed Tile emperor signifies his assent to the against the Chinese - - Feb. 23, 1841 conditions - Sept. 8, 1842 Chusan evacuated - - Feb. 24, 1841 Mr. Davis succeeds Sir Henry Pottinger Rtewards proclaimed at Canton for the as British commissioner. Feb. 16, 184-4 bodies of Englishmen, dead or alive; Bogue Forts captured by Gen. Aguilar 50,000 dollars to be given ibor ring- and Sir John Davis, 836 pieces of arleaders and chiefs - Feb. 25, 1841 tillery seized and spilked - April 5, 1847 Bogue Forts taken by Sir Gordon Bremer; admiral n ~ wan Irilled, and 45C3 Treaty between China1 and the Urnrmer; admiral Kwan killed, and 459 ted States negotiated by Caleb guns captured - Feb. 26, 1841 i merican ComisThle city ransomed for 6,000,000 dollars, commissioner to China fom the of wrvhich 5,000,000 ane paid dowun, United States - 1845 anthe armhotilitis cease - My 31arch 2, 1841John W. Davis appointed co isBritish trade re-opened July 16, 1841 siohn W. Davis appoUnited States - Arrival at Macao of Sir Henry Pottin-ted ger, who, as plenipotentiary, pro- CHINESE EMPERORS. claims the objects of imis ission; The following is a list of those who have Capt. Elliott superseded - Aug. 10, 1841 reirned for the lest two centulries:Amoy taken, and 296 guns found and Chwang-lei 1627 destroyed - Aug. 27, 18411 Shun-cle -1644 The Booue forts destroyed Sept. 14, 1841 Kang-he 1669 The city of Ting-hae taken, 136 uns ung-ching - 1693 capturecd, and the island of Chusan Keenl-luns- - 1736 re-occulpied by the British - Oct. 1, 141 tea-ding - 1796 Chin-hae talken, with 157 guns, many Taou-kwanl - - 1521 of them brass - Oct. 10, 1841 Sze-Hing, present empero - 1850 Tihe embassy of lord Macartney from England procurecl the first authent.c information respecting this empire: it appears that it is divided into 15 provinces. containing 4402 walled cities; the population of the whole coulntry is given at 333000,000 its annual revenues at ~66,000,000; and the army, includcling the Tartars, 1,000,000 of infantry, and 800,000 cavalry; the religion is pagan, and the government is absolute. Learning, with the arts and sciences in general, are encouraged, and ethics are studied profoundly, and influence the manners of the people. See details in Williamws's " Mliddle Kifingdom." CHINA PORCELAIN. This manufacture is first mentioned in history in 1531: it was introduced into England so early as the sixteenth century. Porcelain was made at Dresden in 1706; fine ware in England, at Chelsea, 1752; at Bow in 1758; in various other parts of England, about 1760; and by the ingenious Josiah WVedgwood, who much improved the British manufacture, in Staffordshire, 1762 et seq. CHINESE ERAS. They are very numerous, fabulous, and mythological. Like the Chaldeans. they represent the world as having existed some hundreds of thousands of years; and their annals and histories record events biO ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 251 said to have occurred, and name philosophers and heroes said to have lived, more than 27,000 years ago. By their calculation of time, which must, of course, differ essentially frolm ours, they date the commencement of their empire 41,000 years a. c.-Abbe Lengle-t. CHIPPEWA, BATTLES OF, The British forces under general Riall were defeated by the Americans under general Brown, July 5, 1814. Another action with the British, commanded by generals Drummond and Riall; the latter taken 1risoner at Bridgwater, near Chippewa, July 25, 1814. CHIVALRY. Began in Europe about A. D. 912. From the twelfth to the fifteenth century it had a considerable influence in refining the manners of most of the nations of Europe. The knight swore to accomplish the duties of his profession, as the champion of God and the ladies. I-He devoted himself to speak the truth, to nlaintain the right, to protect the distressed, to practise courtesy, to fulfil obligations, and to vindicate, in every perilous adventure, his honor and charagter, Chiyalry, which owed its origin to the fltlal YtlB, 0pillf0ld withl itR-W0An-5s,;: a8t11. CHIVALRY, Con3rT oF. It was commnonly after the lie-direct had been given, that combats took place in the court of chivalry. By letters patent of James I. the earl-marshlal of England had " the like jurisdiction in the court of chivalry, when the office of lord high constable was vacant, as this latter and the marshal did jointly exercise," 1623. The following entries are found in the pipe-roll of 31 Henry I., the date of which has been fixed by the labors of the record commission:-" Robert Fitz Seward renders account of fifteen marks of silver, for the ofice and wife of Hugh Chivill. Paid into the exchequer four pounds. And he owes six pounds;" p. 53. "William de Hocton renders account of ten marks of gold tact Ae may have t2he wife of Geoffrey de c aucre in mar'riaage, with her land, and may have her son in custody until he is of age to become a knight; he paid into the exchequer ten llmarks of gold, and is discharged."-Par'. Reports. CHOCOLATE. First introduced into Europe from Mexico about A. D. 1520. It is the flour of the cocoa-nut, and makes a wholesome beverage, much used in Spain. It was sold in the London cof'ee-houses soon after their establishment, 1650.- Tatler. CHOIR. The choir was separated from the nave of the church in the time of Constantine. The choral service was first used in England at Canterbury, A. D. 677. The service had been previously in use at Rome about 602. -See Chamlting. The C'oragnus was the superintendent of the ancient chorus.- Warb/qerton. CHOLERA MORBUS. This fatal disease, known in its more malignant form as the Asiatic cholera, after having made great ravages in many countries of the north, east, and south of Europe, and in the countries of Asia, where alone it had carried off more than 900,000 persons in its progress within two years, made its first appearance in England, at Sunderland, October 26, 1831. Proclamation, ordering all vessels from Sunderland to London, to perform quarantine at the Nore, December 4, 1831. Cholera first appeared at Edinburgh, Feb. 6, 1832. First observed at Rotherhithe and Limehouse, London. February 13; and in Dublin, March 3, same year. The mortality was very great, but more so on the Continent; the deaths by Cholera in Paris were 18,000 between March and August, 1832. Cholera first appeared on this continent at Quebec, June 8, 1832; and at New-York, June 27, 1832. Cholera again'raged in Rome, the Two Sicilies, Genoa, Berlin, &c. in 1836-7. It again appeared in Asia and the east of Europe in 1848, and raged in London, Edinburgh, Liverpool, and Paris at intervals, in 1848-9. First appeared again on this continent in 1849, on the Mississippi, in New York in 252 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. L CHU' May, and continued more or less in various parts of the United States until NTovember of that year. CHRIST. See JESUS CHRIST. This name, so universally given to the Redeemer of the world, signifies, in Greek, T/he Anointed, being the same with ilcssialt in the Hebrew, which the Jews called that Saviour and IDeliverer whom they expected, and who was promised to them by all the prophets. This appellation is commonly put to our Jesus (signifying Saeviourle), the name of the great object of our faith, and divine author of our religion. St. Clement, the earliest father, according to St. Epiphanius, fixes the birth of CHRIT 011n the 18th of November, in the 28th year of Augustus, i. e. two years before the Christian era as adopted in the sixth century. Cerinthus was the first Christian writer against the divinity of Christ, about A. D. 67. The divinity of Christ was adopted at the council of Nice, in A. D. 325, by two hundred and ninety-nine bishops against eighteen. CHRISTIAN. This name was first given to the believers and followers of CHRIST's doctrines at Antioch, in Syria, Acts xi. 26, in the year 38, according to Buetler; in the year 40, according to Tacitus; and according to other authorities in the year 60. The Christians were divided into episcopoi, presbyteroi, diaconoi, pistoi, catachulmens, or learners, and energuzuens who were to be exorcised. CHRISTIAN ERA. The era which is used by almost all Christian nations; it dates from January 1st, in the middle of the fourth year of the 194th Olympiad, in the 753d of the building of Rome, and 4714th of the Julian period. It was first introduced in the sixth century, but was not very generally employed for some centuries after. We style the Christian era A. D. 1. It was first used in modern chronology in 516. CHRISTIAN KING; MOST CHRISTIAN KIN; Cl/ristianissismLs. This title was given by pope Paul II. to Louis X[. of FPrance in 1469; and never was a distinction more unworthily conferred. His tyranny and oppressionls obliged his subjects to enter into a league against him; and 4.000 persons were executed publicly or privately in his merciless reign.-H/?aecdt; Plcury. CHRISTIANITY. Founded by the Saviour of the world. The persecutions of the Christians commenced A. D. 64.-See Persecqtlions. Christianity was first taught in Britain about this time; and it was propagated with some success in 156.-Bede. Lucius. is said to have been the first Christian king of Britain, and in the world: he reigned in 179. B ut the era of Christianity in England commenced with the mission of St. Austin in 596, from which tilme it spread rapidly throughout the whole of Britain.* It was introduced inltk Ireland in the second centurly. but with more success after the arrival of St. Patrick in 432. It was received in Scotland in the reign of Donald I. about 201, when it was embraced by that king', his queen, and some of his nobility. Constantine the Great made his solemn In Sweden, between 10th and itlh centuries. declaration ofthe Cbristian religinA. D. 312 In Prussia, by the Teutonic6 knights, Christianity was established in France when they were returning from the under Clovis the Great - - 496 holy wars - - - A. 1227 In Helvetia, by Irish missionaries 6- t3 In Lithuania, where Paganism was aboIn Flanders in the seventh century. lished, about.. 1386 In Denmark, under harold - 87 In China, where it made some progress In Bohemia, untler Borzivoi - - 894 (but was afterwards extirpated, and In tRussia, by Swiatoslaf - - 940 thousands of Chinese Christians were In Poland, under Meicislaus I. - 992 put to death) - -1575 In HIungary, under Geisa - 994 In Greece, where it was once more reIn Norway and Iceland, under Olaf I. -1000 established - - - 1628 * It is said that Gregory the Great, shortly before his elevation to the papal chair, chanced one day to pass through the slave-marlet at Rome, and perceiving some chiltldren of great beauty wiho were set up for sale, he inquileri about their country, and finding they were English Pagans, he is said to have cried out, in the Latin langulage, " Non Ang'li, sed AsgeliJ'obret, si essent Clhristiani," IHU ] DICT'IONARY OF DATES., 253 Christianity was propagated in various parts of Africa, as Guinea, Angola, and Congo, in the fifteenth century; and in America and India it made some progress in the sixteenth, and now rapidly gains ground in all parts of the world. CHRISTMAS-DAY. A festival of the church, unnversally observed in comnmelnoration of the nativity of our Saviour. It has been denominated Christmass, from the appellative Christ having been added to the name of Jesus to express that he was the _Messiah, or T/he Anointed. It was first observed as a festival A. D. 98. Ordered to be held as a solemn feast, and Divine service to be performed on the 25th of December, by pope Telesphorus, about A. D. 187.* In the eastern primitive church, Christmas and Epiphany (hvAich see) were deemed but one and the same feast; and to this clay the church universally keeps a continued feast within those limits. The hl(ly and mnisletoe used at Christmas are remains of the religious observances of the Druids, and so with many other like customs. CHRONICLES. The earliest chronicles are those of the Chinese, Hindoos, Jews, and perhaps those of the Irish. After the invention of writing, all well-informed nations appear to have kept chroniclers, who were generally priests or ologe, strologers, and who mingled popular legends with their records -Ph/ilips. CHRONOLOGY. The Chinese pretend to the most ancient, but upon no certain authority. The most authentic, to which all Europe gives credit, is the Jewish; but owing to the negligence of the Jews, they have created abundance of difficulties in this science, and very little certainty can be arrived at as to the exact time of imany memorable events. The earliest epoch is the creation of the world, 4004 B. c. Theophilus, bishop of Antioch, was the first Christian chronologist, about A. D. 169. See the di&ere-nt elcras lthroegh' the s;olqrn7e. (1BURCH. It is said that a church was built for Cllistian worship in the first century; and some will have it that one was built in England, A. D. 60. See Glastonbltgy. In the small island of Whitehol-n, Scotland, are the remains of an ancient church, which was the first place of Christian worship, it is believed, in that country, and supposed to have been built before the cathedral at Whitehorn. in Wigtonshire, where Nenian was bishop in the fourth century. The Christians originally preached in woods, and in caves, by candlelight, whence the practice of candle-light in churches. Most of the early churches were of wood. The first church of stone was built in London, in 1087. The first Irish church of stone was built at Bangor, in the county of Down,- by Malachy, archbishop of Armagh, who was prelate in 1134.-GO?don's Ireland. Church towers were originally parochial fortresses. Churchyards were permitted in cities in 742. CHURCH or ENGLAND, (the present). Commenced with the Reformation, and was formall3 established in the reign of Henry VIII. 1534. This church consists of two archbishops and twenty-four bishops, exclusively of that of Sodor and Man; and the other dignitaries are chancellors, deasns (of cathedrals and collegiate churches), archdleacons, prebendaries, canons, minor.canons, and priest vicars; these, and the incumbents of rectories, vicarages, tfat is, " they would not be English, but angels, if they were Christians." From that time he was struck with an ardent desire to convert that unenlightenedi nation, and ordered a molk, named Alstin, or Augustin, and others of the same fraternity, to undertake the mission to Britain, in the year 596 - Goldsmnith. * Diocletian, the Roman emperor, keeping his court at Nicomedia, being informed that the Christians were assembled on this (ldy in gr:eat multitudes. to celebrate Christ's nativity, ordered the doors to be shut, and the church to be set on fire, and six hundred perished in the burning pile. This was the coummencement of the tenth persecution, which lasted tert years, A. D 303. 254 - - TFiE VOR!LD' I PROG'RESS. [ cI and clhapelries, make the numnber of preferments of the established church, according to the last official returns, 12 327. The number of churches for Protestant worship in England was 11,742 in 1818. CHURCH oF IRELAND. Called, in connection with that of England, the United Church of England and Ireland. Previously to the Chulch Temporalitics Act of William I-V. in 1833, there were four archbishoprics and eighteen bishoprics in Ireland, of which several have since ceased; that acproviding for the union of sees, and for the abolition of certain sees. accordingly as the present possessors of them die. There are 1,659 places of Protestant worship, 2;109 Catholic chapels, 452 Presbyterian, and 414 other houses of prayer. See Bishlops. CHURCH oF SCOTLAND. Presbyterianism is the religion of Scotland. Its distinguishing tenets seesm to have been first emlbodied in the formulary of faith attributed to John Knox, and coml-piled by that reformer in 1560. It. was approved by the parliament and ratified in 1567; was finally settled by an act of the Scottish senate in 1696, and was afterwards secured by the treaty of union with England in 1707. Previously to the abolition of episcopacy in Scotland in 1688, there existed two archbishoprics and twelve bishoprics, which were then dissolved; but there are now six bishops. The Church of Scotland is regulated by four courts-the General Assembly, tl, Synod, the Presbytery, and Kirk Session. See Presbyterianes. CHURCH MUSIC, was introduced into the Christian church by Gregory the Great, in A. D. 602. Choir service was first introduced in England, at Canterbury, in 677. Church organs were in general use in the tenth century. Church music was first performed in English in 1559. See Choir; ChCbanti,~. CHURCH-WARDENS. Officers of the parish chlrcll, appointed by the first canon of the synod of London in 1127. Overseers in every parish were also appointed by the same body, and they continue now nearly as then const>L tuted.-Jo/hnson's Canons. CHURCHING oF WOMEN. It originated in the Jewish rite of purification, A. D. 214. Churching is the act of returning thanks in the church for any signal deliverance, and particularly after the delivery of women.- -Wfecatiey. It was a Jewish law that a woman should keep within her house forty clays after her lying in, if she had a son, and eighty if she had a daughter, at the expiration whereof she was to go to the temple, and offer a lamb with a young pigeon or turtle, and in case of poverty, two pigeons or turtles. See PifJ4icaCltion. CIDER. Anciently this beverage, when first mcade in England, was called wine, about A. D. 1284. When the earl of Manchester was ambassador in France, he is said to have frequently passed off cider upon the nobility of that country for a delicious wine. It was subjected to the excise regulations in England, 1763, et seq. A powerful spirit is drawn from cider by distillation.Bsetler. CITMBRI. The war of the Cimbri, 113 a. c. They clefeat the consul Marcus Silanus, 109 B. c. They defeat the Romans under 3Manlius, on the banks of the Rhine, where 80,000 Romans are slain, 105 B. c. The Teutones are de. feated by Marius in two battles at Aqume Sextim (Aix) in Gaul, 200,000 are killed, and 70,000 made prisoners, 102 B. c. The Cimbri are defeated by MTarius and Catullus as they were again endeavoring to enter Italy; 120.000 are killed, and 60,000 taken prisoners, 1.01 a. c. Their name afterwards sunk in that of' the Tentones or Saxons. NCINCiNNATI. OrIoI the- most populous city west of the Alleghanies in the United States, was -founded in 1789, by emigrants from New England and C R 1 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 255 New Jersey. Population in 1795, 500; in 1800, 750; in 1810, 2,540; in 1820, 9,642; in 1830, 24,831; in 1840, 46,338. CidfLfiJNNATI, SOCIETY OF. Established by the officers of the American army, in 1783. after the Revolution, and still continued by them and their descendants. There was at one time a popular jealousy of this society as suggesting a sort of hereditary nobility or aristocracy; but this has long since passed away, and the society is now but seldom mentioned. CIRCASSIA. The Circassians are descended from the Alanialns. They continued unsubdued, even by the arms of the celebrated limur; but in the sixteenth century the greater part of them acknowledged the authority of the Czar, Ivan II. of Russia. About A D. 1745, the princes of Great and Little Kabarda took oaths of fealty to that power. One branch of their traffic is the sale of their daughters, famed throughout tile world for their beauty, and whom they sell for the use of the seraglios of Turkey and Persia: the merchants who come friom Constantinople to purchase these girls are generally Jews.-Kflaprotl/' s Tr'cavels is the Ccaltcascis an7d Geor-gia. CIRCULATING LIBRARY. Te first in Englandcl, on a public plan, was opened by Samuel Fancourt, a dissenting minister of Salisbury, about 1740. He had little encouragem.ent in the undertaking, which in the end failed.-F/e'g'qbso's Bioo. CIRCULATION oF THna BLOOD, and the mlotion of the heart in animals, confirmed experimentally by William Harvey, the celebrated English physician and anatomist, between 1619 and 1628. See article Blood. By this discovery the medical and surgiceal art became greatly improved, to the benefit of mankind.-Iriceind's ltist. of P/hysic. CIRCUMCISION. A rite instituted 1897 B. c. It was the seal of the covenant made by God with Abraham.-Josep/?ns. Even to the present day many of the Turks and Persians circumcise, although not regarding it as essential to salvation; but in some eastern and Afirican nations it is rendered necessary by a peculiar conformation, and is used without any reference to a religious rite.-Bell. The festival of the Circumcision was originally called the Octave of Christmas. The first mention found of it is in A. D. 487. It was instituted by the church to commnemorate the ceremony under the Jewish law to which Christ submitted on the eighth day of his nativity; it was introduced into the Liturgy in 1550. CiRCUMNAVIGATORS. Among the greatest and most daring of human enterprises was the circumnavigation of the earth at the period when it was first attempted, A. D. 1519.* The following are the most renowned of this illustrious class of men; their voyages were undertaken at the dates affixed to their names. See Na'vig ators. Magellan, a Portugucse, the first who Clipperton, British - A. D. 1719 entered the Pacific ocean - A. D. 1519 Roggewei, Dutch - 1721 Groalva, a Spanish navigator 1537 Anson (afterwards Lord) - -1740 Avalradi, a Spaniard - 1537 Byron (grandfather of Lord Byron) -1764 Menlana, a Spaniard - - 1567 Wallis, British - - -1766 Sir Francis Drake, first English - 1577 Carteret, an Englishman - - 1766 Cavendish, his first voyage. 1586 Cook, the illustrious captain - - a. S Le Maire, a Dutchman - - 1615 On the death of Captain Cook, his last Quiros, a Spaniard - 1625 voyage was continued by Kiig - 1775 Tasman, Dutch. -1642 Bougainvi!le, French -.. 177{ Cowley, British - - 1683 Portlocle, British - - 1781 Dampier, an Englishoman -1689 Wilkes, American - - 1837 Coolke, an Englishman - - 1708 D'Urville, French -1837 *'he fiirst ship tlhaot sailed round the earth, and hence determlined its being globular, was Matellan's, or Matgelhoen's; he was a na!ire of Portugal, in the service of Spailn, and by kleeping a westerly course he returned to the same place he had set out flom in ]519. The voyage was comrn. pleted in three years and twenty-nine days; but Magellan was killed on his homeward passage, al tIt Philippines, in 1521.-Bttler. 256 rTHE.WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ cr Several voyages have been since undertaken, and, among other nations, by the Russians. The early navigators, equally illustrious, are named elsewhere. CIRCUS. There were eight (some say ten) buildings of this kind at Rome; the largest of them was called the Circlus a]iezniu>s, which was built by the elder Tarquin, 605 B. c.; it was of an oval figure; its length was three stadia and a half, or more than three English furlongs, and its breadth 960 Roman feet. This circus was enlarged by Cwsar so as to seat 150,000 persons, and was rebuilt by Augustus. All the emperors vied in beautifying it, and Julius Caesar introduced in it large canals of water, which on a sudden could be covered with an infinite number of vessels, and represent a sea-fight. - Pliny. (ISALPINE REPUBLIC. Founded by the French in June 1797. It was acknowledged by the emperor of Germany to be independent, by the treaty of Camllpo Formio (which see), Oct. 17, following. Received a new constitution in Sept. 1798. It merged into the kingdom of Italy in March, 1805; Napoleon was crowned king in May following, and was represented by his viceroy, Eugene Beauharnois. See Itcacl. CISTERCIANS. An order founded by Robert, a Benedictine, in the eleventh5 century. They became so powerful that they governed allost all Europe in spiritual.and temporal concerns. They observed a continual silence, abstained friom flesh, lay on straw, vore neither shoes nor shirts, and were most austere.-De Vite'i. CITIES. The word city has been in use in England only since the Conquest, at which time even London was called LonvdoLnbus'gh, as the capital of Scotland is still called Edinbur'g/. The English cities were very inconsiderable in the twelfth century. Cities were first incorporated A. D. 1079. The institution of cities has aided much in introducing regular governments, polt,-, manners, and arts.-Rober'tson. CITIZEN. It was not lawful to scourge a citizen of Rome.-Livy. In England a citizen is a person who is free of a city, or who doth carry on a trade therein.- Camlden. Various privileges have been conferred on citizens as freemen in several reigns, and powers granted to them. The wives of citizens of London (not being aldermen's wives, nor gentlewomen by descent) were obliged to wear minever caps, being white woollen knit three-cornered, with the peaks projecting three or four inches beyond their foreheads; alde.l - men's wives made them of velvet, 1 Elizabeth, 1558.-Stowe. The title of citizen, only, was allowed in France at the period of the revolution, 1792, et seq. CIUDAD RODRIGO. This strong fortress of Spain was invested by the French June 11, 1810; and it surrendered to them July 10, following. It remained in their possession until it was gallantly stormed by the British commanded by Wellington, Jan. 19, 1812. Wellington had made a previous attack upon Ciudad Rodrigo (Sept. 25, 1811), which ended in his orderly retreat from the position. CIVIL LAW. Several codes come under this denomination of laws. A b-hly of Roman laws, founded upon the laws of nature and of nations, was first collected by Alfi'enus Varus, the Civilian, who flourished about 66 B. c.; and a digest of them was made by Servius Sulpicius, the Civilian, 53 B. c. The Gregorian laws were compiled A. n. 290; the Theodosian in 435; and thi Justinian, 529-534. Many of the former laws having grown out of use, the emperor Jtistinian ordered a revision of them, which was called the Justinian code, and this code constitutes a large part of the present civil law. Civil law was restored in Italy, Germany, &c. 1127.-Bl~a —. Civil law was introduced into England by Theobald, a Norman abbot, who was afterwais VLE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 257 archbishop of Canterbury, in 1138. It is now used in the spiritual courts only, and in maritime affairs. See Laws. CIVIL LIST IN ENGLAND. This comprehends the revenue awarded to tlhe kings of England, partly in lien of their ancient hereditary income. The entire revenue of ]Elizabeth was not more than 600.0001. and that of Charles Io. was but 800,0001. After the Revolution a civil list revenue was settled on the new king and queen of 700,0001., the parliament taking into its own hands the support of the forces, both maritime and military. The civil list of George II. was increased to 800,0001.; and that of George III. in the 55th year of his reign, was 1,030,0001. By the act 1 Williaml IV. 1831, the civil list of that sovereign was fixed at 510.0001. By the act of 1 Victoria, Dec. 1837, the civil list of the queen was fixed at 385;0001.; and Prince Albert obtained an exclusive sum from parliament of 30,0001. per aun. 4 Victoria, 1840. CLANSHIPS. These were tribes of the same race, and commonly of the sanme name, and originated in feudal times.-See "'euLdal Laws. They may be said to have arisen in Scotland,. in the reign of Malcolm II., about 1008. Clanships and other remains of heritable jurisdiction were abolished in Scotland (where clans were taken to be the tenants of one lord), and the liberty of the English was granted to clansmen. 20 George II., 1746.-RtJlffihead. The chief of each respective clan was, and is, entitled to wear two eagle's feathers in his bonnet, in addition to the distinguishing badge of his clan.Clcambe's. CLARENDON, STATUTES OF. These were statutes enacted in a parliament held at Clarendon, the object of which was to retrench the then enormous power of the clergy. They are rendered memorable as being the ground of Becket's quarrel with Henry II. A number of regulations were drawn up under the title of the statutes or constitutions of Clarendon, and were voted without opposition, A. D. 1164. These stringent statutes were enacted to prevent the chief abuses which at that time prevailed in ecclesiastical affairs, and put a stop to church usurpations which, gradually stealing on, threatened the destruction of the civil and royal power.-Hlume. CLARION. This instrument originated with the Moors, in Spain, about A. D. 800; it was at first a trumpet, serving as a treble to trumpets sounding their tenor and bass.-Ashte. Its tube is narrower, and its tone shriller than the common trumpet.-Pardou. CLASSIS. The name was first given by Tullius Servins in making divisions of the Roman people. The first of six classes were called classici, by way of eminence, and hence authors of the first rank came to be called classics, 573 B. c. CLEMENTINES. Apocryphal pieces, fable and error, attributed to a primitive father, Clemens Romanus, a cotemporary of St. Paul; some say he succeeded Peter as bishop of Rome. He died A. D. 102. —Niceson. Also the decretals of pope Clement V., who died 1314, published by his successor.BowJye'r. Also Augustine monlks, each of whom having been a superior nine years, then mlerged into a common monk.,CLEMIENTINES AND URBANISTS. Parties by whom Europe was distracted for several years. The Urbanists were the adherents of pope Urban VI.. the others those of Robert, son of the count of Geneva, who took the title of Clement VII. All the kingdoms of Christendom according to their various interests and inclinations were divided between these two pontiffs; the courts of France, Castile, Scotland, &c. adhering to Clement, and Rome, Italy; and 258 THE WORLD'S PROGaRESS. [ CLC' England declaring for Urban. This contention was consequent upon the death of Gregory XI. 1378. —Hume. CLERGY. In the first century the clergy were distinguished by the title of presbyters or bishops. The bishops in the second century ass-uLmed higher functions, and the presbyters represented the inferior priests of the Levites: this distinction was still further promoted in the third century; and, under Constantine, the clergy attained the recognition and protection of the secul lar power. CLERGY IN ENGLAND. They increased rapidly in number early in the seventh century, and at length controlled the king and kingdom. Drunkenness was forbidden among the clergy by a law, so early as 747 A. D. The first fiuiit;. of the then clergy were assigned by parliament to the king, 1534. The clergy were excluded from parliament in 1536. The conference between the Protestant and Dissenting clergy was held in 1604. See Conferenlce. Two thousand resigned their benefices in the church of England, ratheI than subscribe their assent to the book of common prayer, including the thirtynine articles of religion, as enjoined by the Act of Uniformity, 1661-2. The Irish Protestant clergy were restored to their benefices, from which they had been expelled, owing to the state of the kingdom under akmes II., 1689. The Clergy Incapacitation act passed, 1801. See CGl/scrt of England. CLERK. The Clergy were first styled clerks, owing to the judges being chosen after the Norman custom from the sacred order; and the officers being clergy; this gave them that denomination, which they keep to this day.-Blacckstoe's Coqmmt. CLOCK. That called the clepsydra, or water-clock, was introduced at Rome 158 B. c. by Scipio Nasica. Toothed wheels were applied to them by Ctesibius, about 140 B. c. Said to have been found by Cmsar on invading Britain, 55 D. c. The only clock supposed to be then in the world was sent by pope Paul I. to Pepin, king of' France, A. D. 760. Pacificus, archdeacon of Verona, invented one in the ninth century. Originally the wheels were three feet in diameter. The earliest complete clock of which there is any certain record, was made by a Saracen mechanic, in the 13th century. The scapement, ascribed to Gerbert, A.D. 1000 den) and the younger Galileo conA clock constructed by Richard, abbot structed the pendulum - A.. 1641 of St. Alban's, about - - - 1326 Christian Huygens contested this discoA strilking clock in Westminster - 1368 very, and made his pendulumn clock A perfect one made at Paris by Vick - 1370 some time previously to - - 1658 The first portable one made - 1530 Fromantil, a Dutchman, improved the In England no clock went accurately pendulum, about - - l(i before that set up at Hampton-court Repeating clocks and watches invented (maker's initials, N. 0.) - - 1540 by Barlowv, about - - -1676 Richard Harris (who erected a clock in The dead beat, and horizontal escapethe church of St. Paul s, Covent-Gar- ments, by Graham, about - - - 1700 The subsequent improvements were the spiral balance spring suggested., and the duplex scapement invented by Dr. Hooke; pivot holes jewelled by Facio; the detached scapement invented by Mudge, and improved by Berthoud, Arnold, Earnshaw and others. CLOCK, MAGNETIC. Invented by Dr. Locke of Cincinnati, 184-17-8. ('LOTH. Both woollen and linen cloth were lknown in very early times. Coarse woollens were introduced into England A. D. 1191; and seventy fitmilies of cloth-workers from the Netherlands settled in Englancl by Edward III.'s invitation, and the art of weaving was thereby introduced, 1331. — Ryszecr's Padercr. Woollens were first made at Kendal, in 1390. Medleys were 11anufactured, 1614. Our fine broad cloths were yet sent to Holland to be dyed, 1654. Dyed and dressed in England, by one Brewer. from the Low Countries, 1667. The manufacture was discouraged in Ireland and that of line2 COA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 259 countenanced, at the request of both houses of parliament, 1698. See Woollel Cloth. CLOVIS, FAMILY OF. Kings of France. The real founder of the French monarchy was Clovis I., who commenced his reign A. D. 481, and was a warlike prince. I-e expelled the Romans, embraced the Christian religion, and published the Salique law. On his being first told of the sufferings of Christ, he exclaiecl, " 0, had I been there with my valiant Gauls, how I would have avenged him!" Clovis united his conquests from the Romans, Germans, and Goths, as provinces to the then scanty dominions of France: removed the seat of Government from Soissons to. Paris, and made this the capital of his new kingdom; he died in 511. —Hena/lt. COACH. The coach is of French invention. Under Francis I., who was a cotemporary with our Henry VIII., there were but two in Paris, one of which belonged to the queen, and the other to Diana, the natural daughter of Henry II. There were but three in Paris in 1550; and Henry IV. had one, but without straps or springs. The first courtier who set up this equipage was John de Laval de Bois-Dauphin, who could not travel otherwise on account of his enormous bulk. Previously to the use of coaches the kings of France travelled on horseback, the princesses were carried in litters, and ladies rode behind their squires. The first coach seen in England was in the reign of Mary, about 1553.-Priestley's Lect. They were introduced much earlier.A'nd'evs' Hist. Grceat Brit. They were introduced by Fitz-Allen, earl of Arundel, in 1580.-Siowe. And in some years afterwards the art of making them.-Axder'sol7s Hist. qf Comnmver'ce. A bill was brought into parliament to prevent the effeminacy of men riding in coaches, 43 Eliz. 1601.* —Carle. See Celrinages, Hcacl:kney Coaches, llcail Coaches, &c. COALITIONS. The great coalitions against France since the period of the French revolution, have been six in number; and they generally arose out of the subsidizing by England of the great powers of the Continent. They were entered into as follows: 1st. The king of Prussia issues his ma- 4th. By Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, nifesto - - - June 26, 1792 and Saxony - - Oct. 6, 1806 2ndl. By Great Britain, Germany, Rus- 5th. 13y England and Austria - April i, 1809 sia, Naples, Portugal, and Turlcey, 6ttl. By Russia aind Prussia; the treaty sigined - - - June 22, 1799 ratified at Kalisch - March 17, 1813 31rd. B1y Great Britain, Russia, Austria, See Tr'eaties. and Naples - - Aug. 5,1805 COALITION MINISTRY. This designation was given to the celebrated minlistry of Mr. Fox and lord North, and which was rendered memnorable as an extraordinary union in political life, on account of the strong personal clislike which had always been displayed by these personages, each towards the other. The ministry was fornied April 5, 1783, and dissolved Dec. 19, samle year. See ABdlziisterattio ios. COALS. It is contended, with much seeming truth, that coals, although they are not mentioned by the Romans in their notices of Britain, were yet in use by the ancient Britons.-BraLdt. They were first discovered at Newcastleupon-Tyne in 1234, some say earlier; and others in 1239. Sea-coal was prohibited from being used in and near London, as being " prejudicial to humnan health;" and even smiths were obliged to burn wood, 1273.-Stiowce. Coals were first made atn article of trade fiom TNewcastle to London, 4 Richiard II. 1381 -iZylter's,PwdcrclL Notwithsta'ndingl the lany previous collplainis * In the beginning of the year 16 9, the earl of Northuemberlanld, who had been imprisoned ever slnce the Guneeowder Plot, obtained his liberation I-Iearing that Buckingham was drawn about with six horses in his coach (being the first that was so), he put on eight to his, and in that mannel pt,-sed from the tower through the city. —apoin. 260 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [COD against coal as a public nuisance, it was at length generally burned in London in 1400; but coals were not in common use in England until the reign of Charles I., 1625. NUMIBERP OF CHALDItONS OF COALS CONSTJINED IN LONDON IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS: 1650 - 160,000 chald. 3800 - 814,000 chaId. 1830 - 1,588,360 chald. 1700 - 317,000 ditto. 1810 - 980,372 ditto. 1835 2,299,816 tons. 1750 - - 510,000 ditto. 1820 - - 1,171,178 ditto. 1840 - 2,638,256 dittc. The coal-fields of Durham and Northuimberland are 72.3 square miles in extent; those of Newcastle, Sunderland, Whitehaven, and other places, are also of vast magnitude; and there are exhaustless beds of coal in Yorkshire. The coal in South Wales alone, would, at the present rate of consumption, supply all England for 2000 years.-B-lakevell. It is supposed that there are now about 25,000,000 of tons consunled annually in Great Britain.-Phtillips. Scotland teems with the richest mines of coal, and besides her vast collieries there must be vast fields unexplored. —Pex,?tanxt. Fine coal is found in Kilkenny, Ireland. The first ship laden with Irish coal arrived in Dublin front Newry, in 1742.-EBxr's. COALS IN THE UNITED STATES. Lehigh coal from Mauch Chunk, Pennsylvania, first mined and used, 1806. According to Mr. Lyell, the coal strata in Pennsylvania, Ohio, &c., extend 700 miles. COCCEIANS. A sect founded by John Cocceius of Bremen; they held, amongst other singular opinions, that of a visible reign of Christ in this world, after a general conversion of the Jews and all other people to the Christian faith, 1665. COCHINEAL. The properties of this insect became known to the Spaniards soon after their conquest of Mexico, in 1518. Cochineal was not known in Italy in 1648, although the art of dyeing then flourished there.-See Dyeivng. The annual import of this article into England was 260,000 lbs. in 1830; and 1,081,776, in 1845. COCK-FIGHTING. Practised by the early barbarous nations, and by Greece. It was instituted at Rome after a victory over' the Persians, 476 B. c.; and was introduced by the Romans into England. William Fitz-Stephen, in the reign of Henry II., describes coclk-fighting as the sport of school-boys 0on Shrove Tuesday. Cock-fighting was prohibited, 39 Edward III., 1365; and again by Henry VIII. and Cromwell. Till within these few years there was a Cock-pit Royal, in St. James's-park: but this practice is happily now discouraged by the law. COCK-LANE GHOST. A famous imposition (!) practised upon the credulous multitude by William Parsons, his wife, and daughter. The contrivance was that of a female ventriloquist, and all who heard her believed she was a ghost: the deception, which arose in a malignant conspiracy, was carried on for some time at the house, No. 33 Cock-lane, London; brut it was at length detected, and the parents were condemned to the pillory and imprisonment, July 10, 1762. COCOA. Unknown in Europe until the discovery of America, about 1500. The cocoa-tree supplies the Indians with almost whatever they stand in neecle of, as bread, water, wine, vinegar, brandy, milk, oil, honey, sugar, needles, clothes, thread, cups, spoons, basins, baskets, paper, masts for ships, sails, cordage, nails, covering for their houses, &c.-Ray. CODES or LAWS. The laws of Phoroneus were instituted 1807 B. c.: those of Lycurgus, 884 B. c.; of Draco, 623 E. C.; of Solon, 587 B. c. Alfi'entus Varus, the civilian, first collected the Roman laws about 66 B. c.; and Servius Sulpicius, the civilian, embodied them about 53 a. c. The Gregorian and Hernmoginian codes were published A. D. 290; the Theodosian code in 435' the celebrated code of the emperor Justinian, in 529-a digest frorL (;OI j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 261 this last was made in 533.-Blair. Alfred's code of laws is the foundation of the common law of England, 887.-See Laws. CODICILS TO WILLS. C. Trebatius Testa, the civilian of Rome, was the first who introduced the use of this supplementary instrument to wills, about 31 B. C. C(EUR DE LION, oR TrHE LION-HEmARTED. The surname given to Richard Plantagenet I. of England, on account of his dauntless courage, about A. D. 1192. This surname was also conferred on Louis VIII. of France, who signalized himself in the crusades and in his wars against England, about 1223. This latter prince had also the appellation of the Lions given im. COFFEE. It grows in Arabia, Persia, the Indies, and America. Its use as a beverage is traced to the Persians.* It came into great repute in Arabia Felix about A. D. 1454; and passed thence into Egypt and Syria, and thence, in 1511, to Constantinople, where coffee-houses were opened in 1554. M. Thevenot, the traveller, was the first who brought it into France, to which country he returned after an absence of seven years, in 1662.-/Chamber's. Coffee was brought into England by Mr. Nathariel Canopus, a Cretan, who made it his common beverage at Baliol College, Oxford, in 1641.-Anderson. C.OFFEE AND TEA. The consumption in the United States at different periods is reported by the secretary of' the treasury (see Avicriccan Almanac, 1848) thus:1821 - o Tea, 4,586,223 lbs.'.. Coffee, 11,886,063 lbs. 1830 - - - 6,873,091 lbs. - " 38,363.687 lbs 1885 - - - " 12,331,638 lbs. - - " 91,753,002 lbs. 1842 -- - " 13,482,645 lbs. - - - " 107,387,567 lbs. 1846 - - - " 16,891,020 lbs. - - " 124,336,054 lbs. COFFEE-HOUSES. The first in England was kept by a Jew, named Jacobs, in Oxford, 1650. In that year, Mr. Edwards, an English Turkey merchant, brought home with him a Greek servant named Pasquet, who kept the first house for making coffee in London, which he opened in George-yard, Loinmbard-street, in 1652. Pasquet afterwards went to Holland, and opened the first house in that country.-Adersose. The Rainbow coffee-house, near Temple-bar, was represented as a nuisance to the neighborhood, 1657. Coffee-houses were suppressed by proclamation, 26 Charles II., 1675. The proclamation was afterwards suspended on the petition of the traders in tea and coffee. COFFEE-TREES. These trees were conveyed from Mocha to Holland in 1616; and wealre carried to the West Indies in the year 1726. First cultivated at Surinam by the Dutch about 1718. The culture was encouraged in the plantations about 1732. COFFINS. The Athenian heroes were buried in coffins of the cedar tree; owing to its aromatic and incorruptible qualities.- Tl/cyJdides. Coffins of marble and stone were used by the Romans. Alexander is said to have been buried in one of gold: and glass coffins have been found in England.- Gonugh. The earliest record of wooden coffins amongst us, is that of the burial of king Arthur, who was buried in an entire trunk of oak, hollowed, A. D. 542 -Asser. The patent coffins were invented in 1796. COIN. Homer speaks of brass money as existing 1184 B. c. The invention of coin is ascribed to the Lydians, who cherished commerce, and whose money ~ Some ascribe the discovery of coffee as a beverage to the prior of a monastery, who, being informed by a goat-herd that his cattle sometimes browsed upon the tree, and that they would then wake at night and sport and bound upon the hills, became curious to prove its virtues. He accordingly tried it on his muonls, to prevent their sleeping at matins, and he found that it checked their sluenbers. 262 rILE NWOMILD'S PtIOGRESS. COl was of gold and silver. Both were coined by Pihidon tyrant of Argos, 862 n. c. Money was coined at Rome under Servius Tullius, about 573 B. c,. The most ancient known coins are 3Mlacedonian, of the fifth century B. c.; but others are believed to be more ancient. Brass money only was in use at Roime previously to 269 B. c. (when Fabius Pictor coined silver), a sign that little correspondence was then held with the East, where gold and silver were in use long before. Gold was coined.206 B. c. Iron money was used in Sparta, and Iron and tin in Britain.-Dzqiesnzo y. Julius Caesar was the first who obtained the express permission of the senate to place his portrait on the coins, and the example was soon followed. In the earlier and more simple days of Rome, the likeness of no living personage appeared upcpt their monev: the heads were those of their deities, or of those who had received divine honors. COIN IN ENGLAND. The filst coinage in England was under the Romans at Camulodunum, or Colchester. English coin was of diflerent shapes, as square, oblong, and round, until the middle ages, when round coin only was used. Groats were the largest silver coin until after A. D. 1351. Coin waas made sterling In 1216, before which time rents were mostly paid in kind, and maney was found only in the coffers of the barons.-S-,lowe The first gold coins on certain record, end to the circulation of private leadstruck, 42 Henry III. A. D. 1257 en pieces, &c. - - - - 1620 Gold florin first struck, Ed. III. (Ce t- HIalfpence and falrthings coined - 1665 de) - - - 1337 Guineas first coined, 25 Char. II. - 1673 First large copper coinage, putting an Sovereigns, new coinage - - 1816 Half-farthings - - 1843 Gold coin was introduced in six shilling pieces by Edward III. and nobles followed, at six shillings and eightpence, and hence the lawyer's fee: afterwards there were half and quarter nobles. Guineas were of the sasne size; but being made of a superior gold fiom sovereigns, guineas passed for more. See Guineas. English and Irish money were assimilated Jan. 1. 18g. See Gold. MONEYS COINED IN TI-IH FOLLOWING REIGNS, AND THEIR AMOUNT. Elizabeth - ~E5,832,000 James II. - - ~3,740,000 George III. and regency, James I. - 2,500,000 William III. - - 10,511,900 gold - - 74,501,56; Charles I. - - 10,500,000 Anne - - 2,691,626 George IV. - 41,782,815 Cromwell - 1,000,000 George I. - 8,725,920 William iV. - -10,827,603 Charles I. - 7,524,100 George II. - 11,966,576 Victoria, to 1846, 82.870.814The coin of the realm was about twelve millions in 1711.-Da:veica,,t. It was estimated at sixteen millions 1762.-Andedrsoes. It was supposed to be twenty millions in 1786.-Chalairer's. It amounted to thirty-sevcen millions in 1800. -Ph/iltips. - The gold is twenty-eight millions, and the rest of the metallic currency is thirteen millions, while the paper largely supplies the place of coin.1830.-DLke of Wlelli-g0lon. In 1841, it may be calculated as reaching forty-five millions. See Gold. COIN of THE U. S. The U. S. Mint was established in 1792. The coinage foiom that time to 1836 was thus:Pieces. Valse. Gold 4,716,325 - $22,102,035 Silver - - - 115,421,762 - 46,739,182 Copper. 77,752,965 - - 740,331 Total- 197,891,502 - $69,581,549 1837 to 1848 inclusive 145,389,748 - $81,436,165 Total in 56 years - 343,281,250 pieces. 8151,017,714 The gold coinage consists of double eagles $20, eagles, half eaales, quarter eagles and dollars. Gold dollars were first coined in 1819. The first deposit of' California gold for coining, was made by Mr. David Carter, 1804 ounces, Dec. 8, 1848. coI, ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 263 COINING.'hlis operation was originally performed by the metal being placed between' two steel dies, and struck by a hamnlllmer. In 1553. a mill was invented by Antonie Brucher, and introduced into England in 1562. An engine for coining was invented by Balancier in 1617. The great improvements of the art were effected by Boulton and Watt, at Soho, 1788, and subsequently. The art was rendered perfect by the creation of the present costly machinery at the lmint, London, commenced in 1811. I'OLD. The extremes of heat and cold are found to produce the samne perceptions on the skin, and whein mercury is fiozen at forty degrees below zero, the sensation is the same as touching red-hot iron. During the hard frost 1740, a palace of ice was built at St. Petersburg, after an elegant model, and in the just proportions of Augustan architecture. — Gseig. Perhaps the coldest day ever known in London was Dec. 25, 1796, when the thermometer was 160 below zero. Quicksilver was frozen hard at.Moscow Jan. 13, 1810. See,rosts, Ice. COLISZEUM. The edifice of this name at Rome was built by Vespasian, in the place where the basin of Nero's gilded house had previously been A. D. 72. The splendid Coliscmum of London, and one of its most worthy objects of admiration, is built near the Regent's Park, and was completed in 1827-8. COLLEGES. University education preceded the erection of colleges, which were munificent foundations to relieve the students from the expense of living at lodging-houses and at inns. Collegiate or academic degrees are said to have been first conferred at the University of Paris, A. D. 1140; but some authorities say, not before 1215. In England, it is contended that the date is much higher, and some hold that Bede obtained a degree formally at Cambridge, and John de Beverley at Oxford, and that they were the first doctors of those universities. Cacmbr'idge, O:xfor'd, &c. Cheshunt College founded - A. D. 1792 Mareschal College, Aberdeen - A-D. 1593 Doctor's Commons, civil law - -1670 Maynooth College 1- 795 Durham University * Physicians, London - - - 1518 Edinburgh University - -1580 Sion College - - - 1329 Eton College- - - 1441 Sion College, re-founded - 1630 Glasgow University -1451 Surgeons, London - -1745 Harrow - - 1585 Trinity College, Dublin - 1591 Highbury College - - 1826 University, London - - -1826 King's College, Aberdeen 1494 Winchester College -. -1387 Ring's College, London - -1829 COLLEGES IN THIE UNITED STATES. The first established was Hartvar'd, at Cambridge, Mass., by John Harvard, 1638; and this is now the most important and best endowed in the United States. The second was illinam acld Mary, in Virginia, 1693. Third, Yale, at New Haven,-1700. Fourth, College of New Jersey, Princeton, 1746. Fifth, Colnslbia, New-York, 1754. Sixth, University of Pennsylvac7bia, Philadelphia, 1755. Seventh. Browse University, Providence, 1764. Eighth, DcCar'sMtosth/, at Hanover, N. H., 1769. Ninth, Rltgers, New Brunswick, N. J., 1770. These were all prior to the Revolutioni. The first medical school was that at Philadelphia, founded 1764. The first law school was founded at Litchfield, Conn., 1782. In 1849 there were 118 colleges in the United States; 42 theological schools; 12 law schools; 36 medical schools. See list in American~ Almcnacc. Girard College opened Jan. 1, 1848. COLOGNE. A member of tlhe Hanseatic league, 1260. The Jews were expelled from here in 1485, and the Protestants in 1618, and it has since fallen into ruin. Cologneo was taken by the French, uncder Jourdan, Oct. 6, 1794. In the cathedral are shown the heads of the three Magi; and inl the church of St. Ursula is the tomb of that saint, and bones belonging to the 11,000 virgins said to have been put to death along with her. COLOMBIA. A republic in South America, formel of states which have 264 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [L co declared their independence of the crown of Spain; but its several chiefs have been contending one against another, and each state has been a prey to civil war, and the stability of the union is far from assured. New Grenada, discovered by Colum- Battle of Carabobo, the Royalists wholly bus..D. 1497 overthrown - - June 24,1821 Venezuela discovered - - 1498 Bolivar is named Dictator by the Con1 he Caraccas formed into a kingdom, gress of Peru - - Feb. 10, 1824 under a captain-general - - 157 Alliance between Colombia and Mexico The history of those provinces under formed - - June 30, 1324 the tyranny and oppression of the Spa- Alliance with Guatimala - March l125 niards, presents but one continuous Congress at Lima namnes Bolivar l'rescene of rapine and blood. sident of the republic - Aug. 1826 * * * i. e * * * DeBolivar's return to Bogota - Nov. 18'26 Confederation of Venezuela - 1810 He assumes the dictatorship - Nov. 23, 1o66 Independence formally declared - 1811 Padilla's insurrection - April 9, 18S Defeat of General Miranda - 1812 Conspiracy of Santander against the Bolivar defeated by Boves - - - 1816 life of Bolivar - Sept. 25, 1828 Bolivar defeats Morillo in the battle of Bolivar resigns his office of president of Sombrero - - - Feb. 1818 the republic - - April 11, 1829 Union of the States of Grenada and Ve- He dies - - Dec. 17, 1830 nezuela - - Dec. 17, 1819 Santander dies - - May 26, 1840 COLON. This point was known to the ancients, but was not expressed as it is in modern times. The colon and period were adopted and explained by Thrasylsachus about 373 B. c.-Suidras. It was known to Aristotle. O-ir punctuation appears to have been introduced with the art of printing. The colon and semicolon were both first used in British literature, in the sixteenth century. COLONIES or GREAT BRITAIN. They are described under the name of each. The white and the free colored population, as far as it has been ascertained, amounts to about 2,500,000, and the slaves at the period of their emancipation, were 770,280. The number of convicts in New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land, is 36,267; the aborigines of the latter place have not been ascertained. The act for the abolition of slavery throughout the Britis11 colonies, and for compensation to the owners of slaves (X20,000,000 sterling) was passed 3 & 4 William IV. 1833. By the provisions of this statute all the slaves throughout the British colonies were emancipated on Angust 1, 1834. COLONIZATION. The American Colonization Society, for colonizing fiee people of color on the coast of Afi'ica, founded December, 1816, at Washington, chiefly through the exertions of Rev. Robert Finley. [Plan advocated by Jefferson as early as 1777, urged by Dr. Thornton, 1787, and by the legislature of Virginia, 1801.] First president of the society, Bushrocl Washington; succeeded by Charles Carroll, James Madison, and Henry Clay Liberia purchased 1821. COLOSSUS oF RHODES. A brass statue of Apollo, seventy cubits high,, erected at the port of Rhodes in honor of the sun, and esteemed one of the wonders of the world. Built by Chares of Lindus, 290 a. c. It was thrown down by an earthquake 224 ai. c.; and was finally destroyed by the Saracens on their taking Rhodes in A. D. 672. The figure stood upon two moles, a leg being extended on each side of the harbor, so that a vessel in full sail collld enter between. A winding staircase ran to the top, from which could' be discerned the shores of Syria, and the ships that sailed on the coast of Egypt. The statue had lain in ruins for nearly nine centul-ies, and had never been repaired; bust snow the Saracens pulled it to pieces, and sold the metal, weighinlg 720,900 lbs., to a Jew, who is said to have loaded 900 camnels in transporting it to Alexandr-ia-b-Dc 7'I-esncsy. COLUMBIA, DISTRICT or. A tract of country 10 miles square, ceded by Virginia and Maryland to the United States, for the purpose of forming the seat of government. It included the cities of Washington, Georgetovsi. COM J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 265 and Alexandria; but in 1843 the latter was re-ceded to Virginia. Population in 1800, 14,093; in 1840, 43,712, including 8,361 free colored persons, and 4,694 slaves. COMEDY. Thalia is the muse of comedy and lyric poetry. Susarion and Dolon were the inventors of' theatrical exhibitions, 562 B. c. They performed the first comedy at Athens, on a wagon or movable stage, on four wheels, for which they were rewarded with a basket of figs and a cask of wine.Ars'ndelian Marbles. Aristophanes was called the prince of ancient comedy, 434 B. c., and Menander that of new, 320 B. c. Of Plautus, 20 comedies are extant; he flourished 220 B. C. Statius Ccecilius wrote upwards of 30 comedies; he flourished at Rome, 180 B. c. The comedies of Lcelius and Terence were first acted 154 B. c. The first regular comedy was performed in England about A. D. 1551. It was said of Sheridan, that he wrote the best comedy (the Sc/hool for Scandal), the best opera (the DxLenna), and the best afterpiece (the Cr'itic), in the English language.-See Drama. COMETS. The first that was discovered and described accurately, was by Nicephorus. At the birth of the great Mithridates two large comets appeared, which were seen for seventy-two days together, and whose splendor eclipsed that of the mid-day sun, and occupied forty-five degrees, or the fourth part of the heavens, 135 a. c.-Justin. A remarkable one was seen in England, 10 Edward III., 1337.-Stowue. These phenomena were first rationally explained by Tycho Brache, about 1577. A comet, which terrified the people from its near approach to the earth, was visible from Nov. 3, 1679, to March 9, 1680. The orbits of comets were proved to be ellipses, by Newton, 1704. A most brilliant comet appeared in 1769, which passed within two millions of' miles of the earth. One still more brilliant appeared in Sept., Oct., and Nov., 1811, visible all the autumn to the naked eye. Another brilliant comet appeared in 1823.-See the three next ar'ticles. COMET, BIELA'S. This comet has been an object of fear to many on account of the nearness with which it has approached, not the earth, but a point of the earth's path: it was first discovered by M. Biela, an Austrian officer, Feb. 28, 1826. It is one of the three comets whose reappearance was predicted, its revolution being performed in six years and thirty-eight weeks. Its second appearance was in 1832, when the time of its perihelion passage was Nov. 27. Its third appearance was in 1839, and its fourth in 1845. COMET, ENCKE'S. First discovered by M. Pons, Nov. 26, 1818, but justly named by astronomers after professor Encke, from his success in detecting its orbit, motions, and perturbations; it is, like the preceding, one of the three cormets which have appeared according to prediction, and its revolutions are made in 3 years and 15 weeks. (00MET, HALLEY'S. This is the great and celebrated comet of the greatest astronomer of England.-Lalande. Doctor Halley first proved that many of the appearances of comets were but the periodical returns of the same bodies, and he demonstrated that the comet of 1682 was the same with the comet of 1456, of 1531, and 1607, deducing this fact from a minute observation of the first mentioned comet, and being struck by its wonderful resemblance to the comets described as having appeared in those years: Halley, therefore, first fixed the identity of comets, and first predicted their periodical returns. — Vince's Asl ronosny. The revolution of Halley's comet is performed in about seventy-six years: it appeared in 1759, and came to its perihelion on March 13; and its last appearance was in 1835. COMMERCE. Flourished in Arabia, Egypt, and anmong the Phoenicians in the earliest ages. In later times it was spread, over Europe by a confederacy of maritime cities A. D. 1241.-See Hlanse Toewes. The discoveries of Columbuns and the enterprises of the Dutch and Portuguese, enlarged the 12 '266 TI-HE WORLD'S PROGRIESS. L COM sphere of commerce, and led other nations, particularly ngland, to engage extensively in its pursuit.-See the vcarious articles connected wit/c this subject. CO'MMERCE. See NcYvigationb. COMMERCE, NEW-YORK CIAMBER OF, instituted 1783. COMMERCIAL TREATIES. The first treaty of commerce made by England with any fbreign nation, was entered into with the Flemings, 1 Edwa-.d I., 1272. The second was with Portugal and Spain, 2 Edward II. 1308. — An.,derson. See'reraties. COMMON COUNCIL OF LONDON. Its formation commenced about 1208. The charter of Henry I. mentions the fJllk-mote, this being a Saxon appel:ta-, tion, and which may fairly be rendered the court or assembly of the people, COMMON LAWN or ENGLAND. Custom, to which length of time has given the force of law, or rules generally received and held as law, called lce no7, scripta, in contradistinction to the written law. Common law derives its origin from Alfred's body of laws (which was lost), A. D. 890. The common law of the United States is founded on that of Englandl. —See Coustomn. Laws. COMMON PRAYER. Published in the English language by the authority of pariliament, in 1548. The Commlon Prayer was voted out of doors, by purliament, and the Directory (web;ic/h see), set up in its room in 1644. A proclamation was issued against it, 1647. See Directory. COMMONS, HousE OF. The great representative assembly of the people of Great Brlitain, and third branch of the Imperial legislature, originated with Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, who ordered returns to be made of two knights from every shire, and deputies from. certain boroughs, to meet the barons and clergy who were his friends, with a view thereby to strengthen his own power in opposition to that of his sovereign Henry III. This was the first confirmed outline of a house of commons; and the first commolis were sunmmoned to meet the king in parliament 42 & 43 Henry III. 1258. -- Goldsmeitl. Stowe. According to other authorities, the first parliament formally convened was the one summoned 49 Henry III., Jan. 23, 1265; and writs of the latter date are the earliest extant. Some historians date -he first regularly constituted parliament from the 22d of Edward I. 1294. The first recorded speaker, duly chosen, was Petre de Montfort in 1260; he was killed at the battle of Evesham, in 1265. The city of London first sent members to'parliament in the reign of Henry III., while Westminstt was not represented in that assembly until the latter end of Henry VIII's life, or rather in the first House of Commons of Edward VI. The following is the constitution of the HI-ouse of Commons since the passing of the Reform Bills (wvhicc, see,) in 1832:ENGLISH.-County members - 144 English and VWelsh - 500 Universities - 4 ScoTcH.-County members - 30 Cities and boroughs - - 323-471 Cities and Boroughs - 3 —-53 WELSH. —County members - - 15 InISH.-County members - G4 Cities and Boroughs - 14 —-29 University - - 2 Cities and borouLghs - 39-105 English and Welsh - 500, - Total (see Parliament) - 58 COMMONWEALTH or ENGLAND. This was the interregnum between the decollation of Charles I. and the restoration of Charles 11. The form of the government was changed to a republic on the execution of Charles I. Jan. 30, 1649. Oliver Cromwell was made Protector, Dec. 12, 1653. Richard Ci:(m.well was made Protector, Sept. 1658. Monarchy was restored in the person of Charles II., who returned to London 3MIay 29, 1670. See EnglZand. COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. See RoME. The greatest and most renown ed republic of the ancient world. It dates fiom 509 B. c., wheen the gove;-I: CON ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 267 ment of king;s ceased with the expulsion of Tarquinins Superbus, the seventh and last king of Romne, and the election of consuls. After this revolution Rome. advanced by rapid strides towards universal dominion. Tie whole of Italy received her laws. Sicily, Sardinia, Spain, Carthage, Aftica, Greece, Asia, Syria, Egypt, Gaul, Britain, and even a part of Germany, waelre successively subdued by her arms: so that in the age of Julius Cmesar this republic had the Euphrates, ounnt Taunrus, and Armenia, for the boundaries in the east; Ethiopia, in the south; the Danube, in the north; and the Atlantic Ocean, in the west. The replublic existecl under consuls and other magistrates until the battle of Actiuln, fiom which we commonly date the commencement of the Roman empire, 31 B. c. COMMUNION. It originated in the Lord's snpper, and was practised early in the primitive church. Communicating under the form of bread alone is said to have its rise in the west, under pope Urban II. 1096. The fourth Lateran council decreed that every believer shall receive the communion at least at Easter, 1215. The communion service, as now observed in. the church of England, was instituted by the authority of council, 1548. COMPANIES. Among; the earliest commercial companies in England may be named the Steel-yard society, established A. D. 1.232. The second company was the merchants of St. Thomas a Becket, in 1248.-Stoewe. The third wvas the Merchant Adventulrers incorporated by Elizabeth, 1564. Th, re are ninety-one city companies in London; the first twelve are 1 AMercers A. D. 1393 7 Merchant Tailors - A. D. 1466 2 Grocers -1345 8 Haberdashers -1447 3 Drapers - 1439 9 Salters - - 1558 4 Fishmoners - - 1384 10 Ironmongers- - 144 5 Goldsmiths - 1327 11 Vintners -1437 6 Skinners 1327 12 Clothworkers- - - -1482 COMAIPANIES, BUBBLE. Ruinous speculations coming under this name have been formed, commonly by designing persons. Law's Bubble, in 1720-1, was perhaps the imost extraordinary of its kind, and the Solth Sea Bubble, in the same year, was scarcely less memorable for its ruin of thousands of families. Many companies were established in Great Britain in 1824 and 1825, and most of them turned out to be bubbles; and owing to the rage for taking shares in each scheme as it was projected, immense losses were incurred by individuals, and the families of thousands of' speculators were totally ruined. See Law's Bubble, and Bankl'rurpts. COMPASS, THE MARINER'S. It is said to have been known to the Chinese, 1115 a. c.; but this seems to be a mistake. They had a machine which selfmoved, pointed towvards the soeth. and safely guided travellers by land or water; and some authors have mistaken it for the mariner's compass, the invention of which is by some ascribed to Marcus Paulus, a Venetian, A. D. 1260; while others, with more seeming justice, assign it to Flavio Gioja, of Pasitano, a navigator of Naples. Until his time the needle was laid upon a couple of pieces of straw, or small split sticks, in a vessel of water; Giqja introduced the suspension of the nleedle as we have it now, 1302. Its variation was discovered by Columbus, in 1492. The compass-box and hanging conmpass used by navigators were invented by William Barlowe, an English divine and natural philosopher, in 1608.Bcioe. Die. The measuring compass was invented by Jost Byng, of Hesse, in 1602. CONCEPTION OF THIE VIRGIN. This is a feast in tile Romish church in honor of the Virgin Mary having been conceived and born immaculate, or without original sin. The festival was appointed to be held on the 8th of Dec. by the church, in 1389. CONCEPTIONISTS, an order of nunsu established 1488. A268 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [CON CONCERT. The first public subscription concert was performed at Oxford, in 1665, when it was attended by a great number of personages of rank and talent from every part of England. The first concert of like kind performed in London was in 1678. Concerts afterwards became fashionable and frequent. CONCHOLOGY. This branch of natural history is mentioned by Aristotle and Pliny, and was a favorite with the most intellectual and illustrious men. It was first reduced to a system by John Daniel Major of Kiel, who published his classification of the Testacca in 1675. Lister's systemn was published in 1685; and that of Largius in 1722. CONCLAVE FOR TIlE ELECTION oF POPES. The conceave is a range of small cells in the hall of the Vatican, or palace of the pope at Rome, where the cardinals usually hold their meetings to elect a pope. The word is also used for the assembly, or meeting of the cardinals shut up for the election of a pope. The conclave had its rise in A. D. 1271. Clement IV. being dead at Viterbo in 1268, the cardinals were nearly three years unable to agree in the choice of a successor, and were upon the point of breaking up, when the magistrates, by the advice of St. Bonaventure, then at Viterbo, shut the gates of their city, and locked up the cardinals in the pontifical plJace till they agreed. Hence the present custom of shutting up the cardinals while they elect a pope. CONCORDANCE TO THE BIBLE. An index or alphabetical catalogue of all the words in the Bible, and also a chronological account of all the transactions of that sacred volume. The first concordance to the Bible was made tunder the direction of Hugo de St. Charo, who employed as many as 500 monks upon it, A. D. 1247.-AbQb Lenglet. CONCORDAT. The name given to an instrument of agreement between a prince and the pope, usually con.cerning benefices. The celebrated concordat between Napoleon Bonaparte and Pius VII., whereby the then French consul was made, in effect, the head of the Gallican Church, as all ecclesiastics were to have their appointments from him, was signed at Paris, July 15, 1801. Another concordat between Bonaparte and the same pontiff was signed at Fontainbleau, Jan. 25, 1813. CONCUBINES. They are mentioned as having been allowed to the priests, A. D. 1132. Cujas observes, that although concubinage was beneath marriage, both as to dignity and civil effects, yet concubine was a reputable title, v- ry different from that of mistress among us. This kind of union, which is formed by giving the left hand instead of the'igAht, and called haCf-qnarriag'e, is still in use in some parts of Germany. CONFEDERATION AT PARIS. Upwards of 600,000 citizens formed this memorable confederation, held on the anniversary of the taking of the bastile, at which ceremony the king, the national assembly, the army, and the people, solemnly swore to maintain the new constitution, July 4, 1790. Sec Champ de M5ars, Bastile. CONFEDERATION OFP THE RHINE, or League of the Germanic States formed under the auspices of Napoleon Bonaparte. By this celebrated league, the minor German princes collectively engaged to raise 258,000 troops to serve in case of war, and they established a diet at Frankfort, July 12, 1806. See Germanlic Confederation. CONFERENCE. The celebrated religious conference held at Hampton Court palace, between the prelates of the church of England and the dissenlting ministers, in order to effect a general union, at the instance of the king, 2 James I. 1604. This conference led to a new translation of the Bible, wlhici CON] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 269 was executed in 1607-11, and is that now in general use in England and the United States; and during the meeting some alterations in the church liturgy were agreed upon, but this not satisfying the dissenters, nothing more was done. A conference of the bishops and presbyterian ministers with the same view was held in 1661. CONFESSION. Auricular confession in the Romish church was first instituted about A. D. 1204, and was regularly enjoined in 1215. It is made to a priest, in order to obtain absolution for the sils or faults acknowledged by the penitent, who performs a penance enjoined by the priest; and if this be done with a contrite heart, the sins thus absolved are supposed to be absolved in heaven. At the reformation, the practice was at filrst left wholly indifferent, by the council; but this was the prelude to its entire abolition in the clmurch of England.-Boosewct. CONFIRMATION. One of the oldest rites of the Christian hmurch; it was used by Peter and Paul;,ancl was general, according to some church authorities, in A. D. 190. It is the public profession of the Christian religion by an adult person, who was baptized in infancy. It is still retained in the church of England; but to make it more solemn, it has been advanced into a sacramlent by the church of Rome. CONGE D'ELIRE. The license of the king, as head of the church, to chapters, and other bodies, to elect dignitaries, particularly bishops. After the interdict of the pope upon England had been removed in 1214, king John had an arrangement with the clergy for the election of bishops. Bishops were elected by the king's Cong'e d'Elire, 26 Henry VIII., 1535. CONGRESS. An assembly of princes or ministers, or meeting for the settlement of the affirs of nations, or of a people. Several congresses were held during the continental wars; but the following were the most remarkable congresses of Europe:Congress of Soissois - June 14, 1728 Congress of Carlsbad Aug. 1, 1819 Congress of Antwerp April 8, 1793 Congress of Troppau Oct. 20, 1820 Congress of Radstadclt - Dec. 9, 1797 Congress of I.aybach May 6, 1821 Congress of Chatillon - Feb. 5, 1814 Congress of Verona - Aug. 25, 1822 Congress of Vienna N- ov. 3, 1814 See Alliances, Convenztioszs, Sc. CONGRESS, U. S. A. The first Colosial Colgsvress, composed of the delegates fromi nine of the colonies (MBass., R. I., Conn., N. Y.. N. J., Pa., Del., Md., S. Ca.), met at N. Y. Dec. 7, 1765.-Tim. Ruggles. Prest. The Conticentctdal Coegrcss met at Phila. Sep. 5, 1774: again Mlay 10, 1775: adopted Dec. Indep. July 4, 1776; met at Balt. Dec. 20, 1716; at Phila. IMarch 4, 1777; at Lancaster, Pa. Sep. 27, 1777; at York, Pa. Sep. 30. 1777; at Phila. July 2, 1778; at Princeton, June 30, 1783; at Annapolis, Nov. 26, 1783; at Trenton, Nov. 30, 1784; at N. York, Jan. 1785; and that continued to be the place of meeting until the adoption of the constitution, 1789: removed to Phila. 1790: to Washington, 1800. lONVENTION, TIIE, for tforming the Constitution of the U. S. met at Phila. May 10, 1787; in session till Sep. 17, same year. ieONGREVE ROCKETS. Invwlo ted by general sir William Congreve, in 1803. They were used with great effect in the attack upon Boulogne, in Oct. 1806, when they set a ipart of the town on fire, which burned for two days; they were employed in various operatiols in the late war with much success, disclhalrged by a corps called roclkel-ien. CONIC SECTIO1NS. Their most remarkable properties wvere probably known to the Greeks four or five centuries before the Christian era. The study of them was cultivated in the time of Plato 390 B. c. The earliest treatise was written by Aristaus, about 380 u. c. Appolonius's eight books were 270 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ cowwritten about 240 B. c The parabola was appliecl to projectiles by Galileo; the ellipse to the orbit of planets, by Kelper. CONJURATION AND WITCHCRAFT. They were declared to be felony by various statutes, and the most absurd and wicked laws were in force against them in England in former times. See article Witclhc'rcft. Conjulration was felony by statute 1 James I., 1603. This law was repealed 9 George II., 1735; but pretensions to such skill was then made punishable as a misdameanor.-Englis/b Stctutes. CONNECTICUT. One of the U. States: first settled in 1633, at Windsor, by a colony from Massachusetts. Hartford, settled by the English in 1635, the Dutch having previously built a fort there, which they did not permanently hold. English colony founded at New Haven, 1638. The two colonies of New Haven and Hartford united by a charter of Charles II., in 1655. This charter, when in danger from the tyranny of Andros, wxas preserved in an oak, near Hartford, since called the Charter Oak. Conn. took an active part in the revolution; a number of its towlns, Danbury, N. London, &c., burnt by the British during that struggle. It became one of the original 13 states, adopting the constitution of the Union in 1788, by a vote of 128 to 40. Population 1713, 17,000: 1790, 237,946; 1810, 261,942; 1830, 297,655; 1840, 309,978. CONQUEST, THE. The memorable era in British history, vhen William rduke of Normandy overcame Harold II., at the battle of Hastings, and obtained the crown which had been Ilost unfilrly bequeathed to him by EdwVard the Conlessor (for Edgar was the rightful heir) Oct. 15. 1066. William has been erroneously styled the Conqueror, for lie succeedled to the crown of Englandc by compact. He killed Harold, who was himself a usurper, andc de(feated his army, but a large portion of the kingdom afterwardcls held -out against. him, and he, unlike a conqueror, took an oath to observe the laws and customs of the realim, in order to induce the submission of the people. Farmerly the judgles were accustomed to reprehend any gentlemlan at the bar who casually gave him the title of William the Conqueror, instead of William I.-Scldes. CONSCRIPT FATHIERS. Patres conscr,'ipti was the designation given to the Roman senators, andcl used in speaking of them, in the eras of the rele ublic and the Cxsars: because their nanmes were writtetn in the registers of the senate. CONSECRATION. That of churches xwas instituted in the second centuiry. the temple of worship being dedicated with pious soleimnity to God amiui patron saint. The consecration of churches, places of burial, &c., is adnitted in the reformed religion. The consecration of bishops was ordained in the latter church in 1549.-Stowe. CONSISTORY COURT IN ENGLAND. Anciently the Consistory was joined x. itl-i the Hundred court, and its original, as divided therefrorn, is found in a lawN of William I. quoted by lord Coke, 1079. The chief and mnost ancient Consistory court of the kingdom belongs to the see of Canterbury, andi is called the Court of Arches. CONSPIRACIES AND INSURRECTIONS IN GREAT BRITAIN. Alionso t-i;e recorded conspiracies, real or supposed, the following are the most renlarllable. They are extracted fiom CLmdezl, Temple, thtele, and other authorlities of note:Of Anthony Babincgton and others, the Dule of Ormond, wouinded him, against Elizabeth - A. D. 1586 and would have hanged hin; and The Gunpowder Plot (twhich see) - 1605 who aiterwards stole the crown - 1671 Insurrection of the iifth monarchy men The pretendecl conspiracy of the French, agaitnst Charles II. - - - 1660 Spanish, and English Jesuits to assasOf Blood and his associates, who seized sinate Ch. II. revealed by the infa CON ] ICTIONARY OF DATES. 271 mous Titus Oates, Dr. Tongue, and Of Colonel Despard and others, to overothers - - - 1678 turn the government - - 1802 The Meal-tub plot.-1679 Of Robert Emmett in Dublin, when The Rye-house plot to assassinate the lord Kilwarden was killed - July 23, 1803'king on his way to Newmarket. (See Of Moreau, Pichegru, and Georges, Rye-lhouse plot) - - - - 183 against Bonaparte - Feb. 15, 1804 Of Simon Fraser, lord Lovat, against Of Thistlewood, to assassinate the Queen Anne. -. -1703 king's ministers. (See Cato-street) - 1820 CONSPIRACIES, int or relating to the United States. Burr's trial for conspiracy to divide the Joln Henry's secret mission from the United States - - - -1807 British governmnent, to undermine the American union, exposed, Feb. 25, 1812 CONSTANCE, COUNCIL OF. The celebrated council of divities (!) which condemned the pious martyrs John Huss and Jerome of Prague, to be burnt alive, a sentence executed upon the first on July 6, 1415, and on the other, on May 30, following. Russ had complied with a summons fiom the council of Constance to defend his opinions before the clergy of all nations in that city, and though the emperor Sigisnmnd had given hiim a safe-conduct, he was cast into prison. Jerome of' Prague hastened to Constance to defend hiim, but was himself loaded with chains, and in the end shared the fate of his friend. This scandalous violation of public faith, and the cruelty and treachery which attended the punishment of these unhappy disciples of Wickliffe, our great refor-mer, prove the melancholy truth, that toleration is not the virtue of priests in any form of ecclesiastical government. —HImcste. CONSTANTINA. The formler capital of NumLidia. It has become known to Europeans but very recently, they being strangers to it until the French occupation of Algiers. Here was fought a great battle between the French and the Arabs, Oct. 13, 1837, when the former carried the town by assault, but the French general, Daremonit, was killed. Achmet Bey retired with 12,000 men as the victors entered Constantina. CONSTANTINOPLE. So called from Constantine the Great, who removed the seat of the Eastern Emlpire here, A. D. 328. Taken by the western crusaders who put the emperor Mourzoufle to death, first tearing out his eyes, 1204. Retaken by Michael Paleologus, thus restoring the old Greekl line, 1261. Conquered by Mahomet II., who slew Constantine Palcologus, the last Christian emperor, and 60,000 of his people, 1453. The city, taken by assault, had held out for fifty-eight days. The unfortunate emperor, on seeing the Turks enter by the breaches, threw himself into the midst of the enemy, and was cut to pieces; the children of the imperial house were massacred by the soldiers, and the women reserved to gratify the lust of the conqueror. This put an end to the Eastern Empire, which had subsisted for 1125 years, and was the foundation of the present empire of Turkey in Europe See Eacste?-' Emspi?'e and Til''resy. CONSTANTINOPLE, ERA OF. This era has the creation placed 5508 years B. c. It was used by the Russians until the time of Peter the Great, and is still used in the Greek church. The civil year begins September 1, and the ecclesiastical year towards the end of March; the day is not exactly determined. To reduce it to our era, subtract 5508 years from January to August, and 5509 from September to the end. CONSTELLATIONS. Those of Arctns'ss, Orione, the Pleicades, and MCazzarcoth, are mentioned by Job, about 1520 B. c. Homer and Hesiod notice constellations; but though some mode of grouping the visible stars had obtained in very early ages, our first direct knowlecdge was derived frolm Claud, Ptolemmus, about A. D. 140. CONSTITUTION oF ENGLAND. See Mcegbac Ccrtcc. It comprehends the whole body of laws by which the British people are governed, and to which 272 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ cow it is presumptively held that every ihdividual has assented.-Loerd Somers. This assemblage of laws is distinguished from the term government, in this respect-that the constitution is the rule by which the sovereign oug'1h' to govern at all times: and government is that by which he does govern at any particular time.-Lord Boli~ngbroke. The king of England is not. seated on a solitary eminence of power; on the contrary, he sees his eqals in the co-existing branches of the legislature, and he recognizes his superior in the rLAW.-Sher'idanb. CONSTITUTION oF THE U. S. Adopted by the general convention of delegates from all the (then) states, May, 1787. Ratified by the several states at different times. See the respective states. The 50th anniversary of Washington's inauguration, was celebrated in New York as a jlubilee of the constitution. and John Quincy Adams pronounced an oration before the Hist. Soc'y, April 30, 1840. CONSTITUTION AND GUERRIERE. The American frigate Constitution, capt. Hull, after an action of 80 minutes, captured the British frigate Guer riere, capt. Dacres, Aug. 20, 1812. American loss 7 killed, and 7 wounded, British loss 100 killed and wounded. The English attribute the victory to the superior force of the American frigate. As this was the first important naval victory of the U. S., it caused a strong sensation. For others seo Naval Battles. CONSULS. These officers were appointed at Rome, 509 a. c. They possessed regal authority for the space of a year: Lucius Junins Brutus, and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, the latter the injured husband of Lucretia, were the first consuls. A consular government was established in France, November 9, 1799, when Bonaparte, Cambace6r, and Lebrun, were made consuls; and subsequently Bonaparte was made first consul for life, May 6, 1802. Com1mercial agents were first distinguished by the name of consuls in Italy, in 1485. CONTRIBUTIONS, VOLUNTARY. In the two last wars voluntary contributions to a vast amlount were several times made by the British people in aid of the government. The most remarkable of these acts of patriotism was that in 1798, when, to support the war against France, the contributions anmounted to two millions aind a half sterling. Several men of wealth, amiong othlers, sir Robert Peel, of Bury, Lancashire, subscribed each 10,0001.; and 200,0001. were transmitted firom India in 1 799. CONVENTICLES. These were private assemblies for religious worship, and were particularly applied to those who differed in form and doctrine firom the established church. But the term was first applied in England to the schools of Wickliffe. Conventicles, which were very numerous at the time, were prohibited 12 Charles II., 1661. CONVENTIONS. See Alliasces, Treaties, &c. in their respective places throulghout the volume. CONVENTS. They were first founded, according to some authorities, in A. D. 270. The first in England was erected at Folkstone, by Eadbald, in 630.Caisdeie. The first in Scotland was at Coldingham, when Ethelreda took the veil, in 670. They were founded earlier than this last date in Ireland. Convents were suppressed in England in various reigns, particularly in that of Henry VIII., and comparatively few now exist in Great Britain. More than 3000 have been suppressed in Europe within the last few years. The. emperor of Russia abolished 187 convents of monks, by a ukase dated July 31, 1832. The king of Prussia followed his example, and secularized all the convents in the duchy of Posen. Don Pedro put down 300 convents in Portugal, in 1834, and Spain has lately abolished 1800 convents. COP ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 273 CONI1CTS. The first arrival of transported convicts from England, at Botany Bay, was in 1788. Convicts are now sent to Van Diemen's Land, Norfolk Island, Sydney, in New South Wales, &c. See New Sont?, Wales and Tswznsportation. COOK'S VOYAGES. The illustrious captain Cook sailed from England in the Enadeavor, on his first voyage, July 30, 1768;* and returned home after having circumnavigated the globe, arriving at Spithead, July 13, 1771. Sir Joseph Banks, afterwards the illustrious president of the Royal Society, accompanied captain Cook on this voyage. Captain Cook again sailed to (explore the southern hemisphere, July 1772, and returned in July 1775. In his third expedition this great navigator was killed by the savages of O-whyhee, at 8 o'clock on the morning of February' 14, 1779. His ships, the Resolzlios? andt Discovery, arrived home at Sheerness, Sept. 22, 1780. COOPERAGE. This art must be coeval with the dawn of history, and seems to have been early known in every country. The coopers of London were incorporated in 1501. COPENHAGEN. Distinguished as a royal residence, A. D. 1443. In 1728 more than seventy of its streets and 3785 houses were burnt. Its famous palace, valued at four millions sterling, was wholly burnt, Feb. 1794, when 100 persons lost their lives. In a fire which lasted forty-eight hours, the arseAal, admiralty, and fifty streets were destroyed, 1795. Copenhagen was bombarded by the English under lord Nelson and admiral Parker: and in their engagement with a Danish fleet, of twenty-three ships of' the line, eighteen were taken or destroyed by the British, April 2, 1801. Again, after a bombardment of three days, the city and the Danish fleet surrendered to admiral Gambier and lord Cathcart, Sept. 7, 1807. The capture consisted of eighteen sail of the line, fifteen friigates, six brigs, and twenty-five gunboats, and immense naval stores.-See Detmarc'k. COPERNICAN SYSTEM-f. The system of the world wherein the sun is supposed to be in the centre, and immovable, and the earth and the restrof the planets to move round it in elliptical orbits. The heavens and stars are here imnaginedc to be at rest, and the diurnal motion, which they seem to have from east to west, is imputed to the earth's motion fiom west to east. This system was published at Thorn, A. D). 1530; and may in many points be regarded as that of Pythagoras revived. —Gcssedlits. COPPER. It is one of the six primitive metals; its discovery is said to have preceded that of iron. We read in the Scriptures of two vessels of fine copper, precious as gold.-Ezcra viii. 27. The great divisibility of this metal almost exceeds belief; a grain of it dissolved in alkali, as pearl ashes, soda, &c., rwill give a sensible color to more than 500,000 times its weight in water; and when copper is in a state of fusion, if the least drop of water touch the melted ore, it will fly about like shot from a gun.-Boyle. The mine of Fahlun, in Sweden, is the most surprising artificial excavation in the world. In England, copper-mines were discovered in 1561, and copper now forms an immense branch in the British trade: there are upwards of fifty A A memorial was presented to the king by the Royal Society in 1765, setting forth the advan. lages which would be derived to science if an accurate observation of the then approaching transit of Venus over the sun were taken in the South Sea. The ship Etndeavor was, in consequence, prpared for that purpose. and the command of her given to Lieutenant James Cook. I-Ie sailed in.uly 1768, touched at Madeira and Rio de Janeiro, doubled Cape IHorn, and after a prosperous voyage reached Otaheite, the place of destination, in April 1769. By a comparison of the observations made on this transit (June 3,1769) from the various parts of the globe, on which it was viewed fy tmen of science, the system of the universe has in some particulars, been better understood; the distance of the sun firon the earth, as calculated by this and the transit in 1761, is now settled at loS,000,000 miles, instead of the commonly received computation, of 95,0000,000.-Butler. 12* 274 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ coP mines in Cornwall, where mining has been increasing since the reign of William IlI. COPPER-MONEY. The Romans, prior to the reign of Servius Tullius, used rude pieces of copper for money.-See Coin. In England, copper-money is of extensive coinage. That proposed by sir Robert Cotton was brought into use in 1609. Copper was extensively coined in 1665. It was again coined by the crown, 23 Charles II., 1.672. Private traders had made them previ. ously to this act. In Ireland copper was coined as early as 1339; in Scotland in 1406; in France in 1580. Wood's coinage in Ireland (whIich see) conmmenced in 1723. Penny and two-penny pieces were extensively used, 1797. COPPER-PLATE PRINTING. This species of printing was first attempted ih-i Germany, about A. nD. 1450. Rolling-presses for working the plates were invented about 1545. Messrs. Perkins of Philadelphia, invented, in 1819, a mode of engraving on soft steel which, when hardened, will multiply copper-plates and fine impressions indefinitely.-See Engvavi. COPPERAS. First produced in England by C ornelius de Vos, a merchant, in 1587. COPYRIGHT ON BOOKS, &c. IN ENGLAND. The decree of the Star-chamber regarding it, A. D. 1556. Every book and publication ordered to be licensed, 1585. An ordinance forbidding the printing of any work without the consent of the owner, 1649. Copyright further secured by a statute enacted in 1709. Protection of copyright in prints and engraving, 17 George III., 1777. Copyright protection act, 54 George III., 1814. Dramatic authors' protection act, 3 William IV., 1833. The act for preventing the publication of lectures without consent, 6 William IV., 1835. The act of the 17th George III., extended to Ireland, 7 William IV., 1836. International copyright bill, 1 Victoria, 1838. Copyright of designs for articles of manufacture protected, 2 Victoria, 1839. For important act of 1842, see Litclcaey P'ropelrty.-Ilieydn. COPYRIGHT IN UNITED STATES. The first act for the protection of literary property in the United States passed chiefly through the influence of Noah Webster, the lexicographer, May 31, 1790. Another act in relation to it, April 29, 1802-granting copyright for 14 years, subject to renewal for 14 years if the author is living. Memorial of 56 British authors asking for International Copyright, presented in the Senate by Mr. Clay, Feb. 1, 1837. Act to establish the Smithsonian Institute, requiring that copies of books to secure the copyright must be deposited in there as well as in the library of Congress and office of Sec. State, Aug. 10, 1846. COPYRIGHT, PRODUCE OF. The following sums are stated to have been paid to the authors for the copyright of the works mentioned. HISTORY. POETRY. Byron's WVorks (in all). -.20,000 Fragments of English IHistory, by MIooe's Lalla Rookhll 20,000.istor. oFEgnox -Si 5,00' Rejected Addresses 1,000 History of England by Sir J. Mackiinblitobsh'nln by S J ali Campbell's Pleasures of I-lope (after.tosh~5,000 l~~ten years' publication) -. 1 000 Ditto, by Lingard- - 4,633 Campbell's Gertrude, after ditto 1 500 Life of Napoleon, by Sir W. Scott 18,000 FICTION. History of Enand0 by Macaulay, vol. It was estimated that Scott's novels I ande reainder, ~600 per annum produced for copyright at least - 250,000 for ten years, say -3.000 -000 Bulwer received for his novels, each Prescott's Historical Workcs are said toor his novels, each have produced to the author (who yet Marrya1t, do. do. 1,000 to 1,200 owns the copyright) before 1850 - $100,000 Goldsmith's "Vicar" was sold by Dr.200 BIOGRAPHY. Johnson for - - -'63 ~Life of T;rib11erforce - - - ~1,000 Goldsmith received for " Animated Life of Byroll, by Moore - - Nature" o800 Life of By-on, by Moore.4,000 Noah Webster is said to have derived Locklhart's Scott (two years' use) - 12,500 $1000 per annum from his Spellinv Irving's Columbus (paid by Murray) - 4,000. Book. co a] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 275 CORDAGE. The naval cordage in early ages was, probably, merely thongs of leather; and these primitive ropes were retained by the Caledonians in the third century, and by some northern nations in the ninth. Cordage of'weed and of horse-hair was also used anciently before that made of hemp. See Hemp. CORFU. So celebrated in mythology and poetry, and capital of the island of the same name, was placed under British administration, by the treaty of Paris in Nov. 1815. It is the chief of the Ionian Isles, wticlt see. CORINTH. This city was built in 1520 and the kingdom founded by Sisyphus in 1376 B. c. In 146 B. c. the capital was destroyed by the Romans, but was rebuilt by Julius Csesar; and was among the first cities of Greece that embraced the Christian religion. It was defended by a fortress called Acrocorinth, on a summit of a high mountain, surrounded with strong walls. The situation of this citadel was so advantageous, that Cicero named it the E?ye of Greece, and declared, that of all the cities known to the Romans, Corinth alone was worthy of being the seat of a great empire. Corinth built on the ruins of Ephyra, A colony goes to Sicily, and,they build (Abbh Lenglet). - B. C. 1520 Syracuse - - - B. c. 732 Rebuilt by the king of Sicyon, and first Sea fight between the Corinthians and called by its name - - - 1410 Corcyreans.. -664 Sisyphus, a public robber, seizes upon Periander rules and encourages genius the city (ideso) - - -1375 and learning.. 629 The Pythian games instituted, it is said Death of Periander.- -585 by Sisyphus - - 1375 The Corinthians form a republic - 582 The reign of Bacchus, whose successors War with the Corcyreans - 439 are called Bacchidaw, in remembrance The Corinthian war (ewhich see) - - 395 of the equity of his reign - - 935 Acrocorinth (citadel) taken by Aratus ~ 242 The Corinthians invent ships called I The Ronian ambassadors first appear lrir'enses; vessels consisting of three at Corinth..-228 benches of oars - - 786 Corinth destroyed by Lucius Munmmius Thelestes deposed, and the government who sends to Italy the first fine paintof the Prytanes instituted: Auto- ings there seen, they being part of the menes is the first on whom this dig- spoil (Livy) -. 146 nity is conferred - 757 CORINTHIAN ORDER. The finest of all the orders of ancient architecture, aptly called by Scamozzi, the virginal order, as being expressive of the delicacy, tenderness, and beauty of the whole composition. The invention of it is attributed to Callimachus, 540 3. c. CORINTHIAN WAR. The war which received this name, because the battles were mostly fought in the neighborhood of Corinth, was begun B. c. 395, by a confederacy of the Athenians, Thebans, Corinthians, and Argives, against the Lacedmcmlonians. The most famous battles were at Coronea and Leuctra, qwv.ici see. CORN oR GRAIN. The origin of its cultivation is attributed to Ceres, who having taught the art to the Egyptians, was ddified by them, 2409 B. c.Arw-ntdeliain Marbles. The art of husbandry, and the method of making bread from wheat, and wine from rice, is attributed by the Chinese to Ching Noung, the successor of Fohi, and second monarch of China, 1998 B. C.Ustiv. Hist. But corn provided a common article of' food from the earliest ages of the world, and baking bread was known in the patriarchal ages.See Exodus xii. 15. Wheat was introduced into Britain in the sixth century. by Coil ap Coll Frewi.-Robelts' Hist. Anec. Br/itoins. The first importation of corn of which we have note, was in 1347. Bounties were granted on its importation into England, in 1686. CORN LAWS IN ENGLAND. Various enactments relative to the duty on " corn" or grain passed 1814. Riots, caused by the passing of the act permitting its importation when cornt should be 80s. "per quarter," 1815. The " slidingscale" of duties passed July 15, 1828. Another, April 29, 1842; act fixing 276 THE WORLD'S PROGRDES. L Cork the duty on wheat at 4s. until Feb. 1849, and after that at Is. per quarter, passed June 26, 1846. This was the virtual abolition of the Corn Lawsand the Anti-Corn Law League-which had been formed in 1841 was there fore formally dissolved, July 2, 1846. CORONATION. The first coronation by a bishop, was that of Majocianus, at Constantinople, in A. D. 457. The ceremony of anointing at coronations was introduced into England in 872, and into Scotland in 1097. The coronation of Henry III. took place, in the first instance. without a crown, at Gloucester, October 28, 1216. A plain circle was used on this occasion in lieu of the crown, which had been lost with the other jewels and baggage of king John, in passing the marshes of Lynn, or the Wash, near Wisbeach.-Malclt/iZew Parcis. Rysmer. CORONATION FEASTS, AND OATH. The oath was first administered to the kings of England by Dunstan (the archbishop of Canterbury, afterwards canonized), to Ethelred II. in 979. An oath, nearly corresponding with that now in use, was administered in 1377; it was altered in 1689. The fetes given at coronations commenced with Edward I. in 1273. That at the coronation of George IV. rivalled the extravagances and sumptuousness of former times. CORONERS. They were officers of the realm in A. D. 925. Coroners for everycoun.ty in England were first appointed by statute of Westminster, 4 Edward I. 1276.-Stoive. Coroners were instituted in Scotland in the reign of Malcolm II., about 100-. By an act passed in the 6th and 7th of queen Victoria, coroners are enabled to appoint deputies to act for them, but only in case of illness. Aug. 22, 1843. CORONETS. The caps or inferior crowns. of various forms, that distinguish the rank of the nobility. The coronets for earls were first allowed by Henry III.; for viscounts by Henry VIII.; and for barons by Charles II.-Baker. But authorities conflict. Sir Robert Cecil, earl of Salisbury, was the first,f the degree of earl who wore a coronet, 1604.-Becatsoe. It is uncertain when the coronets of dukes and marquesses were settled.-I-dem. CORPORATIONS. They are stated by Livy to have been of very high antiquity among the Romans. They were introduced into other countries fromt Italy. These political bodies were first planned by Numa, in order to break the force of the two rival factions of Sabines and Romans, by instituting separate societies of every manual trade and profession.-Pltelrc/,. CORPORATIONS, MUNICIPAL, IN ENGLAND. Bodies politic, auithorized by the king's charter to have a common seal, one head officer, or more, and members, who are able, by their common consent, to grant or receive, in law, any matter within the compass of their charter.-Cowel. Corporations were formed by charters of rights granted by the kings of England to various towns, first by Edward the Confessor. Itenry I. granted charters, A. D. 1100; and succeeding monarchs gave corporate powers, and extended them to numerous large commnunities throughout the realm, subject to tests, oaths, and conditions.-Blacckstoze. CORSICA. Called by the Greeks Cyrnos. The ancient inhabitants of tbhi island were savage, and bore the chalacter of robbers, liars, and atheists, according to Seneca, when he existed amono them. It was held by the Carthaginians; and was conquered by the Romans, 231 B. c. In modern times, Corsica was dependent upon the republic of Genoa, until 1730; and was sold to France in 1733. It was erected into a kingdom under Theodore, its first and only king, in 1736. He came to England, where he was imprisoned in the King's Bench prison for debt, and for many years subsisted on the benevolence of private friends. Having been released by an act of insolvency ;::os 3 DICTIONARY OF DATE.'. 27 in 1756, he gave in his schcdule the lkingdom of Corsica as an estate to his creditors, andl died the same year, at his lodgings in Chapel-street, Soho. The earl of Oxford wrote the following epitaph, on a tablet erected near hi,3 grave, in St. Anne's church, Dean-street:" The grave, great teacher! to a level brings HIeroes and beggars, galley-slaves and kingrs. But Theodore this moral learn'd ere dead; Fate pour'd its lesson on his living head, Bestow'd a kingdom and denied him bread." The celebrated Pascal Paoli was chosen for their general by the CorSiCeans, in 1753. He was defeated by the count de Vaux, and fled to England, 1769. The people acknowledged George III. of England for their king, June 17, 1794, when sir Gilbert Elliott was made viceroy, and tie opened a parliamlent in 1795. A revolt was suppressed in June 1796; and the island was -elinquished by the British, Oct. 22, same year, when the people declared for the French. CORTES oF SPAIN. A deliberative assembly under the old constitution ol Spain; several times set aside. The cortes were newly assembled after a long interval of' years, Sept. 24, 1810; and they settled the new constitution, March 16, 1812. This constitution was set aside by Ferdinand VII., who banished many mnenm bers of the assembly in May, 1814. The cortes or statesgeneral were opened by Ferdinand VII. 1820, and they have since been regularly convened. CORUNNA., BATTLE OF, between the British army under sir John Moore (who was killed) and the French, Jan. 16, 1809. COSMETICS. Preparations for improving beauty were known to the ancients, and some authorities refer them even to mythology, and others to the Grecian stage. The Roman ladies painted; and those of Italy excelled in heightening their charmus artificially, by juices and colors, and by perfumes. Rouge has always been in disrepute among the virtlnons and well-ordered women of England, though some simple cosmetics are regarded as innocent, and are in general use.-Ashe. The females of France and Germany paint more highly than most other nations. —Ric/lcrdson. A stamp was laid on cosmetics, perfumery, and such medicines as really or suppositiously beautify the skin, or perfume the person, and the venders were obligect to take out licenses, 26th Geo. III. 1786. COSMOGRAPHY. The science which teaches the structure, form, disposition, and relation of the parts of the world, or the manner of representing it on a plane.-Sclden. It consists of two parts, astrononly and geography: the earliest accounts of the former occur 2234 t. c.-Blair. The first record of the latter is from Homer, wvho describes the shield of Achilles as representing the earth. —liacd. See the articles on Astronomosy and Geoegrap/ty respectively. COSSACKS. The warlike people inhabiting the confines of Poland, Russia, Tartary, ziand Turkey. They at first lived by plundering the Turkish galleys and the people of Natolia: they were formed into a regular army by Stephen Batori, in 1576, to defend the frontiers of Russia firom the incursions of the Tartars. In the late great war of Europe against France, a vast body of Cossacks formed a portion of the Russian armies, and fought almost invincibly. COSTUME. See Dress. - Accounts of magnificent attire refer to very remote antiquity. The costume of the Grecian and Roman ladies was comely and graceful. The women of Cos, whose country was famous for the silkworm, wore a manLufacture of cotton and silk of so beautiful and delicate a texture, and their garments, which were always white, were so clear and thin, thai T TE-i:'WO'.L,.T' S P-OG-REss. [ CO' their bodies could be seen through them. — Ovid. As relates to costume worn on the stage, l schlylus the Athenian was, it is said, the first who erected a regular stage for his actors, and ordered their dresses to be suite(t to their characters, about 436 B. c. —P'ricza Mmarbles. COTTON. The method of spinning cotton formerly Nwas by the hand; but about 1767, Mr. Hargreaves, of' Lancashire, invented the spinning-jenny with eight spindles; he also erected the first carding-machine with cylinclers. Sir Richard Arkwright obtained a patent for a new invention of _machinery in 1769; and another patent for an engine in 1775. Crompton invented the mule, a further and wonderful improvement in the manufacture of cotton, in 1779, and various other improvements have been sinle inade. The names of Peel and Arlkwright are eminently conspicuous in connection with this vast source of British industry; and it is calculated that more than one thousand millions sterling have bern yielded by it to Great Britain. Cotton mllanufactuLrers' utenisils were prohibited from being exported in 1774.-H —cynFd. HISTOIY Oa COTTON, FOR OVEIR ONE HUNDlnED YEARS. T'he followitng brief itemns of the history of cottons, frio7 1730 to 1836, are taken from a Souttl Careolina paper?:1730. Mr. WVyatt spins the first cotton yarn 1803. First cotton factory built in Newi in England by machinery. Hampshire. 1735. The Dutch first export cotton from 1805. Power-looms successfully and widely Surinam. introduced into England. 1742. First mill for spinning cotton erected 1807. The revolution in Spanish America ft Birmninghalm, moved by mules or horses; begins to flrnish new marikets for cotton but not successful in its operations. manufactures. 1749. The fly sliuttle generally used in 1810. Digest of cotton manufactures in the England. United States by Mr. Gallatin, and another 1756. Cotton velvets and qculltings made by Mr. Tench Coxe, of Philadelphia. in Englanld or the first tilme. 1811. Machinery to make bobbin lace pa1761. Arlkwright obtained the first patent tented by John Burn. lr tlhe spinning frame, which lie further 1813. The India trade more free, and mlomt improved. British manufactures sent thither. 1768. The stocking frame applied by 1814. The power-lool introduced into the I-Hammond to makilng of lace. United States; first at Waltham. 1773. A bill passed to prevent the export 1818. Average price of cotton 34 centsof machinery used in cotton factories. higher than since 1810. New method of 1779. Mule spinning invented by Ilargrave. preparing sewing cotton by Mr. Holt. 1782. First import of raw cotton from 1819. Extraordinary prices for Alabama Brazil into England. cotton lands. 1782. Watt took out his patent for the 1820. Steam power first applied with sucsteam-engine. cess extensively to lace manufactures. 1783. A bounty granted In England on the 1822 First cotton factory in Lowell erectec7 export of certain cotton goods. 1823. First export of raw cotton friom Egypt 1785. Power-looms invented by Dr. (Cart- into Great Britain. wright-steam engines used in cotton fac- 1825. In New Orleans cotton at from 23 to tories. 25 cents per pound. 1785. Cotton imported into England from 1826. Self-acting mule spinner patented the United States. in England by Roberts. 1786. Bleaching first performed by the 1827. American cotton manufactures first agency of the oxymuriatic acid. exported to any considerable extent. 1787. First machinery to spin cotton put 1829. Highest duty in the United States on in operation in France. foreign cotton manufactures. 1789. Sea Island cotton first planted in the 1830. About this time Mr. Dyer introduced United States; anl upland cotton first cul- a machine from the United States into E1H tirated for use and export about this time. land lor ilthe purpose of nialking cards. 1790 Slator, an Englishman, builds the 1832. Duty on cotton goods imported rinto first American cotton factory, at Pawtucket, the United States reduced; and in England Rhode Island. it is forbid to emlploy minors in cotton mills, 1792. Eli NWlhitney, an American, invents to work them more than ten hours per day, the cotton gin, which he patents. or more than nine hours on a Saturday; in 1798. First mill and machinery for cotton consequence they work at something else. erected in Switzerland. 1834. Cotton at 17 cents. 17799. Spinning by machlinery iitroduced 1835. Extensive purchases made of cottoD into Saxony this year. lands by speculators and others. 1836. Cotton at from 18 to 20 cents. OU ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 279 ZOTTONIAN LIBRARY. Formed by great labor and with great judgment by sir Robert Cotton, A. D. 1600 et seq. This vast treasury of knowledge, after having been with difficulty rescued from the fury of the republicans during the protectorate, was secured to the public by a statute, 13 William III. 1701. It was removed to Essex-house in 1712; and in 1730 to Dean'syard, Westminster, where, on Oct. 23, 1731, a part of the books sustained damage by fire. The library was removed to the British Museum in 1753. COUNCILS. An English council is of very early origin. The wise Alfied, to whom we are indebted for many excellent institutions, so arranged the business of the nation, that all resolutions passed through three councils. The first was a select council, to which those only high in the king's confidence were admitted; here were debated all affairs that were to be laid before the second councii, which consisted of bishops and nobles, and resembled the present privy council, and none belonged to it but those whom the king was pleased to appoint. The third was a general council or assembly of the nation, called in Saxon, Wittenagemot. to which quality and offices gave a right to sit independent of the king. In these three councils we behold the origin of the cabinet and privy councils, and the antiquity of parliaments; but the term cabinet council is of a mluch more modern date, according to lord Clarendcn.-See Cabinet Council, Coslnon Countcil, Privy Ceoncil, &d. COUNCILS o' THE CHURCH, The following are among the most memorable Christian councils, or councils of the Church of Rome. Most other councils (the list of which would make a volume) either respected national cllurches or ecclesiastical government. Si-' Harris Nicolas enumerates 1604 councils. Of the Apostles at Jerusalem - A. D 50 The second Lateran, tenth General, InOf the western bishops at Aries, in nlocent II. presided; the preseivation France, to suppress the Donatists; of the temporal ties of ecclesiastics, three fathers of the English ciurci the principal subject, which occawent over to attend it - - 314 sioned the attendance of 1000 leThe first (Ecumenical or General Ni- there of the church -. - A.. 1139 cenlle, held at Nice, Constantine the The third Lateran, eleventh General; Great presided; Arius and Eusebius held against schismatics - 1179 condemned for heresy. This council Fourth Lateran, twelfth General; 400 composed the Nicene Creed - - 325 bishops and 1000 abbots attended; At Tyre, when the doctrine of Athana- Innocent 11I. presided - - - 1215 sius was canvassed - - 335 Of Lyons, the thirteenth General, under The first held at Constantinople, when pope Inniocent IV. - - - 1215 the Arian heresy gained ground - 337 O Lyons, the iourteenth General, under At Rome, concerning Athlanasius, which Gregory X. - - - - 1274 lasted eighteen months - 342 Of Vienne in Dauphind, thle fifteenth At Sardcis; 370 bishops attended - 347 General; Clesnent V. presided, and Of Rimini; 400 bishops attended, and the kIings of France and Arragon atConstantine obliged them to sign a tended. The order of the IKnight nevw confession of faith - - 359 Tetmplars suppressed - -- 1311 The second General at Constantinople; Of Pisa, the sixteenth General; Gre350 bishops attended, and pope Da- gory XII. and Benedict XIII. deposed, masius presided - - - 3S1 anl Alexander elected - - 1409 The third at Ephesus, when pope Ce- Of Constance, the seventeenth General; lestine presided - - 431 Martin V. is elected pope; and John Fourth at Chalcedon; the emperor Mar- Huss and Jerome of Prague concian and his empress attended - 451 demned to be burnt - 1414 The fifth at Constantinople, when pope Of Basil, the eighteenth Genleral - 11 Vigilius presided - - - 553 The fifth Lateran, the nineteenth GeneThe sixth at Constantinople, when pope ral, begun by.Julius 11. - - 1512 Agatho presided - - - 680 Continued under Leo X. for the supAuthority of the six general councils re- pressiosn of the Praglrmatic sanction of established by Theodosius 715 France, against the council of Pisa, Thei second Nicene council, seventh Ge- &c. till - - 1517 neral; 350 bishops attended - - 787 Of Trent, the twentieth and last GeneOf Constan-tinople, eighth General; the ral council, styled (rcumenical, as reemperor 13asil attended - - 869 garding the affails of all the ChrisThe first Lateran, the ninth General; tian world; it was held to condemn the right of investitures settled by thl doc trines of the reformers, Luther, treaty between pope Calixtus II. and Zuinglius, and Calvin.-Albb Lesnglet 1545 the emperor Henry V.. 1122 1 280 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ CO'V COUNCILS, FRENCHI-I REPUBLICAN. The council of ANCIENTS was an assembly of revolutionary France, consisting of 250 members, instituted at Paris, Nov. 1, 1795, together with the council of FIVE HUNDRED; the executive was a Directory of FIVE. Bonaparte dispersed the council of Five Hundred at St. Cloud, Nov 9, 1799, declaring himself, Roger Ducos, and Sieyes, consuls provisoires.-See PTrance. COUNSEL. See Barristers. Counsel who were guilty of deceit or collusioA were punishable by the statute of Westminster, 13 Edward I., 1284. Counsel were allowed to persons charged with treason, by act 8 William III. 1696. Act to enable persons indicted of felony to make their defence by counsel, 6 & 7 William IV., Aug. 1836. COUNTIES. The division of England into counties began, it is said, with king Alfred; but some counties bore their present names a century before. The division of Ireland into counties took place in 1562. County courts were instituted in the reign of Alfred, S96. Counties first sent members to parliament, before which period knights met in their own counties, 1259.-See Comnuons, and Parliamzent. COURIERS OR POSTS. Xenophon attributes the first couriers to Cyrus; and Herodotus says that they were common among the Persians. But it does not appear that the Greeks or Romans hlad regular couriers till the time of Augustus, when they travelled in cars, about 24 a. c. Couriers or posts are said to have been instituted in France by Charlemagne, about A. D. 800. The couriers or posts for letters were established in the early part of the reign of Louis XI. of France, owing to this monarch's extraordinary eagerness for news. They were the first institution of the kind in Europe, A. D. 1463.-Henaulit. COURTS. Courts of justice were instituted at Athens, 1507 B. c.-See Areopagitrc. There were courts for the distribution of justice in Athens, in 127? B. c. —Blair. They existed under various denominations in Rome, and other countries. COURT or HONOR. In England, the court of chivalry, of which the lord high constable was a judge, was called Curia Militaris in the time of Henry IV., and subsequently the Court of Honor. In the States of Bavaria, in order to prevent duelling, a court of honor was instituted in April, 1819. In these countries, Mr. Joseph Hamilton has ardently labored to establish similar institutions. COVENANTERS. The name which was particularly applied to those persols who in the reign of Charles I. took the solemn league and covenant, thereby mutually engaging to stand by each other in opposition to the projects of the king; it was entered into in 1638. The covenant or league between England and Scotland, was formed in 1643; it was declared to be illegal by parliament, 14 Charles II., 1662. COVENTRY, PEEPING TOM or. The great show fair of Coventry owes its origin to the following tradition:-Leofric, earl of Mercia, had imposed such heavy taxes on the citizens, his lady, Godiva, moved by their entreaties importuned her lord to remit them, and he consented on the condition of her riding naked through the city at mid-day. Her humanity induced her to consent, and she so disposed her flowing tresses as to hide her person; and ordering all the inhabitants, on pain of death, to close their doors and windows, she rode quite naked through the town. One person, yielding'o curiosity, stole a glance at the countess, and was struck dead; and has beern famed ever since under the name of Pecpinig Tom, and his effigy is showr to this day. To commemorate this event, A. D. 1057, at the great show fai; the mayor and corporation walk in procession through the town, accor CRE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 281 panied by a female on horseback, clad in a linen dress closely fitted to her limbs. COW-POCK INOCULATION. This species of inoculation, as a security against the small-pox, was introduced by Dr. Jenner, and it became general in 1799. The genuine cow-pox appears in the form of vesicles on the teats of the cow, and was first noticed by Dr. Jenner, in 1796. He was rewarded by parliament with the munificent grant of ~10,000, June 2, 1802. — See Ixnoclatiox, Small-Pox, Vacciuation. CRACOW. The Poles elect Cracus for their duke, and he builds Cracow with the spoils taken from the Franks, A. D. 700, et seq. Taken by Charles XII. in 1702; taken and retaken by the Russians and confederates on the one side and the patriotic people on the other several times. Kosciusko expelled the Russian garrison from the city, March 24, 1794. It surrendered to the Prussians, June 15, same year. Formed into a republic in 1815. Occupied by 10,000 Russians who followed there the defeated Poles, Sept. 1831. Its independence extinguished; seized by the emperor of Austria, and incorporated with the Austrian empire, November, 1846.-See Polaicd. CRANES. They are of very early date, for the engines of Archinmedes may be so called. The theory of the inclined plain, the pulley, &c. are also his, 220 a. c.-Livy. CRANIOLOGY. The science of animal propensities. Dr. Gall, a German, started this new doctrine respecting the brain, in 1803. Dr. Spurzheim followed, and by his expositions gave a consistency to the science, and it seems to be rapidly gaining ground; it has now many professors, and in almdst all countries craniology is countenanced by learned and enlightened men. The science assigns the particular locations of certain organs, or as many different seats of the most prominent operations of the mind. CRANMER, LATIMER, AND RIDLEY. Illustrious names in the list of English martyrs of the reformed religion. Ridley, bishop of London, and Latimer, bishop of Worcester, were burnt at Oxford, Oct. 16, 15558, and Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbury, March 21, 1556. His love of life had induced Cranmer, sonme time previously, in an unguarded moment, to sign a paper wherein he condemned the Reformation; and when he was led to the stake, and the fire was kindled round him, he stretched forth his right hand, with which he had signed his recantation, that it might be consumed before the rest of his body, exclaiming from time to time, " This unworthy hand!" Raising his eyes to heaven, he expired with the dying prayer of the first martyr of the Christian church, " Lord Jesus, receive my spirit!" CRAPE. A liglht kind of stuff like gauze, made of raw silk gummed and twisted on the mill. Its manufacture is of very early date, and it is said some crape was made by St. Badour, when queen of France, about A. D. 680. It was first made at Bologna, and in modern times has been principally used for mourning. CRAYONS. They were known in France before A. D. 1422-improved by L'Oriot, 1748.',IDEATION oF THE: WORLD. It was placed by Usher, Blair, and Dufresnoy, 4004 a. c. Josephus makes it 4658 years.- Wltistoe. The first date agrees with the common Hebrew text, and the vulgate Latin translation of the Old Testament. There are about 140 different dates assigned to the creation: some place it 3616 years before the birth of our Saviour. Plato, in his dialogue entitled C'ilias, asserts his celebrated Atalant-is to have been buried in the ocean about 9000 years before the age in which he wrote. The Chinese represent the world as having existed some hundreds of thousands of years; and we are'told that the astronomical records of the ancient Chal 282 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ Ci deans carried back the origin of society to a period of no less than 473,000 years. CREATION, ERA OF TIE. In use by many nations. This era would be founct convenient, by doing away with the difficulty and ambiguity of counting before and after any particular date, as is necessary when the era begins at a later period; but; unfortunately, writers are not agreed as to the right time of commencing. This epoch is fixed by the Samaritan Pentateuch at 4700 B. c. The Septuagint makes it 5872. The authors of the Tahlnudc make it 5344; and different chronologers, to the number of 120, make it vary from the Septuagint date to 3268. Dr. I-ales fixed it at 5411; but the Catholic church adopted the even number of 4000, and subsequently, a correction as to the birth of Christ adds four years: therefore, it is now generally considered as 4004 years, which agrees with the modern Hebrew text. CREED. The Apostles' Creed is supposed to have been written a great while after their time.-Pardon. It was introduced formally into public worship in the Greek church at Antioch, and subsequently into the Roman church. This creed was translated into the Saxon tongue, about A. D. 746. The Nicene Creed takes its name from the council by wholm it was composed, in A, D. 325. The Athanasian Creed is supposed to have been written about 340.-See Apostles', Nicesne, and other creeds. CRESSY, oR CRECY, BATTLE OF. Edward III. and his son, the renowned Edward the Black Prince, obtained a great and memorable victory over Philip, king of France, Aug. 26, 1346. This was one of the most glorious triumphs ever achieved by English arms. John, duke of Bohemia; James, king of Majorca; Ralph, duke of Lorraine (sovereign princes); a number of French nobles, together with 30,000 private men, were slain, while the loss of the English was very small. The crest of the king of Bohemia was three ostrich feathers, with the motto; Ich/ Dien," in English, " I serve;" and in memory of this victory it has since been adopted by the heirs to the crown of Eng land.-iroissaet, Carte, Hlee me. CRESTS. The ancient warriors wore crests to strike terror into their enemies by the sight of the spoils of the animals they had killed. The origin of crests is ascribed to the Carians. In English heraldry, are several representations of Richard I., 1189, with a crest on the helmet resembling a plume of feathers; and after his reign most of the English kings have crowns above their helmets; that of Richard II., 1377, was surmounted by a lion on a cap of dignity. In later reigns, the crest was regularly'borne as well on the helmet of the kings, as on the head-trappings of their horses. CRETE. Now Candia, whlicA see. This island was once famous for its hundred cities, and for the laws which the wisdom of Mlinos established about 1015 B. c. - Some authors reckon the Labyrinth of Crete as one of the seven wonders of the world. Crete became subject to the Roman empire, 68 B. c. It was conquered by the Saracens, A. D. 808; taken by the Greeks, 961; passed into the hands of the Venetians, 1194: and was taken from them by the Turks, in 1669. —Priestley. CRIME. "At the present moment," observes a popular English writer, "' one-fifteenth part of the whole population'of the United Kingdom is subsisting by the, lowest and most degrading prostitution; another fifteenth have no means of support but by robbery, swindling, pickpocketing, and every species of crime; and five-fifteenths of the people are what are denomi-. hated pool, living from hand to mouth, and daily sinking into beggary. lidc, as an almost necessary consequence, into crime." A comparative viewr of foreign countries with Great Britain demonstrates the effects of poverty and ignorance on the great mass of the population. In North America pauperismn is almost unknown, and one fourth of the people are educated; p<:i~ cRO 3 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 283 meditated murder is alone capital; imprisonment for debt has, in several states, been abolished, and crimes, particularly of enormity, are exceedingly rare. The Dutch, who possess a competency, and are generally educated, are comnparatively free from grave offences; and France affords a remarkable illustration in the same way. But in the United Kingdom, the difference is painfully exemplified:-,Scotlasnd. England. Ireland. Instruction to the people - 1 in 11 - 1 in 20 - 1 in 35 Criminals among the people 1 in 5093 - 1 in 920 -1 in 468 There was recently a revision of the English criminal code, and several acts have been passed calculated to reduce the amount of crime, and mitigate the severity of its punishment. An act for improving the criminal law of England, passed 8 George IV., 1827. An act for consolidating and revising the laws relating to crime, conformably with Mr. Peel's digest, passed 9 George IV., 1828. Hanging criminals in chains was abolished by statute 4 William IV., 1834. See Execustiones, Hac'gig', Trial, &c.-Hacidse. CRIMEA. The ancient Tacrica C/eersonesss. Settled by the Genoese, in 1193. The Genoese were expelled by the Crim Tartars, in 1474. The khans were tributary to the Turks until 1774. The Russians, with a large army, took possession of this country, in 1788; and it was ceded to them the following year; and secured to them in 1791. CRISPIN. The name sometimes given to shoemakers. Crispin and Crispianus were two legendary saints, born at Rome, from whence, it is said, they travelled to Soissons, in France, about A. D. 303, to propagate the Christian religion; and because they would not be chargeable to others for their maintenance, they exercised the trade of shoemakers; but the governor of the town discovering them to be Christians ordered them to be decollated. Onl this account, the shoemakers, since that period, have made choice of them as their tutelar saints. CRITICS. The fir st society of them was formed 276 B. c.-Blcair. Of this class were Varro, Cicero, Appolonius, and many distinguished men. In modern times, the jo? notal de Sca'Cvans was the earliest work of the system of periodical criticism, as it is now known, It was originated by Dennis de Sallo, ecclesiastical counsellor in the parliament of France, and was first published at Paris, May 30. 1665, and continued for nearly a century. The first work of this kind in England, was called the Reviewu of Daniel Defoe (the term being isnventecl by himself) published in Feb. 1703. The fJTcaies of Litera-!.here was commenced in 1714, and was discontinued in 1722. The MoetIld Review, which may be said to have been the third work of this nature in England, was published 1749. The Criticcal Review appeared in 1756; the Edisiebe-s/ Review, in 1802; and Lonidon, Quacierl.y in 1809. The Ameericcal, Revievw, established in N. Y. 1799, was the first Review in the U. S. The Nor-t/l Aser'icCs Review was established by Wm. Tudor in 1818; the Amee-icast Qsearlterl?, by Robert Walsh, at Phila., 1827; the New7 O Yo' Review, by Prof. C. S. Henry, 1835; the Soethle?'?s Qlaa'terl?/, at Charleston, 1842. See Periodiccals. The legality of fair criticism was established in the English courts, in Feb 1794, when an action that excited great attention. brought by an author against a reviewer for a severe ciitique upon his work, was determined in favor of the defendclant, on the principle that criticism, however sharp, if just and not malicious, is allowable. See Resviews, &c. CROCKERY. In use, and made mention of, as produced by the Egyptiaians and Greeks, so early as 1390 D. c. The Romans excelled in this kinid of ware, many of their domestic articles being of earthen manufhcture. Crockery, of a fine kind, in various household utensils, was made at Faenza, in Italy, about A. D. 1310; and it is still calledfayjemce in French. See Eariteeewscare. 284 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ CUL CROWN. "The ancientest mention of a royal crown is in the holy story of the Amalekites bringing Saul's crown to Davicl."-,Selden. The first Reman who wore a crown was Tarquin, 616 B. c. The crown was first a fillet tied round the head; afterwards it was formed of leaves and flowers, and also of stuffs adorned with jewels. The royal crown was first -vorn in England by Alfied, in A. D. 872. The first crown or papal cap Awas used by pope Damasius II., in 1053; John XIX. first encompassed it with a crown, 1276; Boniface VIII. added a second crown in 1295; and Benedict XII, formed the tiara, or triple crown, about 1334. The pope previously wore a crown with two circles.-Rainaldi. CRUCIFIXION. A mode of execution common among the Syrians, Engyptian3, Persians, Greeks, Romans, and Jews, and esteemed the most dreadful on account of the shame attached to it: it was usually accompanied by other tortures. Among early accounts may be mentioned, that Ariarathes of Cappadocia, when vanquished by PerdicCas, was discovered among the prisoners; and by the conqueror's orders the unhappy monarch was flayed alive, and then nailed to a cross, with his principal officers, in the eighty-first year of his age, 322 B. c. Crucifixion was ordered to be discontinued by Constantine, A. D. 330.-LegClet. See Deat/h, Pixislhtent of. CRUSADES, on HOLY WARS. (In French, Croisacdes.) Undertaken by the Christian powers to drive the infidels from Jerusalem, and the adjacent countries, called the Holy Land. They were projected by Peter Gautier, called Peter the Hermit, an enthusiast, and French officer of Amiens, who had quitted the military profession and turned pilgrim. Having travelled to the Holy Land, he deplored, on his return, to pope Urban II. that infidels should be in possession of the famous city where the author of Christianity first promulgated his sacred doctrines. Urban convened a Council of 310 bishops at Clermont in France, at which the ambassadors of the chief Christian potentates assisted, and gave Peter the fatal commission to excite all Europe to ageneral war, A. nD. 1094. The first crusade was published; an army of 300,000 men was raised, and Peter had the direction of it, 1095.- Voltaire. The holy warriors wore a red cross upon the right shoulders, with the name of Croises, Crossed, or Crusaders; their motto was Volont6 de Diem, "God's will." The epidemical rage for crusading now agitated Europe, and in the end, these unchristian and iniquitous wars against the rights of mankind, cost the lives of 2:000,000 of men. —Voltair'e. CUBA. Discovered by Columbus on his first voyage, in 1492. It was conquered by Valasquez, in 1511, and settled by the Spaniards. The Buccaneer Morgan took Havana in 1669. See Buccacneers. The fort here was erected by admiral Vernon, in 1741. Havana was taken by admiral Pococke and lord Albermarle in 1762, but was restored at the peace, in 1763. Attempt of Lopez and his 400 followers, landing at Cardenas, to stir up a revolution. defeated May, 1850. CUBIT. This was a measure of the ancients, and is the first measure we read of; the ark of Noah was made and measured by cubits.-Holdeib. The Febrew sacred cubit was two English feet, and the great cubit eleven Eng"'slh feet. Originally it was the distance from the elbow, bending inwards to the extremity of the middle finger.-Calnmet. ('UCUMBERS. They grew formerly in great abundance in Palestine and Egypt, where, it is said, they constituted the greater part of the food of the poor and slaves. This plant is noticed by Virgil, and other ancient poets. It was brought to England from the Netherlands, about 1538. CUILODEN, BATTLE OF. In which the English, under William duke of Cumberland, defeated the Scottish rebels headed by the young Pretender, the last of the Stuarts, near Inverness, April 16, 1746. The Scots lost 2500 me-; CYC] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 285 in killed upon the field, or in the slaughter which occurred in the pursuit, while the loss of the English did not far exceed 200. The duke's army practised great cruelties upon the vanquished, as well as upon the defenceless inhabitants of the adjacent districts after the battle.-Smollett. Immediately after the engagement, Prince Charles sought safety by flight, and continued wandering among the frightful wilds of Scotland for six months, while 30,0001. were offered for taking him, and the troops of the conqueror were constantly in search. He at length escaped fromll the Isle of Uist to Morlaix, and died at Rome, in 1788. CURACOA. In the Caribbean Sea, seized by Holland, in 1634. In 1800, the French having settled on part of this island, and becoming at variance with the Dutch, the latter surrendered the island to A single British frigate. It was restored to the Dutch by the peace of 1802, and taken from them by a British squadron, in 1807, and again restored by the peace of 1814. CTURFEW BELL. From the French covrefet. This w&s a Norman institution, introduced into England in the reign of William I., A. D. 1068. On the ringing of the curfew at eight o'clock in the evening, all iires and candles were to be extinguished, under a severe penalty.-Rapin. The curfew was abolished 1 Hen. I., A. D. 1100. CU RRANTS. They were brought from Zante, and the tree planted in England 1533. The hawthorn currant-tree (Ribes oxyacanlthoides) came from Canada in 1705. CUSTOM. This is a law, not written, but established by long usage and consent. By lawyers and civilians it is defined le: qbon7 scripta, and it stands opposed to lex scriptc, or the written law. It is the rule of law when it is derived from A. D. 1189, downwards. Sixty years is binding in civil law, and forty years in ecclesiastical cases. (ITTSTOMS. They were collected upon merchandise in England, under Ethelred II., in 979. The king's claim to them by grant of parliament was established 3 Edward I., 1274. The customs were farmed to Mr. Thomas Smith, for 20,0001. for several years, in the reign of Elizabeth.-Stowe. They were farmed by Charles II. for 390,0001. in the year 1666. —Davencnt. In 1530 they amounted to -. ~14,000 In 1748 they amounted to - ~2,000,000 In 1592 ditto - 50,000 In 1808 ditto - 9,973,240 In 1614 ditto - 148,000 In 1823 ditto - - 11,498,762 In 1622 ditto - - 168,000 In 1830 United Kingdom - -17,540,323 In 1642 ditto - - 500,000 In 1835 ditto - - - 18,612,906 In 1720 ditto - - -1,555,600 In 1840 ditto - - 19,915,296 The customs in Ireland were, in the year 1224, viz., on every sack of wool, 3d.; on every last of hides, 6d.; and 2d. on every barrel of wine.-Annals of Dublin,. Custoi-A-house officers, and officers of excise, were disqualified firom voting for the election of members of parliament, by statute 22 George III., 1782. See Reveqne. CUSTOMS (DUTIES) IN THE UNITED STATES. The amounts collected were, in 1789-91 - $4,399,473 1820. - $15,005,612 1845 - - 127,528,113 1800 - - 9,080,938 1825- - 20,098,714 1846 - 26,712,668 1805 12,936,487 1830 - - 21,922,391 1847 - - 23,747,864 1810 8,583,309 1835 19,391,311 1848 31,757,070 1815 7,282,942 1840 -. 13,499,9401 See Tarifff. CYCLE. That of the sun is the twenty-eight years before the days of the week return to the same days of the month. That of the moon is nineteen lunar years and seven intercalary months, or nineteen solar years. The cycle of Jupiter is sixty years, or sexagenary. The Paschal cycle, or the time of keeping Easter, was first calculated for the period of 532 years, by Victorius, A. D. 463.-Blair. 286 TIHE WORLD'S PROCRESS. [ DAG CY CLOItEDIA.-See Enrc?/clopcedia. CYMBAL. The oldest musical instrumient of which we'have certain record. It was made of brass, like a kettle drum,. and some think in the same form, but smaller. Xenophlon makes mention'of the cymbal as a musical instrument, whose invention is attributed to Cybele, by whom, we are told, it was used in her feasts, called the mysteries of Cybele, about 1580 B. c. The festivals of Cybele were introduced by Scamancler, with the dances of Co.ybantes, at Mount Ida, 1546 B. c. CYNICS. The sect of philosophers founded by Antisthenes, 396 I. c.-Diog. Laert. He lived in the ninety-fourth Olympiad.-Pardon. These philosophers valued themselves for contemning all worldly things, and even iall sciences, except morality; they were very filee in reprehending vice, and did all their actions publicly, and practised the greatest obscenities without blushing.-Ideat. Diogenes was one of this sect. They generally slept on the ground.-Diog. Lcaert. CYPRUS. An island, whose inhabitants anciently were much given to love and pleasure.-PlinLy. It was divided among' several petty kings till the time of Cyrus, whlvo subdued therm; it ranked among the proconsular pro-,vinces in the reign of Augustus. Conquered by the Saracens, A. D. 648; but recovered by the Romans, in 957. Cyprus was reduced by Richard I. Of England, in 1191. Taken by the Turks from the Venetians, in 1570. — Priestley. CYRENAIC SECT. Aristippus the Elder, of Cyrene, was the founder of the Cyrenaici, 392 B. c. They maintained the doctrine that the supreame good of man in this life is pleasure, and particularly pleasure of a sensual kind; and said that virtue ought to be commended because it gave pleasure. and only so far as it conduced thereto. The sect flourished for several ages. -Laee. Ar. Cicero. CYRENE. Founded by Battus, 630 B. c. Aristwmus, who was the chief of the colonists here, gave the city his mother's name. It was also called Pentapolis, on account of its five towns, namely, Cyrene, Ptolemais, Berenice, Apollonia, and Arsinoe. Cyrene was left by Ptolemy Apion to the Romans, 97 n. c. It is now a desert.-P'riestley. CZAR, From Ccesar, a title of honor assumed by the sovereigns of Russia. Ivan Basilowitz, after having achieved great triumphs over the Tartars, and made many conquests, pursued them to the centre of their own country, and returning in triumph, took the title of Tzar, or Czar (signifying Great King). -Aspin's C/ihron. The courts of Europe consented to address the Russian Czar by the title of Emperor in 1722.-Idesn. D. DAGUERREOTYPE. The name given to a process invented by M. Daguerre of Paris, in 1839, by which perfect fac-similes of objects are transferred upon thin copper plates, plated with silver. The images are produced by the action of light upon the iodine, through the focus of the camera obscura. An apparatus somelvhat kindred in design, was in contemplation about the same time by M. Niepce, and about 5 years previously by Henry Fox Talbot of London: the original idea, however, is traceable as far back as the days of Roger Bacon. By means of the Talbotype, a recent improvement upon the ablve process, pictures in colors are produced both on paper and plates. So important a discovery in the fine arts, was the Daguerreotype deemed by the French government, that it awarded to its inventor a life pension of 6000 francs. bAR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 287 DAMASCUS. This city was in being in the time of Abrah.am. —Gems. xiv. It is, consequently, one of the most ancient in the world. From the Assyrians, Damascus passed to the Persians, and from them to the Greeks under Alexander; and afterwards to the Romans, about 70 a. c. It was taken by the Saracens, A. D. 633; by the Turks in 1006; and was destroyed by Tamerlane in 1400. It was in a journey to this place that the apostle Paul was miraculously converted to the Christian faith, and here he began to preach the gospel, about A. D. 50. Damascus is now the capital of a Turkish pachalic. DAMASK LINENS AND SILKS. They were first manufactured at Damascus, and hence the name, their large fine figures representing flowers, and being raised above the groundwork. They were beautifully imitated by the Dutch and Flemish weavers; and the manufacture was brought to England by artisans who fled from the persecution of the cruel duke of Alva, between the years 1571 and 1573.-Anderson. DAMON AND PYTHIAS. Pythagorean philosophers. When Damon was condemned to death by the tyrant Dionysius of Syracuse, he obtained leave to go and settle some domestic affairs, on a promise of' returning at the appointed time of execution, and Pythias being surety for the performance of his engagement. When the fatal hour approached, Damon had not appeared, and Pythias surrendered himself, and was led away to execution; but at this critical moment Damon returned to redeem his pledge. Dionysius was so struck with the fidelity of these friends, that he remitted the sentence, and entreated them to permit him to share their friendship, 387 B. c. DANCING. The dance to the measure of time was invented by the Curetes, 1534 a. c.-EutsebiqLs. The Greeks were the first who united the dance to their tragedies and coniedies. Pantomimic dances were first introduced on the Roman stage, 22 a. c.- Us/hee. Dancing by cinque paces was introduced into England fronm Italy A. n. 1541. In modern times, the French were the first who introduced ballets cncelog'-es in their musical dramas. The country dance (coltre-dacse) is of French origin, but its date is not precisely lknown. -Spelmean. DANES, INVASIONS OF THE. The invasions of this people were a scourge to England for upwards of two hundred years. During their attacks upon Britain and Ireland, they made a descent on France, where, in 895, under Rollo, they received presents under the walls of Paris. They returned and ravaged the French territories as far as Ostend in 896* They attacked Italy in 903. Neustria was granted by the king of France to Rollo and his Normans (Northmen), hence Normandy, in 912. DANTZIC. A commercial city in A. D. 997. —Bssc/Aig. It was built, according to other authorities, by Waldemar I. in 1169. Seized by the king of Prussia, and annexed to his dominions in 1793. It surrendered to the French after a siege of four months, May 5, 1807; and by the treaty of Tilsit, it was restored to its former independence, under the protection of Prussia and Saxony. Dantzic was besieged by the allies in 1812; and after a gallant resistance, surrendered to them Jan. 1, 1814. By the treaty of Paris it again reverted to the king of Prussia. Awful inundation here, owing to the Vistula breaking through its dykes, by which 10,000 head of cattle and 4,000 houses were destroyed, and a vast nnmber of lives lost, April 9, 1829. DARDANELLES, PASSACE OF THE. The Dardanelles are two castles, one called Sestos, seated in Romania, the other called Abydos, in Natolia, conimanding the entrance of the strait of Gallipoli. They were built by the emperor Mahomet IV., in 1659, and were named Dardanelles from the contiguous town of Dardanus. The gallant exploit of forcing the passage of the Dar 288 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. t DEA danelles was achieved by the British squadron under admiral sir John Duckworth, Feb. 19, 1807; but the admiral was obliged to repass them, which he did with great loss and immense damage to the fleet, March 2; following, the castles of Sestos and Abydos hurling down rocks of stone, each of many tons weight, upon the decks of the British ships. DAUPHIN. The title given to the eldest sons of the kings of France, from the province of Dauphind, which was ceded by its last prince, Humbert 11. to Philip of Valois, on the condition that the heirs of the French throne should bear the arms and name of the province, A. D. 1343.-Priestley. DAVIS'S STRAIT. Discovered by the English navigator, John Davis, whose name it bears, on his voyage to find a North-west passage, in 1585. DAY. Day began at sunrise among most of the northern nations, and at sunset among the Athenians and Jews. Among the Romans day commenced at midnight, as it now does among us. The Italians in most places, at the present time, reckon the day from sunset to sunset, making their clocks strike twenty-four hours round, instead of dividing the day, as is done in all other countries, into equal portions of twelve hours. This mode is but partially used in the larger towns of Italy, most public clocks in Florence, Rome, and Milan, being set to the hour designated on French or English clocks. The Chinese divide the day into twelve parts of two hours each. Our civil day is distinguished from the astronomical day, which begins at noon, and is the mode of reckoning used in the Nautical Almanac. At Rome, day and night were first divided in time by means of water-clocks, the invention of Scipio Nasica, 158 B. c.-Vossius de Scien. Mcath. DEACON. An order of the Christian priesthood, which took its rise from the institution of seven deacons by the Apostles, which number was retained a long period in many churches, about A. D. 51. See Acts, chap. vi. The original deacons were Philip, Stephen, Prochorus, Nicanor, Timon, Par:s.nos, and Nicolas. The qualifications of a deacon are mentioned by St. Paul, 1st T'imzothby iii. 8-13. DEAF AND DUMB. The first systematic attempt to instruct the deaf and dumb was made by Pedro de Ponce, a Benedictine monk of Spain, about A. D. 1570. Bonet, who was also a monk, published a system at Madrid, in 1620. Dr. Wallis published a work in England on the subject, in 1650. The first regular academy for the deaf and dumb in Great Britain was opened in Edinburgh in 177. DEAF AND DUMB, BLIND, AND INSANE PERSONS, IN THE'UNITED S'ATEs. In 1840 there were 6.916 blind persons, or 1 in 2,467 of the population; 7,659 deaf and dumb, or 1 in 2,228; 17,434 insane and idiotic, or 1 in 979. There were in the United States 23 asylums for the insane, with about 2,840 patients. Among the most prominent and successful of the philanthropists who have promoted the education and good treatment of the above persons in the United States, are Dr. Amariah Brigham, of Hartford; Dr. S. G. Howe, of Boston; Rev. T. H. Gallaudet, Hartford. DEATH, PUNISHMENT OF. Death by drowning in a quagmire was a punishment among the Britons before 450 a. c.-Stowqe. The most eulogized heroes of antiquity inflicted death by crucifixion, and even women sufihred on the cross, the victims sometimes living in the most excruciating torture many days. A most horrifying instance of death by torture occurs in the fate of Mithridates, an assassin of Xerxes. See a bote to the article Persia; see also Ravillac; Boilinlg to Death/; Burning, to Deatl, &c. Maurice, the son of a nobleman, was hanged, drawn, and quartered for piracy, the first execution in that manner in England, 25 Henry III., 1241. The punlishmi.. ItE'L ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 289 of death was abolished in a great number of cases by Mr. Peel's acts, 1824-9, in other cases 1832, for forgery 1837. Capital punishment, except in cases of martial law, abolished by Prussia, and by GermLan parliament, at Frankfort, same day, August 4, 1848. DECEMBER. In the year of Romulus this was the tenth month of the year, called so from decen,, ten, the Romans commencing their year in March. Numa introduced January and February before the latter month, in 713 B. C., and from thenceforward December became the twelfth of the year. DECEMVIRI. Ten magistrates, who were chosen annually at Rome to govern the commonwealth instead of consuls; first instituted 450 B. c.-Livy. The decemviral power became odious on account of their tyranny, and the attempt of Appius Claudius to defile Virginia, and the office was abolished, the people demanding from the senate to burn the decemviri alive. Consuls were again appointed, and tranquillity restored.-See Vis-ginia. DEEDS. They were formerly written in the Latin and French languages: the earliest known instance of the English tongue having been used in deeds, is that of the indenture between the abbot and convent of Whitby, and Robert, the son of John Bustard, dated at York, in the year 1343. The English tongue was ordered to be used in all law pleadings in 1364. Ordered to be used in all law-suits in May, 1731. DEFENDER OF THIE FAITH. Fidei Defensor. A title conferred by Leo X. on Henry VIII. of England. The king wrote a tract in behalf of the Church of Rome, then accounted Domicilium fidei Cat/tolice, and against Luther, who had just begun the Reformation in Germany, upon which the pope gave him the title of Defender of the Faith, a title still retained by the monarchs of Great Britain: the bull conferring it bears date Oct. 9, 1521. PEGREES. The first attempt to determine the length of a degree is recorded as having been made, by SEratosthenes, about 250 B. c.-Szeellius. The first degree of longitude was fixed by Hipparchus of Nice (by whom the latitude was cldetermined also), at Ferro, one of the Canary islands, whose most western point was made the first general meridian, 162 B. c. Several nations have fixed their meridian from places connected with their own territories; and thus the English compute their longitude from the meridian of Greenwich. See LLatitude, Loengitude, and the various Collegiate degrees. DEISM. This denomination was first assumed about the middle of the sixteenth century by some gentlemen of France and Italy, in order thus to disguise their opposition to Christianity by a more honorable appellation than that of Atheism.- Virot's Ia-str6ction CAetiea?;ne, 1563. Deism is a rejection of all manner of revelation: its followers go merely by the light of nature, believing that there is a God, a providence, vice and virtue, and an after state of punishments and rewards: it is sometimes called free-thinking. The first deistical writer of any note in England, was Herbert, baron of Cherbury, in 1624. The most distinguished deists were Hobbes, Tindal, Morgan, lord Bolingbroke, Humrn, Holeroft, and Gocdwin. DELAWARE. The smallest of the U. States except R. Island. First settled in 16(30, by the Swedes and Fins under the patronage of Gustavus Adolphus and received the name of'New Sweden. They were subdued in 1655 by the Dutch, who in turn surrendered it, with New Netherlands, to the English in 1664, and then named Delaware. The duke of York granted it to Wm. Penn, in 1682, and it remained nominally united to Pennsylvania until 1775. This state bore an honorable part in the revolution, and suffered much in the struggle, She adopted the Constitution of the U. S. by a unanimous 13 290 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ DEiN vote ill convention, Dec. 3, 1787. Population, — 1790, 59,094; 1840, 78;085; including 2,605 slaves. DELHI. Tile once great capital of the Mogul empire: it is now in decay, but contained a million of inhabitants, in 1700. In 1738, when Nadir Shah invaded Hincloostan, he entered Delhi, and clreactil massacres and fallline followed: 100,000 of the inhabitants perished by the sword; and plunder to the amount of 62,000,0001. sterling was said to be collected. DELPHI. Celebrated for its oracles delivered by Pythia, in the temple of Apollo, which was built, some say, by the council of the Amphictyons, 1263 a. c. The priestess delivered the answer of the god to such as came to consult the oracle, and was supposed to be suddenly inspired. The tcrapie was burnt by the PisistratidTc, 548 B. c. A new temple was raised by the Alcmmeonidse, and was so rich in donations that at one time it was plundered by the people of Phocis of 20,000 talents of gold and silver; and Nero carried from it 500 costly statues. The first Delphic, or sacred war, concerning the temple was 449 B. c. The second sacred war was commenced ( a Delphi being attackbd by the Phocians, 856 a. c.-Dab Fresnoy. DELUGE, THE GENERAL. The deluge was threatened in the year of the world 1536; and it began Dec. 7, 1656, and continued 377 days. The arkl rested on Mount Ararat, May 6, 1657; and Noah left the ark, Dec. 18, follo ving. The year corresponds with that of 2348 B. c. —Blair. The following are the epochs of the deluge, according to the table of Dr. Hales. Septuagint B. c. 3246 Persian - B. C. 3103 Playfair -. c. 2352 Petavius - B. U. 2329 Jackson 3170 Eindoo - -3102 Usher -2348 Strauchuis - 2293 Hales - - 3155 Samaritan - - 2998 English Bible -2348 IHebrew - - 2288 Josephus - 3146 Howard - - 2698 Marsham - - 2344 Vulgar Jewish 21U4 Some of the states of Europe were alarmed, we are told, by the prediction (!) that another general deluge would occur. and arks were every where built to guard against the calamity; but the season happened to be a very -fie dry one, A. D. 1524. DELUGE oF DEUCALION. The fabulous one, is placed 1503 B. c. according to Eescbius. This flood has been often confounded by the ancients with the general flood: but it was 845 years posterior to that event, and was merely a local inundation, occasioned by the overflowing of the river Pineus, whose course was stopped by an earthquake between the Mounts Olympus and Ossa. Deucalion, who then reigned in Thessaly, with his wife Pyrrha, and some of their subjects, saved themselves by climbing up Mount Parnass,s. DELUGE or OGYGES. In the reign of Ogyges was a deluge which so inundated the territories of Attica that they lay waste for near 200 years; it occurred before the deluge of Deucalion, about 1764 a. c. —Blati'. Buffothinks that the Hebrew and Grecian deluges were the same, and arose fion. the Atlantic and Bosphorus bursting into the valley of the Mediterranean. DEMERARA AND ESSEQUIBO. These colonies, founded by the Dutch, were taken by the British, 1796. but were restored at the peace of 1802. Demarara and Essequibo again surrendered to tlhe British under general Grinfield,,,id commodore Hood, Sept. 20, 1803. They are now fixed English colonies. DENMARK. The most ancient inhabitants of this kingdom were the Cimbr! and the Teutones, who were driven out by the Justes or Goths. The Teutonet settled in Germany and Gaul; tile Cimbrians invaded Italy, where they -er( defeated by Marius. The peninsula of Jutland obtains its name from the Jutes; and the general name of' Denmarkl is supposed to be derived fioom Dam, the founder of the Danish monarchy, and m-ark-, a German word signi. fying country, i. e. Dan-mark, the country of Dan. DEnN 1 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 291 DENMARK, co;tisied. Reign of Sciold, first king - B.cC.60 The counts Struensee and Brandt are The 1Danish chronicles mention 18 kings seized at the same timne, on the charge to the time of Ragnor Lodbrog - A. D. 750 of a criminal intercourse with the [Ragnor is killed in an attemnpt to in- queen; and the formler confessing to vade England, anld for more than 200 avoid the torture, both are beheaded years from this time tile Danes were for high treason - April 28, 17'7 a terror to the northern nations of Eu- The queen Caroline Matilda dies at rope, and at lenlsth conquering all Zell - - - May 10, 1775 Ensgland. See Dlases.] Christian VII. becomes deranged, and Reign of Canute the Great - 1014 prince Frederick is appointed regent 1784 Reign of Watldemar the Great - 1157 One-fourth of Copenhagenis destroyed WValdemar II., with a fleet of 1000 sail, by fire - - - June 9, 1795 makes immense conquests - -1223 Admirals Nelson and Parker bombard Gothland conquered - - -1347 Copenhagen, and engage the Danish Denmark, Norway, and Sweden are fleet, taking or destroying 18 ships of united into one kingdom - -1397.the line, of whose crews 1800 are kcillRevolt of the Swedes - 1414 ed. The Confederacy of the North The nations reunited - - -1439 (see Armed Neutrality) is thus disCopenhagen made the capital - -1440 solved - - - April 2, 1801 Accession of Christian I., from whom Admiral Gambler and Lord Cathcart the present royal family springs - 1448 bombard Copenhageln, and seize the Christian IL. is deposed, and the inde- Danish fleet of i ships of the line, 15 pendence of Sweden aclknlowledged - 1523 ft gates, and 37 brigs, &c. - Sept. 7, 1807 Lutheranism established by Christian Polnerania and Rugen are annexed to III. - - - - -1536 Denmark, in exchange for Norway - 1814 Danish East India Company established Commercial treaty with England - 1824 by Christian IV. - 1612 Frederick bestows a new constitution Christian IV. chlosen head of the Pro- on his klingdom - - -1831 testant league - - 1629 A new constitution offered by Christian Charles Gustavus of Sweden invades VIII. - - - Jan. 20, 1848 Denmark, besieges Copenhagen, and Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein demakles larIe conquests -1658 miand separation firom Denmark The crown made hereditary and abso- March, 1848 lute - - 1660 The kcing grants freedom of the press Frederick IV. talkes 1olstein, Sleswick, and of ptlblic meetings - March, 1848 Tonningen, and Stralsund; reduces Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein reWeismar, and drives the Swedes out volt and join the great German naof Norway - - - 1716 et se. tion - - - March 26, 1848 Copenhagenc destroyed by a fire which Prussia aids tile duchies, and re-organconsunmes 1650 houses, 5 churches, the izes the Grand Duchy of Posen university, and 4 colleges - 1728 March 26, 1848 The peaceful reign of Christian VI., Danes victorious over the Germans, who promotes the'happiness of his April 10; but driven out of Schleswig subjects - - - 1730 April 23, 1848 Christian VIT. in a fit of jealousy sud- Truce agreed upon (provisional governdenly confines his queen, Caroline ment of 5 to rule the duchies meanMIatilda, sister of George III. who is swhile) - - - July 10, 1848 afterwards banished. See Zell Jan. 18, 1772 Armistice till March I, 1849, signed Aug. 1848 (See Copenhacgen.) IINGS OF DENMUARK. A. D. 714 Gormo I. 1014 Canute II. the Great. 750 Ragnor Lodbrogr. 1036 Hardicanute II. 770 Sigefiid. 1041 Magnus I. 801 Godefrid. 1048 Suenon II. 809 Olaus I. 1079 Harold IV. 811 Hemnming. 1080 Canute III. assassinated. 812 Siward and Ringon, kcilled in a sea-fight. 1086 Olaus II. 814 IHarold and Regner; the latter.made 1097 Eric III. prisoner in Ireland, and died in a 1106 Nicholas, kiilled in Sleswick. dungreon there. 1135 Eric IV., killed at Ripen. 849 Siward Il.deposed. 1138 Eric V. 856 Eric; killed in battle. 1147 Suenon III., beheaded by Waldemar 858 Eric Il. for assassinating prince Canute. 873 Canute I. 1157 Waldemnar the Great. 915 Frothon. 1182 Canute V. 920 Gormo II. 1202 Waldemar II 925 Harold. 1240 Eric VI. 928 IHardicanute. 1250 Abel I., killed in an expedition against 930 Gormo III. the Frisons. 935 Harold -III. 1252 Christopher I., I loisoned by the bishop 980 Suenon. of Arhus. 292 THE WORILD 7S PROGRESS. W A DENMARK, continued. 1259 Eric VII. assassinated. 1523 Frederick. 1286 Eric VIII. 1534 Christian IIL. 1319 Christopher II. (An interregnum of 1559 Frederick II. seven years.) 1588 Christian IV. 1340 Waldemar III. 1648 Frederick III. 1375 Olaus III. 1670 Christian V. 1375 Margaret I., queen of Denmark and 1699 Frederick IV. Norway. 1730 Christian VI. 1411 Eric IX., abdicated. 1746 Frederick V. 1439 Christopher III. 1766 Christian VII. 1448 Christian I. of the house of Oldenburgh. 1808 FredericVYI. 1481 John. 1839 Christianf VIII. died Jan. 20, 148. 1513 Christian II., confined 27 years in a dungeon, where he died. I)ENIS, ST. All ancient town of France, six miles from Paris to the northward, the last stage on the road from England to that capital,-famous for its abbey and church, the former abolished at the Revoluiion; the latter desecrated at the same epoch, after having been the appointed place of sepulture to the French kings, from its foundation by Dagobert, in 613. " DEVIL AND DR. FAUSTUS." Faustus, one of the earliest printers, had the policy to conceal his art, and to this policy we are indebted for the tradition of " The Devil and Dr. Faustus." Faustus associated with John of G(ulttemberg; their types were cut in wood, and fixed, not movable, as at present. Having printed off numbers of copies of the Bible, to imitate those which were commonly sold in MS., he undertook the sale of them at Paris, where printing was then unknown. As he sold his copies for sixty crowns, while the scribes demanded five hundred, he created universal astonishment; but when he produced copies as fast as they were wanted, and lowered the price to thirty crowns, all Paris was agitated. The uniformity of the copies increased the wonder; informations were given to the police against him as a magician, and his lodgings being searched, and a gr'et number of copies being found, they were seized. The red ink with which they were embellished was supposed to be his blood, and it was seriously adjudged that he was in league with the devil; and if he had not fled, he would have shared the fate of those whom superstitious judges condemned in those days for witchcraft, A. D. 1460. Nourv. Diet. See Printing. DIADEM. The band or fillet worn by the ancients instead of the crown, and which was consecrated to the gods. At first, this fillet was made of silk or wool, and set with precious stones, and was tied round the temples and forehead, the two ends being knotted behind, and let fall on the nc,. Aurelian was the first Roman emperor who wore a diadem, A. D. 272.Tillermont. DIALS. Invented by Anaximander, 550 B. c.-Pliny. The first dial of the sun seen at Rome, was placed on the temple of Quirinus by L. Papirius Cursor, when time was divided into hours, 293 B. c.-Blair. In the times of the emperors almost every palace and public building had a sun-dial. They were first set up in churches in A. D. 613.-Lenglet. DIAMONDS. They were first brought to Europe from the East, where tile mine of Sum-Abulpour was the first known; and where the mines of Golconiida were discoverd in 1584. This district may be termed the realm of diamonds. The mines of Brazil were discovered in 1728, From these last a dialond. weighing 1680 carats, or fourteen ounces. was sent to the court of Portug'al., and was valued by M. Romeo de l'Isle at the extravagant sum of 22L4 nail-! lions; by others it was valued at fifty-six millions: its value was next statedc to be three millions and a half; but its true value is 400.0001. The diamon(e called the " mountain of light," which belonged to the king of Cabul, was t]ie?n9,st superb gem ever seen; it was of the finest water, and the size o0'" i'lE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 293 an egg, and was also valued at three millions and a half. The great diamond of the emperor of Russia weighs 193 carats, or 1 oz. 12 dwt. 4 gr., troy. The empress Catharine II. offired for it 104,1661. besides an annuity for life, to the owner, of 10411. which was refused; but it was afterwards sold to Catharine's favorite, count Orloff, for the first mentioned sum, without the annuity, and was by him presented to the empress on her birthday, 1772; it is now in the sceptre of Russia. The Pitt diamond weighed 136 carats, and after cutting 106 carats; it was sold to the king of France for 125,0001. in 1720. DI)ANA, TEMPLE OF, AT EPHESUS. One of the seven wonders of the world, built at the common charge of all the Asiatic States. The chief architect was Ctesiphon; and Pliny says that 220 years were employed in completing this temple, whose riches were immense. It was 425 feet long, 225 broad, and was supported by 127 columns, (60 feet high, each weighing 150 tons of Parian marble,) furnished by so many kings. It was set on fire on the night of Alexander's nativity, by an obscure individual named Eratostratus, who confessed on the rack, that the sole motive which had prompted him to destroy so magnificent an edifice, was the desire of transmitting his name to future ages, 356 a. c. The temple was rebuilt, and again burned by the Goths, in their naval invasion, A. D. 256, Uaiv. Hist. DICTATORS. These were supreme and absolute magistrates of Rome, instituted 498 B. c.. when Titus Larcius Flavus, the first dictator, was appointed. This office, respectable and illustrious in the first ages of the Republic, became odious by the perpetual usurpations of Sylla and J. Cmesar; and after the death of the latter, the Romlan senate, on the motion of the consul Antony, passed a decree, which for ever forbade a dictator to exist in Rome, 44 B. c. DICTIONARY. A standard dictionary of the Chinese language, containing about 40,000 characters, most of them hieroglyphic, or rude representations somewhat like our signs of the zodiac, was perfected by Pa-out-she, who lived about 1100 B. c. —Mo'rrison. Cyclope dias were compiled in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The first dictionary of celebrity, perhaps the first, is by Ambrose Calepini. a Venetian friar, in Latin; he wrote one in eight languages, about A. D. 1500.-ANiceron. The Lexicon Heptaglotton was published by Edmund Castell, in 1659. Bayle's dictionary was published in 1696, " the first work of the kind in which a man may learn to think.- Voltaire. Chambers' Cyclopmdia, the first dictionary of the circle.of the arts, sciences, &c., was published in 1728. The great dictionary of the English language, by Samuel Johnson, appeared in 1755. Francis Grose's Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue, was compiled in 1768; and from this period numerous dictionaries have been added to our store of literature. Noah Webster's great American Dictionary of the English language, in two quarto volumes, was first published at New Haven in 1828. It was reprinted in London, under the supervision of E. H. Barker, 1832. Numerous abridgments and a new edition of the whole work have since been published. See Encyclopedia. UIiET oF THE GERMAN EMI-TRE. Thle supreme authority of this empire may be said to have existed in the assemblage of princes under this name. The diet, as composed of three colleges, viz.:-the college of electors, the college of' princes, and the college of imperial towns, commenced with the famous edict of Charles IV. 1356.-See Golden BTldl. Diets otherwise constituted had long P)reviously been held on important occasions. The diet of Wurtzburg, which proscribed Henry the Lion, was held in 1179. The celebrated diet of Worms, at which Luther assisted in person, was held in 1521. That of Spires, to condemn the Reformers, was held in 1529; 294 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ DIi and the famous diet of Augsburg, in 1530. In the league of the German princes, called the confederation of the Rhine, they fixed the diet at Frankl. fort, July 12, 1806. A new diet at Frankfort, for the purpose of coni solidating the government of the German States, 1848. See Gcroqctoy. DIEU ET MON DROIT, "God and my right." This was the parole of the day, given by Richard I. of England, to his army at the battle of Gisors, in France. In this battle (which see) the French army was signally defeated; and in remembrance of this victory, Richard made " Diea et momn droit" the motto of the royal arms of England, and it has ever since been retained, A. D. 1198. —Rymer's Faderla. )ICGEST. The first collection of Roman laws under this title was preparea by Alfrenus Varus, the civilian of Cremona, 66 B. c.- Quintil. Ibst. Orat. Other digests of Roman laws followed. The Digest, so called by way of eminence, was-the collection of laws made by order of the emperor Justinian: it made the first part of the Roman law, and the first volume of the civil law. Quotations fiom it are marked with a ff.-Parldon. DIOCESE. The first division of the Roman empire into dioceses, which were at that period civil governments, is ascribed to Constantine. A. D. 323; but Strabo remarks that the Romans had the departments called dioceses 1 before.-S1'cbo, lib. xiii. In England these circuits of the bishops' jurisdiction are coeval with Christianity; there are twenty-four dioceses, of which twenty-one are suffiragan to Canterbury, and three to York. DIOCLETIAN ERA. Called also the era of Martyrs, was used by Christian writers until the introduction of the Christian era in the sixth century, and is still employed by the Abyssinians and Copts. It dates friom the day on which Diocletian was proclaimed emperor at Chalcedon, 29th August, 281. It is called the era of martyrs, on account of the persecution of the Chlristians in the reign of Diocletian. DIORAMA. This species of exhibition, which had long previously been an object of wonder and delight at Paris, was first opened in London, Sept. 29, 1823. The diorama differs from the panorama in this respect, that. instead of a circular view of the objects represented, it exhibits the whole pictin'e at once in perspective, and it is decidedly superior both too the panorama and the cosmoraima in the -fidelity with which the objects are depicted, an.d in the completeness of the illusion. DIPLOMACY oF THrE UNITED STATES. List of ministers plenipotentiail to Great Britain and France. GREAT BRITAIlN. FRANCE. 1783 John Adamns. 1776 B. Franklin, S. Deane, & A. Lee, com'rs 1789 Gouv. Morris, commissioner. 1790 Wm. Short, of Va., cha-rge d'affaires. 1792 Thomas Pinckney, of S. C., min. plen. 1792 Gouv. Morris, N. J., minister plen. 1794 John Jay, of N. Y. do. 1799 James Munroe, Va. do. 1796 Rufus King, do. do. 1796 C. C. Pinckney, S. C. 1803 James:Moknroe, Vas. 8Jointly, 1797 IE. Gerry & John arsharola l,do. 18806 Wm. Pinckney, Mass. in 1806. 1799 01. Ellsworth, Patrick Ienery, 1808 Wmn. Pinckney, do. alone do. and W. Vans Murray, do. 1815 John Quincy Adams, Mass. do. 1801 James A. Bayard, Del. do. 1817 Richard Rush, Pa. do. 1801 R. R. Livingston, N. Y. do. 1826 Albert Gallatin, N. Y. do. 1804 John Armstrong, do. do. 1828 James Barbour, Va. do. 1811 Joel Barlow, Conn. do. 1830 Louis iMcLane, Del. do. 1813 Win. H1-. Crawford, Geo. do. 1831 M. Van Buren, N. Y. do. 1815 Albert Gallatin, Pa. do. 1832 Aarot. Vail, charge d'affaires. 1823 James Brown, La. lo. 1836 And. Stevenson, Va., minister plen. 1830 Wnri C. Rives, Va. do. 1841 Edward Everett, Mass. - do, 1833 Edward Livingston, La. do. 1845 Louis McLane, Md. do. 1836 Iewis Cass, Mich. do. 1846 George Bancroft, Mass. do. 1.844 Win. R. King, Ala. do. 1849 Abbott Lawrence, do. do. 1849 W. C. Rives, Va. da. DIV ] DICTIONARY OF DATES.' 295 DIRECTORY, THE CHURCH. The book so called was published in England at the period of the civil war. It was drawn up at the instance of the parliament, by an assembly of divines at Westminster, with the object that the ministers might not e) wholly at a loss in their devotions after the suppression of the Book of Common Praye'. There were some general hints given, which were to be managed at discretion, for the Directory prescribed no forml of prayer, nor manner of external worship, nor enjoined the people to make any responses, except Amen.e~. The Directory was established by an ordinance of the parliament in 1644.-Bis/hop Tacylor. DIRECTORY, FRENCH. The French Directory was installed at the little Luxembourg, at Paris, under a new constitution of' the government, November 1, 1795, and held the executive power four years. It was composed of five members, and ruled in connection with two chambers, the Council of An-,cients and Council of Five Hundred,;h/ich see. Deposed by Bonaparte, whc, with Camlbac6rBs and Sieyes, became the ruling power of France, the three governing as consuls, the first as chief, Nov. 9, 1799. DISSENTERS. The "Dissenters " from the Church of England arose early in the Reformation, contending for a more complete depar ture firom the Romish nmodels of church government and discipline. They were reproached with the name of Puritans, on account of the purity they proposecl in religious worship and conduct; and the rigorous treatment they endured under Elizabeth and James I. led multitudes of them to emiglrate to this country in those reigns. The first place of worship for Dissenters in England was established at Wandsworth, near London, Nov. 20, 1572; and nov, in London alone, the number of chapels, imeeting-houses, &c., for all classes of Dissenters, amounts to near 200. The great act for the relief of Dissenters from civil and religious disabilities, was the statute passed 9 George IV. c. 17. By this act, called the Corporation and Test Repeal Act, so much of the several acts of parliament of the preceding reigns as imposed the necessity of receiving the sacrament of the Lord's Supper as a qualification for certain offices, &c. was repealed, May 9, 1828. Several other acts of ameliorating effect have been since passed. DIVINATION. - In the Scriptures woe find mention made of different kinds of divination; and it is mentioned by most of the ancient authors. It was retained in the hands of the priests and priestesses, the magi, soothsayers, augurs, and other like professors, till the coming of Christ, when the doctrines of Christianity and the spirit of philosophy banished such visionary opinions. The oracles of Delphi began 1263 B. c. Augurs were instituted by Numa at Rome, 710 B. C. See Auegs'ry, WitcLcra'ft, cpc. DIVING-BELL. First mentioned, though obscurely, by Aristotle, 325, B. c. The diving-bell was first used in Europe, A. D. 1509. It is said to have been used on the coast of Mull, in searching for the wreck of part of the Spanish Armada, before A. D. 1669. Halley greatly improved this machine, and was, it is said, the first who, by means of a diving-bell, set his foot on dry ground at the bottom of the sea. Smeaton applied the condensing-pump to force down air. Mr. Spalding and his assistants going down in a diving-bell in Ireland, were drowned, June 1, 1783. The BRoyal George man-of'-war, which was sunk off Portsmouth in 1782, was first surveyed by means of a diviiigbell, in May 1817. Lately, and particularly in 1840, it has been employed in sub-marine surveys. The first diving-belle was the wife of Captailn MA-orris, at Plymouth, who descended in one a few years ago. DIVORCES Fou ADULTERY. Of the earliest institution, both in ecclesiastical and civil law, among the ancients. First put in practice by Spurius Carvilius at Rome, 231 B. c.-Blair. At this time morals were so debased, that 3000 prosecutions for adultery were enrolled. Divorces were attempted 296 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. L DOG to be made of more easy obtainment in England, in A. D. 1539. The bill to prevent women marrying their seducers was brought into parliament in 1801. DOCKS oF LONDON. They are said to be the most extensive and finest constructions of the kind, for the purposes of commerce, in the world. In London there are a number of these docks, of which the following are the principal:-The West India docks, the act for whose formation passed in July 1799; they were commenced February 3, 1800, and were opened Aug. 27, 1802, when the Henry Addincgton West Indiaman first entered them, decorated with the colors of the different nations of Europe. The London docks were commenced June 26, 1802, and were opened January 31, 180-. The East India docks were commenced under an act passed July 27, 1803, and were opened August 4, 1806. The first stone of the St. Katherine docks was laid May 3, 1827; and 2,500 men were daily employed upon them until they were opened, Oct. 25, 1828. DOCTOR. This rank was known in the earliest times. Doctor of the church was a title given to SS. Athanasius, Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, and Chrysostom, in the Greek church; and to SS. Jerome, Augustin, and Gregory the Great, in the Romish church, A. D. 373, et seq. Doctor of the law was a title of honor among the Jews. The degree of doctor was conferred in England,. 8 John, 1207.-Spelvzan. Some give it an earlier date, referring it to the" time of the Venerable Bede and John de Beverley, the former of whom, it is said, was the first that obtained the degree at Cambridge, about A. D. 725. See Collegiate Degrees. DOCTORS' COMMONS. The college for the professors of civil and canon law residing in the city of London; the name of Commons is given to this college from the civilians commoning together as in other colleges. Doctors' Commons was founded by Dr. Henry Harvey, whose original college was destroyed in the great fire of 1666, but after some years it was rebuilt on the old site. The causes taken cognizance of here are, blasphemy, divorces, bastardy, adultery, penance, tithes, mortuaries, probate of wills, &c. See article Civil Law. DOG. The chiet de berger, or the shepherd's dog, is the origin of the whole race. —BLeffo. Buffon describes this dog as being " the root of the tree," assigning as his reason that it possesses from nature the greatest share of instinct. The Irish wolf-dog is supposed to be the earliest dog known in Europe, if Irish writers be correct. Dr. Gall mentions that a dog was taken from Vienna to England; that it escaped to Dover, got on board a vessei, landed at Calais, and after accompanying a gentleman to Mentz, returned to Vienna. DOG-DAYS. The canicular or dog-days, commence on the 3d of July, and end on the 11th of August. Common opinion has been accustomed to regard the rising and setting of Sirius, or the dog-star,* with the sun, as the cause of excessive heat; and of consequent calamities, instead of its being viewed as the sign when such effects might be expected. The star not only varies in its rising, in every one year as the latitude varies, but is always later and later every year in all latitudes, so that in time the star may, by the same rule, come to be charged with bringing frost and snow.-Dr. Hutteos. DOGE. The title of the duke of Venice, which state was first governed by a * Mathematicians assert that Sirius, or the Dog Star, is the nearest to us of all the fixed stars; and they compute its distance from our earth at 2,200,000 millions of miles. They inaintain that a sound would not reach our earth from Sirius in 50,000 years, and that a cannon-ball, flying with its usual velocity of 480 miles an hour, would consume 523,211 years in its passage thence to our globe. 9Ot 3] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 297 prince so named. Anafesto Paululio, A. D. 697. The Genoese revolted against their count, and chose a dege from among their nobility, and became an aristocratic republic, 1030-4. The ceremony of the doge of Venice marrying the sea, " the Adriatic wedded to our duke," was instituted in 1173, and was observed annually on Ascension-day, until 1797, when the customl was dispensed with. See Adr'ialic. DOMINGO, ST. Discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, in 1493. The city was founded in 1494. The town of Port-au-Prince was burnt down, and nearly destroyed by the revolted negroes, in Oct., Nov., and Dec., 1791. Toussaint L'Ouverture governed the island, on the expulsion of the French colonists, after this till 1802, when he was entrapped by Bonaparte, and died in prison. His successor, Dessalines, recommended the blacks, by proclamation, to make a general massacre of the whites, which was accordingly executed with horrid cruelty, and 2500 were butchered in one day, March 29, 1804. Dessalines proclaimed himself emperor, Oct. 8, 1804. See Hayti, in which article particulars will be found up to the independence of St. Domingo, acknowledged by France, in April, 1825. DOMINICA. Discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, in 1493. This island was taken by the British in 1761, and was confirmed to them by the peace of 1763. The French took Dominica in 1778, but restored it at the subsequent peace in 1783. It suffered great damage by a tremendous hurricane in 1806; and several devastating hurricanes have more recently occurred. DOMINICAL LETTER. Noting the Lord's day, or Sunday. The seven days of the week, reckoned as beginning on the 1st of January, are designated as by the first seven letters of the alphabet, A, B, C, D, E, F, G; and the one of these which denotes Sunday is the Dominical letter. If the year begin on Sunday, A is the dominical letter; if it begin on Monday, that letter is G; if on Tuesday, it is F, and so on. Generally to find the dominical letter call New Year's day A, the next day B, and go on thus till you come to the first Sunday, and the letter that answers to it is the dominical letter; in leap years count two letters..DOMINICANS. A religious order whose power and influence were almost universal. They were called in France Jacobins, and in England Blackfriars, and were founded by St. Dominick, approved by Innocent III. in 1215; and the order was confirmed by a bull of Honorius II1. in 1216, under St. Austin's rules, and the founder's particular constitutions. In 1276 the corporation of London gave them two whole streets by the river Thames, where they erected a large and elegant convent, and whence that part is still called Blackfriars. DOOM'S-DAY oa DOME'S-DAY BOOK. Liber Jmediciarils vel Ce'nsualis Arielie. A book of the general survey of England, commenced in the reign of William I. A. D. 1080. The intent of this book was, to be a register whereby to determine the right in the tenure of estates; and from this book the question whether lands be ancient demesne or not, is sometimes still decided. The book is still preserved in the Exchequer, fair and legible, consisting of two volumes, a greater and lesser, wherein all the counties of England, except Northumberland and Durham, are surveyed. It was finished in A. D. 1086, having been completed by five justices. " This dome'sday book was the tax-book of kinge William."- Cazlden. The taxes were levied according to this survey till 13 Henry VIII. 1522, when a more accurate survey was taken, and was called by the people the new Doom's-day book. DORIC OmDE:R os' ARCHITECTURE. The most ancient of the five, the invention of the Dorians, a people of Greece. The Dorians also gave the name to 13* 298 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. t DRA the Doric muse. The migration of this people to the Peloponnesu:t took place 1104 B. c. They sent, in their vast spirit of enterprise, many colonies into different places, which afterwards bore the same name as their native country. DORI. Here happened an awful inundation of the sea, A. D. 1446. It arose in the breaking down of the dykes; and. in the territory of Dordrecht 10,000 persons were overwhelmed and perished; and more than 100,000 round Dullart, in Friesland and in Zealand. In the last two provinces upwards of 300 villages were overflowed, and the tops of their towers and steeples were for ages after to be seen rising out of the water. Dort is famous for the Protestant synod held in 1618; a general assembly, to which deputies were sent from England, and from all the Reformed churches in Europe, to settle the differences between the doctrines of Luther, Calvin, and Arminius, principally upon points of justification and grace. The synod condemned the tenets of Arnminius.-Aitzemca. DOUAY, IN FRANCE. Erected into a university by Philip II. of Spain, who founded her the celebrated college of Roman Catholics, A. D. 1569. Douay was taken from the Spaniards by Louis XIV. in person, in 1667. It was taken by the duke of M1arlborough, in 1710; and retaken by the Vrench next year. This town gives its name to the Catholic edition of tht Biblc, which continues in almost universal use by the consent of the succ,essive popes among the members of that communion, as the onlyEnglish version authorized by Catholics; its text being copiously explained by the notes of Catholic divines. DRACO, LAWS orF. Draco, when he exercised the office of archon, made a code of lawts, which, on account of their severity, were said to be written in letters of blood: by them idleness was punished with as much severity as murder; the smallest transgression, he said, deserved death, and he could not find any punishment more rigorous for more atrocious crimes, 623 a. c.Sigo'ai'es de Repub. Athen. DRAKE'S CIRCUMNAVIGATION. Sir Francis Drake sailed from Plymouth, No. 13, 1577, and sailing round the globe, returned to England, after many perilous adventures. Nov. 3, 1580. This illustrious seaman was vioe-admiral under lord Howard, high-admiral of England, in the memorable conflict with the Spanish Armada, July 19, 1588. His expeditions and victories over the Spaniards have been equalled by modern admirals, but not his generosity; for he divided the booty he took in proportional shares with the common sailors, even to wedges of gold given him in return for his presents to Indian chiefs.-Stowe. Rapiht. DRAMA. We owe both forms of composition, tragedy and comedy, to the Greeks. The first comedy was performed at Athens, by Susarion and Dolon, on a movable scaffold, 562 B. B,. See Comedy. The chorus was introduced 556 B. c. See Chorus. Tragedywas first represented at Athens, by Thespis, on a wagon, 536 B. c. Arund. Marb. Thespis of Icaria, the inventor of tragedy, performed at Athens Alcestil, this year, and was rewarded with a goat, 536 B. c.-Pliny. Anaxandrides was the first dramatic poet who ir, troduced intrigues and rapes upon the stage. He composed about a hundred plays, of which ten obtained the prize; he died 340 B. c. DRAMA IN ROME. The drama was first introduced into Rome on occasion of a plague which raged during the consulate of C. Sulpicius Peticus and C. Lucinius Stolo. The magistrates to appease the incensed deities instituted the games called Scenici, which were amusenlents entirely new. Actors from Etruria danced, after the Tuscan manner, to the flute 364 B. c. Subsequently came satires accompanied with music set to the flute; and PRO J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 299 afterwards plays were represented by Livius Andronicus, who, abandoning satires, wrote plays with a regular and connected plot, 240 a. c.-Livy. Andronicus was the first person who gave singing and dancing to two different performers; he danced himself, and gave the singing to a younger exhibitor.-Livy. DRAMA, MODERN. The modern drama arose early in the rude attempts of minstrels and buffoons at fairs in France, Italy, and England. —Warton. Stories from. the Bible were represented by the priests, and were the origin of sacred comedy.-Ides. Gregory Nazianzen, an early father of the church, is said to have constructed a drama about A. D. 364, on the Passion of Christ, to counteract the profanities of the heathen stage, and thus to have laid the foundation of the modern romantic drama; but this is not clearly proved. Fitzstephen, in his Life of Thomas a Bechket, asserts that " London had for its theatrical exhibitions holy plays, and the representation of miracles wrought by holy confessors." The Chester Mysteries were performed about 1270. Plays were performed at Cierkenwell by the parish clerks in 1397, and miracles were represented in the fields. Allegorical characters were introduced in the reign of Henry VI. Individual characters were introduced in Henry VII.'s reign. The first regular drama acted in Europe was the "Sophonisba" of Trissino, at Rome, in the presence of pope Leo X., 1515.-Vollaire. The English drama became perfect in the reign of Elizabeth. The first royal license for the drama in England was to master Burbage, and four others, servants to the earl of Leicester, to act plays at the Globe, Bankside, 1574. A license was granted to Shakspeare, and his associates, in 1603. Plays were opposed by the Puritans in 1633, and were afterwards suspended until the Restoration in 1660. Two companies of regular performers were licensed by Charles II., Killegrew's and Davenant's, in 1662. Till this tinme boys performed women's parts. DRESDEN, BATTLE OF, between the allied army under the prince of Schwarzenberg, and the French army commanded by Napoleon, Aug. 26 and 27, 1813. The allies, who were 200,000 strong, attacked Napoleon in his position at Dresden, and the event had nearly proved fatal to them, but for an error in the conduct of general Vandamme. They were defeated with dreadful loss, and were obliged to retreat into Bohemia; but Vandamme pursuing themw too far, his division was cut to pieces, and himself and all his staff made prisoners. In this battle general Moreau received his mortal wound while in conversation with the emperor of Russia. DRESS. Excess in dress was restrained by a law in England, in the reign of Edward IV., 1465. And again in the reign of Elizabeth, 1574.-Stowe. Sir Walter Raleigh, we are told, wore a white satin-pinked vest, close sleeved to the wrist, and over the body a brown doublet finely flowered, and embroidered with pearls. In the feather of his hat, a large ruby and pearl drop at the bottom of the sprig, in place of a button. His breeches, with his stockings and ribbon garters, fringed at the end, all white; and buff shoes, which on great court days, were so gorgeously covered uwith precious stones, as to have exceeded the value of 66001,; and he had a suit of armor of solid silver, with sword and belt blazing with diamonds, rubies, and pearls. King James's favorite, the duke of Buckinghamn, could afford to have his diamonds tacked so loosely on, that when he chose to shake a few off on the ground, he obtained all the fame he desired from the pickers-up, who were generally les Dames de la Com'. DROWNING PERSONS. Societies for the recovery of drowning persons were first instituted in Holland, A. D. 1767. The second society is said to have been formed at Milan, in 1768; the third in Hamburg, in 1771; the fourth at Paris, in 1772; and the fifth in London, in 1774. Similar societies 300 THE WORLD'S PROGRE:S. [ DUI>: have been instituted in other countries. The motto of the Royal Humane Society in England is very appropriate:-Lateat sciutillmla forsan-a small spark may lurk unseen. DRUIDS. A celebrated order among the ancient Germans, Gauls, and Britons, who from their veneration for the oak (Drys) were so called. They acted as priests and magistrates; one of them was invested, occasionally with supreme authority. In England they were chosen out of the best familier, that the dignity of their station, added to that of their birth, might procure them the greater respect. They were versed in sciences; had the administration of all sacred things; were the interpreters of the gods; and supreme judges in all causes. The Druids headed the Britons who opposed Cresar's first landing, 55 B. c. They were cruelly put to death, defending the freedom of their country against the Roman governor, Suetonius Paulinuo, who totally destroyed every mark of Druidism, A. D. 59.-Rowland's Mozna A7,tiqna. DRUNKARDS. The phrase " Drunk as a lord," arose out of an older proverb, " Drunk as a beggar;" and we are told that it was altered owing to the vice of drunkenness prevailing more among the great of late years. Drunkenness was punished in many, of the early nations with exemplary severity. In England, a canon law restrained it in the clergy so early as A. D. 747. Constantine, king of Scots, punished this offence against society with death. lie used to say, that a drunkard was but the mimic of a man, and differed from the beast only in shape, A. D. 870. Drunkenness was restrained in the commonalty in England in 975; and by several later laws. DUBLIN. This city, anciently called Ascheled, built A. D,. 140. DUCkT. First coined by Longinus, governor of Italy.-Procopius. First struck in the duchy of Apulia.-Dan Cange. Coined by Robert, king of Sicily, in A. D. 1210. The ducat is so called because struck by dukes.-Johnson. It is of silver and gold, the value of the first being 4s. 6d., and that of' the gold 9s. 6d.-Parcdo~n. DUELLING AND KNIGHT-ERRANTRY, took their rise from the judicial combats of the Celtic nations. The first duel in England, not of this character, took place A. D. 1096. Duelling in civil matters was forbidden in France 1305. The present practice of duelling arose in the challenge of Francis I. to the emperor Charles V.. 1527. The fight with small swords was introduced into England, 29 Elizabeth 1587. Proclamation that no person should be pardoned who killed another in a duel, 30 Charles II., 1679. Duellin? was checked in the army, 1792.-See Battle, Warger of; Combat, qc. As many as 227 official and memorable duels were fought during my grand climacteric.-Sirk J. Barrinkgton. A single writer enumerates 172 duels, in which 63 individuals were killed and 96 wounded: in three of these cases both the combatants were killed, and 18 of the survivors suffered the sentence of the law. —Hamilton. DUKE, originally a Roman dignity, first given to the generals of armies. In England, during Saxon times, the comnllanders of armies were called dukes, dunces. —CUmden?. The title lay dormant from tile Conquest till the reign oe Edward III., who conferred the title on his eldest son, Edward the Black Prince, by the style of duke of Cornwall, A. D. 1336. Robert de Vere was created marquis of Dublin and duke of Ireland, 9 Richard II., 1385. The first duke created in Scotland was by king Robert III., who created, David, prince of Scotland, duke of Rothsay, a title which afterwards belonged to the king's eldest son, A. D. 1398. DUKE, GRAND. The Medici family was one of extraordinary greatness and immense wealth. Of this family, Alexander de Medicis was acknowledged EARI J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 301 the chief of the republic of Tuscany in 1531; he was stabbed in the night; and his son, Cosmo, was created grand duke, the first of that rank, by pope Pius V. in 1569. DUNBAR, BATTLE OP, between the Scottish and English armies, in which John Baliol was defeated by the earl of Warrenne, and Scotland subdued, by Edward I., fought April 27, 1296. Battle between the Scots and English under Cromwell, who obtained a signal victory, September 3, 1650. DUNKIRK. This town was taken from the Spaniards by the English and French, and put into the hands of the English, June 24, 1658, the last year of Cromwell's administration. It was sold by Charles II. for 500,0001. to Louis XIV., in 1662. The French king made Dunkirk one of the best fortified ports in. the kingdom; but all the works were demolished, and the basins filled up, in consequence of the treaty of Utrecht in 1713. DUNSINANE, BATTLE OF. Celebrated in dramatic story by the immortal Shakspeare. On the hill of Dunsinane was fought the renowned battle between Macbeth, the thane of Glaemmis, and Seward, earl of Northumberland. Edward the Confessor-had sent Seward on behalf of Malcolm IIv., whose father, Duncan, the thane and usurper had murdered. Macbeth, who was signally defeated, fled, and was pursued, it is said. to Lumphanan, in Aberdeenshire, and there slain, 1057. The history of' Macbeth is the subject of Shakspeare's incomparable drama. DURHAM, BATTLE OF, between the English and Scottish armies, fought at Nevill's-cross, near Durham. The former army was commanded by queen Philippa and lord Piercey, and the latter by David Bruce, king of Scotland, who was vanquished. Fifteen thousand of Bruce's soldiers were cut to pieces, and himself, with many of his nobles and knights, and many thousand men, were taken prisoners, Oct. 17, 1346. DYEING, ART OF. The discovery of it attributed to the Tyrians. In dyeing and dipping their own cloths, the English were so little skilled, that their manufactures were usually sent white to Holland, and returned to England for sale. The art of dyeing woollens was brought from the Low Countries in 1608. "Two dyers of Exeter were flogged for teaching their art in the nor'th'; (of England) 1628. E.:EAGLE. The standard of the eagle was first borne by the Persians; and the Romans carried figures of the eagle, as ensigns, in silver and gold, and sometimes represented with a thunderbolt in its talons, on the point of a spear; they adopted the eagle in the consulate of Marius, 102 B. c. When Charlemagne became master of the whole of the German empire, he added the second head to the eagle for his arms, to denote that the empires of Rome and Germany were united in him, A. D. 802. The eagle was the imperial standard of Napoleon; and is that of Austria, Russia, and Prussia. It is also the national emblem of the United States of America. EARL. An honor which came from the Saxons, and continued for many ages the highest rank in England, until Edward III. created dukes, and Richard II. created marquesses, both having precedency assigned above earls. They had. anciently, for the support of their state, the third penny out of the sheriff's court, issuing out of the pleas of the shire whereof they had their title, as in ancient times there were no counts or earls but had a county or shire for his earldorn. Upon the increase of earls their revenue ceased, and their powers were abridged. Alfred used the title of earl as a substitute for king. o02 TI'E WVORLD 7S PROGRESS. EAR EARTH. The globullar form of the earth was first suggested by Thales of MIiletus about 640 B. c. Its magnitude was calculated from measuring an arc of the meridian by Eratosthenes, 240 B. c. The Greeks taught the sphericity of the earth, and the popes believed it to be a plane, and gave all towards the west to the kings of Spain. The first ship that sailed round the earth, and thence demonstrated that its form was globular, was Magellan's, in 1519. The notion of its magnetism was started by Gilbert in 1576. The experiments of M. Richer, in 1672, led Newton to prove the earth to be in the shape of an oblate spheroid. The variation of its axis was discovered by Dr. Bradley in 1737. See Globe. E ARTHENWARE. Vessels of this ware were in use among the most ancient nations. Various domestic articles were made by the Romans, 715 n. c. The art was revived and improved in Italy, A. D. 1310. Wedgewood's patent ware was first made in 1762. His pottery in Staffordshire was extended to a variety of curious compositions, subservient not only to the ordinary purposes of life, but to the arts, antiquity, history, &c., and thereby rendered a very important branch of commerce, both foreign and domestic. See C/tiia.- Porcelaie. EARTHQUAKES. The theory of earthquakes has not yet been formed with any degree of certainty. Anaxagoras supposed that earthquakes were pro-. cluceci by subterraneous clouds bursting out into lightning, which shook the vaults that confined them, a. c. 435.-Dieo'. Laer't. Kircher, Des Cartes, and others, supposed that there were many vast cavities under ground which have a conlmllnication with each other, some of which abound with waters, others with exhalations, arising froiom inflammable substances, as nitre, bitumen, sulphur, &c. These opinions continued to be supported till 1.749-50, when an earthquake was felt at London, and several parts of Britain. Dr. Stukeley, who had been engaged in electrical experiments, then began to suspect that a phenomenon of this kind omght to be attributed not to vapor, or fermentations generated in the bowels of the earth, blit to electricity. These principles at the same time were advanced by Signor Beccaria, without knowing any thing of Dr. Stukeley's discoveries, and the hypothesis has been confirmed by the experiments of Dr. Priestley. In mLany cases, howvever, it appears probable that the immense power of water converted into steam' by subterraneous fires must contribute to augment the force which occasions earthquakes. Among those which are recorded as having been the most destructive and memorable, are the following, which are quoted from the best sources: it would be impossible to enumerate in this volume all that have occurred:One which made the peninsula of Antioch destroyed - - A.D. 114 Euba-a an island - - B.C. 425 Nicomedia, Ctesarea. and Nicea in Ellice and Bula in the Peloponnesus, Bithynia, overturned - - 126 swallowed up - - - 372 In Asia, Pontus, and Macedonia, 150 One at Rome, when, in obedience to cities and towns damaged. -. 357 an oracle, AM. Curtius, armed and Nicomedia again demolished, and its mounted on a stately horse, leaped inhabitants buried in its ruins 358 into the dreadful chasm it occasion- One felt by nearly the whole world - 543 Aurased (Liny).. 5 -. I buidwihal t rAt Constantinople; its edifices destroyDuras, in Greece, buried with all its ed, and thousands perished - - 5 inhabitants; and twelve cities in ed, and thf sands periehed - 560 Campania also buried - - 35 I Afica; any cities overturned - 560 Lysimachia totally buried, with all its Awful one in Syria, Palestine, and inhabitants - 283 Asia; more than 500 cities were deAwful one in Asia, which overturned strayed, and the loss of life srupasstwelve cities - - - D. 17 ed all calculation - - - 742 One accompanied by the eruption of In France, Germany, and Italy - 801 Vesuvius; the cities of' Pompeii and Constantinople overtlurned, and all HerculaneuLn buried - 79 Greece shaken - - 936 Four cities in Asia, two in Greece, atd One felt throughout England - - 1089 two in Galatia, overturned - - 107 One at Anltioch; many towns destroy. AS ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 303 EARTHQUAKES, coentimeud. ed: among them, Mariseum and Ma- A destructive one at Snmyrna - A. D. 1778 mistria - - - A. D. 1114 At Tauris: 15,000 houses thrown down, Catania in Sicily overturned, and and multitudes buried - -1780 15,000 persons buried in the ruins - 1137 One which overthrew Messina and a One severely felt at Lincoln - 1142 number of towns in Italy and Sicily: At Calabria, when one of its cities and 40,000 persons perished - - 1783 all its inhabitants were overwhelml- Archindschan wholly destroyed, and ed in tile Adriatic Sea - - 1186 12,000 persons buried in its ruins - 1784 One again felt throughout England - 1274 At Borgo di San Sepolcro, an opening At Naples, when 40,000 of its inhabit- of the earth swallowed up many ants perished - - - 1456 houses and 1000 persons - Sept. 1789 One felt in London: part of St. Paul's Another fatal one in Sicily - 1791 and the Temple churches'ell - 1580 One in Naples, when Vesuvius issuing In Japan, several cities made ruins, forth its flames overwhelmed the city and thousands perished 1596 of Torre del Greco - - - 1794 Awiful one at Calabria - - 1638 In Turkey, where, in three towns, One in China, when 300,000 persons 10,000 persons lost their lives -1794 were buried in Pekin alone - - 1662 The whole country between Santa Fe One severely felt in Ireland - - 1690 and Panama destroyed, including the One at.lamaica, which totally destroy- cities of Cusco and Quito, 40,000 of ed Port Royal, whose houses were whose people were, in one second, ingulfed lorty fathoms deep, and 300 hurled into eternity - - 1795 persons perished - - - 1692 One at Constantinople, which destroyOne in Sicily, which overturned 54 ed the royal palace and an immencities and towns, and 300 villages. sity of buildings, and extended into Of Catania and its 18.000 inhtabit- Romania and Wallachia. - - 1800 ants, not a trace remained; more A violent one felt in Holland - Jan. 1804 than 100,000 lives were lost - - 1693 In the kingdom of Naples, where 20,000 Palermo nearly destroyed, and 6000 persons lost their lives - -1805 persons perished - - 1726 At the Azores: a village of St. 5M'iAgain in China; and 100,000 people chael's sunlr, and a lake of boiling swallowed up at Pekint - - 1731 water appeared in its place - Aug. 1810 One illn Hungary, which turned a Awlful one at Caraccas (which7 see) - 1812 nlountain round - - 1736 Several felt throughout India. The Lima and Callao detuolished; 18,000 district of' Kutch sunlk; 2000 persons persons buried in the ruins Oct. 28, 1746 were buried with it - - June 1819 One at Palermo, which swallowed up In Genoa, Palermo, Rome, and many a convent l but the monks escaped 1740 other towns; great damage sustainIn London, the inhabitants terrified by ed, and thousands perished - - 1819 a slight shock - Feb. 8, 1750 One fatal, at Messina - - Oct. 1826 Another, but severer shock, March 8, 1750 One in Spain, which devastated MurAdrianople nearly overwhelmed - 1752 cia, and numerous villages; 6000 At Grand Cairo, half of the houses, and persons perished - March 21, 1829 40,000 persons swvallowed up - 1754 In the duchy of Parma; no less than Quito destroyed - - April, 1755 40 shocks were experienced at BorGreat earthquake at Lisbon. In about gotareo; and at Pontremoli many eight minutes most of the houses, Iouses were thrown down, and not a and upwards of' 50,000 inhabitants, chimney was left standing Feb. 14, 1834 were swallowed up,and whole streets In many cities of Southern Syria, by buried. The cities of Coimbra, which hundreds of houses were Oporto, and Braga, suffered dread- thrown down, and thousands of the fully, and St. ITbes was wholly over- inhabitants perished Jan. 22, 1837 tulrned. In Spain, a large part of At Martiniqlue, by which nearly half lIalaga became ruins. One half of of Port Itoyal is destroyed, nearly Fez, in Morocco, was destroyed, and 700 persons killed, and the whole more than 12,000 Arabs perished island damaged - Jan. 11, 1839 there. Above half of the island of At Ternate: the island made a waste, Madeira became waste; and 2,000 almost every house destroyed, and houses in the island of Meteline, in thousands of the inhabitants lose the Archipelago, were overthrown: their lives - - Feb. 14, 1840 this awfull earthquake extended 5000 Awful and destructive earthquake at miles, even to Scotland Nov. 1, 1755 Mount Ararat; in one of the districts One in Syria extended over 10,000 of Armenia 3137 hou:ses were oversquare miles: Balbec destroyed - 1759 thrown, and several hundred persons One at Martinico, when 1600 persons perished - - July 2, 1840 lost their lives - - Aug. 1767 Great earthquake at Zante, where At Gutatemala, which, with 80,000 in- many persons perished Oct. 10, 1840 habitants, was swallowed up Dec. 1773 EASTER- So called in Engladcl fron the Saxon goddess Eosse. Tile festival of Easter was instituted about A. D. 68; the clay for the observance of it was fixed in England by St. Austin, in 597. It was ordained by the council 304 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. I ECL of Nice to be observed on the same day throughout the whole Christian world. Easter is the first Sunday after the first full moon that occurs after the 21st of March. EASTERN EMPIRE. Commenced under Valens, A. D. 364, and ended in the defeat and death of Constantine XIII., the last Christian emperor, in 1453. Mahomet II. resolved to dethrone him, and possess himself of Constantinople; he laid seige to that city both by sea and land, and took it by assault after it had held out fifty-eight days. The unfortunate emperor, seeing the Turks enter by the breaches, threw himself into the midst of the enemy, and was cut to pieces; the children of the Imperial house were massacred by the soldiers, and the women reserved to gratify the lust of th$ conqueror; and thus terminated the dynasty of the Constantines, and commenced the present empire of Turkey, May 29, 1453. See Tcabuldar Views, in this vol. from page 61. See also Tmof'ey. ECCLESIASTICAL COURTS. There existed no distinction between lay and ecclesiastical courts in England until after the Norman conquest, A. D. 1066. The following are the causes cognizable in ecclesiastical courts: blasphemy, apostasy fiom Christianity, heresy, schism, ordinations, institutions to benefices. matrimony, divorces, bastardy, tithes, incests, fornication, adultery, probate of wills, administrations, &c.-Blaclcstone. ECCLESIASTICAL STATE on STATES OF TII CHURCH. See Rome. In A. D. 1798, this state was taken possession of by the French, who erected it into the " Roman Republic." They obliged the pope, Pins VI., to remove into Tuscany, and afterwards into France, where he died in 1799. In tihe same year a conclave was permitted to be held at Venice; and, in 1800, cardinal Chiaramonti, who was elected to the papal chair, took the title of Pius VII., and resumed the dominion of the Ecclesiastical State. This power was held until 1809, when he was deprived by Bonaparte of Il's temporal sovereignty, and reduced to the condition of bishop of Rome; but in 1814 the pope was restored. For succession of popes, see p. 50 et seq. ECLECTICS. Ancient philosophers, also called Analogetici, and Phtilalethes, or the lovers of truth. Without attaching themselves to any sect, thcy chose what they judged good from each: founded by Polemon of Alexandria, about A. D. 1.-Drydem. Also a sect, so called in the Christian church, who considered the doctrine of Plato conformable to the spirit of the doctrine of the Christian. ECLIPSES. The theory of eclipses was known to the Chinese at least 120 D. c. —Gatbil. An eclipse was supposed by most of the eastern nations to be the effect of magic; hence the custom among them of drumming during its continuance. The first eclipse recorded, happened March 19, 721 a. c. at 8' 40"'. M. according to Ptolemy; it was lunar, and was observed with accuracy at Babylon.-See Astronomy. The following were extraordinary eclipses of the sun and moon:OF THE SUN. In England, where it occasioned a total That predicted by Thales; observed at darkness (Wnz. Malsnsb.) -.l Sardis (Pliny, lib. ii.) - B. C. 585 Again; the stars visible at ten in the One at Athens (Thuzcydides, lib. iv.) - 424 morning (Camnden) - June 23, 191 Total one; three days' supplication de- The true sun, and -the appearance of creed at Rome (Livy) - - 188 another, so that astronomers alone One general at the death of Jesus Christ could distinguish the difference by (Josephus). D. 33 their glasses (Co02p. Hist. Elsn.) -1.191 One at Rome, causing a total darkness Again; total (darkness ensued (idem) - 1331 at noon-day (Livy) - - - 291 A total one; the darkness so great that One observed at Constantinople - 968 the stars shone, and the birds went to In France, when it was dark at noon- roost at noon ( Oldszixon's Annals of day (Du Fresnoy) - June 29, 1033 Geo. I.). - April 2', 17.5 ~DU j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 305 ECLIPSES, conginqued. Remarkable one, central and annular Again, in Asia Minor (Polybius) - 219 in the interior of Europe - Sept. 7, 1820 One at Rome, predicted by Q. Sulpitius OF THE MOON. Gallus (Livy, lib. xliv.) - - 168 The first, observed by the Chaldeans at One terrified the Roman.troops and Babylon (Plolemy, lib. iv.) - B. c. 721 quelled their revolt (Tacitzs) A. D. 14 A total one, observed at Sardis (Th7ucydides, lib. vii.) - 413 The revolution of eclipses was first calculated by Calippus, the Athenian, 336 B. c. The Egyptians say they had accurately observed 373 eclipses of the sun, and 832 of the moon, up to the period from Vulcan to Alexander, who died 323 B. c. EDEN, GARDEN OF. The question about the site of Eden has greatly agitated theologians; some place it near Damascus, others in Armenia, some in Caucasus, others at Hillah, near Babylon, others in Arabia, and somne in Abyssinia. The Hindoos refer it to Ceylon: and a learned Swede asserts, that it was in Sudermania! Several authorities concur in placing it in a peninsula formed by the main river of Eden, on the east side of it, below the confluence of the lesser rivers, which emptied themselves into it, about 270 N. lat., now swallowed up by the Persian Gulf, an event which may have happened at the Universal Deluge, 2348. c. The country of Eden extended into Armenia. —Ccalmet. The Almighty constructed Eden with a view to beauty, as well as usefulness; not only every plant there was good for food, but such also as were pleasant to the eye, were planted there,Genesis ii. 8, 9. EDGEHILL, BATTLE OF, also called Edgehill Fight, between the Royalists and the Parliament army, the first engagement of importance in the civil war; Charles I. was personally present in this battle. Prince Rupert commanded the royalists, and the earl of Essex the parliamentarians. Oct. 23, 1642. LDICT or NANTES. This was the celebrated edict by which Henry IV. of France granted toleration to his Protestant subjects, in 1598. It was revoked by Louis XIV., Oct. 24, 1685. This bad and unjust policy lost to Frange 800,000 Protestants, and gave to England (part of these) 50 000 industrious artisans. Some thousands, who brought with them the art of manufacturing silks, settled in Spitalfields, where their descendants yet remain: others planted themselves in Soho and St. Giles's, and pursued the art of making crystal glasses,. and various fine works in which they excelled; among these, jewelry, then little understood in England.-Anderson's Orig. of Englishl Comnmerce. EDILES. These were Roman magistrates, like our mayors, and there were two ediles at a time. They had the superintendence and care of public and private works and buildings, baths, aqueducts, bridges, roads, &c.; they also took cognizance of- weights and measures, and regulated the markets for provisions; they examined comedies before they were acted, and treated the people with games and shows at their own expense. The duties of ediles have suggested similar offices in our own polity, and served in many instances as models for our magistracy.-Par'don. EDINBURGH. The metropolis of Scotland, and one of the first and finest cities of the empire. It derives its name-in ancient records, Dun Edin, signifying the " hill of Edin"-from its castle, founded or rebuilt by Edwin, king of Northumbria, who, having greatly extended his dominions, erected it for the protection of his newly-acquired territories from the incursions of the Scots and Picts, A. n. 626. But it is said the castle was first built by Camelon, king of the Picts, 330 B. c. It makes a conspicuous appearance, standing at the west end of the town, on a rock 300 feet high, and before the use of great guns, was a fortification of considerable strength. 306 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ EGY EDUCATION IN U. S. See Colleges and Schools. American Institute of Instruction organized at Boston, Aug. 19, 1830. Literary Convention at New York, Oct. 20, 1830. EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. A grant of 30,0001. for national education, proposed in parliament by Lord John Russell and passed, 275 to 273, July 9, and the House of Lords went in a body to ask the Queen to rescind the grant, July 11, 1839. EGALITE. Equality. The surname assumed by Philip Bourbon Capet, the infamous duke of Orleans, to ingratiate himself with the republicans, on the abolition of monarchy in France, Sept. 11, 1792. He voted for the death of Louis XVI. his relative; but this did not save him from a like doom. He was guillotined Nov. 6, 1793. EGYPT. The dynasty of its Pharaohs or kings commenced with Mizraim, the son of Ham, second son of Noah, 2188 B. c. The kingdom lasted 1663 years; it was conquered by Cambyses, 525 B. c. In A. D. 639, this country was wrest ed from the eastern emperor Heraclius, by Omar, calif of the Saracens. The famous Saladin established the dominion of the Manmelukes, in 1171. Selim I., emperor of the Turks, took Egypt in 1517, and it was governed by Beys till 1799, when a great part of the country was conquered by the French, under Bonaparte. In 1801, the invaders were dispossessed by the British, and the government was restored to the Turks.-See Trlkey, for modern events. See Tabular Views, in this vol. page 5 ec seq. Mizraim builds Memphis (Blair) B. c. 2188 country, hitherto called Mizraim, is Egypt made four kinUdoms, viz. Up- now called Egypt (Blair) -. c. 1485 per Egypt, Lower Egypt, This, and Reign of Thuoris (the Proteus of the Memphis (Ablb Lesnglet, Blair) - 2126 Greeks) who had the faculty of asAthotes invents hieroglyphics - - 2122 suming whatever formn he pleased, Busiris builds Thebes (Uslher) - 2111 as of a lion, a dragon, a tree, water, Osymandyas, the first warlike king, fire - 1189 passes into Asia, conquers Bactria, [These fictions were probably intendand causes his exploits to be repre- ed to mark the profound policy of sented in sculpture and painting this king, who was eminent for his (Ushzer, Lenglet) - - 2100 wisdom, by which his dominion The Phnnicians invade Lower Egypt flourished.-Blair.] and hold it 260 years (Usher) - 2080 Pseusennes enters Palestine, ravages The lake of Mceris constructed 1938 Judea, and carries off the sacred vesThe patriarch Abraham visits Egypt esels of the Temple - - - 971 to avoid the famine in Canaan - 1921 The dynasty of kings ca)led Tanites Syphoas introduces the use of the com- begins with Petubastes (Blair) - 825 mon letters (Usher) - - 1891 The dynasty of Saites (Blair) - 781 Memnon invents the Egyptian letters Sebacon invades E gypt, subdues the (Blair, Lenglet) - - - 1822 king, Bocchoris, whom he orders to Amenophis I. is acknowledged the be roasted alive (Usher) - 73. king of all Egypt (Lenglet) - 1821 Psammetichus the Powerful reigns - 660 - Joseph the Israelite is sold into Egypt He invests Azoth, which holds out for as a slave (Leneglet) - - 1728 19 years, the longest siege in the anHe interprets the king's dreams - 1715 nals of antiquity (Usher) - - 647 His father and brethren settle here - 1706 Necho begins the famous canal beSesostris reigns; he extends his do- tween the Arabic gulf and the Mediminion by conquest over Arabia, terranean sea (Blair) - - 610 Persia, India, and Asia Minor (Leng- This canal abandoned, after costing let) 1618 the lives of 120,000 men (IIerodotus) 609 Settlement of the Ethiopians (Blair) 1615 Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon deposes Rampses, who imposed on his sub- Apries (Usher) - - - jects the building of walls and pyra- Aprles taken prisoner and strangled in mids, and other labors, dies (Lenglet) 1492 his palace (Diod. Siculuss) -. 571 Amenophis I. is overwhelmed in the The philosopher Pythagoras comes Red Sea, with all his army (Lenglet, from Samos into Egypt, and is inBlair) - 1492 structed in the mysteries of EgypReign of, Egyptus, from whom the tian theology (Usher) 5d5 The epoch of the reign of Sesostris is very uncertain; Blair makes it to fall 133 years later. As to the achievements of this monarch, they are supposed to have been the labors of several kings, attributed by thi Egyptian priests to Sesostris alone, whose very existence, indeed, is doubted. ELE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 307 EGYPT, contigmed. The line of the Pharaohs ends in the His subjects, wearied with his cruelmurder of Psammenitus by Camby- ties and crimes, demolish his statses (Blair) - - B. c. 526 ues, set fire to his palace, and he Dreadlfu excesses of Cambyses; he flies from their fury (Blair) Bn.. 19 puts the chilidren of the grandees, He murders his son by his new queen; mlale and female, to death, and makes also his son by her mother, sending the country a waste (Herodotuts) - 524 the head and limbs of the latter as a Hle sends an army of 50,000 men across present to the parent on a feast day 129 the desert to destroy the temple of Yet, defeating the Egyptian army, he Jupiter Ammon, but they all perish recovers his throne; and dies - 128 in the burning sands (Justin) - 524 Pestilence from the putrelaction of Egypt revolts from the Persians; again vast swarms of locusts; 800,000 persubdued by Xerxes (Blair) - 487 sons perish in Egypt - - 128 A revolt under Inarus (Blair) - - 43 Revolt in Upper Egypt; the famous Successful revolt under Ainyrtwus, city of Thebes destroyed after a siege who is proclaimed Icing (Lenglet) 414 of three years (Diod. Siculus) 82 Egypt again reduced by Persia, and its Auletes dying, leaves his lkingdom to temples pillaged (Usher) 350 his eldest soil, Ptolemy, and the faAlexander the Great enters Egypt, mous Cleopatra (Blair) - wrests it from the Persians, and During a civil war between Ptolemy builds Alexandria is bePhiladelphus completes the Pharos of sieged by Caesar, and the famous Alexandria (Blair) - - 283 library nearly destroyed by fire The Septuagint version of the Old Tes- (Blair) 47 tamsient made about this time - 283 Caesar defeats the Iking, who, in crossThe lamous library of Alexandria also ing the Nile, is drowned; and the dates about this period (Blair) - 283 younger Ptolemy and Cleopatra Ambassadors first sent to Rome - 269 rei-gn 46 Ptolemy Euergetes overruns Syria, Cleopatra poisons her brother (only 14 and returns laden with rich spoils, years of age) and reigns alone -43 and 2500 statues and vessels of gold She appears before Mark Antony, to and silver, which Cambyses had answer for this crime. Fascinated talken from the Egyptian temples by her beauty, he follows her into (Blaii') - - - 246 Egypt 40 Reign of Philometer and Physcon - 151 Antony defeated by Octavius Coesar At the deathl ofl Philometer, his brother at thle battle of Actium (Blair) - 31 Physcon mnarries his queen, and on Octavius enters Egypt; Antony and the day of his nuptials murders the Cleopatra kill themselves; and the infiant son of Philometer in its moth- kringdolm becomes a Romaan prover's arms - - - 145 ince 30 Hle repsudiates his wife, and mlarries her daughter by hlis brother (Blair) 130 ELECTORS. Those for members of parliament for counties were obliged to have forty shillings a year in landcl, 39 Henry VI., 1460.-Rfflecad's Sclsattes. Among the recent acts relating to elections are the following: act depriving excise and custom-house officers. and contractors with government, of their votes. 1782. In the U. S., the qualifications vary in the different states. ELECTORS oF GERMANY. Originally, all the members of the Germanic body maide chloice of their head; but amidst the violence and anarchy which prevailed for several centuries in the empire, seven princes who possessed the greatest power assumed the exclusive privilege of nominating the emperor. —Dr. Robertsooe. An eighth elector was made, in 1648; and a ninth in favor of the duke of Hanover, in 1692. The number was reduced to eight, in 1777; and was increased to ten at the peace of Luneville, in 1801. The electorship ceased on the dissolution of the German empire, and when the crown of Austria was made hereditary, 1804, 1806.-See GermazJy. iLECTRICITY. That of almber was known to Thales, 600 B. c. Electricity was iniperfectly discovered A. nD. 1467. It was fotcnd in various substances by Dr. Gilbert, of Colchester, in 1600; he fitrst obtained the knowledge of its power, of conductors and non-conductors, in 1606. Ottoguerick found that two globes of brimstone contained electric matter, 1647. Tile electric shock was discovered at Leyden, 1745, and hence the operation is terumed the "Leyden phial." Electric matter was first found to contain caloric, or fire, and that it would fire spirits, 1756. The identity of electricity and lightning 308 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ EMB was proved by Dr. Franklin, about this period. The electricity of the Au. rora Borealis was discovered by means of the electric kite, in 1769. ELECTRO-GALVANISM. It owes its origin to the discoveries of Dr. L. Galvani, an eminent Italian philosopher, in 1789. Volta pursued the inquiries of this good man (for he was alike distinguished by his virtues and genius), and discovered the mode of combining the metals; constructed what is very properly called the Voltaic pile; and extended the whole science into a system which should rather be called Voltaism than Galvanism. ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. Analogies between electricity and magnetism were, discovered by Oersted of Copenhagen, in 1807. This analogy was establisher;. in 1819, and was confirmed by subsequent experiments in England, France, Germany, the United States and other countries. ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. Experiments in electricity, having more or less bearing upon its practical use in telegraphic communication, were made by Winckler, at Leipsic, 1746; La Monnier, in Paris; Watson, in London, 1747; Lomond, in 1784; Betancour, at Madrid, 1798. Galvani's discovery of " Galvanism," at Bolonga, 1791. Prof. Volta's " Voltaic Battery," at Pavia, 1801; Soemmerring, at Munich, 1807. The practical use of Galvanism ill telegraphs, as prophesied by John Redman Coxe, of Phila., in 1816. Greaadvance made by Prof. Oersted at Copenhagen, in 1819. The electro-magnetic agency first fully developed and applied by Prof. Morse, 1832, patented 1840. The first telegraph by this agency in the United States, was between Washington and Baltimore, in 1844. Cooke & Wheatsone's patent in Epgland, 1840. Bain's patent in England, first, 1842; applied in United States in 1849. House's in 1848. The telegraphic lines in the United States, in Jan. 1850 extended 6,679 miles.-See Sulpplement. ELEPHANT. This animal, in the earliest times, was trained to war. Tb,story of the Maccabees informs us, that "to every elephant they appointedf 1000 men, armed with coats of mail, and 500 horse; and upon the elephants were strong towers of wood," &c. The elephants in the army of Antiochus were provoked to fight by showing them the " blood of grapes and mulberries." The first elephant said to have been seen in England, was one of enormous size, presented by the king of France to our Henry IllI., in 1238.Baker's Co?'or. ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES. A great festival under this name was observed by the Athenians and other nations: these mysteries were the most celebra ted of all the religious ceremonies of Greece, and were instituted by Eumolpus, 1356 a. c. They were so superstitiously observed, that if any one revealed them, it was supposed that he had called divine vengeance upon him, and he was put to death. The mysteries were introduced from Eleusis into Rome, and lasted about 1800 years, and were at last abolished by Theodosius the Great, A. D. 389. ELGIN MARBLES.* These admirable works of ancient art were derived chiefly from the Parthenon, a temple of Minerva in the Acropolis at Athens, of which temple they formed part of the frieze and pediment, built by Phi dias about 500 B. c. Lord Elgin began the collection of these marbles during his mission to the Ottoman Porte, in 1802; they were purchased of him by the British government for 36,0001., and placed in the British Museum, in 1816. EMBALMING. The ancient Egyptians believed that their souls, after many thousand years, would come to reinhabit their bodies, in case these latter were preserved entire. Hence arose their practice of embalming the dead. The Egyptian manner of preserving the dead has been the admiration and wonder of modern times. They rendered the body not only incorruptible, EMP 3 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 309 but it retained its fill proportion of size, symmetry of features, and personal likeness. They called the embalmed bodies manamnics, some of which, buried 3000 years ago, are perfect to this clay. The art of such embalhing is now lost. When Nicodemus came with Joseph of Arimathea, to pay the last duties to our Saviour after his crucifixion, he brought a mixture of myrrh and aloes to embalm his body.-Johln xix. 38. EMBARGO IN ENGLAND. This power is invested in the crown, but it is rarely exercised except in extreme cases, and sometimes as a prelude to war. The most memorable instances of embargo were those for the prevention of corn going out of the kingdom in 1766; and for the detention of all Russian, Danish, and Swedish ships in the several ports of the kingdom, owing to the armed neutrality, Jan. 14, 1801. See Arm'ed Nezutrality. EMBARGO IN THE UNITED STATES. Embargo on all vessels in the ports of the United States, passed by Congress with reference to the quarrel with Great Britain after the attack on the IT. S. frigate Chesapeake, 1807. Repealed and non-intercourse act passed, 1809. Embargo again laid for 90 days, April, 1812. War declared June 19, 1812. EMBER WEEKS. Observed in the Christian church in the third century, to implore the blessing of God on the produce of the earth by prayer and fasting. EMBER DAYS, three of which fall in these weeks, and in which penitents sprinkle the ashes (embers) of humiliation on their heads. Four times in each year were appointed for these acts of devotion, so as to answer. to the four seasons, spring, summer, autumn, and winter. EMBROIDERY. Its invention is usually ascribed to the Phrygians; but we learn from Homer, and other ancient authors, that the Sidonians particularly excelled in this decorative species of needle-work. Of this art very Oarly mention is made in the Scriptures.-Ex.zodus xxxv. 35, and xxxviii. 23. An ancient existing specimen of beautiful embroidery is the Bayeux tapestry, worked by Matilda, the queen of William I. of England. See Bayeltx Tapestry. EMERALD. The precious stone of a green color is found in the East and in Peru; inferior ones in other places. It has been alleged that there were no true emeralds in Europe before the conquest of Peru; but there is a genuine emerald in the Paris Museum, taken from the mitre of pope Julius II., who died in 1513, and Peru was not conquered till 1545; hence it is inferred that this emerald was brought from Africa, or the East. EMIGRATION. Of late years emigrations from Britain have been considerable. In the ten years ending 1830, the emigrations to the North American colonies, West Indies, Cape of Good Hope, New South Wales, Swan River, Van Diemen's Land, &c. were, according to official returns, 154,291. In the decennial period to 1840, the emigrations advanced to 277,696, exclusively of the vast numbers settling in the United States of America. The number of emigrants to the United States in one year ending Sept. 30, 1848, were registered as born in Great Britain and Ireland - 148,212 Denmark - 210 Germany - - - 58,018 Switzerland - 319 France.7,748 Other countries or unknown - 3,043 Sweden and Norway 903 EMIR. A title of dignity among the Turks and Persians, first given to caliphs. This rank wras first awarded to the descendants of Mahomet by his daughter Fatima, about A. D. 650.-RicasLt. To the emirs only was originally given the privilege of wearing the green turban. It is also given to high officers (another title being joined). EMPALEMENT. This barbarous and dreadful mlode of putting criminals to 310 THE WVORLDJS PROGRESS. [ EN death is mentioned by Juvenal, and was often inflicted in Rome, particularly by the monster Nero. The victim doomed to empalement is spitted through the body on a stake fixed upright; and thlis punishment is still used in Turkey and Arabia. The dead bodies of murderers were sometimes staked in this manner, previously to being buried, in England.-Sout.M/ern. Williams (who committed suicide) the murderer, of the Marr family, in Ratcliffe Highway, London, Dec. 8, 181.1, was staked in his ignominious grave. This practice has since been abolished there. See BurJying Alive. EMPEROR. Originally, a title of honor at Rome, conferred on victorious generals, who were first saluted by the soldiers by that name. Augustus Ciesar was the first Roman emperor, 27 3. c. Valens was the first emperor of the Eastern empire, A. D. 364. Charlemagne was the first emperor of Germany, crowned by Leo III. A. D. 800. Ottoman I., founder of the Turkish empire, was the first emperor of Turkey, 1296. The Czar of Russia was the first emperor of that country, 1722. Don Pedro IV. of Portugal was the first emperor of Brazil, in 1825. EMPIRICS. They were a set of early physicians who contended that all hypothetical reasoning respecting the operations of the animal economy was useless, and that experience and observation alone were the foundation of the art of medicine. The sect of Empirics was instituted by Acron of Agrigentum, about 473 B. c. ENAMELLING. The origin of the art of enamelling is doubtful. It'was practised by the Egyptians and other early nations; and was known in England in the times of the Saxons. At Oxford is an enamelled jewel which belonged to Alfred, and which, as appears by the inscription, was made by his order, in his reign, about A. D. 887. ENCAUSTIC PAINTING, known to the ancients. This very beautiful art, after having been lost, was restored by Count Caylus and M. Bachelier, A. D. 1749. ENCYCLOPEDIA. The first work to which this designation was expressly given, was that of Abulfarius, an Arabian writer, in the thirteenth century. MIany were published as early as the fifteenth century, but none alphabetically. Chambers' Dictionary was the first of the circle of arts and sciences, in England, first published in 1728. The great French work, Encyclopedie Metilodiqrte, to which Voltaire, Diderot, D'Alembert, and other savans contributecl, was published in 1782 et seq., in 200 quarto volunmes. The British En-. cyclopedia, printed in Philadelphia in 1798, by Thonmas Dobson, was the fizst in the United States. The Edizb;ocr Encyclopedia, edited by Sir Davy'. Brewster, was published, 1810 el seq., and republished in the United States. Rees' Cyclopedia republished in the United States in 1822. The cost of the 7th edition of Encyclopedia Brilancicca, edited by Professor Napier, and published by A. & C. Black, Edinburgh, in 1840 etc.. was stated to have been I;126,000, of which ~23.000 were paid to the contributors. This was probably the most costly undertaking of the kind ever achieved by private enterprise. The Encyclopedia Metropolitanacb was commenced in 1815 and finished in 1845. Both of these works comprised articles by the most distinguished writers in Great Britain. The German Conversations Le.zicons, published 1796-1830, and upon the basis of this the Encyclopedia Aer'zcacna was commenced in Philadelphia in 1829-30, Pennby Cycl. (Knight's) finishedl 1844.'INGINEERS. This name is of modern date. as engineers were formerly called Trench-masters. Sir William Pelham officiated as trench-master in 1622. The chief engineer was called camp-master-general in 1634. Captain Thomas Rudd had the rank of chief engineer to the king, about 1650. The corps of engineers was formerly a civil corps, but was made a military force, and directed to rank with the artillery, April 25, 1787. It has a 9NG ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 311 colonel-in-chief, and a second, and five colonel-commandants, and twenty colonels. The Association of civil engineers was established in 1828. The Bureau of Topographical Engineers of the U. S. Army, established at Washington. ENGLAND. See Br'itain. So named by order of Egbert, first king of England, in a general council held at Winchester, A. a. 829. This appellative had been used as far back as A. D. 688, but had never been, until then, ratified by any assembly of the nation. It came froim Aqngles, a tribe of Saxons, and oloend, the Saxon for country. For English history and succession of Sovereigns, see TabuZlar Views, beginning on i-. 75 in this volume. England and Wales were united A. D. 1283, and Scotland was united to both in 1707, and the three were then styled Great Britain. Ireland was incorporated with these countries by the Act of Legislative Union, January 1, 1801, and the whole called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. ENGLAND, NEW. See New Englcand. ]ENGLISH LANGUAGE. See article Lesncereges. From the High Dutch or Ttutonic sprung (among others) the English language, now one of the most copious and beautiful of Europe. Law pleadings were made in English by order of Edward III. instead of the French language, which had been continued'fromn the time of the Conqueror, A. 1. 1362. The English tongue and English apparel were ordered to be used in Ireland, 28 Henry VIII. 1536. The English was ordered to be used inll all lawsuits, and the Latin disused, May 1731. ENGRAVING. The engraving of gems is a branch of art of the highest antiquity. The earliest writers make mention of engraved seals and seal rings, and there still exist many antique engravings equal to later pr:oductions of similar artists. Engraving from plates and wood is chiefly of modern invention, having its origin about the middle of the fifteenth century. Engraving on glass was perfected to an art by Boudier of Paris, 1799. The art of engraving, in various styles, has made great progress in the United States during the last ten years. ENGRAVING ON COPPER. Prints from engraved copper-plates made their appearance about A. D. 1450, and were first produced in Germany. MIasso, surnamed Finiguerra, was the first Italian artist in this way, 1450. The earliest date known of a copper-plate engraving is 1461. Rolling presses for working the plates were invented in 1545, and manv improvements of it followed. Of the art of etching on copper by means of Ceqncefortis, Francis Mazzouli, or Parmagiano, is the reputed inventor, about A. D. 1532.De Piles. ENGRAVING, LITHOGRAPHIC. This is a new branch of the art, and Alois Sennefelder may be regarded as the inventor of it. It was first announced on the Continent in 1798, and became more known as polyautography in 1808. It was introduced into general use in England by Mr. Ackermnann of London in 1817. ENGRAVING, MEZZOTINTO. The art was discovered by Siegen., and was improved by prince Rupert in 1648; Sir Christopher Wren further improved it in 1662. Aquatinta, by which a soft and beautiful effect is produced, was invented by the celebrated French artist, St. Non, about 1662; he communicated his invention to Le Prince. Barrabe of Paris was distinguished for his improvements in this kind of engraving, 1763. Chiaro-oscuro engraving originated with the Germans, and was first practised by Mair, one of whose prints bears date 1491. See Zincographyj, tc. ENGRAVING ON STEEL. The mode of engraving on soft steel, whiclh, after it has been hardened, will multiply copper plates and fine impressions, in 312 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ EP.mi definitely, was introduced into England by Messrs. Perkins and Heath, of Philadelphia, in 1819. ENGRAVING ON WOOD, took its rise fiom the brief rnallers, or manufacturers of playing-cards, about A. D. 1400; and from this sprung the invention of printing, first attempted by means of wooden types not movable. See Printi'/ig. The art is referred by some to a Florentine, and by others to Reuss, a German; it was greatly improved by Durer and Lucas Van Leyde? in 1497; and was brought to perfection in England by Bewick, his brother, and pupils, Nesbett, Anderson, &c., 1789. et. seq. The earliest wood engraving which has reach4q[ our times is one representing St. Christopher carrying the infant Jesus offer the sea; it bears date A. D. 1423. ENTOMOLOGY. This branch of natural history cannot be regarded as ranking as a science until the arrangement of Linnaeus, A. D. 1739. The London Entomological Society was instituted in 1806; it is directed chiefly to the study of insects found in Great Britain; and inquires into the best methods of destroying noxious insects, and making known such as are useful. ENVOYS. They enjoy the protection, but not the ceremonies of ambassadors. Envoys Extraordinary are of modern date.- Wicqulefort. The court of France denied to them the ceremony of being conducted to court in the royal carriages, A. D. 1639. EPHESUS. Famous for the temple of Diana, which magnificent structure was one of the seven wonders of the world; it was 425 feet long and 200 broad, and cost 220 years of labor. Ctesiphon was the chief architect, and 127 kings contributed to its grandeur. The temple was burnt by Erostratus, solely t*o perpetuate his memory, 356 B. c.-Pliny/. It rose from its ruins, and was richer and more splendid than before; but it was again burnt A. D. 260.Univ. Hist. EPHORI. Powerful magistrates of Sparta, first created by Theopompus to control the royal power, 760 B. C. They xwere five in number, and acting as censors in the state, they could check and restrain the authority of the kings, and even imprison them, if they were guilty of irregularities. EPIC POETRY. Homer's l1iad and Odyssey the first epic poems. See HOMER. EPICUREAN PHILOSOPHY. Epicurus of Gargettus, near Athens, was the founder of it, about 300 a. c. and taught that the greatest good consists in a happiness, springing not friom sensual gratifications or vicious pleasures. but from virtue. and consisting in the peace and harmony of the soul wit' itself. His disciples had all things in common; and the pleasantness of his system, and its ease and luxury, made him many followers. EPIGRAMS. They derive their origin from the inscriptions placed by the ancients on their tombs. Marcus Valerius Martialis, the celebrated Latin epigrammatist, who flourished about A. D. 83, is allowed to have excelled all others, ancient or modern. in the tasteful and pointed epigram. The following Latin epigram on the miracle of our Saviour in turning water into wine at Cana (John iii.) is a beautiful example:" Videt et erubuit lympha pudica Deum." And Dr. Johnson has declared that the subjoined English epigram, by Dr. Doddridge, on the words Denm vzviamns vivamus, is the finest specimen in our language: — Iive while we live!" the epicure will say, "And taste the pleasures of the present day." " Live while xwe live!" the hoary preacher cries, "And give to GoD each moment as it flies." Lord! in siy view let both united be, We live in oleasure when we live to thee.-DDocdrile. ELA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 313 EPIRUS. Known by the great warlike achievements of Pyrrhus. Its early history is very obscure, and it is only during the reign of this sovereign, who was the last, that it becomes interesting. The first Pyrrhus (Neoptolenius) settled in Epirus after the Trojan war, 1170 B. c. He was killed in the temple of Delphi, about 1165 a. c. Reign of the great Pyrrhus -. c. 306 Expedition against Sparta - B. c,. 272 He enters into a league against Deme- H-e enters Argos, and is killed by a tile, trius; the battle of Beraa - - 294 thrown at him from a house-top by a Expedition into Italy; he gains his first woman - - - 272 battle against the Romans - 280 Philip unites Epirus to Macedon 220 He gains another great battle - - 279 Its conquest by the Romans - - 167 His conquest of Sicily - - 278 * * * * * s * His last battle with the Romans - 274 Annexed to the Ottoman empire A. D. 1466 He takes Macedon from Antigonus - 274 EPISCOPACY. The government, by its bishops, of the Christian church. It may be said to have been instituted A. D. 33, when Peter sat in the bishop's chair at Rome.-Battler. Episcopacy commenced in England in the second century; in Ireland about the same time; and in Scotland in the fourth century; but historians dispute with theologians upon this point. See Bishops. In Scotland, episcopacy was finally abolished at the period of the revolution, 1688-9. The sect called Episcopalians first appeared about the year 500.BarsnLlet. EPISCOPAL CHURCH, IN THE UNITED STATES. Episcopacy established in NewYork by law, 1693; introduced into Connecticut, 1706. The first bishops of the Protestant Episcopal Church in America were bishop White of Pennsylvania and Provost of New-York, consecrated in London, 1787. First Episcopal convention, 1789. Bishops of Vermont, New Jersey, Kentucky, and Ohio consecrat;ed at New-York, Nov. 2, 1832. EPITAPHS. They were used by the ancient Jews, by the Athenians, the Romans, and most of the nations of antiquity; their date is referred in England to the earliest times. In the epitaphs of the ancients arose the epigram.-Boileacm. EPITHALAMIUM. Tisias, the lyric poet, was the first writer of a nuptial complimentary song, or epithalamium. He received the name of Stesichorus from the alterations made by him in music and dancing; 536 B. c.Bossuet. EPOCHAS. These are periods in history which are agreed upon and acknowvledged by the respective historians and chronologers, and which serve to regulate the date of events. The following are the epochas thus particularly adopted.-See Eras. Creation - - B.. 4004 Building of Rome - - B. c. 753 Deluie - — 2348 Nabonassar - - 747 Calling of Abraham - 1921 The Seleucid -- - - 312 Argonautic expedition - 1225 The battle of Actium - - 38 Destruction of Troy - 1184 The Christian era A- A. 1 1st Olympiad - - 776 Diocletian - - - - 284 EQUINOX. The precession of the equinoxes was confirmed, and the places and distances of the planets were discovered by Ptolemy, A. D. 130. When the sun in his progress through the ecliptic comes to the equinoctial circle, the day and night are equal all over the globe: this occurs twice in the year; once in the first point of Aries, which is called the vernal equinox; next in the first point of Libra, which is the autumnal equinox.-Blair. EQUITY. COURTS or. To determine causes according to the rule of equity "and conscience, rather than according to strict law, A. D. 1067.-See C/anERAS. Notices of the principal eras will be found in their alphabetical order; a few only need be mentioned here. The era of Nabonasser, after which 14 314 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. EMB the astronomical observations made at Babylon were reckoned, began Feb. 26, 747. The era of the Seleucid (used by the Maccabees) commenced 312 B. c. The Olympiads belong to the Grecians, and date from the year 776 B. c.; but they subsequently reckoned by Indictions, the first beginning A. D. 313: these, among chronologers, are still used.-See Idctictions. The Romans reckoned from the building of their city, 753 B. c.; and afterwards from the 16th year of the emperor Augustus, which reckoning was adopted among the Spaniards until the reign of Ferdinand the Catholic. The disciples of Mahomet began their Heira' from the flight of their prophet from Mecca, which oc'curred A. D. 622. F.RAS OF THE CREATION AND REDEMPTION. The Jews and Christisns have had divers epochas; but in historical computation of time are chiefly used the most extraordinary epochs, which are two, the Creation of the World, and the appearance of our REDEEMER, which last the Christians have made their era. They did not adopt it, however, until the sixth century, when it was introduced by Denys the Little, a Scythian, who became abbot of a monastery near Rome: he was the first who computed time from the birth of Christ, and fixed that great event according to the vulgar era.Cassiododrns Croln. This computation began in Italy, A. D. 525, and in England in 816. It is the only one now in general use, and is that observed in this work. —See Cr'eation, and Ch"ristian Era. ESCURIAL. The palace of the kings of Spain, one of the largest and most magnificent in the world. It was commenced by Philip II. in the year 1562; and the first expenditure of its erection was 6,000,000 of ducats. It forms a vast square of polished stone, and paved with marble. It may give some notion of the surprising grandeur of this palace to observe, that, accordinto the computation of Francisco de los Santos, it would take up more than four days to go through all its rooms and apartments, the length of the way being reckoned thirty-three Spanish leagues, which is above 120 Engl-hal miles. Alvarez de Colmenar also asserts, that there are 14,000 doors, and 11,000 windows belonging to this edifice. ESQUIRES. Among the Greeks and Romans, esquires were armor-bearers to, or attendants on, a knight.-Blotnct. In England the king created esqu;res by putting about their necks the collar of S S, and bestowing upon them a pair of' silver spurs. A British queen is recorded as having married the armszeilcnz, or esquire, of her deceased husband. The distinction of esquire was first given to persons of fortune not attendant upon knights, A. D. 13A' -Slowe. MIeylrick's Ancient Armor. ETHER. It was known to the earliest chemists. Nitric ether was first discovered by Kunkel, in 1681; and muriatic ether was first made from the chloride of tin, by Courtanvaux, in 1759. Acetic ether was discovered bcount Lauraguais, same year; and hydriodic ether was first prepared by Gay-Lussac. The phosphoric was obtained by M. Boullay. Ether is said to have been first applied to the purpose of causing insensibility to pain by Dr. Horace Wells, of Connecticut, in 1846. This, however, is disputed, for about the same time Dr. C. T. Jackson, of Boston, well known as a geologist and chemist, suggested the use of ether in surgery; but to Dr. Morton, of Boston, probably belongs the credit of first demonstrating, by actual experiment, the use of ether in dentistry and surgery, as an annihilator of' pain. It was used in surgical cases, in that year, by Drs. J. C. Warren, Channing, and Morton, of Boston, who afterwards published the results of their exl-eriments. The practice was'first copied in Europe by Di. Robertson, of Edinburgh, and Dr. Booth, of London, the same year. The sulphuric ether is inhaled fiom an apparatus with flexible tube, &c. Etherization was first used in operative midwifery, in the United States, May, 1847. The substan EVE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 315 called chloroformn, originally discovered by Soubeiran, in 1831, was also first employed for similar purposes in 1847, by professor Simpson, ofEdinburgh. ETHICS. The doctrine and system of morality; a science which is scarcely more inculcated by religion and virtue, than it is influenced by manners and government: the Chinese, who are said to have been acquainted with astronomy at least 3000 years before the birth of Christ, were so refined in the earliest ages, that they studied ethics, we are told, a thousand years before that event; and hence they must have lived at that time under not only civilized and enlightened, but refined and moral governments. ETNA, MOUNT. Here were the fabled forges of the Cyclops; and it is called by Pindar the pillar of heaven. Eruptions are mentioned by Diodorus Siculus as happening 1693 B. c., and Thucydides speaks of three eruptions as occurring, 734, 477, and 425 B. c. There were rr-uptions, 125, 121, and 43:. c.-Livy. Eruptions A. D. 40, 253, and 420.-Carve-a. One in 1012.Geofiey de Viterbo. Awful one which overwhelmed Catania, when 15,000 inhabitants perished in the burning ruins, 1169. Eruptions ecually awful and destructive, 1329, 1408, 1444, 1536, 1537, 1564, and in 1669, when tens of thousands of persons perished in the streams of lava which rolled over the whole country for forty days. Eruptions in 1766, 1787, 1809, 1811, and in May 1830, when several villages were destroyed, and showers of lava reached even to Romle. Another violent eruption, and the town of Bronte destroyed, Nov. 18, 1832. EUCLID, ELEMENTS OF. Euclid was a native of Alexandria, and flourished there about 300 B. c. The Elements are not wholly his, for mlany of the invaluable truths and demonstrations they contain were discovered and invented by Thales, Pythagoras, Eudoxus, and others; but Euclid was the first who reduced them to regular order, and who probably interwove many theorems of his own. to render the whole a complete and connected system of geometry. The Elemenets were first printed at Basil, by Simon Grynaeus, in A. D. 1533. EUNUCHS. This species of mutilation is first mentioned among the Egyptian and Assyrian nations; and eunuchs in the earliest times were attendants in courts. The first princess who was waited upon by eunuchs in her chamber, was Semiranmis, queen of Assyria and Babylon, about 2007 B. c.-Lenglet. Numbers of this class of persons are in the quality of attendants on the ladies of the Seraglio in Turkey. EUtSTATIA, ST. This island was settled by the Dutch in 1632: it was taken by the French in 1689; by the English in 1690; and again by the British forces, under admiral Rodney and general Vaughan, February 3, 1781. It was recovered by thi French under the marquis de Bouille, Nov. 26, same year; and was again captured by the British in 1801, and 1810; but restored in 1814. EVANGELISTS. Mark and Matthew wrote their Gospels in A. D. 44; Luke in 55; and John in 97. In 95, John was thrown into a caldron of boiling oil at Rome, whence, being taken out unhurt, he was banished to the Isle of Patmos, and there, in the year 96, he wrote the Apocalypse, and died in 100. -Blttler'. At the council of Nice in 325, there were 200 varied versions of the adopted Evangelists. EVESHAM, BATTLE OF, between prince Edward, afterwards Edward I., and Simon de Montfort; earl of Leicester, in which the barons were defeated, and the earl, his son, and most of his adherents slain. Henry III. at one period of the battle was on the point of being cleft down by a soldier who did not know his rank, but was saved by his timely exclamation, " Do not 316 THE WORLD7S PROGRESS. rEXL kill me, soldier, I am Henry of Winchester, thy king!" This victory broke up the treasonable conspiracy of the barons; fought August 4, 1265. EXCHANGE. One called Collegiua Mercator'L, existed at Rome, 493 B. c. The Exchange at Amsterdam was reckoned the finest structure of the kind in the world. Many edifices of this name in the United Kingdom are magnificent. The exchange of London was founded by sir Thomas Greshamn, June 7, 1566, and was called Royal, by Elizabeth, on her paying it a visit in Jan. 1571. Destroyed by fire in 1666 and in 1838: rebuilt and, pened in 1844. EXCHANGE (MERCHANTS') IN NEW YORK. The present building, on the site of the one destroyed in the great fire of 1835, was commenced in 1836, and finished in 1840. It is of blue granite. and cost $1,800,000. That of Boston, also of Quincy granite, finished in 1846. EXCHEQUER. An institution of great antiquity, consisting otf officers whose functions are financial or judicial: the chancellor of the exchequer is the first of these, and he formerly sat in the court of exchequer above the barons., The first chancellor was Eustace de Fauconbridge, bishop of London, in the reign of Henry III., about 1221. The exchequer stopped payment from Jan. to May the 24th, Charles II. 1673.-Stowe. The English and Irish exchequers were consolidated in 1816. EXCISE. The excise system was established in England by the Long Parilament; was continued under Cromwell and Charles II.; and was organized as at present in the Walpole administration. It was first collected and an office opened in 1643, and was arbitrarily levied upon liquors and provisions to support the parliament forces against Charles I. The excise office was built on the site of Gresham College, in 1774. The officers of excise and customs were deprived of their votes for members of parliament in 1782. See Revelue. AMOUNT OF THE EXCISE REVENUE OF GREAT BRITAIN IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS. 1744 Great Britain - - ~3,754,072 1830 United Kinadom -;18,644, 90 1786 Ditto - - - 5,540,114 1834 Ditto 16,877,292 1808 Ditto - o - 19,867,914 1837 Ditto - 14,518,142 1820 Ditto - - - 26,364,702 1840. Ditto - 12,607,766 1827 United Kingdon - - 20,995,324 1845 Ditto - - - 13,585,583 EXCOMMUNICATION. An ecclesiastical anathema, or interdict from Cbristian communion. It was originally instituted for preserving the purity of the church; but ambitious ecclesiastics converted it by degrees into an engine for promoting their own power. Some suppose excommunication to be of Hindoo origin in the Pariah caste, and that it was adopted by ttle Jews (who had three degrees of it), and from these latter by the Chris; un churches. The Greek and Roman priests and even the Druids had similar punishments in aid of their respective religions.-Phbillips. EXCOMMUNICATION BY THE POPES. The Catholic church excommuncates by bell, book, and candle.-See Bell, Boo/, eand Candle. The popes have carried their authority to such excess as to excommunicate and depose sovereigns. Gregory VII. was the first pope who assumed this extravagant power. He excommunicated Henry IV. emperor of Germany, in 1077, absolving his subjects from their allegiance; and on the emperor's death, "his excommunicated body" was five years above ground, no one daring to bury it. In England were many excommunications in Henry II.'s reign: and king John was excommunicated by Pope Innocent III. in 1208. when all England lay under an interdict for six years. The citizens of Dublin were excommunicated by Clement IV. in 1206. Bulls denouncing hell-fir3 to queen Elizabeth accompanied the Spanish Armada, and plenary indulgences were offered to all who should assist in deposing her. EXECITIONS. See Crimne. In the reign of Henry VIII. (thirty-eight yoo EXP J DICTIONARPY OF DATES. 317 it is shown that no less a number than 72,000 criminals were executed.Stowe. In the ten years between 1820 and 1830. there were executed in England alone 797 criminals; but as our laws became less bloody, the nnumber of executions proportionally decrased. In the three years ending 1820, the executions in England and Wales amonnted to 312; in the three years ending 1830; they were reduced to 178; and in the three years ending 1840, they had decreased to 62.-Parc. Rheturus. EXECUTIOTeS IN LONDON IN THE FOLLO'WING YEARS. In the year 1820 - 43 In the year 1835 - nil In the year 1838 - nil In thle year 1841 - 1 In the year 1825 - 17 In the year 1836 - nil In the year 1839 - 2 In tile year 1842 - 2 In the year 1830 - 6 In the year 1837 - 2 In the year 1840 - 1 In the year 1843 - 1 EXPLORING EXPEDITION (U. S.), consisting of' the Vincennes, sloop of war; Peacock, ditto; Porpoise, brig; Relief, Flying Fish, and Sea Gull, smaller vessels, under Lieut. Wilkes, U. S. N., sailed from Hampton Roads, Va., Aug. 19th, 1838. Antarctic continent discovered, July 19, 1839. Attack on the Fejees for murdering two of the officers, July 25, 1846. The Peacock lost on the bar of Columbia river, July 1841. The Vincennes (flag-ship) returned to New York, after an absence of nearly four years, June 11, 1842. Captain Wilkes's Ngarrative of the Expedition, in 6 vols. inmp. 8vo. and quarto, was published in 1845. The scientific reports of the expedition form about 20 quarto and folio volumes. EXPORTS, AND IMPORTS oF THE UNITED STATES FROM 1791. Years. Impnorts. E.xports. Years. Imports. E.xports. 1791 $52.20)0,000 819,012,041 1820 - 74,450.000 - 69,691.669 1792 - 31,500,000 - 20,753,098 1821 - 62,585,724 - 64,974,382 1793 - 31,100,000 26,109,572 1822 - 83,241,541 - 72,160.281 1794 34,600,000 33,026.233 1823 - 77.579,267 - 74,699,030 1795 -69,756,268 47.989,472 1824 - 80,549,007 - 75,986,657 1796 - 81,436,164 67,064,097 1825 - 96,340,075 - 99,535,388 1797 75,379,406 56 850,206 1826 - 84,974,477 - 77,595,322 1798 - 68,551,700 61,527,097 1827 - 79,484,068 - 82,324,827 1799 79,f168,148 78,665,522 1828 - 88.509,824 - 72,264,686 1800 - 91,252,768 - 70,971,780 1829 - 74,492,527 - 72,358,671 1801 -11,363,511 94A115,925 1830 - 70.876,920 - 73,849,508 1802 - 76,333,333 72,483,160 1831 -103,191,134 - 81,310,583 1803 - 64,666,866 - 55.800,033 1832 - 101,029,266 - 87,176,943 1804 - 85,000,000 - 77,699,074 1833 - 108,118,311 - 90,140,433 1805 - 120,000,000 95,566,021 1834 - 126,521,332 - 104,336,973 1806 - 129,000,000 - 101,536,963 1835 - 149,895,742 - 121,693,577 1807 - 138,500,000 108,343,150 1836 189,980,035 - 128,663,040 1808 - 56,990,000 - 22439,960 1837 - 140,989,217 - 117,419,376 1809 - 59,400,000 - 52,203,231 1838 - 108,486,616 - 113,717,404 1810 - 85,400,000 66,757,974 1839 - 121,018,416 - 162,092,132 1811 - 53,400,000 61,316,831 1840 131.571,950 - 104,805,891 1812 - 77,030,000 - 38,527,236 1841 - 127,946,177 - 121,851,803 1813 - 22,005.000 27,855,997 1842 100,162,087 - 104,691,534 1814 - 12,965,000 6,927,44-1 18,43 - 64,753,799 - 84,346,480" 1815 - 113,041,274 - 52,557,753 1844 - 108,435,035t - 111,200,046t 1816 - 147,103,000 81.920,452 1845 - 117,254,564t - 114,646,606t 1817 99250,000 - 87,671,569 1846 - 121,691,797t - 113,488,516t 1818. 121,750,000 93281,133 1847 - 146.545,638t - 158,648,622t 1819 - 87,125,000 70,142,521 1848 - 154,977,876- - 154,032,131t EXPORTS, GREAT BRITAIN. Edward III., by his encouragement of trade, turned the scale so much in tavor of English merchandise, that by a balance of trade taken in his time, tlle exported commodities amounted to 294,0001., and the imported to only 3880001. VALlUE OF EXPORTS FRIOM GREAT BRITAIN TO ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD, VIZ:In 1700 - 6,097,120 In 1.2,0 - -~51,733,113 i In 1842 -. ~102,180,517 In 1750 10,130,9911 I 1230 - 666735,445 In 1843 - - 100,260,101 In 1775 - 16.326,363 In 1835 - - 78;376,732 In 1844. 117,877,278 In 180 - - 38,120,]120 In 1840 - - 97,402.726 In 1845 - - 131.564,503 In 1810 - 45,869,839 In 1841 - 102,705;3721 In 1846 134,509,116 * Only nine months of 1843. t For the year ending June 30. 318 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. FAL The amounts above given relate to the exports of the United Kingdom of Britishl and Irish produce only. The total exports, including foreign and colonial produce, were, according to official returns, as follows: In 1841 - - ~116,479,678 I In 1813 - - ~113,844,259 I In 1845 - X~145,961,749 In 1842 - - 11,903,668 In 1844 - - 13L,833,391 I In 1846 - 150,879,986 In the year ending 5th January 1846, the amount of imports into the United Kingdom was 85;281,9581; and the balance of trade in favor of Eingland, deducting this sum from her exports, was 65,598,0281. But even this great balance has been exceeded in recent years, as, for instance, the year immediately preceding, when it mounted to upwards of seventy millions.Brit. Revenbue Returns. EYLAU, BATTLE OF, between the French and Russians, one of the most bloody of Napoleon's wars: it terminated in favor of Napoleon, who commanded in person; but both armies by this and other recent battles were so much reduced, that the French retired to the Vistula, and the Russians on the Pregel: the loss to the victor was 15,000 men, and the Russian loss in slain alone was 20,000. Feb. 8, 1807. F. FABII. A noble and powerful family at Rome, who derived their name fropm faba, a bean, because some of their ancestors cultivated this pulse: they were said to be descended from Fabius, a supposed son of Hercules, and were once so numerous that they took upon themselves to wage war A.?4ainsl the Veientes. They came to a general engagement near the Cremera, ir which all the family, consisting of 3806 men, -were slain, B. C. 477. There only remained one, whose tender age had detained him at Rome, and fronlhim arose the noble Fabii in the following ages. FABLES. " Jotham's fable of the trees is the oldest extant, and as beaut;O,-1 as any made since."-Addison. Nathan's fable of the poor nian (2 Scae,.. xii.) is next in antiquity. The earliest collectionof fables extant is of east. ern origin, and preserved in the Sanscrit. The fables of Vishnoo Sarma, called Pilpay, are the most beautiful, if not the most ancient. in the world. -Sir Williesam Jones. The well-known _Esop's fables (which see), Awer. written about 540 years B. c.-Plut'arch. FACTIONS. Among the IRomans, factions were parties that fought on cha riots in the cirque, andl who were distinguished by their different color-s, a green, blue, red, and white, to which Domitian added two others, on coats emlbroidered eiith gold, a second wearing scarlet, about A. D. 90. Both the emperors and people had generally greater inclination for some particular color than the rest; but upon a quarrel happening in Justinian's rei go. between the blue and green, when 40,000 were killed on both sides, th name of faction was abolished. With us, faction means a party or sect iireligious or civil matters, and is always taken in an ill sense. FAIRS AND WAKES. They are of Saxon origin, and were first instituted in England by Alfred, A. D. 886.-Speblman. They were established by order of Gregory VII. in 1708, and ternled Feerie, at which-the monks celeblatecl. thil festival of their patron saint; the vast resort of people occasioned a great (I mancl for goods. wares &c. They wvere called wakes from the people illakin merry during the vigil, or eve. Fairs were established in France andi Elg land by Charlemagne and Williani the Conqueror, about A. D. 800 in til first, aind 1071 in the latter kingdomn. The fairs of Beaucaire, Falaise, an' Leipsic, are the most famous in Europe. FALKIRK, BATTLE OF, between the English under Edward I. and the Sects commanded by the heroic Wallace, in which 40,000 of the latter were slair' FEU I DICTIONARY OF DATES. 319 the whole Scotch army was broken lup, and was chased off the field with dreadful slaughter, July 22, 1298. FAMINES, AND SEASONS of REMARKABLE SCARCITY. The famine of the seven years in Egypt began 1798 n. c.- Usher; Blair. In a famine that raged at Rome thousands of the people threw themselves into the Tiber, 436 3. c. Livby. Awful famine in Egypt - A. D. 42 voured the flesh of horses, dogs, cats, At Rome, attended by plague - 262 and vermin A. D. 131.5 In Britain, so grievous that people ate One in England and France (Rlapin) - 1353 the bark of trees 272 Again, one so great, that bread was In Scotland, and thousands die 306 made from fern roots (Stowe) - 1438 In England, where 40,000 perish 310 Awful one in France (Voltaire) - 1693 Awful one in Phrygia - - - 370 One general in Great Britain -1748 So dreadful in Italy, that parents ate One which devastates Bengal - - 1771 their children (Detfresnzoy) - 450 At the Cape de Verds, where 16,000 perIn England, Wales, and Scotland 739 sons perish -1775 Again, when thousands starve 823 One griervously felt in France - - 1789 Again, which lasts four years - 954 One severely felt in England - - 1795 Awful one throughout Europe - - 1016 Again, throughout the kingdom - 1801 In England and France; this famine At Drontheinl, owing to Sweden literleads to a pestilential fever, which cepting the supplies - - -1813 lasts from 1193 to - - - 1195 Scarcity of food, severely felt by the Another famine in England - - 1251 Irish poor, 1814, 1816, 1822, and - 1845-6 Again, so dreadful, that the people deFAN, The use of the faln was known to the ancients: Cape /oc flabellztem et veet'lrlltm lttic sic fac/ito.-TERENCE. The modern custom among the ladies was borrowed friom the East. Fans, together with tultff~s, masks, and false hair, were first devised by the harlots in Italy, and were brought to England frolm France.-Stowe. The fan was used by females to hide their faces in church.-Pardon. FARCE. This species of dramatic entertainment originated in the droll shows which were exhibited by charlatans and their buffoons in the open street. These were introduced into our theatres in a ludicrous and more refined form; and they are now only shorter, but often superior to the pieces called comedies. See article Dramsa. FASTING, AND FASTS. They were practised and observed by most nations from the remotest antiquity. Annual fasts, as that of Lent, and at other stated times, and on particular occasions, begun in the Christian church, to appease the anger of God, in the second century, A. D. 138. Retained as a pious practice by the reformed churches.-Esrsebius. VEASTS AND FESTIVALS. The feast of the Tabernacles was instituted by Moses in the wilderness, 1490 B. C., but was celebrated with the greatest magnificence for fourteen days, upon the dedication of the temple of Solomon, 1005 B. c.-Joseph/us. In the Christian church, those of Christmas, Easter, Ascension, and Pentecost or Whitsuntide, were first ordered to be observed by all Christians, A. D. 68. Rogation days were appointed in 469. Jubilees in the Romish church were instituted by Boniface VIII. in 1300. See Jabilecs. For fixed festivals observed in the church of England, as settled at the Reformation, et seq., see Book of Covmeon Prajyer. FEBRUARY. The second month of the year, so called from Februa, a feast which was held therein in behalf of the manes of diseased persons, when sacrifices were performed, and the last offices were paid to the shades of the dead. This month, with January, was added to the year, whlich had previously but ten months, by Numa, 713 B. c. See Calesndar, and Yeasr. FERRARA. A city in the papal dominions, evacuated by the Austrians, except the citadel, Dec. 23, 1847. FEUDAL LAWS. The tenure of land, by suit or service to the lord or owner of it, was introduced into England by the Saxons, about A. D. 600. The 320 THE WORLD' S PROGRESS. [ FIn slavery of this tenure was increased under William I. in 1068. This was done by dividing the kingdom into baronies, and giving them to certain. persons, requiring them to furnish the king with money, andl a stated number of soldiers. These laws were discountenanced in France by Louis XI. in 1470. The vassalage was restored, but limited by Henry VII. 1495. Abolished by statute 12 Charles II. 1663. The feudal system was introduced into Scotland by Malcolm II. in 1008; and was finally abolished in that kingdom 20 George II. 1746.-Littleton; Ruffeicad; Blacksloule. FEUILLANS. Members of a society formed in Paris to counteract the intrigues and operations of the Jacobins, named from the Feuillan convent, where their mheetings were held, early in the revolution. A body of Jacobilti invested the building, burst into their hall, and obliged them to separate, Dec. 25, 1791. FEZ. The ancient Mauritanica, founded by Edrus, a Barbary farnme?. about A. D. 696. It soon afterwards became the capital of all the western A.I. rocco States. Leo Africanus describes the Mauritani as containing more than seven hundred temples, mosques, and other public edifices, in the twelfth century. FICTION LAW. Invented by the lawyers in the reign of Edward I. as a meaps of carrying cases from one court to another, whereby the courts became checks to each other. —Hl/me. Memorable declaration of Lord Mansfield, in the court of King's Bench, emphatically uttered, that " NO FICTION OFr LAW SHALL EVER SO FAR PREVAIL AGAINST THE REAL TRUTH OF THE FACT, AS TO PREVENT TI-IE EXECUTION OF JUSTICE," May 21, 1784. This constitutional maxim is now a rule of law. FIEF. In France we find fiefs-men mentioned as early as the age of Childebert I., A. D. 511. They were introduced into Italy by the Lombards. Into Spain, before the invasion of the Moors, A. D. 710. Into England by the- Saxor (see Feudal Laws). Into Scotland, directly from England, by Malcolhn II., 1008. FIELD oF THE CLOTH oF GOLD. Henry VIII. embarked at Dover to meet Francis I. of France, at Ardres, a small town near Calais in France, May 31, 1520. The nobility of both kingdoms here displayed their magnificence with such emulation and profuse expense, as procured to the place of interview (an open plain) the name of Thle;Vield of the Cloth of Gold. Many of the king's attendants involved themselves in great debts on this occasion, and were not able, by the penury of the rest of their lives, to repair the vai-l splendor of a few days. A painting of the embarkation, and another of th. interview, are at Windsor Castle.-Butler. FIFTH MONARCHY-MEN. Fanatical levellers who arose in the time of Cromwell, and who supposed the period of the Millennium to be just at hand, when JESUS should descend from heaven and erect the fifth universal monarchy. They actually proceeded to elect Jesus CHRIST king at London! Cromwell dispersed them, 1653. FIGURES. Arithmetical figures (nine digits and zero), and the method of computing by them, were brought into Europe from Arabia, about A. D. 900. They were first known in England about the year 1253, previously to whica time the numbering by letters was in use there. See Arithmetic. FIRE. It is said to have been first produced by striking flints together. The poets suppose that fire was stolen from heaven by Prometheus. Zoroaster. king of Bactria, was the founder of the sect of the Magi, or worshippers of Fire, since known by the appellation of Guebres, still numerous in the countries of the East, 2115 a. c.-Justilb; Pliny. Heraclitus maintained that the world was created from fire, and he deemed it to be a god omnipotent, and ':ip, ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 321 taught this theory about 506 B. c.-Nouv. Didt. In the Scriptures God is said often to have appeared in, or encompassed with fire-as to Moses in theo burning bush, on mount Sinai; and to the prophets Isaiah, Ezekiel, and St. John. The wrath of God is described by a consuming fire, and the angels, as his ministers, are compared to it. See the Bible. FIRE-ARMS. Small arms were contrived by Schwartz, A. D. 1378; they were brought to England about 1388. Fire-arms were a prodigious rarity in Ireland in 1489, when six muskets were sent from Germany as a present to the earl of Kildare, who was then chief-governor. Muskets were first used at the siege of Rhegen, in 1525. The Spaniards were the first nation who armed the foot soldier with these weapons.- Ulloc. Voltaire states, that the Venetians were the first to use guns, in an engagement at sea against the Genoese, in 1377; but our historians affirm, that the English had guns at the battle of Cressy, in 1346; and the year following at the siege of Calais. See Artillery. FIRE-ENGINES. The fire-engine is of modern invention, although the forcing pump, of which it is an application, is more than two centuries old. The fire-engine, to force water, was constructed by John Vander Heyden, about the year 1663; it was improved materially in 1752, and from that time to the present. The fire-watch, or fire-guard of London, was instituted November 1791. The fire brigade was established in London in 1833.';iFIRE-SHIPS. They were first used in the sixteenth century. Among the most formidable contrivances of this kind ever used, was an explosion vessel to destroy a bridge of boats at the siege of Antwerp, in 1585. The first use of them in the English navy was by Charles, lord Howard of Effingham, afterwards earl of Nottingham, lord high admiral of England, in the engagement with the Spanish Armada, July, 1588.-Rapin. FIRE-WORKS. Are said to have been familiar to the Chinese in remote ages: they were invented in Europe at Florence, about A. D. 1360; and were iirst exhibited as a spectacle in 1588. At an exhibition of' fire-works in Paris, in honor of the marriage of the dauphin, afterwards Louis XVI., the passages being stopped up occasioned such a crowd, that the people, seized with a panic, trampled upon one another till they lay in heaps; a scaffold erected over the river also broke clown, and hundreds were drowned; imore than 1000 persons perished on this occasion, June 21, 1770. Maldamne Blanchard ascending from Tivoli Gardens, Paris, at night, in a balloon surrounded by fire-works, the balloon took fire, and she was precipitated to the ground, and dashed to pieces, July 6, 1819. See Balloon. FIRES. Some of the most noted and destructive in North America. In New York, destroying 600 warehou- New York, destroying 302 stores and ses and /.roperty to amount of $20,- dwelling-houses, and property worth 000,000 - Dec. 16, 1835 $6,000,000-4 lives lost - July 19, 1845 At Washington, destroying the General St. John's, Newfoundland; nearly the Post Office and Patent Office, with whole town destroyed —6,000 people 10,000 valuable models, drawings, made houseless - - June 12, 1846 &c. - - - Dec. 15, 1836 Quebec Theatre Royal; 47 persons At Charleston, S. C.; 145 acres and burned to death - Junle 14, 1846 1,158 buildings destroyed - April 27, 1838 Nantucket; 300 buildings, valued New York; 46 buildings; loss,.10,- $800,00 - - - July 13, 1846 000,000 - - - Sept. 6, 1839 Dupont's powder mills, Md., exploded, Philadelphia; 52 buildings; loss, 18 persons killed - April 14, 1847 $500,000 - - Oct. 4,1839 At Albany; 600 buildings, besides Pittsburgh, Pa. 1,000 buildings, and steamboats &c.,24: acres burned over, property valued about $6,000,000 loss, $3,000,000 Aug. 17, 1849 April 10, 1845 At Brookllyn, N, Y., 200 houses, value, Quebec, Canada; 1,500 houses burnt, $750,000. - - Sept. 9, 1848 immense loss of property, and se- At St. Louis; 23 steamboats and 15 veral lives, May 28, 1845. Another, blocks of houses destroyed, loss about burning 1,300 dwellings; in all, two- $3,000.000 - - May 17, 1849 thirds of the city June 28, 1845 At Philadelphia, 300 houses July 9, 1850 14* 322 THE WORLD7S PROGRESS. [ FLO FIRE OF LONDON, THE GREAT. Destroyed in the tpace of four days eightynine churches, including St. Paul's; the city gates, the Royal Exchange, the Custom House. Guildhall, Sion College, and many other public buildings, besides 13;200 houses, laying waste 400 streets. This conflagration happened (not without strong suspicion of treason), Sept. 2, 1666, and continued three days and nights, and was at last only extinguished by the blowing up of houses.-H-Ime; Rapin; Carte. FIRST FRUITS. Primnitice among the Hebrews. They were offerings which made a large part of the revenues of the Hebrew priesthood. First fruits were instituted by pope Clement V., in A. D. 1306; and were collected in England in 1316. The first year's income of every church benefice in England was given to the popes till the 27th of Henry VIII., 1535, when the first fruits were assigned, by act of parliament, to the king and his successors.-Carte. Granted, together with the tenths, to increase the incomes of the poor clergy, by queen Anne, Feb. 1704. Consolidation of the offices of First Fruits, Tenths, and queen Anne's Bounty, by Statute I Vict.,.Aprlil 1838. FLAGELLANTS, SECT OF. They established themselves at Perouse, A. D. 1260. They maintained that there was no remission of sins without flagellation, and publicly lashed themselves, while in procession, preceded by t-?, cross, until the blood flowed from their naked backs. Their leader, Conrac Schmidt, was burnt, 1414. FLANDERS. The country of the ancient IBelgie; conquered by Julius Cmsar, 47 B. c. It passed into the hands of France, A. D. 412. It was governed by its earls subject to that crown, from 864 to 1369. It then came into the house of Austria by marriage; but was yielded to Spain in 1556. Flanders shookl off the Spanish yoke in 1572; and in 1725, by the treaty of Vienna, it was annexed to the German emlpire.-Priestley. Flanders was overrun by the French in 1792 and 1794, and was declared part of their Republic. T was made part of the kingdom of the Netherlands in 1814, and was erectec into the kingdom of Belgium in 1831.-See Belgiuv. FLAX. The flax seed was first planted in England in A. D. 1533. For many ages the core was separated from the flax, the bark of the plant, by the hand. A mallet was next used; but the old methods of breaking and scutching the flax yielded to a water-mill which was invented in Scotland about 1750. See article Hewmp. FLODDEN FIELD, BATTLE OF, between the English and Scots. James IV. of Scotland, having taken part with Louis XII. of France, against Henry VIII. of England, this battle was one of the consequences of his unfortunate policy; and James, and most of his chief nobles, and upwards of' 10,000 of his army were slain, while the English, who were commanded by the earl of Surry, lost only persons of small note. Henry VIII. was at the time besieging Terouenne, near St. Omer; fought Sept. 9, 1513. FLORENCE. It is said to have been founded by the soldiers of Sylla. and enlarged by the Roman Triumviri. It was destroyed by Totila, and was rebuilt by Charlemagne. This city is truly the seat of the arts. In its palaces, university, academies, churches, and libraries, are to be found ti, rarest works of sculpture and painting in the world. The Florentine academy, and the Accademia della Cresca, were instituted to enrich the literature and improve the language of Tuscany; the latter is so named because it rejects like bran all words not purely Tuscan. Florence was taken by the French in July 1796, and again in March, 1799; and was restored in 1814. FLORIDA, now one of the United States, was discovered by Sebastian Cabot sailing under the English flag, in 1497. Ponce de Leon, a Spanish adven ,PLO ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 323 turer from Hispaniola, explored the country in 1512 and 1516. In 1539, Hernando de Soto, who had been an officer under Pizarro, overran the peninsula with an armed force, but most of his followers were cut off a few years after. In 1763 Florida was ceded to Great Britain by Spain in exchange for Havana. The Spanish reconquered it in 1781, and ceded it to the United States in 1819. It was admitted into the Union in 1845. First war with the Seminoles in Florida in 1818, when general Jackson subdued them. Another protracted and expensive warfare there commenced and continued until 1842. General Jessup, general Taylor, and others, were engaged in it. The Seminole chief, Osceola, was captured, 1837. Population in 1830, 34,723; in 1840, 54,477 including 25,717 slaves. FLORIN. A coin first made by the Florentines. A floren was issued by Edward III, which was current in England at the value of 6s., in 1337.-Cavtmdew. This English coin was called floren after the Florentine coin, because the latter was of the best gold.-As/ce. The florin:f Germany is in value 2s. 4d.; that of Spain 4s. 41d.; that of Palermo and Sicily 2s. 6d.; that of Holland 2s.-Ayliffe. FLOWERS. The most delightful and fragrant among the ornaments of our gardens are of foreign production. The modern taste for flowers came, it is said, from Persia to Constantinople, and was imported thence to Europe for the first time in the sixteenth century; at least many of the productions of our gardens were conveyed by that channel.-Becklmanzn. With what goodness does GOD provide for our happiness and enjoyments, by making even the most remote countries contribute towards them!-Sta-rm. From the reign of Henry VII. to that of Elizabeth, our present common flowers were, for the most part, introduced into England. The art of preserving flowers in sand was discovered in 1633. A mode of preserving them from the effects of frost in winter, and hastening their vegetation in summer, was invented in America, by George Morris, in 1792. Among the flowers, the periods of whose introduction to English gardens have been traced, Haydn gives the following:FLOWERS, PLANTS, &C. Gold-plant, Japan - - 1783 Acacia. N. America, before A. D. 164.0 Golden bell-flower, Madeira - - 1777 Allspice shrub, Carolina - - 1726 Hawthorn, American, from N. AmerAnniseed tree, Florida, about. -.766 ica. beolre - 1683 Arbor Vital, Canada, before - 1596 IHeath, ardent, Cape 1800 Arctopus, Cape of Good Hope - 1774 Heath, beautiful, Cape - - 1795 Auricula, Switzerland 1567 Heath, fiagrant, Cape - - 1803 Azarole, S. Europe, before - 1640 Heath,. garland, Cape - - 1774 Bay, royal, Madeira.. - 1665 Heath, perfumed, Cape - 1803 Bay, sweet. Italy, before - 1548 Honeyflower, great, Cape - - 1688 Camellia, China - 1811 Honeysuckle, Chinese, China - 1806 Chaste tree, Sicily, before - - 1570 Honeysuckle, fly, Cape - - - 1752 Christ's thorn, Africa, before - - 1596 Honeysuckle, trumpet, N. America - 1656 Canary bell-flower, Canaries - 1696 Hyssop, south of Europe, before - 1548 Carnation, Flanders - 1567 Jasmine, Circassia, before - 1548 Ceanothus, blue, New Spain - 1818 Jasmine, Catalonian, East Indies - - 1629 Canary convolvulus, Canaries 1690 Judas-tree, south of Europe, before - 1596 Convolvulus, many-flowered - 1779 Laburnum, Hungary - - - 1576 Coral tree, Cape - - 1816 Laurel. Alexandrian, Portugal, before 1713 Coral tree, bell-flowered, Cape - 1791 Laurestine, south of Europe, before - 1596 Coral tree, tremulous, Cape - 1789 Lavender, south of Europe, before 1568 Creeper, Virginian, N. America - 1603 Lily, Italy, before - - - 1460 Dahlia, China - - 1803 Lily, gigantic, N. South Wales 1800 Dryandra, New Holland - 1803 Lily, red-colored, South America - - 1623 Evergreen thorn, Italy 1629 Loblolly-bay, N. America, before 1739 Everlasting, great-flowered, Cape 1781 Lupine tree, Cape, about - * 1793 Everlasting, giant, Cape - - 1793 Magnolia (see Magnolia), N. America 1688 Fernbush, sweet, N. America - - 1714 Magnolia, dwarf, China - - 1786 Fox-glove, Canaries - - 1698 Magnolia, laurel-leaved, N. America - 1734 Geranium, Flanders. - 1534 Maiden-hair. Japan- - 1714 Gillyflower, Flanders - 1567 Mignionette, Italy - 1528 324 THIE WORLD'S PROGRE:S. [ ON FLOWERS, continued. Milk-wort, great-flowered, Cape - - 1713 Rose, tube, from Java and Ceylon - 1629 Milk-wort, showy, Cape - 1814 Rose without thorns, N. America, beMountain tea, N. America, before - - 1758 fore 1726 Mock orange, south of Europe, before 1596 Rosemary, south of Europe - - 15418 Myrtle, candleberry, N. America - - 1699 St. Peter's wort, North America -. 1730 Myrtle, woolly-leaved, China - 1776 Sage, African, Cape - - 1731 Nettle-tree, south of Europe, before 1596 Sage, Mexican, Mexico - - 1724 Olive, Cape, Cape - - - 1730 Sassafras tree, N. America, before 16887 Olive, sweet-scented, China - 1771 Savin, south of Europe, before - - 184 Oleander, red, south of Europe - 1596 Snowdrop, Carolina - - - 1756 Paraguay tea, Carolina, before - 1724 Sorrel tree, N. America, before - - 1752 Passion-flower, Brazil - - - 1692 Sweet bay, south of Europe, before - 1548 Passion-flower, orange, Carolina - 1792 Tamarisk plant, Germany- - 1560 Pigeon-berry, N. America - 1736 Tea tree, China, about - - 176~ Pink, from Italy - 1567 Tooth-ache tree, Carolina, before - 1739 Ranunculus, Alps - 1528 Trumpet-flower, N. America - - 1640 Roses, Netherlands - - 1522 Trumpet-flower, Cape - 1823 Rose, the China, China - 1789 Tulip, Vienna - - - 1578 Rose, the damask, Marseilles, and Virginia creeper, N. America, before 1629 south of Europe, about - 1543 Virgin's-bower, Japan -. - 1776 Rose, the Japan, China - 1793 Weeping willow,.Levant, before 1- 192 Rose, the moss, before - - 1724 Wax tree, China - 1794 Rose, the muslk, Italy - - 1522 Winter berry, Virginia - - 1736 Rose, the Provence, Flanders - - 1567 Youlan, China - - 1789 Rose, sweet-scented guelder, from China 1821 FLUTE. Invented by Hyagnis, a Phrygian, the father of Marsyas.-Plztarch. The flute, harp, lyre, and other instruments were known to the Romans; and the flute was so prized in antiquity, that several female deities lay claim to its invention. It was in far more general use as a concert instru. ment than the violin, until early in the last century, when the works of Corelli came over.-See 3ttsic. FLUXIONS. Invented by Newton, 1669. The differential calculus by Leibnitz, 1684. The finest applications of the calculus are by Newton, Euler. La Grange, and La Place. FLYING, ARTIFICIAL. It has been attempted in all ages. Friar Bacon maintained the possibility of the art, and predicted it would be of general practice, A. D. 1273. Bishop Wilkins says, it will yet be as usual to hear a. man call for his ~wings when he is going on a journey, as it is now to hear him call for his boots, 1651. We apprehend that many ages will pass away previously to the accomplishment of these predictions. FONTAINEBLEAU, PEACE OF, concluded between France and Denmark in 1679. Treaty of Fontainebleau between the emperor of Germany anll Holland, signed November 8, 1785-. Treaty of Fontainebleau between Napoleon and the royal family of Spain, Oct. 27, 1807. Concordat of Fontainebleau between Napoleon and pope Pius VII. January 25, 1813. Fontainebleau was entered by the Austrlians, Feb. 17, 1814. And here, Napoleon resigned his imperial dignity, and bade a farewell to his army, April 5, 1814. FONTENOY, BATTLE OF, near Tournay, between the French under count Saxe, and the English, Hanoverians, Dutch, and Austrians, commanded by the duke of Cumberland. The battle was fought with great obstinacy, and the carnage on both sides was considerable, the allies losing 12,000 men, and the French nearly an equal number of lives; but the allies were in the end defeated. Count Saxe, who was at the time ill of the disorder of which he afterwards died, was carried about to all the posts in a litter, assuring his troops that the day would be their own; April 30, 1745. FONTS. Formerly the baptistry was a small room, or place partitioned off in a church, where the persons to be baptized (many of whom in the early FOI1 j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 325 ages were adults), were submerged. Previously to these artificial reservoirs, lakes and rivers were resorted to for immersion. Fonts for the initiation into Christianity were instituted in A. D. 167. FOOLS, FESTIVALS OF, at Paris. They were held on the first of January, and were continued for 240 years. In their celebration, we are told, all sorts of absurdities and indecencies were committed, A. D. 1198. Fools or licensed jesters were kept at court in England (as they were at other courts of Europe), and were tolerated up to the time of Charles I. 1625. FORESTS. There were in England, even in the last century, as many as 68 forests, 18 chases, and upwards of 780 parks. The New Forest in Hampshire was made by William I., who for that purpose destroyed 36 parishes, pulled down 36 churches, and dispeopled the country for 30 miles round, A. D. 1079-85.-Stowe. FORGERY IN ENCLAND. The forging of, or giving in evidence forged deeds, &c., made punishable by fine, by standing in the pillory, having both ears cut off, the nostrils slit up and seared, the forfeiture of land, and perpetual imprisonnment, 5 Elizabeth, 1562. Forgery was first punished by death iin 1634. FORGERY, REMARKABLE EXECUTIONS PRon. The unfortunate Daniel and Robert Perreau, brothers and wine-merchants, were hanged at Tyburn, January 17, 1776. The rev. Dr. Dodd was found guilty of forging a bond,. lin the name of Lord Chesterfield, for 4,2001.: the greatest interest was made, and the highest influence was exerted to save him, but when the case came before the council, the minister of the day said to George III., " if your majesty pardon Dr. Dodd, you will have murdered the Perreaus;" and he was hanged accordingly, June 27, 1777. Mr. Henry Fauntleroy, a London banker, was hanged, November 30, 1824. Joseph Hunton, a quaker merchant, suffered death, December 8, 1828. The last criminal hanged for forgery at the Old Bailey, was Thomas Maynard, December 31, 1829. FORKS. They were in use on the Continent in the 13th and 14th centuries.Voltaire. This is reasonably disputed, as being too early. In Fynes Moryson's Itinerary, reign of Elizabeth, he says, " At Venice each person was served (besides his knife and spoon) with a fork to hold the meat while he cuts it, for there they deem it ill manners that one should touch it with his hand." Thomas Coryate describes, with much solemnity, the manner of using forks in Italy, and adds,'" I myself have thought it good to imitate the Italian fashion since I came home to England," A. D. 1608. FORTIFICATION. The Phoenicians were the first people who had fortified cities. Apollodorus says that Perseus fortified Mycenm, where statues were afterwards erected to him. The modern system was introduced about A. D. 1500. Albert Durer first wrote on the science in 1527; and improvements were made by Vauban, towards 1700. FOTHERINGAY CASTLE, Northamptonshire. Built A. D. 1408. Here Richard III. of England was born in 1443; and Mary queen of Scots, whose death is an indelible stain upon the reign of our great Elizabeth, was beheaded in this castle, in which she had been long previously confined, February 8, 1587, after an unjust and cruel captivity of almost nineteen years in England. It was ordered to be demolished by her son James I. of England. FOUJNDLING HOSPITAL. " A charity practised by most nations about us for those children exposed by unnatural parents."-Addison. Foundling hospitals are, comparatively, of recent institution in England, where it would appear none existed when Addison wrote. The foundling hospital at Moscow, built by Catherine II., was an immense and costly edifice, in which 8000 infant children were succored. 326 TrHi WO\RLD'S PROGRESS. [ riA. FRANCE. This country was known to the Romans by the name of Gaul. In the decline of their power it was conquered by the Franks, a people of Germany, then inhabiting what is still called Franconia. These invaders gave the name to the kingdom; but the Gauls, being by far the most numerous, are the real ancestors of the modern French. Previous to the revolution, France was divided into 32 provinces; and after that era it was divided, first into 84, and subsequently into 103, departments, including Corsica, Geneva, Savoy, and other places, chiefly conquests. Tab. Views, 65 et seq. The Franks, under their leader Phara- 1350. John II.; died suddenly in the Savoy, meond, settle in that part of Gaul till in London. late called Flanders - - A. D. 420 1364. Charles V., surnamed the Wise; the Reign of Clovis the Great - - 481 first prince who had the title of dau[The Events in F rench History and the phin. (See article Daulhire.) succession of sovereigns will be found 1380. Charles VI., the Beloved. in the Tabular Views in this volume, 1422. Charles VII., the Vict; aious. commencing p. 65.] 1461. Louis XI., detested fobr his atrocious 720. Childeric IL cruelties. 737. Charles Martel ruled with despotic 1483. Charles VIII., the Affable. sway during an interregnumn. 498. Louis XII., duke of Orleans, surnamed 742. Childeric IlI., the Stupid; turned the Father of his People. monkl. 1515. Francis I. 1547. Henry II.: died of a wound received THE CARLOVINGIANS. at a touriament. 752. Pepin the Short, son of Charles Mar- 1559. Francis I.; married Mary Stuart tel; this race called Carlovingians. afterwards queen of Scots; died 768. Charlemagne, or Charles the Great; the year after his accession. also emperor of Germany. 1560. Charles IX. Catherine of Medicis, his 514. Louis I., the Gentle, surnamed, also, mother, obtained the regency, which the Debonsnsaire; dethroned, and im- trust she abused. prisoned in a monastery. 1574. Henry III., elected king of Poland; &,10. Charles I1., surnamed the Bald; poi- nmrdered Aug. 1, 15S9, by Jacques soned by his physician Hemudlt. Clement, a Dominican friiar. In this 377. Louis the Stammerer. prince was extinguished the house 879. Carloman and Louis ITI. The latter of Valois.. died, 882. Carloman reigned alone. 1589. HIenry IV., the Great, of Bourbon, s8. Charles the Fat; an usurper. king of Navarre; murdered by Frarl. 887. Eudes or -Ilugh. cis Rlavillac. (See 1Zvillac.) 898. Charles III., the Simple; deposed and 1610. Louis XIII., the Just. died in prison. 1643. Louis XIV., the Great, also styled 923. Rudolph. Dieu-Donne. 936 Louis IV., d'Outremer; died by a fall 1715. Louis XV., the WTell-Beloved; but from his horse. which surname he lost. 354. Lothaire III. poisoned; it is said by 1774. Louis XVI., his grandson; guillohis wife Emma. tined, Jan. 21, 1793; and his queen 986. Louis V. the Indolent; poisoned by Maria-Antoinette, Oct. 16, following. his wife Blanche, and in him ended 1789. The Revolution commences with the the race of Charlemagne. destruction of the Bastile, July 14. 1795. Louis XVII., dies in prison. THE CAPETS. 987. Hugh Capet, from whom this race of FRENCH EMPIRE. kings are called Capevingians. 996. Robert the Sage. 1804. Napoleon Bonaparte declared Empe1031. Henry I. ror, May 18, 1804; crowned by the 1060. Philip I., the Fair. pope, Dec. 2, following; assumes 1108. Louis VI., the Lusty. the iron crown, May 26, 1805. Re1137. Louis VII., the Younlg. nounces the thrones of France and 1180. Philip II., Augustus. Italy, Apr. 5, 1814. 1223. Louis VIII., the Lion. 1226. Louis IX., called St. Louis; died in BOURBONS RESTORED. his camp before Tunis; canonized. 1270. Philip III., the Hardy. 1814. Louis XVIII.; ascends the throne 1285. Philip IV., the Handsome. May 3, 1814; dies, Sept. 16, 1821. 13514. Louis X., Hutin. 1824. Charles X.; deposed, July 30, 1830, 1316. John, who reigned only eight days. retires to Ralnbouillet same day, 1316. Philip V., the Long. anti subsequently seeks protection 1323. Charles 1V., the Handsome; king of in England. Navarre. nOUSE OF ORLEANS. HOUSE OF VALOIS. 1830. Louis-Philippe; declared "king ot 1328. Philip de Valois. the French," August 9. i'RE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 32'7 FRANCHISE. A privilege, or exemption from ordinary jurisdiction; and anciently an asylum or sanctuary where the person was secure. In Spain, churches and monasteries were, until lately, franchises for criminals, as they were formerly in England. The elective franchise was conferred for counties on persons having 40s. a year in land, 39 Henry VI., 1460.-Rff/teaed's Statetes. See Electors. FRANCISCANS. An order of friars, called also Gray Friars, in the Church of Rome, founded by Francis de Assise in A. D. 1209, or, according to some authorities, about 1220. Their rules were chastity, poverty, obedience, and very austere regimen of life. In 1224 they are said to have appeared in England, where, at the time of the dissolution of Monasteries by Henry VIII., they had fifty-five abbeys or other houses, A. D. 1536-38. FRANKFORT ON TI-IE MAIN. Many ages a free city; it was taken and retaken several times during the wars of the late and present centuries, and felt the iron rule of Bonaparte from 1803 to 1813, when its independence was guaranteed by the allied sovereigns. The diet of the princes of Germany was established here by the Rhenish confederation in 1806. FREDERICKSHALL, SIEGE Or. Rendered memnorable by the death of Charles XII., of Sweden, who was killed by a cannon-shot before its walls, anid while in the trenches, leaning against the parapet, examining the works. He was found in that position, with his hand upon his sword, and a prayerbook in his pocket, Dec. 11, 1718. It is now generallysupposed that a pistol fired by some near and traitorous hand closed the career of this celebrated monarch, who was too aptly styled the "11Madman of the North." FREEMAASONRY. It is of great antiquity. Writers on masonry, themlselves masons, affirm that it has had a being "ever since symmetry began, and harmony displayed her charlns." Masonry is traced by some to the building of Solomon's temple; and it is said the architects fromn the African coast, Mahometans, brought it into Spain, about the sixth century, as a protection against Christian fanatics. Its introduction into Great Britain has been fixed at the year A. D. 674; although by other authorities it is assigned as much earlier date. The grand lodge at York was founded A. D. 926. Freemasonry was interdicted in England, A. D. 1424; but it afterwards rose into great repute. In 1717, the grand lodge of England was established; that of Ireland was established in 1730; and that of Scotland in 1736. Freemasons were excommunicated by the pope, in 1738.,JRENCH LANGUAGE. The language of France and many of the French laws and customs were first introduced into England by William I. 1066. The language, and fashions in dress and diet were then very general in England. Law pleadings were changed from French to English, in the reign of Edward III., 1362. —Sowve. FRENCHTOWN, CANADA. This town was taken from the British by the American general, Winchester, January 22, 1813. It was retaken by the British forces under general Proctor, immediately afterwards, and the American commander and his troops were made prisoners.'RENCH WAR, in North America. The first war between France and England, which was carried on also by the American colonies, 1689. The French destroyed Schenectady, N. Y., Casco, Me., &c., 1690; but were defeated by Schuyler at La Prairie, 1691. Peace of Ryswyck, 1697. "Queen Anne's war," 1702. French and Indians ravaged Maine, 1703. French and Spanish invade Carolina, 1706. Expedition from New England against the French in Port Royal, 1707; and against Canada, 1710; both failed. Peace of Utrecht, 1713. Another war declared by England. 1744; Louisbourg and Cape Breton taken by English colonists, 1745. Peace, 1749. French en 328 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ FRO croachment on English colonies, 1750, leads to the noted French war, 1752-3, Washington's mission, 1754. Braddock's defeat, 1755. Oswego, &c. taken by French, 1756, and fort William Henry, 1757. Louisbourg taken by the English general Amherst, and fort Du Quesne by general Forbes, 1758. Ticonderoga, Crown Point, Niagara, and Quebec taken by the English (sir W. Johnson and General Wolfe), 1759. Canada surrendered to Great Britain, Sept. 8, 1760, and secured to her by the peace of' Paris, 1763. French alliance with the United States in the war of the revolution, Feb. 6, 1778. French revolution and politics caused serious dissensions in the United States, 1793-6. French spoliations on American commerce, 1797. FRIDAY. The sixth day of the week; so called from Friga, a goddess wor shipped by our forefathers on this day, commonly supposed to be the same with Venus. Friga was the wife of Thor, and goddess of peace, fertility, and riches. Good-Friday is a fast in the church of England in memory of; our Saviour's crucifixion, April 3, 33. See Good Friday. FRIEDLAND, BATTLE OF, between the allied Russian and Prussian armies on the one side, and the French, commanded by Napoleon in person, who completely vanquished the allies, with the loss of eighty pieces of cannon, and 50,000 men, June 14, 1807. This victory led to the peace of Tilsit, by which Russia lost no territory, but Prussia was obliged to surrender nearly half her dominions. FRIENDLY ISLES. These islands were discovered by Tasman,.A. D. 1642. Visited by Wallis, who called them Keppel Isles, 1767; and by capt. Cook, who called them by their present name on account of' the friendly disposition of the natives, 1773. FRIENDLY SOCIETIES, ENGLAND. These useful institutions originated in the clubs of the industrious classes; and since they began to spring into importance they have been regulated and protected by various legislative enactments. They have now, with other similar institutions, more than twenty millions sterling in the public funds. Laws regarding Friendly Societies consolidated by statute, June, 1829.. See Charities. FRIESLAND. Formerly governed by its own counts. On the death of prince Charles Edward, in 1744, it became subject to the king of Prussia; Hanover disputed its possession, but Prussia prevailed. It was annexed to Holland by Bonaparte, in 1806, and afterwards to the French empire; but Prussia regained the country in 1814. The term Chevaux.z de PrIdise (sometimes, though rarely, written Clheval de Frise, a Friesland Horse) is derived. fiom Friesland, where it was invented. FROBISHER'S STRAITS. Discovered by sir Martin Frobisher, the first Englishman who attempted to find a northwest passage to China, in 1576. After exploring the coast of New Greenland, he entered this strait, which has ever since been called by his name. Frobisher returned to England, bringing with him a quantity of black ore, which was supposed to contain gold, and which induced queen Elizabeth to patronize a second voyage, and lend a sldop of war for the purpose. The delusion was even kept up to a third expedition; but all of them proved fruitless. FROSTS. The Euxine Sea frozen over for twenty days, A. nD. 401.- Univ. Hist. A frost at Constantinople which commenced in October, 763, and continued until February of the next year; the two seas there were frozen a hundred miles from the shore.-U~niv. Hist. A frost in England on Midsmunmer-day was so violent that it destroyed the fruits of the earth,.1035. —Speed. The frost in Russia in 1812 surpassed in intenseness that of any winter in that country for many preceding years, and caused the total destruction of the French army in its retreat from Moscow, at the close of that memorabli gUN ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 329 year. Napoleon commenced his retreat on the 9th November, when the frost covered the ground, and the men perished in battalions, and the horses fell by hundreds on the roads. What with her loss in battle, and the effects of this awful and calamitous frost, France lost in. the campaign of this year more than 400,000 men. FRUITS of FOREIGN COUNTRIES. Several varieties of fiuit are mentioned as having been introduced into Italy, 70 B. c. et seq. Exotic firuits and flowers of various kinds, previously unknown in England, were brought thither in the reigns of Henry VII. and VIII., and of Mary and Elizabeth, between the years 1500 and 1578. See Gardeninsg, and Flowers. Among others of less note, were musk-melons; plum-trees, and currant-plants of sundry sorts, the musk and damask roses tulips, &c.; also saffron, woad, and other drugs for dyeing, but these last were attempted to be cultivated without success.-Hclcklnyt; Lord Kaimes. The following are among the fruits whose introduction into England has been traced:FRUITS, ETC. Mulberry, the red, from North AmeAlmond-tree, Barbary - - A. D. 1548 rica, before - - -. 1629 Apples, Syria - - 1522 Mulberry, the paper, from St pan, before 1754 Apple, the custard, North Armericu -1736 Nectarine, Persia - - -1562 Apple, the Osage, ditto - - 1818 Olive, the Cape, Cape - - 1730 Apricots, Epirus. - 1540 Olive, the sweet-scented, China -1771 Cherry-trees, Pontus - - - 100 Oranges - - - 1595 Cornelian cherry, Austria - - -1596 Peaches, Persia - - 1562 Currants, Zante - - - 1533 Pears, from various climes - * Currant, the hawthorn, Canada - 1705 Pine-apple, Brazils - - -1568 Fig-tree, south of Europe, before -1548 Pippins, Netherlands - - 1525 Fig, the Botany-bay, New South Wales 1789 Plums, Italy - - - - 1522 Gooseberries, Flanders, before - 1540 Plum, the date, Barbary - - 1596 Grapes, Portugal - -1528 Pomegranate, Spain, before - -1548 lemons. Spain - 1554 Quince, Austria - - - 1573 Limes, Portugal - - 1554 Quince, the Japan - 1796 Lime, the American, before - 1752 Raspberry, the flowering, N. America - 1700 Melons, before -. 1540 Raspberry, the Virginian, ditto, before - 1696 Mockl orange, south of Europe, before - 1596 St~awberry, Flanders - - - 1530 Mulberry, Italy - - 1520 Strawbesry, the Oriental Levant -1724 M liberry, white, China, about - - 1596 Walnut, the black, N. America, before 1629 FUNDS To the Venetians is ascribed the origin of the funding system, in A. D. 1171. Public funds were raised by the Medici family at Florence, in 1340. The English funding system, or the method of raising the supplies for the public service in England, by anticipations of the public revenues (the origin of the national debt), introduced at the Revolution, 1689.-1iortimer's Brokes'. The funding system is coeval with the commencement of the Bank of England.-Anderson. The Three per cent. annuities were created in 1726. The Three per cent. consols were created in 1731. The Three per cesnt. reduced, 1746. Three per ceit. annuities, payable at the South Seahouse, 1751. Three and a-half per cent. annuities created, 1758. Long annuities, 1761. Four per cent. consols, 1762. Five per cent. annuities, 1797, and 1802. Five per cents. reduced to four, 1822. See ilationaEl Debt. FUNERAL GAMES are mentioned by most early writers. Among the Greeks they were chiefly horse races; and among the Romans, processions and tne mortal combats of gladiators around the funeral pile. These games were abolished by the emperor Claudius, A. D. 47. Funeral orations have a heathen origin. Solon was the first who spoke one, 580 B. c. They were indispensable among the Romans; the custom of led horses took place A. D 1256. A tax laid on funerals in England, 1793. FUNERAL ORATIONS. The Romans pronounced harangues over their dead, when people of quality, and great deeds, and virtues. Theopompus obtained a prize for the best funeral oration in praise of Mausolus, 353 B. c. Popilia was the first Roman lady who had an oration pronounced at her funeral 330 THE WORLD7S PROGRESS. [ GAIL which was done by her son Crassus; and it is observed by Cicero that Julius Csesar did the like for his aunt Julia, and his wife Cornelia. In Greece, Solon was the first who pronounced a funeral oration, according to Herodotus, 580 B. c. FUR. The refined nations of antiquity never used furs: in later times, as luxury advanced, they were used by princes as linings for their tents. They were worn by our first Henry, about A. D. 1125. Edward III. enacted that all such persons as could not spend 1001. a year, should be prohibited this species of finery, 1337. G. GALLEYS. The ancient galleys with three rows of rowers, tri-senmes, were invented by the Corinthians, 786 B. c.-Blair. They were built at Athens, 786 B. c. For an account of their construction and the method of fighting in them, see Polybius. GALVANISM. The discovery of it is recent; it was first noticed in 1767, by Saltzer; but it was not till about 1789 that Mrs. Galvani, wife of Dr. Galvani of Bologna, accidentally discovered its extraordinary effects on animals; and from the name of the discoverer it was called galvanism. Mrs. Galvan` having observed the convulsions produced in the muscles of frogs by the, contact of metals, directed her husband's attention to the phenomenomen aoln in 1791, Galvani announced the result of his observations on this subject. Since that period a great many experiments have been made, and many curious facts observed, which have excited nluch attention among philosophers. See Electr'o- Galvanism. Bonaparte, after the discovery of the true principles of galvanic electricity by Volta, presented him with a gold mecdal, and 3000 livres, in 1808.-Phillips. See AMesmelrism. GAME LAWS. The laws restricting the killing of game are peculiar to thi north of Europe, and partake of tlse nature of the forest laws imposed by William the Conqueror, who, to preserve his game, made it forfeiture of property to disable a wild beast, and loss of eyes for a stag, buck, or boar. Of these laws the clergy were zealous promoters: and they protested against ameliorations under Henry III. The first game act in England passed in 1496. Game certificates were first granted with a duty in 1784-5. Numerous statutes have been passed on this subject from time to time. GAMING, EXCESSIVE. Introduced into England by the Saxons; the loser was often made slave to the winner, and sold in traffic like other merchandise.Camden; Stowe. Act, prohibiting, gaming to all gentlemen (and interdicting tennis, cards, dice, bowls, &c., to inferior people, except at Christmas time), 33 Henry VIII. 1541. Gaming-houses were licensed in London in 1620. Act to prevent excessive and fraudulent gaming, when all private lotteries, and the games of Faro, Basset, and Hazard were suppressed, 13 George II. 1739. -Rf.l/ziead's Stcatqtes. The profits of a well-known gaming house in London for one season have been estimated at 150i0001. In one night a million of money is said to have changed hands at this place.-Leigh. GAMES. Those of Greece and Rome will be found under their respective heads. The candidates for athletic games in Greece used to be dieted on new cheese, dried figs, and boiled grain, with warm water, and no meat. The game.s were leaping, foot-races, darting, quoits, wrestling, and boxing. See the Capitolisne, Isthmian, Olympic, Pyltiian, Secicar', anvd other Games. GARDENING. Gardening was one of the first arts that succeeded the art of building houses.- Walpole. Noah planted a vineyard, and drank of the wine Of fruit, flower, and kitchen gardens, the garden of Eden was, no doub GArP ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 331 the prototype. —ldenm. There wants nothing but the embroidery of a parterre to make a garden in the reign of Trajan serve for a description of one in that of our William III. —Ideam. The art of gardening became better understood in England about A. D 1500, before which time many of our vegetables were imported fiom Brabant. The era of the art was the reign of Elizabeth; but the modern mode of gardening was introduced about 1700. The following came from the countries respectively named:ROOTS AND VEGETABLES. Carrots - - Flanders Plums - Damascus Brocoli - Cyprus Oranges - Spain Rice, from - Ethiopia Beans - - - Greece Lemons - - Spain Buckwheat - - Asia Peas- - Spain Pink - Italy Borage - - Syria Provence-rose - Marseilles Cresses - - Crete FRUITS AND FLOWERS. Convolvulus - Canaries Cauliflowr - Cyprus Arctopus - - Cape Asparagus - - Asia Jasmine - Circassia Bell-lqower - Canaries Lettuce - - Brabajlt Elder-tree - Persia Cherr,es - - Pontus Artichokes - - Holland Tulip - - - Cappadocia Figs- - - Italy Garlic - The East Daffodil - Italy Date-plum - - Barbary Shallots - - Siberia Lily - Syria Mulberry - Italy Horse-radish - China Tuberose - Java, &c. Nectarine - Persia Kirdney-beans - East Indies Carnation ~ Italy, &c. Passion-flower Brazil Gourds - Astracan Ranunculus Alps Pomegranate - Spain Lentils - France Apples - ~ Syria Rosemary - Italy Chervil - - Italy Apricots - Epirus Laburnum - - Hungary Celery - - - Flanders Currants - - Zante Laurel - -,evaut Potatoes - Brazil Damasl-rose - Damascus Lavender - -Italy Tobacco - - America Hops - - - Artois Peaches - - Persia Cabbage - I-Iolland Gooseberries - Flanders Quilce - Austria Anise - - - Egypt Gilly-flowers - Toulouse Weep. Willow Levant Parsley - - Egypt Musk-rose - Damascus Fennel- - - Canaries Musk-ml elons and other rich fruits that are now cultivated in England, and the pale gooseberry, together with salads, garden-roots, cabbages, &c., were brought fiom Flanders, and hops from Artois, in 1520. The damaskrose was brought hither by Dr. Linacre, physician to Henry VIII., about 1540. Pippins were brought to England by Leonard Mascal, of Plumstead, in Sussex. 1525. Currants or Corinthian grapes were first planted in England in 1533, brought f-rom the Isle of Zante. The musk-rose and several sorts of plums were brought fiorn Italy by lord Cromwell. Apricots came from Epirus, 1.540. The tamarisk plant uvas brought from Germany, by archbishop Grindal, about 1570; and about Norwich, the Flemings planted flowers unknown in England, as gilly-fiowers, carnations, the Provence rose, &c., 1567. Woadl came originally from Toulouse, in France. Tulip roots from Vienna, 1578; also, beans, peas and lettuce, now in common use, 1600. See Flowers; -raLits. GARTER, ORDER OF THE. Thlis institution outvies all other similar institutions in the world. It owes its origin to Edward III., who conquered France andt Scotland, and brought their kings prisoners to England. Edward, with a view of recovering France, which descended to him by right of his mother, was eager to draw the best soldiers of Europe into his interest, and thereupon projecting the revival of king Arthur's round table, he proclaimed a solemn tilting, to invite foreigners and others of quality and courage to the exercise. The king, upon New Year's day, 1344, published royal letters of protection for the safe coming and returning of such foreign knights as had a mind to venture their reputation at the jousts and tournaments about to be held. The place of the solemnity was Windsor; it was begunt by a feast, and a table was erected in the castle of 200 feet diameter, in imitation of king Arthur's at Winchester, and the knights were entertained at the king's own expense of 1001. a weel. In 1346. Edward gave his garter for the signal of' a battle that had been crowned with success (supposed to be Cressy), and being victorious on sea and land, and having David, king of Scotland, a prisoner; and Edward the Black Prince, 332 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ GEN his son, having expelled the rebels in Castile, and enthroned the lawful sovereign, Don Pedro, he, in memory of these exploits, instituted this order. A. D. April 23, 1349-50. Edward gave the garter pre-eminence among the ensigns of the order; it is of blue velvet bordered with gold, with the inscription in old French —" toni soit qei mnal y pease "-evil to him who evil thinks. The knights are always installed at Windsor; and were styled Eqxeites auscree Periscelidis, knights of the golden garter.-Beatson. GAS. The inflammable aeriform fluid was first evolved from coal by Dr. Clayton, in 1739.-P/lil. Tranes. Its application to the purposes of illumination was first tried by Mr. Murdock, in Cornwall, in 1792. The first display of gas-lights was made at Boulton and Watt's foundry, in Birminghairt on the occasion of the rejoicings for peace in 1802. Gas was permanently used to the exclusion of lamps and candles at the cotton mills of Phillips and Lee, Manchester, where 1000 burners were lighted, 1805. Gas-lights were first introduced in London, at Golden-lane, August 16, 1807. They were used in lighting Pall Mall, in 1809; and were general through London in 1814. They were first used in Dublin in 1816, and the streets there generally lighted in October, 1825. The gas-pipes in and round London extend to 1100 miles. The streets in New York (the first in the United States) first lighted with gas, 1823-4. GAZETTE. A paper of public intelligence and news of divers countries, first printed at Venice about the year 1620, and so called (some say) because ance gazetta, a small piece of Venetian coin, was given to buy or read it. Others derive the name from gaeza, Italian for magpie, i. e. chatterer.Trmesler. A gazette was printed in France in 1631; and one in Germany in 1715.-Nouv. Diet. Hiist. GAZETTE, THE LONDON. See Newspapers. The firstEnglish gazette was published at Oxford, the court being then there on account of the plague, Nov. 7, 1665. On the removal of the court to the capital, the title was changed to the London Gazette, Feb. 5, 1666. Londorn Gazettes Ext'raordinary are used for the publication of extraordinary official news. One of these latter was forged with a view of affecting the funds, May 22, 1787. The fraud succeeded, but the planners of it were never discovered. —Phillips. The Dublin Gazette was first published in an official form about 1767. GENERAL ASSEMBLY or SCOTLAND. The first General Assembly of the church was held December 20, 1560. The General Assembly constitutes the highest ecclesiastical court in the kingdom; it meets annually in Edinburgh in May, and sits about ten days. It consists of a grand commissioner, appointed by the king, who represents his majesty, and delegates from presbyteries, royal boroughs, and universities, some being laymen. To this court all appeals from the inferior ecclesiastical courts lie, and its decision is final. See Chie:cie of Scotland. GENERALS. This rank has been given to commanders from very remote times. Matthew de Montmorency was the first officer honored with the title of General of the French armies, A. D. 1203.-Henault. It is observed by M. Balzac that cardinal Richelieu first coined the word Generalissizio, upon his taking the supreme command of the French armies in Italy, in 1629. UENEVA. Part of the empire of Charlemagne, about A. D. 800. The Republie was founded in 1512. It became allied to the Swiss Cantons in 1584. Memorable insurrection here, February 1781: about 1000 Genevans, in consequence of it, applied, in 1782, to earl Temple, lord lieutenant of Ireland, for permission to settle in that country: the Irish parliament voted 50.0001. to defray the expenses of their journey, and to purchase them lands near Waterford, called New Geneva. Many of the fugitives came te GEO ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 333 Ireland in July 1783, but they soon after abandoned it: at this period many Genevan families settled in England. Another revolution, July 1794. Geneva was admitted by the diet into the Swiss Confederation, in 1813. GENOA. Its ancient inhabitants were the Ligures, who submitted to the Romans. 115 B. c., and underwent the revolutions of the Roman empire till A. n. 950. The Genoese revolt against their count, choose a doge and other magistrates from among their nobility, and become an aristocratic Republic, 1030 to 1034. Several revolutions occurred up to 1528, when the celebrated Andrew Doria rescued his country from the dominion of foreign powers. Bombarded by the French in 1684, and by the British in 1688 and 1745. Genoa was taken by the Imperialists, Dec. 8, 1746; but their oppression of the people was such, that the latter suddenly rose, and expelled their conquerors, who again besieged the city the next year, August 17, without effect, Genoa lost Corsica 1730. The celebrated bank failed 1750. The city sustained a siege by a British fleet and Austrian army, until literally starved, and was evacuated by capitulation, May 1800; but it was surrendered to the French soon after their victory at Marengo. The LJigurian Republic was founded upon that of Genoa, in 1801, and the doge solemnly invested, August 10, 1802. Genoa annexed to the French empire, May 25, 1805. It surrendered to the combined English and Sicilian army, April 18, 1814; and was transferred to the king of Sardinia in 1816. Insurrection against Victor Emmanuel, April 1; subdued April 11, 1849. GENTLEMEN. The Gauls observing that, during the empire of the Romans, the Scutarii and Gentiles had the best appointments of all the soldiers, apt plied to them the terms 6chyers and gentilshommnes. This distinction of gentleman was much in use in England, and was given to the well descended, about A. D. 1430.-Sidney. GEOGRAPHY. The first correct record we have of geographical knowledge is from Homer. He describes the shield of Achilles as representing the earth, surrounded by the sea.-Iliad. He accurately describes the countries of Greece, islands of the Archipelago, and site of Troy. The priests taught that the temple of Apollo at Delphos was the centre of the world. Anaximander of Miletus was the inventor of geographical maps, about 568 B. c. Hipparchus attempted to reduce geography to mathematical bases, about 135 B. c. It was first brought to Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain, about A. D. 1201.-Lenglet. The invention of the mariner's compass is the important connecting link between ancient and modern geography. The modern maps and charts were introduced into England by Bartholomew Columbus to illustrate his brother's theory respecting a western continent, A. D. 1489. GEOLOGY. The science of the earth has been the subject of philosophical speculation from the time of Homer; and this science is said to have been cultivated in China many ages before the Christian era. When the theories and discoveries of geologists were first propounded, they were condemned as being opposed to the statements of the Bible; but in this enlightened age the astronomer and geologist, in proportion as their minds are expanded by scientific investigation, see that there is no collision between the discoveries in the natural world, and the inspired record. We are not called upon by Scripture to admit, neither are we required to deny, the supposition that the matter without form and void, out of which this globe of earth was fiamed, nmay have consisted of the wrecks and relics of more ancient worlds, created and destroyed by the same Almighty power which called our world into being, and will one day cause it to pass away. Thus while the Bible reveals to us the moral history and destiny of our race, and teaches us that man and other living things have been placed but a few thousand years 334 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ GEF upon the earth, the physical monuments of our globe bear witness to the same truth; and as astronomy unfolds to us myriads of worlds, not spoken of in the sacred records, geology in like manner proves, not by argumient. drawn from analogy, but by the incontrovertible evidence of physical phenomena, that there were former conditions of our planet;, separated from each other by vast intervals of time, during which tliis world was teeming with life, ere man, and the animals wehich are his contemporaries, had been called into being.%-Dr. _Mantell and Bishop BlonzJield. GEOMETRY. Its origin is ascribed to the Egyptians; the annual inundations of the Nile having given rise to it by carrying away the landmarks, and the boundaries of farms. Thales introduced geometry into Greece about 60tC B.c. Euclid's Elements were compiled about 280 B. c. The doctrine of curves originally attracted the attention of.geometricians from the conic sections, which were introduced by Plato about 390 B. C. The conchoid curve was invented by Nicomedes, 220 B. c. The science of geometry was taught in Europe in the thirteenth century. Books on the subject of geometry and astronomy were destroyed in England, being regarded as infected with imagic, 7 Edward VI., 1552.-Stowe. GEORGES' CONSPIRACY. The memorable conspiracy in France; general Moreau, general Pichegru, Georges Cadoudal, who was commionly knot al by the name of Georges, and others, arrested at Paris, charged with a conspiracy against the life of Bonaparte, and for the restoration of Louis XVIII., Feb. 23, 1804. The conspirators were tried June 9, when seventeen were sentenced to death, and many to imlprisonment. Moreau was suffered to leavr France, and was escorted from the tenmple to embark for America, June 22. In 1813 he received his mortal wound before Dresden, is/ticA see. GEORGIA, one of the United States, was granted by George II. to Gen. Oglethorpe, who, with forty followers, founded Savannah, Feb. 1, 17833. Savall nah taken by the British in the revolutionary war, Dec. 29, 1778; the town and State evacuated by them in July 1782. The State unanimously adopted the Federal Constitution, Jan. 2, 1788. Population in 1790, 82;584; in 1840, 691,392, including 280,944 slaves. Staple commodities, cotton and rice. GERMANIC CONFEDERATION. Napoleon had determined that the German, or Holy Roman Empire, as it was called, should no longer exist; but that instead thereof, a confederation of states should be formed; and this arrangenment was adopted in 1815, by the allied sovereigns; and Germany is now governed by a diet. consisting of seventeen voices, and in case any alteration be requisite in the constitution, they are then to take a new division, and the general assembly then to be formed is to contain sixty-five, divided according to the relative consequence of the states. See Addenda. GERMANY. From Germncenni, warlike men. First mentioned by the Roman historians about 211 a. c.: it was anciently divided into several independent states until 25 B. C., when the Germans withstood the attempt of the Romans to subdue them, although they conquered some parts; but by the repeated efforts of the Germans they were entirely expelled, about A. D. 290. In 4329 the IHuns, driven fiom China, conquered the greatest part of this extensive country; but it-was not totally subdued till Charlemange, the first emperor, became master of the whole, A. D. 802. Charlemagne crowned emperor of the I Charles III. was the first sovereign who West at Rome - - a. 800 added in the year of our Lord" to lie adds a second head to the eagle, to his reign.... -7 denote that the empires of Rome and The German princes assert their indeGermany are united in him - - 802 pendence, and Conrad reigns - 912 Louis (Debonnzaire) separates Germany [The electoral character assumed about fri m France. 814 this time. See Elecitos.] - - tt' GER ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 335 GERMANY, continued. Reign of Henry I. (king) surnamed the and demands for reform granted in Fowler; he vanquishes the HIuns, various degrees by sovereigns of Danes, Vandals, and Bohemians - 919 Pruissia, Bavaria, &c.; and by those Otho I. extends his dominions, and is of the smaller principalities of Gercrowned emperor by the pope - 962 many - - Feb. and March, 18418 Henry Ill. conquers Bohemia, wasting A federal union of the German States it with fire and sword - 1042 demanded by Prussia March, 1848 Peter the Hermit leads the crusaders Congress of deputies at Frankfort-Mitthrough Germany, where they mnas- ter-Meyer, President March 31, 1848 sacre the Jews- - - 1095 German Parliament meets at FrankHenry IV. excommunicated by pope fort - - - May 18, 1848 Pascal I. (Hildebrand) about - 1106 The archduke, John of Austria, elected Disputes relating to ecclesiastical in- by the parliament as lord-lieutenant vestitures, with the pope - - 1122 of the Empire - - June 29, 1848 The Guelph and Ghibeline feuds begin 1140 He is installed at Frankfort, and names Conrad III. leads a large army to the his ministers - - July 15, 1848 holy wars, where it is destroyed by Great excitement in Germany on acthe treachery of the Greeks - - 1147 count of the execution at Vienna of Teutonic order of knighthood - -1190 Robert Blum, a Leipsic publisher, Reign of Rodolph, count of lapsburgh, for aiding the insurrection Nov. ^ 1848 chosen by the electors - -1273 The famous edict, called the Golden A. D. EMPERORS CP CG RM-tANY. Bull, by Charles IV. - 1356 800. Charlemagne the Great. Sigismond, king of Bohemia, elected 814. Louis the Debonnaire. emperor. ie betrays John Huss and 840. Lothaire. Jerome of Prague, who are burned 855. Louis II. alive (see BoJlhemia) - 1414 875. Charles II., the Bald; poisoned. Sigismond being dliven from the throne, 878. Louis III., the Stammerer. Albert II., duke of Austria, succeeds. 879. Charles III., the Gross. (In his family the crown resides for 887. Arnould. three centuries) - - 1438 899. Louis IV. The Pragmatic sanction (swhicnh see) -1439 912. Otho, duke of Saxony; he refused the The empire divided into circles 1512 dignity on account of his age. Era of the Refolrmation (Luther) 1517 912. Conrad, duke of Franconia. Abdication of Charles V. - 1556 919. -Henry I., the Fowler. War of the two parties, the Evangelic 936. Otho I., the Great. union under Frederick, elector pala- 973. Otho II., the Bloody. tine, and the Catholic league, under 983. Otho III., the Red; poisoned. the duke of Bavaria - 1618 1002. Henry II., duke of Bavaria; the Holy Battle of Prague, which lost the elector and Lame. palatine the crown - - -1620 1024. Conrad II., the Salique. Treaty of Westphalia -. - 1648 1039. Henry III., the Black. Jolls Sobieski, king of Poland, defeats - 1055. Henry IV.; deposed. the Turks in many battles, and obliges 1077. Rodolphus; killed in battle. them to raise the siege of Vienna - 1683 1080. Henry IV.; re-instated. The peace of Carlowitz - - 1699 1105. Henry V. The Pragmatic sanction (wohich see) - 1722 1125. Lothaire II. The reign of Charles VI. is chiefly occu- 1138. Conrad II. pied with wars against the Turks, and 1152. Frederick Barbarossa; drowned in Boin establishing the Pragmatic sanc- hemia. tion, in favor of the succession of his 1191. hIenry VI., the Sharp. daughter, Maria Theresa, married to 1198. Philip; killed at Bamberg. the dukte of Lorraine 1711 to 1742 1208. Otho IV; deposed. Francis I., Dulke of Lorraine, marries 1211. Frederic II.; deposed. the heiress of Austria, the celebrated 1245. Henrv VII; Itlled. Maria Theresa, queen of Hungary; 1246. William; killed in battle. and is elected emperor - 1745 1273. Rodolphus, count of Ilapsburg, the Joseph II. extends his dominions by the first of the Austrian family. dismemberment of Poland - - 1772 1291. Adolphus; deposed. Again, by the final partition of that de- 1298. Albert I.; killed by his nephew. voted kingdom - - 1795 1308. Henry VIII.; poisoned by a priest, in [In the ruinous wars between Germany the consecrated waier. and France, the emperor loses the 1314. Louis IV., of Bavarla; killed by a fall Netherlands, all his territories west from his horse. of the Rhine, and his estates in Italy, 1347. Charles IV., of Luxembourg. 1793, et seq.] 1378 Wenceslaus, king of Bohemia. Francis I. assumes the title of empe- 1399. Frederickc, Dulke of Brunswick. Tor of Austria - - Aug. 11, 1804 1400. Rupert, palatine of the Rhine. Dissolution of the German empire; for- 1410. Sigismond, lking of Hungary. mation of the Confederation of the 1437. Albert 11., duke of Austria and king of Rhine - July 12, 1805 Bohemia. General agitation among the people, 1440. Frederick III., archduke of Austria. 336 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. rGIS GERMANY, continued. 1493. Maximilian I.; he married the heiress 1745. Francis I.; husband of Maria Theresa of Burgundy. queen of Ilungary and Bohemia. 1519. Charles V., king of Spain. 1765. Joseph T1. 1558. Ferdinand I., king of Hungary. 1790. Leopold II. 1564. Maximilian II. 1792. Francis II.; he takes the title of eml 1576. Rodolphus II. peteror of Austsria only, in 1806. 1612. Matthias I. 1806. Confederation of the Rhine (which see). 1619. Ferdinand II., kIing of Hungary. 1815. Germanic Confederation. 1637. Ferdinand III., ditto. 1835. Ferdinand I., of Austria. 1658. Leopold I., ditto (See Tabular Views in this vol., beginning.1705. Joseph II., ditto, and of Bohemia. p. 76; see, also, Austria, Bavaria, 1711. Charles VI. Prussia, TlVurtenburg, &c.) 1742. Charles VII. There are about 20 German principalities with territories equal to Englis-i counties. The free towns are Hamburg, Bremen, Frankfort on the Maine (one of the greatest trading places in Europe), and Lubeck, which was the head of the famous Hanseatic League, formed in that city in 1164. GHENT. Anciently the capital of the Nervii. Prince John, third; son of Edward II. of England, was born here, and hence named Jo/lr of Gau^st. Pacification of Ghent, November 8, 1576. Ghent was taken by the duke of' Marlborough in A. D. 1706, and several times taken and retaken by the contending armies during the late wars. The peace of Ghent between Great Britain and the United States, was signed here, December 24, 1814. GIANTS. The emperor Maximus was eight feet and a half in height; he was also of great bulk, and used the bracelet of his wife as a ring for his thumb, and his shoe was longer by a foot than that of an ordinary man.-Zcing/liss. "The tallest man that hath been seen in our age was one named Gabara, who in the days of Claudius the late emperor was brought out of Arabia. He was nine feet nine inches high." —Pliqy. John Middleton, of Hale, in Lancashire, born in 1578, was nine feet three inches high. Patrick Cotter, the celebrated Irish giant, born in 1761, was eight feet seven inches iin height; his hand, from the commencement of the palm to the extremity of the middle finger, measured twelve inches, and his shoe was seventeen inches long; he died in September 1806, in his 46th year. Giants' bones 17, 18, 20, and 30 feet high, were once reported to have been found; but there is now no doubt that they were organic remains of colossal quadrupeds. GIBRALTAR. A fortress, whose immense strength excites wonder and admiration, and renders it impregnable: it is the ancient Calpe, which, with Abyla on the opposite shore of Africa, obtained the name of the Pillars e. Hercules. The height of the rock, according to Cuvier, is 1437 English feet: it was taken by the Saracens under Tarik (Gibel- Trcaiki, Mountain of Tarik, whence its present name) in A. D. 712. In the year 1462 the Iking of Castile took Gibraltar from the Moors; and the English, under sir George: Rooke, the prince of Hesse Darmstadt, sir John Leake, and admiral Byrig, bravely won it, July 24, 1704. It was surrendered. after a dreadful cannonade, to the British, by the governor, the marquis de Salines; and it has since continued an appendage to the British crown. Gibraltar attacked by the British on the 20,000 men, and lose 5000, while the 21st July, and taken on the 24th, A. D. 1704 loss of the English is only 300 - 1727 Besieged by the Spanish and French; Meimorable siege of the Spaniards and they lose 10,000 men, and the victori- French, whose prodigious armaous English but 400 - Oct. 11, 1704 mlents (the greatest ever broughit The Spaniards agtain attack Gibraltar, a'ainst a fortress) were wholly overand are repulsed with great loss - 1720 thrown. The siege continued friom They again attack it with a force of July 1779, to Feb. - 1783 The army amounted to 40,000 men. The duke of Crillon commanded 12,000 of the best troops of France. 1000 pieces of artillery were brought to bear against the fortress, besides which, thlsre ',LE D] ICTIONARY OF DATES. 337 GILDING. First practised at Rome, about 145 B. c. The capitol was the first building on which this enrichment was bestowed.-Pliny. Of gold leaf for gilding the Romans made but 750 leaves, four fingers square, out of a whole ounce.-Plia/. It consequently was more like our plating. — 1Ts7sler. A single grain of gold may now be stretched out under the hammer into a leaf that will cover a house.-Dr. Halley. Gilding with leaf gold on bole anbmnoniac was first introduced by Margaritone, in 1273. The art of gilding on wood, previously known, was improved in 1680. GISORS, BATTLE OF, in France, between the armies of F1'rance and England, in which the former was signally defeated by Richard I., whose parole for the day was Dieu et eon, droit" —" God and my righlt;" and from this time it was made the motto to the royal arms of England, A. D. 1198. GLADIATORS. They were originally malefactors who fought for their lives, or captives who fought for their freedom. They exhibited at the funeral ceremonies of the Romans, 263 B. c., probably following the Greek custom of sacrificing to the manes of deceased warriors the prisoners taken in battle. Gladiator fights afterwards exhibited at festivals, about 215 B. c. When Dacia was reduced by Trajan, 1000 gladiators fought at Rome in celebration of his triumph for 123 days, A. D. 103. Their combats on public theatres were suppressed in the East by Constantine the Great,. D. 325. Finally suppressed by Theodorick, in the year 500.-Lncnglet. GLASGOW. Erected into a burgh in A. D. 1180. Its charter was obtained from James II., in 1451, at which period the university was founded. Its earliest commerce was in salmon, about 1420. GLASS. The Egyptians are said to have been taught the art of making glass by Hermees. The discovery of glass took place in Syria.-Pliny. Glasshouses were erected in Tyre, where glass was a staple manufacture for many ages. This article is mentioned among the Romans in the time of Tiberius; and we know, from the ruins of Pompeii, that windows were formed of glass before A. D. 79. Italy had the first glass windows, next France, whence they camle to England. Used for windows in private houses in the reign of Henry II., 1177, but imported.-An1der'son. The manufacture was established in England at Crutcheci-friars, and in the Savoy, in 1557.Stowe. It was improved in 1635, and was brought to great perfection in the reign of William III. The duties on glass in England were entirely remlitted, 1845. G-LASS, PAINTING ON. This was a very early art. It was practised at Marseilles in a beautiful style, about A. D. 1500. It is said the art existed in England towards the 12th century. It reached to a state of great perfection about 1530. GLENCOE, MAssACRE oF. This was the horrible massacre of the unoffending and unsuspecting inhabitants, the Macdonalds, merely for not surrendering in time to king William's proclamation. About 38 men were brutally slain; and women and children, their wives and offspring, were turned out naked were 47 sail of the line, all three-deckers; 10 great floating batteries, esteemed invincible, carrying 212 guns; innumerable frigates. xebeques, bomb-letches, cutters, and gun and mortar boats; while small craft for disenlbarking the forces covered the bay. For weeks together, 6000 shells wcere daily thrown into the town; and on a single occasion, 8000 barrels of gunpowder were expended by the enemy. Yet in one night, their floating batteries were destroyed with red-hot balls, and their whole line of works annihilated by a sortie from the garrisor, commanded by general Elliot, Nov. 27, 1781. The enemy's loss in munitions of war, onr this night alone, was estimated at upwards of 2,600,0001. sterling. iut their grand defeat by a garrison of only 7000 British, occurred Sept. 13, 1782. 15 338 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ G01 in a dark and freezing night, and perished by cold and hunger: this black deed was perpetrated by the earl of Argyle's regiment, May 9, 1691. GLOBE. The globular form of the earth, the five zones, some of the principal circles of the sphere, the opacity of the mnoon, and the true cause of lunar eclipses, were taught, and an eclipse predicted, by Thales of Miletus, about 640 B. c. Pythagoras demonstrated from the varying altitudes of the stars by change of place, that the earth must be round; that there might be antipodes on the opposite part of the globe; that Venus was the morning and evening star; that the universe consisted of twelve spheres-the sphere of the earth, the sphere of the water, the sphere of the air, the sphere of fire, the spheres of the moon, the sun, Venus, Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the sphere of the stars, about 506 B. c. Aristarchus, of Samos, maintained that the earth turned on its own axis, and revolved about the suni which doctrine was held by his contemporaries as so absurd, that the philosopher had nearly lost his life to his theory, 280 B. c. The first voyage round the globe was performed by Picaro, commanding a ship of Magellan's squadron, 1520-4. The first English navigator who performed the same enterprise was sir Francis Drake, 1577.-See Ci'cumxrnavigatioo, and Earth. GLORY. The glory or nimbus drawn by painters round the heads of saints, angels, and holy men, and the circle of rays on images, were adopted frofin the Cesars and their flatterers, by whom they Were used in the first century. The doxology of the prayer Gloricn Partin was ordained in the church of Rome, and was called doxology because it began with 6d4a, glory, A.D. 382. GLOVES. They were in use in very early times. In the middle ages, the giving of a glove was a ceremony of investiture in bestowing lands and dignities; and two bishops were put in possession of their sees by each receiving a glove, A D. 1002. In England, in the reign of Edward II. the deprivation of gloves was a ceremony of degradation. The Glovers' company of London was incorporated in 1556. Embroidered gloves were introduced into England in 1580, and are presented to judges at maiden assizes to this day. GNOSTICS. Ancient heretics, who were famous from the first rise of Christianity. The tenets of this sect were revived in Spain, in the fourth century, by ihe Priscillianists; but the name, which was once glorious, at length became infamous. The Gnostics were not so much a particular sect of heretics, as a complication of many sects; and were so called, because they pretended t extraordinary illuminations and knowledge, one main branch of which cr.. sisted in their pretended genealogies or attributes of the Deity, in which they differed among themselves as much as they did from others. GOBELIN-TAPESTRY. Tapestry so called from a noted house at Paris, in the suburb of St. Marcel, formerly possessed by famous wool-dyers, whereof the chief, called Giles Gobelin, who lived in the reign of Francis I., is said to have found the secret of dyeing scarlet, which was from him called the scarlet of the Gobelins; the house and river that runs by it also took the same name. This house was purchased by Louis XIV. for a manufactory. all manner of curious works for adorning the royal palaces, under the dlirection of Mons. Colbert, especially tapestry, designs for which were drawn by the celebrated Le Brun, by appointment of the king, A. D. 1666.-DiL Fresioy. GODFATHERS AND GODMOTHERS. The Jews had godfathers in the zircnmcision of their sons. In the Christian church sponsion in baptism arose in the desire of assuring that the child should be of the religion of Christ. It was first ordained to be used, according to some, by pope Alexander; according to others, by Sixtus, and others refer it to Telesphorus, about A I. Goo ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 339 130. In Catholic countries they have godfathers and godmothers in the baptism of their bells. GOLD. The pulrest and most ductile of all the metals, for which reasen it has, fiom the earliest ages, been considered by almost all nations as the most valuable. It is too soft to be used pure, and to harden it it is alloyed with copper or silver: in its pure state it is twenty-four carats; that used in our coin is twenty-two carats, and two parts of' copper. In the early ages no metals were used beut those found pure, as gold, silver, and copper. The smelting of ores was a comparatively late invention, and ascribed both to observations on volcanoes and to the burning of forests. SOLD MINES. Gold is found in various parts of the earth, but is most abundant in Africa, Japan, and South America, in which last gold was discovered by the Spaniards in 1492, from which time to 1731, they imported into Europe 6000 millions of pieces of eight, in register gold and silver, exclusively of what were unregistered. In 1730, a piece of gold weighing ninety marks, equal to sixty pounds troy (the mark being eight ounces), was found near La Paz, a town of Peru. Gold was discovered in Malacca, in 1731; in New Andulasia in 1785; in Ceylon in 1800; in Virginia 1829; in North Carolina 1824; South Carolina 1829; in Georgia 1830: in California, April 1848. GOLD AND SILVER. Quantity produced in forty years from 1790 to 1830, as stated in the lfiDiinog Jo-Crnacl: Gold. Sillver. Mexico... 1G6,436,453-= ~139,818,032 Chili 2,768,488 = 1.822,924 Buenos Ayres.... 4,024,895 = 27,182,673 Russia - - - - - - - 3,703,743 = 1,502,981 ~17,003,579 =.~170,326,610 The mines of North and South America had, in 1840, sent to Europe 3~ times more gold, and 12 times more silver, than those of the other hemisphere. The gold mines in Virginia, North and South Carolina, and Georgia, discovered 1824-30, had produced altogether up to 1835, $4,377,500. Those of California, discovered in the spring of 1848, had produced up to Feb. 1850, at least 25 millions of dollars in value, a considerable part of which was sent to Europe. The amount of California gold coined at the U. S. mint in 1849 was about $6,000,000. The total annual production of gold in the world was estimated in 1840 at about 36 tons, proportioned thus: North and South America 11, Europe and Asiatic Russia 64, Indian Archipelago, 43, Africa 14. See Coins. GOLDEN FLEECE. Jason, the Argonaut, sailed with his companions from lolchos to Colchis to avenge the death of his kinsman Phryxus, and to recover his treasures, which the perfidious Aeotes, king of Colchis, had seized, after murdering their owner. The ship in which Phryxus had sailed to Colchis, was adorned with the figure of a ram on the poop; which gave occasion to the poets to pretend that the journey of Jason was for the recovery of the golden fleece, 1263 B. C. GOLDEN NUMBER. The cycle of nineteen years, or number which shows the years of the moon's cycle; its invention is ascribed to Meton, of Athens, about 432 n. c. —Pliny. To find the golden number or year of the Lunar cycle, add one to the date and divide by nineteen, then the quotient is the number of cycles since Christ, and the remainder is the Golden number. GOOD FRIDAY. From the earliest records of Christianity, this day has been held as a solemn fast, in remembrance of the crucifixion of our Saviour on Friday, April 3, A. n. 33. Its appellation of good appears to be peculiar to the Church of England: our Saxon forefathers denominated it Loing F1'i 340 THIE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ GO~V day, on account of the great length of the offices observed, and fastings enjoined on this day. GORDIAN KNOT. The knot made of the thongs that served as harness to the wagon of Gordius, a husbandman, who was afterwards king of Phrygia, Whosoever loosed this knot, the ends of which were not discoverable, the oracle declared should be emperor of Persia. Alexander the Great cut away the knot with his sword until he found the ends of it, and thus, in a military sense at least, this " conqueror of the world" interpreted the oracle, 330 B. c. GORDON'S "NO POPERY" MOB: occasioned by the zeal of lord George Gordon. It consisted of 40,000 persons who assembled in St. Georgee Fields, under the name of the Protestant Association, to carry up a petitioc to parliament for the repeal of' the act which granted certain indulgences to the Roman Catholics. The mob once raised, could not be dispersed, but proceeded to the most daring outrages, pillaging, burning, and pulling down the chapels and private houses of the Catholics first, but afterwards of several other persons; breaking open prisons, setting the prisoners free, even attempting the Bank of England, and in a word totally overc( ning the civil power for nearly six days. At length, by the aid of armed associations of the citizens, the horse and foot guards, and the militia of several counties, then embodied and marched to London, the riot was quelled. It commenced June 2; and on the 3d, the Catholic chapels, and numerous private. mansions, were destroyed, the bank attempted, and the jails opened; among these were the King's Bench, Fleet, and Bridewell prisons; on the 5th, thirty-six fires were seen blazing at one time. In the end, 210 of the rioters were killed, and 248 were wounded, of whom 75 died afterwards in the hospitals. Many were tried, convicted, and executed. Lord George was tried the year after for high treason, but acquitted, June 2 to 7, 1780. -A nnual Register. GOSPELS. St. Mark wrote his gospel A. D. 44; St. Matthew in the same year; St. Luke in 55; and St. John in 96-7. The gospel of Matthew was found buried in the tomb of St. Barbus, and was conveyed to Constantinople in 485.-Butler. John wrote his gospel at Ephesus two years after he was thrown into a caldron of burning oil, from which he was taken out unhurt, and barnished to the isle of Patmos.-Idem. The gospel is the glad tidings of the actual coming of the Messiah, and hence the evangelical history of Christ.-Hammo/nd. Dr. Robert Bray was the author of the first plan for propagating the gospel in foreign parts. Society for the Propagation of t'ne Gospel in Foreign Countries, incorporated in 1701. GOSPELLERS. The name which was given to the followers of Wickliffe, who first attempted the reformation of the Church from the errors of popery: it was affixed to them by the Roman Catholics in derision, on account of their professing to follow and preach only the gospel, A. D. 1377.-Bislop B'urnet. GOTHS. A warlike nation that inhabited the space between the Caspian, Pontus. Euxine, and Baltic seas. They attacked the Roman empire A. ),. 251. They were defeated by Claudius, and 320.000 slain, A. n. 269. After the destruction of the Roman empire by the Heruli, the Ostrogoths, under Theodoric, became masters of the greater part of Italy, where they retained their dominion till A. D. 553, when they were finally conquered by Narses, Justinian's general. The Visigoths settled in Spain, and founded a kingdom, which continued until the country was subdued by the Saracens. GOVERNMENT, COST OF, IN EUROPE AND THE UNITED STATES. In an elaborate article in the American Almanac, 1847, this result is reached, viz.: GRA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 341 In the United States: aggregate of loch, the average is equal, per national expenditure, for each in- head, to $12 33 habitant - - - - $0 97 In France, according to Chevalier, Aggregate of State expenditure, for in 1833, the cost was about 1,250 each inhabitant - - 0 50 millions of francs, or 40 llrancs per Aggregate of town or city expendi- head-say - - - - $7 50 ture, for each inhabitant - 092 Thus, France pays about three Total cost of Government in the - times, and Great Britain five times United States, per head - - $2 39 as lnuch for Government as the or $47.800,000 if the population is United States. (See Admzinistra20 millions. tions of the United States.) In England, according to MIacculGRACE AT MEAT. The table was considered by the ancient Greeks as the altar of friendship, and held sacred upon that cecount. They would not partake of any meat until they had first offered part of it, as the first fruits, to their gods; and hence came the short prayer said before and after meat in all Christian countries from the earliest times.-Lebgilet. GRAMMARIANS, on CRITICS. Anciently, the most eminent men in literature were denominated grammarians. A society of grammarians was formed at Rome so early as 276 a. c.-Blair. Apollodorus of Athens, Varro, Cicero, Messala, Julius Caesar, Nicias, iElius Donatus, Remnmius Palemon, Tyrannion of Pontus, Athenaeus, and other distinguished men, were of this class. Cobbett declared Mr. Canning to be the only purely grammatical orator of his time; and Dr. Parr, speaking of a speech of Mr. Pitt's said, "We threw our whole grammatical mind upon it and could not discover one error." GRANARIES. The Romans formed granaries in seasons of plenty, to secure food for the poorer citizens; and all who wanted it were provided with corn from these reservoirs, in necessitous times, at the cost of the public treasury. There were three hundred and twenty-seven granaries at Rome.Univ. Hist. Twelve new granaries were built at Bridewell to hold 6000 quarters of corn, and two store-houses for sea-coal to hold 4000 loads, thereby to prevent the sudden dearness of these articles by the great increase of inhabitants, 7 James I., 1610. — Stowe. GRANICUS, BATTLE OF, in which Alexander the Great signally defeated the Persians. The Macedonian troops crossed the Granicus in the face of the Persian army, although the former did not exceed 30,000 foot and 5000 horse, while the Persian army amounted to 600,000 foot, and 20,000 horse. -Justin. Yet the victors lost in this great battle but fifty-five foot soldiers, and sixty horse. Sardis capitulated, Miletus and Halicarnassus were taken by storm, and numerous other great towns submitted to the conqueror, 334 B. c.-Bo0ssnCt. GRATES. The hearths of the early-Britons were fixed in the centre of their halls. The fire-place originally was perhaps nothing more thati a large stone depressed below the level of the ground to receive the ashes. There were arched hearths amorg the Anglo-Saxons; and chafing dishes were most in use until the genultal introduction of chimneys, about A. D. 1200. See Chist7zseys. GRAVITATION. This, as a supposed innate power, was noticed by the Greeks, and als'o by Seneca, who speaks of the moon attracting the waters, about At. D. 38. Kepler enlarged upon it, about A. m. 1615; and Hook published it as a system. The principles of gravity were proved by Galileo, at Florence, about 1633; and they were subsequently adopted by Newton, about 1687.,TRAECIA MAGNA. That part of Italy where the Greeks planted colonies, 342 THE WORLD7S PROGRESS. [ GRE but its boundaries are very uncertain. Some say that it extended to the southern parts of Italy; and others suppose that Magna Grscia comprehended only Campania and Lucania. To these is added Sicily, which wax likewise peopled by the Greek colonists.-Le-enprcre. GREECE. The first inhabitants of this justly celebrated country of the ancient world, were the progeny of Javan, fourth son of Japheth. Greece was so called from a very ancient king namled Gr cus; and another king named Hellen, gave his subjects the appellation of Hellenists. Homer calls the inhabitants, incliffrently, Myrmidions, Hellenists, and Achains.:For ancient Grecian history, see Tabulcar Views, p. 5 et seq. Sicyon founded (Eusebius) - B. c. 2089. The first Messenian war - B. C. 7-3 Uranus arrives in Greece (Len, let) - 2042 The second Messenian war - - 685 Revolt of the Titans - The capture of Ira - - - 670 War of the Giants - - The Messenians emigrate to Sicily, and Kingdom of Argos begun (Eusebius) - 1856 give their own name /lfessene to ZanReign of Ogyges in 13ceotia (ideir) - 1796 cle (now called Messina) - - 6G8 Sacrifices to the gods first introduced in Sea-figlit, the first on record, between Greece by Phoroneus - - -1773 the Corinthians and the inhabitanlts According to some authors, Sicyon was of Corcyra - - - 664 now begun (Leng/let) -- 1773 Byzantium built by tile Argives - 658 Deluge of Ogyges (/whichc see) - - 1764 Sybaris, in Magna Gre-cia, destroyed, A colony of Arcadians emigrate to Italy 100,000 Crotonians under Milo defeat under (Enotrus: the country first 300,000 Sybarians - - - 08 called Ggnortria, afterwards _llamna Sardis taken. nd burnt, whicl occaGr,cias (Exsebius). - 1710 sions the Persian invasion -. 504 Chronology of the Arundelian marbles Thrace and Macedonia conquered - 496 commences (Euzsebius) - - 1582 Battle of Marathon (which see) - 490 Cecrops comes into Attica (ide.rs) - 1556 Xerxes invades Greece, but is checlked 480 The Areopagus instituted - -1506 at Thermopylte by Ieonidas - Deluge of Deucalion (ELesebizus) - 1503 Battle of Salamtis (whic/s, see) - 480 Rleign of HIellen (ideiz) - - - 1459 Mardonius defela.ed at Plataea - - 479 Cadmus, with the Phcenician letters, Battle of Eurynmedon - 476 settles in Boeotia - - 1493 The third Messenian war - 465 Lelex, first king of Laconia, afterwards Athens begins to tyrannize over the called Sparta - - 1490 other states of Greece - 459 Arrival of Danaus, with the first ship Peloponnesus overrun by Pericles - 455 ever seen in Greece - - 1485 The first sacred war - - - 448 He gets possession of Argos. His fifty Herodotus reads his history i- the dauoghters 1475 Council at Athens - 445 First Olympic games celebrated at Elis, The sea-fight at Cnidus - - - 294 by the Idati Daciyli (Eusebitcs) - 14:B3 Battle of Mantinea - - - 633 Iron discovered by the Itcle Dactyl - 140; Sacred war ended by Philip, who takes Corinth rebuilt, and so named - - 1384 all the cities of the Phoceans 348 Ceres arrives in Greece, and teaches Battle of Chieronea - - 338 the art of -naking bread -1383 Alexander, the son of Philip, enters The Isthmii games instituted - - 326 Greece; subdues the Athenians, and Mycenae created out of Argos - 1313 destroys the city of Thebes - 335 Argonautic expedition (zwhichz see) - 1263 Commencement of the Macedonian ol The Pythian ganmes by Adrastus - 1263 Grecian Mlonarchy - - 331 War of the seven Greek captains - 1225 Alexander goes to Susa, and sits on tIhe The Amazonian war; these martial fe- throne of Darius - - - 330 males penetrate into Greece - -1213 Rape of Helen by' heseus - 1213 Alaric invades Greece - -.D. 395 Rape of Ielen by Paris - 1198 The empire under Niceplhorus cornCommencement of the Trojan war - 1193 menced - - 811 Troy talen and destroyed on the night Greece mastered by the Latins - 1204 of the 7th of' the month Thargelion Re-conquered - - 12 (27th May, or 11th.June) - - 1184 Invaded by the Turks - - - I3 fEneas sets sail, winters in Thrace, and Its final overthrow. See Eastern E, arrives in Italy - - - 1181 p/e - - - - 1353 Migration of the eolian colonies, who [This country, so long illustrious for the build Smyrna, &c. - - - 1124 military exploits. the learlning, an Settlement of the Ionians from Greece arts of its people, becarne of late in Asia Minor - - - - 104 years the scene of desperate conThe first laws of navigation originate flicts with the Turls, in order to rewith the Rhodlians - - - 916 gain its independence, and the counHomer flourishes about this time cils of the great powers of Europe (Aruzndelian Marbles) - - 907 were friendly to the design.] Olympic games revived at Elis - E88 Great struggle for ihdepondence - 177 GR:E j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 343 GREECE, coatiantued. The first decided msovement in these lat- lbrahim Pacha takes Mist'olonlhi by ter times, by the Servians - A. D. 1800 assault - - April 23, 1826 The Servians defiat the Turks at Nyssa The Greelks land near Salonica; battle April 2, 1807 with Omer Pacha - June 1, 1826 100,000 Turks, under Chourshid Pasha, Ibrahim Pacha signally defeated by the overrun the country, committing the Mainotes - August 8 and 9, 1826 most dreadful excesses - - 1813 Redschid Pacha takes Athens, Aug. 15, 1826 Insurrection in Moldavia and Walla- Tltaty of London, between Great Brichia, in which the Greelks join - 1821 tain, Russia, and France, on behalf Proclamation of prince Alexander to of Greece. siglled - July 6, 1827 shake off the Turkish yoke March, 1821 Battle of Navarino t(hitclh see); the The Greek patriarch put to death at Turkish fleet destroyed - Oct. 20, 1827 Constantinople - April 23, 1821 Count Capo d'Istria arrives as Presi10,000 Christians perish in Cyprus, al- dent of Greece - - Jan. 18, 1.828 though not eungaged in the revolt - 1821 The Panhellenion or Grand Council of Massacre of the inhabitants of Bucha- State established Feb. 2, 1828 rest; even the women and clildren National Bank lounded - Feb. 14, 1828 not spared -- 1821 Greece divided into departments, viz. Independence of Greece formally pro- Argolis, Achaia, Elis, Uppe'Ilesseclaimed Jan. 27, 1822 nia, Lower Messenia, Laconia, and Siege of Corinth - Feb. 1822 Ascadia, and the islands formed also Bombardment of Scio; its capture; into epartments - April26, 1828 most horrible massacre recorded in Final evacuation of the MIorea by the modern history* - April 23, 1822 Turks - - Oct. 30, 1828 Victories of the Greels at Larissa, Missolonghi surrenders - May 17, 1829 Thermopylae, and Salonica, - July 8, 1822 Greek National Assembly commences National Congress at Argos - April 10, 18S3 its sittings at Argos - July 23, 1829 Victories of Marco Botzars - June, 1823 The Porte acklnowledges tlhe indepenr.Lord Byron lands in Greece, to devote ence of' Greece - - April 25, 1830 himself to its cause - August, 1823 Prince Leopold finally declines the soLamented death of Lord Byron, at Mis- vereignlty - - May 21, 1830 solonghi - - April 19? 1821 Count Capo d'Istria, President of Signal defeat of the Capitan Patcha, at Greece, assassinated' by the brother Samos - - August 16, 1824 and son ofMavrolmlichaelis, a Mainote The Provisional Government of Greece chiel; whom he had imprisoned Oct. 9, 1831 instituted - - Oct. 12, 182-4 The assassins put to death Oct. 29, 1831 The Greelk fleet defeats that of the Capitan Pacha - - June 2, 1825 Otho T. elected king of Greece, Jan. 25, 1833 The Provisional GovernmentofGreece Colocotroni's conspiracy - Oct. 27, 1833 invites the protection of England A bloodless revolution at Athens, to enJuly 24, 1825 force ministerial responsibility and Siege of Missolonghi: the besiegingl national representation, is consumTurlts are defeated in a formidable mated - - Sept. 14, 1843 attack upon it - August 1, 1826 The kIing accepts the new constitution The Greeks disperse the Ottoman fleet March 16, 1844 Jan. 28, 1826 [See Athens, Mo1acedoz, Sparta, %Thrace, and other states of Greece.] CREEK CHIURCH. A difference arose in the eighth century betaween the eastern and western churches, which in the course of two centuries and a half terminated in a separation: this church is called Greek in contradistinction from the latter, or Romane church. The Greek church claims priority as using the language in which the Gospel was first promulgated, and many of its forms and ceremonies are similar to those of the Roman Catholics; but it disowns the supremacy of the pope. It is the established religion of Russia. GREEK FIRE. A composition of combustible matter invented by one Callinlicus, an ingenious engineer of Heliopolis, in Syria, in the seventh century, *The slaulghter lasted 10 days; 40,000 of both sexes falling victinms to the sword, or to the fire which raged until every house, save those of the foreign consuls, was burned to the grolund. 7000 Greeks, who had fled to the maountains, were induced to surrender by a promise of aslnsesty, suaranteed by the consuls of England, Fraince and Austria, yet even they were, every man of thern, butchered! The only exception made during the massacre was in favor of the young and nmore beautitil women and boys, 30,0 r3 of whom were reserved for the markets. The narrative of plunder, violation, and crime, while the infidel army was let loose upon the captured city. is too long nad too shocking for transcription here. 344 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. L GUA in order to destroy the Saracens' ships, which was effected by the general of the emperor Pogonat's fleet,; and 30,000 men were killed. The property of this fire was to burn briskest in water, to diffuse itself on all sides, according to the impression given it. Nothing but oil, or a mixture of vinegar, urine, and sand, could quench it. It was blown out of long tubes of copper, and shot out of cross-bows, and other spring instruments. The invention was kept a secret for many years by the court of Constantinople; but it is now lost. GREEK LANGUAGE. The Greek language was first studied in Europe about A. D. 1450-in France, 1473. William Grocyn, or Grokeyn, a learned English professor of this language, travelled to acquire its true pronuncia tion, and introduced it at Oxford, where he had the honcr to teach Erasmus, 1490.- Wood's Athen?. Oxon. GREENLAND. Discovered by some Norwegians from Iceland, about A,. 980, and thus named on account of its superior verdure compared with the latter country. It was visited by Frobisher, in 1576. The first ship friom England to Greenland was sent for the whale fishery by the Muscovy Comlpany, 2 James I. 1604. In a voyage performed in 16030, eight men were left behind by accident, and suffered incredible hal:dships till the following year, when the company's ships brought them home.-T-lindal. The Greenland Fishing Company was incorporated in 1693. GREENWICH OBSERVATORY. Built at the solicitation of sir Jonas Moore and sir Christopher Wren, by Charles IT., on the summit of Flarmstead-hill, so called from the great astronomer of that name, who was the first astronomer-royal here. The English began to compute the longitude fiom the meridian of this place, 1675; some make the date 1679. This observatory contains a transept circle by Troughton; a transit instrument of eight feet by Bird; two mural quadrants of eight feet, and Bradley's zenith seeto,'. The telescopes are forty and sixty inch achromatics, and a six-feet reflector; and among other fine instruments and objects is a famous camera obscura. GREGORIAN CALENDAR. Ordained to be adopted by pope Gregorj XIII, from whom it derives its name, A. D. 1582; and introduced into the Catholic states of Europe in that year; into most other states in 1710; and adopted by England in 1752. To the time of Gregory, the deficiency in the Julian calendar had amounted to ten days; and in the year 1752 it had amounted to eleven days. See Calend(ar, and New Style. GRENADA. Conquered by the Moors, A. D. 715; it was the last kingdom possessed by them, and was not annexed to the crown of Castile until 1491 the capital of this province is magnificent. New Grenada was conquered by the Spaniards in 1536. Grenada, in the West Indies, was settled by the French, 1650; it was taken from them by the English in 1762, and was ceded to England in 1763. The French possessed themselves of it again,in 1779; but it was restored to the English at the peace of 1783. In 1795 the French landed some troops, and caused an insurrection in this island, which was not finally quelled till June, 1796. GROCERS. One of the oldest trades in England. The word anciently meant " ingrossers or monopolizers," as appears by a statute, 37 Edwiard III. The Grocers' Company is one of the twelve chief companies of the city of London, incorporated in 1429. GUADALOUPE. Discovered by Columbus, A..D. 1493. It was colonized by the French in 1635. Taken by the English in 1759, and restored in 1763. Again taken by the English in 1779, 1794, and 1810; and in order to allure LOUy ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 345 the Swedes into the coalition against France, gave them this island. It was, however, by the consent of Sweden, restored to France in 1814. GUELPHS AND GHI-BELINES. These were party names, and are said to have been derived from IIiewelf and Hiegiblin, the names of towns. The designation began in Italy, A. D. 1139, and distinguished the contending armies during the eivil wars in Germany; the Guelphs were for the pope, and the Ghibelines were for the emperor. Guelph is the name of the present royal family of England.-See Brunsiicck. The Guelphic order of knighthood was instituted for the kingdom of Hanover, by the prince regent, afterwards George IV., in 1816. GUILLOTI[NE. An engine for decapitation, which has made an otherwise obscure name immortal. A similar instrument, but of ruder form, may be seen in an engraving accompanying the Slymgbolicc Q.estiones of Achilles Bocchius, 4to, 1555 (see the Travels of Father Labat in Italy); it is there called the Manlaia. In Scotland, also at Halifax, England (see hIalifax; Maiden), soon after it was in use, and served to behead its introducer, the regent Morton. Dr. Guillotin, about 1785, recommended its use in France, from motives of humanity, as a substitute for the more cruel gibbet, and his name was applied to it, at first from mere waggishness. Its unwilling godfather was imprisoned during the revolutionary troubles, and ran some hazard of being subjected to its deadly operation; but he (contrary to a prevailing opinion) escaped, and lived to become one of the founders of the Academy of Medicine at Paris. He died May 26, 1814, aged seventy-six, enjoying to the last the esteem of all who knew him, for his mild virtues. GUJINEAS. An English gold coin, so named from their having been first coined of gold brought fiom the coast of Guinea, A. D. 1673. They were then valued at 30s. and were worth that sum in 1696. They were reduced in currency from 22s. to 21s. by parliament in 1717. Broad pieces were coined into guineas in 1732. The original guineas bore the impression of an elephant, on account of their having been coined of this African gold. GUNPOWDER. The invention of gunpowder is generally ascribed to Bertholdus or Michael Schwartz, a Cordelier monk of Goslar, south of Brunswick, in Germany, about A. D. 1320. But many writers maintain that it was known much earlier in various parts of the world. Some say that the Cilinese possessed the art a number of centuries before. Its composition, moreover, is expressly mentioned by our own famo-us Roger Bacon, in his treatise De Nullitrate Macgiw, which was published at Oxford, in 1216. GUNPOWDER PLOT IN ENGLAND. The memorable conspiracy known by this name, for springing a mine under the houses of parliament, and destroying the three estates of the realm-king, lords, and commons-there assembled, was discovered on Nov. 5, 1605. This diabolical scheme was projected by Robert Catesby, and many high persons were leagued in the enterprise. Guy Faux was detected in the vaults under the House of' Lords, preparing the train for being fired on the next day. Catesby and Percy (of the family of Northumberland) were killed; sir Everard Digby, Rockwood, Winter, Garnet, a Jesuit, and others, died by the hands of the executioner, as did Guy Faux, January 31, 1606. The vault called Guy Faux cellar, in which the conspirators lodged the barrels of gunpowder, remained in the late houses of parliament till 1825, when it was converted into offices. GUY'S HOSPITAL. This celebrated London hospital is indebted for its origin to Thomas Guy, an eminent and wealthy bookseller, who, after having bestowed immense sums on St. Thomas's, determined to be the sole founder of another hospital. At the age of seventy-six, in 1721, he commenced the erection of the present building, and lived to see it nearly completed. It 15* 346 T'HE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ HA->; cost him 18,7938., in addition to which he left to endow it, the immense sum of 219,4991. A splendid bequest, amounting to 200,0001. was made to this hospital by Mr. Hunt, to provide additional accommodation for 100 patients,, his will was proved Sept. 24, 1829. GYMNASIUM, a place among the Greeks, where all the public exercises were performed, and where not only wrestlers and dancers exhibited, but also philosophers, poets, and rhetoricians repeated their compositions. In wrestling and boxing, the athletes were often naked, whence the word Gymnasium-g- manos, qlldus. They anointed, themselves with oil to brace their limbs, and to render their bodies slippery, and more difficult to be grasped. The first modern treatise on the subject of Gymnastics was published in Germany in 1793. London society forimed, 1826. GYPSIES, oR EGYPTIANS. A strange commonwealth of wanderers and peculiar race of people, who made their appearance first in Germany, about A. D. 1517, having quitted Egypt when attacked by the Turks. They are the descendants of a great body of Egyptians who rev olted from the Turkish yoke, and being defeated, dispersed in small parties all over the world, while their supposed skill in the black art gave them an universal rece% tion in'hat age of credulity and superstitiori. Although expelled from France in 1560, and from most countries soon aftery, they are yet found in every part of Europe., as well as in Asia and Africa. Having recovered their footing, they have contrived to maintain it to this day. In England an act was made against their itinerancy, in 1530; and in the reign of Charles I. thirteen persons were executed at one assizes for having associated with gypsies for about a month, contrary to the statute. The gypsey settlement at Norwood, near London, was broken up, and they were treated as vagrants, May 1797. There were in Spain alone, previously to the year 1800, more than 120,000 gypsies, and many communities of them yet exist in England; and notwithstanding their intercourse with other nations, they are still, like the Jews, in their manners. customs, visage, and appearance, wholly unchanged. H. HABEAS CORPUS. The subjects' Writ lf Right, passed for the security and liberty of individuals, May 27, 1679. This act is next in importance to Mc'-?ta Chartac, for so long as the statute remains in force, no subject of England can be detained in prison, except in cases wherein the detention is shown to be justified by the law. The tHabeas Corpus Act can alone be Srspended by the authority of parliament, and then for a short time only, and when the emergency is extreme. In such a case, the nation parts with a portion of its liberty to secure its own permanent welfare, and suspected persons may then be arrested without cause or purpose being assigned.Blackstone. HACKNEY COACHES are of French origin. In France, a strong kind of cobhorse (haqlenee) was let out on hire for short journeys: these were latterly harnessed (to accommodate several wayfarers at once) to a plain vehicle called coche-a-haqLenle: hlonce the name. The legend that traces their cGigin to Hackney, near London, is a vulgar error. They were first licensed in 1662, and subjected to regulations, 6 William and Mary, 1694.-SLarvey of Londont. The number plying in London fixed at 1000, and their fares raised, 1771. The cabriolets are of Parisian origin; but the aristocratic taste of Englishmen suggested the propriety of obliging the driver to be seated on the outside of the vehicle. HAGUE. Once called the finest villag'e in Europe: the place of meeting of the States-General, and residence of the former earls of Holland, the princes ce iiAMl ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 347 Holland, &c. Here the States, in 1586, abrogated the authority of Philip II. of Spain, and held a conference in 1610, upon the five articles of the remonstrants, which occasioned the synod of Dort.Y Treaty of the Hague, entered into with a view to preserve the equilibrium of the North, signed by England, France, and Holland, May 21, 1659. De Witt was torn in pieces here, August 20, 1672. The French took possession of the Hague in January, 1795; favored by a hard firost, they marched into Holland, where the inhabitants and troops declared in their favor, a general revolution ensued, and the stadtholder and his family were compelled to leave the country and escape to England. The Hague was evacuated in Novembers1813, shortly after the battle of Leipsic, and the stadtholder returned to his dominions and arrived here in December, that year. Treaty of Commerce between England and Holland, December 16, 1837. HAIR. By the northern nations, and in Gaul, hair was much esteemed, and hence the appellation Gallia comata; and cutting off the hair was inflicted as a punishment among them. The royal family of France had it as a particular mark and privilege of the kings and princes of the blood, to wear long hair, artfully dressed and curled. The clerical tonsure is of apostolic institution.-Isidorus Hisyalensis. Pope Anicetus forbade the clergy to wear long hair, A. D. 155. Long hair was out of fashion during the Protectorate of Cromwell, and hence the term Round-heads. It was again out of fashion in 1795; and very short hair was the mode in 1801. Hair-powder came into use in 1590; and in 1795 a tax was laid upon persons using it in England, which yielded 20,0001. per annutm. HALCYON DAYS, in antiquity, implied seven days before and as many after the winter solstice, because the halcyon laid her eggs at this time of the year, and the weather during her incubation was always calm. The phrase was afterwards employed to express any season of transient prosperity, or of brief tranquillity, the seplesa placidi dies of human life.-Butler. HALLIDON HILL, BAvTTLE OF, near Berwick, between the English and Scots, in which the latter were defeated with the loss of 13.000 slain, while a comparatively small number of the English suffered, reign of Edward III., July 19, 1333. After this victory, Edward placed Edward Baliol on the throne of Scotland.-Robertson. HALIFAX, YORKSHIRE. Here prevailed a remarkable law. The woollen manufacture being very great, and prodigious quantities of cloths, kerseys, shalloons, &c. being continually on the tenters and liable to be stolen, the town, at its first incorporation, was empowered to punish capitally any criminal convicted of stealing to the value of upwards of thirteen pence halfpenny, by a peculiar engine, which beheaded the offender in a moment; but king James I. in the year 1620, took this power away: and the town is now under the ordinary course of justice. See Maiden. HALLELUJAH AND AMEN. Hebrew expressions frequently used in the Jewish hymns: from the Jewish they came into the Christian church. The meaning of the first is Praise the Lord, and of the second So be it. They were first introduced bySHaggai, the prophet, abofit 584 B. c.; and their introduction from the Jewish into the Christian church is ascribed to St. Jerome; one of the primitive Latin fathers, about A. D. 390.-Cave's Hist. Lit. HAiMBURGH. The company of Hambro' merchants was incorporated in 1296. France declared war upon Hamburgh for its treachery in giving up Napper Tandy, (see Nappe Tand?/,) October 1799. British property sequestrated, March 1801. Hamburgh taken by the French after the battle of Jena in 1806. Incorporated with France, Jannary 1810. Evacuated by the French on the advance of the Russians into Germany in 1813; and restored to its 348 THE WORLD'S PROGIRESS. [ HAF:independence by the allied sovereigns, May 1814. Awful fire here, which destroyed numerous churches and public buildings, and 2000 houses; it continued for three days, May 4, 1842. HAMPTON-COURT PALACE. Built by cardinal Wolsey on the site of the manor-house of the knights-hospitallers. In 1526. the cardinal presented it to his royal master, Henry VIII. Here Edward VI. was born, and his mother, Jane Seymour, died; and Mary, Elizabeth, Charles, and others of our sovereigns, resided. Most of the old apartments were pulled down, and the grand inner court built, by William III. in 1694. In this palace was held, in 1604, the celebrated conference between the Presbyterians and the members of the Established Church, which led to a new translation of the Bible. See Conference. HANGED, DRAWN, AND QUARTERED. The first infliction of this barbarous punishment took place upon a pirate, named William Marise, a nobleman's son, 25 Henry III., 1241. Five gentlemen attached to the duke of Gloucester were arraigned and condemned for treason, and at the place ef execution were hanged, cut down alive instantly, then stripped naked, and their bodies marked for quartering, and then pardoned, 25 Henry VI. 1447. — Stowe. The punishment of death by hanging has been abolished in numerous cases by various statutes. See Deathl, pneis/lmemZt of. Hanging in chains was abolished 4 William IV., 1834. HANOVER. This country had no great rank, although a duchy, until George I. got possession of' Zell, Saxe, Bremen, Verden, and other duchies and principalities. Hanover -became the ninth electorate, A. D. 1692. It was seized by Prussia, April 3, 1801; was occupied by the French, June 5, 1805; and annexed to Westphalia, March 1, 1810. Regained to England by the crown prince of Sweden, November 6, 1813. and erected into a kingdclom, Oct. 13, 1814. The duke of Cambridge appointed lieutenant governor, in November, 1816. Visited by George IV. in October, 1821. Ernest, duke of Cumberland, succeeded to the throne, June 20, 1837; he granted freeddin of the press and other concessions, March 17, 1848. HANOVERIAN SUCCESSION, established by law, June 12, 1701, when an act passed limiting the succession of the crown of England, after the demise of William III. and of queen Anne (without issue), to the princess Sophia, of Hanover, and the heirs of her body, being protestants, she being the granddaughter of James I. George I. the son of Ernest Augustus, duke of Brunswick Luneburgh; elector of Hanover, and of Sophia, ascended the throne, to the exclusion of the exiled family of the Stuarts, August 1, 1714. HANSE TOWNS. A commercial union called the Hanseatic league, was formed by a number of port towns in Germany, in support of each other against the piracies of the Swedes and Danes: this association began in 1164, and the league was signed in 1241. At first it consisted only of towns situate on the coasts of the Baltic Sea, but its strength and reputation increasing, there was scarce any trading city in Europe but desired to be admitted into it, and in process of time it consisted of sixty-six cities. They grew so formidable as to proclaim war on Waldenmar, king of Denmark, about the year 1348, and against Erick in 1428, with forty ships, and 12.C03 regular troops besides seamen. This gave umbrage to several princes, who ordered the merchants of' their respective kingdoms to withdraw their effects, and so broke up the greatest part and strength of the association. In 1630, the only towns of note of this once powerful league retaining the name, were Lubeck, Hamburg, and Bremen. HAPSBURGH, HousF or,. One of the most illustrious famlilies in Europe. Hapsburgh was an ancient castle of Switzerland, on a lofty eminence, near Schllintznachl. This castle was the cradle, as it were, of the house of Aistria. HAS ] DICT1ONARY OF DATES. 349 whose ancestors may be traced back to the beginning of the 13th century, when Rodolph, count of Hapsburgh, was elevated to the empire of Germany and archduchy of Austria, A. D. 1273. See Getrmany. HARLEQUIN. This term is derived from alfaimous and droll comedian, who so much frequented Mr. Harley's house, that his friends and acquaintance used to call him Ilarlequ'ino, little Harley.-Menage. Originally the name implied a merry andrew, or buffoon; but it now means an expert dancer at a play-house. H-JARLOTS. Women who were called by synonyma conveying the meaning of harlot, were tolerated among the Jews, Greeks, and Romans. The celebrated Lais of Corinth, a beautiful courtesan, but remarkable for her vicious amours, was assassinated in the temple of Venus, by the women of, Thessaly, in order to prevent her corrupting the fidelity of their husbands, about 350 B. C. It is affirmed that the mother of' William I., of England, a furrier's daughter of Falaise, whose name was Arlotta, was of so infamous a character, that our odious term harlot is derived fiom her name.-Dr. Jo/enSOe. In Englancl, harlots were obliged to wear striped hoods of party?olors, and their garments the wrong side outwards, by statute 27 Edward III., 1352. iIARMONIC STRINGS. Pythagoras is said to have invented harmonic strings, in consequence of hearing four blaclksmiths working with hammers in harmony, whose weights le found to be six, eight, nine, and twelve; or rather by squares, as thirty-six, sixty-four, eighty-one, and one hundred and forty-four. The harmonica, or musical glasses, airs fromn the tones of them were first formled by an Irish gentleman named Pukericlge.-Flralb/Ulim. The invention was improved by Dr. Franklin in 1760. HARP. It is traced to the earliest nations. David played on the harp before Saul. — Sam. xvi. 23. The lyre of the Greeks is the harp of the moderns. The Romans had their harp; so had the Jews, but it had very few strinlgs. The Cimbri or English Saxons had this instrument. The celebratecd Welch harp was strung with gut; and the Irish harp, like the more ancient harps, with wire. HARRISON'S TIME-PIECE. Mr. Harrison's first instrument was invented in 1735; his second in 1739; his third in 1749; and his fourth, which procured hi1m the reward of 20,0001., advertised 13th Anne by the Board of Longitude, was produced a few years after. His celebrated time-piece was perfected in 1772. HARTFORD CONVENTION. The celebrated convention of delegates from the New En-land States opposed to the war and to the administration of Madison, met Dec. 15, 1814. HASTINGS, BATTLE OF, one of the nmost memorable and bloody, and in which more than thirty thousand were slain, fought between Harold II. of England, and William,c duke of Normandy, in which the former lost his life and kingdom. William, hence surnamed the Conqueror, was soon after crowned king of England, and introduced a memorable epoch, known as the Conquest, in the annals of the country, Oct. 14, 1066. HASTINGS, WARREN, TRIAL OF. Mr. Hastings, governor-general of India, tried by the peers of Great Britain for high crimes and misdemeanors, but acquitted, althoughll he had committed many acts during his government which, it was thought, ought to have led to a different result. Among other charges against him, was his acceptance of a present of 100,0001. from the nabob of Oude, and this was not a solitary instance of his irregular means of accumulating wealth. The trial lasted seven years and three months, 350 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. r[ EU 1788-95. Sheridan's celebrated speech. on the impeachment of Mr. Hastings, attracted universal adcliration. HATS. See article Caps. First made by a Swiss at Paris, A. D. 1404. They are mentioned in history at the period when Charles VII. made his triumphal entry into Rouen, in 1449. He wore a hat lined with red velvet, and surmounted with a rich plume of feathers. It is from this reign that the use of hats and caps is to be dated, which henceforward began to take place of the chaperoons and hoods that had been worn before in France. Hats were first manufactured in England by Spaniards, in 1510: before this time both men and women wore close-knit woollen caps.-Stowe. Very high crowned hats were worn by queen Elizabeth's courtiers; and high crowns were again introduced in 1783. A stamp-duty was laid upon hats in Eng land in 1784, and again in 1796; it was repealed in 1811. HAVRE-DE-GRACE. This place was defended for the Huguenots by the English, in 1562. It has been bombarded several times by the British navy, in 1759, in 1794. in 1795 and in 1798. Declared to be in a state of blockade, Sept. 6, 1803. The attempts to burn the shipping here failed, August 7, 1804. HAYTI, on HAITI, the Indian name of St. Domingo, discovered by Columbus in 1492. Before the Spaniards finally conquered it, they are said to have d.., stroyed in battle or cold blood, 3,000,000 of its inhabitants, including womlen and children. Toussaint established an independent republic in St. Domingo, July 22, 1801. He surrendered to the French, May 7, 1802. Dessalines made a proclamation for the massacre of all the whites, March 29, 1804. See St. Domiyngo. Dessalines was crowned king, by the title of' Jacques I., Oct. 8, 1804. He died Sept. 21, 1805. Henry Christophe, a man of color, became president in Feb. 1807, and was crowned emperor by the title of Henry I., in March 1811; while Petion ruled as president at Port —au-Prince. Numerous black nobility and prelates were created same year. Petion dieI, and Boyer was elected in his room, in May 1818. Christophe committed suicide in Oct. 1820. Independence declared at St. Domingo, in Dec. 1821. Decree of the king of France confirming it, April 1825. Souloque elected president, March 2, 1847; proclaimed emperor of Hayti, August 24, 1849. HEBRIDES, NEW, discovered by the navigator Quiros, A. D. 1606. Bourgainville visited them in 1768, and found that the land was not connected, but composed of islands, which he called the Great Cyclades. Cook, in 1774, ascertained the extent and situation of the whole group, and gave them the nanme they now bear. HIECATOMB. This was a sacrifice among the ancients of a hundred oxen; but it was more particularly observed by the Lacedemonians when they possessed a hundred capital cities. In the course of time this sacrifice was reduced to twenty-three oxen; and in the end, to lessen the expense, goats and lambs were substituted for oxen.-Potter. HECLA. Its first eruption is recorded as having occurred A. D. 1004. About twenty-two eruptions have taken place, according to Olasson and Paulson. The most dreadful and multiplied convulsions of this great volcani, mountain occurred in 1783. See Icelanld. HEGIRA, ERA OF T'rE, dates firom the flight of Mahomet fiom Mecca to Medina, which event took place in the night of Thursday the 15th July, A. nD. 622; the era commences on the following day, viz: —the 16th of July. ManyT chronologists have computed this era from the 15th July; but Cantemir has given examples proving that, in most ancient times, the 16th was the first day of tllhe era; and there is now no doubt it is so. See Ilahomaetismn and Aledina.. lior ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 351 HEIDELBERG, AND HEIDELBERG TUN. Heidelberg, in Germany, on the river Neckar, was formerly the capital of the Palatinate: the protestant electoral house becoming extinct in.1693, a bloody war ensued, in which the famous castle was ruined, and the elector removed his residence to Mannheim. Here was the celebrated Heildelberg Tun, which held 800 hogsheads, and was formerly kept full of the best Rhenish wine. The University of Heidelberg, one of the most celebrated in Europe, was founded in 1346, contained in 1840, 622 students. HELEN, RAPE of, which caused the Trojan war, 1204 B. C. Helen was the most beautiful woman in the world, and even in her childhood was so very lovely, that Theseus stole her away in her tenth year. From him, however, she was released. yet innocent, by her brothers; and after her return to the court of Sparta she was eagerly sought in marriage by the princes of Greece, and Ulysses persuaded the suitors to bind themselves on oath to abide by the uninfluenced choice of Helen, and to defend her person and character from that time. The princes took the oath, and Helen then made choice of Menelaus. Paris coming soon after to the court of this king, abused his hospitality by corrupting the fidelity of Helen: carrying her away, though not an unwilling captive, to Asia Minor. At Troy, the father of Paris, Priam, received her in his palace without difficulty; and Menelaus, assembling the princes of Greece, reminded them of their oath: and the siege and destruction of Troy followed, 1184 B. c. Paris was previously married, his wife being (Enone, who lived with him in happiness on Mount Ida; and at his death by one of the arrows of Hercules, then in the possession of Philoctetes, he desired in his dying moments to be carried to (Enone, whom lie had so basely deserted; but he expired on the way. The nymph, however, still mindful of their former happiness, threw herself upon the body, bathed it with her tears, and then plunged a dagger in her heart. ITELENA, ST. This island was discovered by the Portuguese, on the festival of St. Helena, A. D. 1502. The Dutch were afterwards in possession of it until 1600, when they were expelled by the English. The British East India company settled here in 1651; and the island was alternately possessed by the English and Dutch, until 1673, when Charles II. on Dec. 12, assigned it to the company once more. St. Helena was made the place of Napoleon's captivity, Oct. 16, 1815, and it became the scene of his death, May 5, 1821. HELIGOLAND. This island formerly belonged to the Danes, from whom it was taken by the British, Sept. 5, 1.807, and formed a dep6t for British merchandise intended for the Continent during the war. Confirmed to England by the treaty of Kiel, Jan. 14, 1814, the same treaty by which Norway was ceded to Sweden. Though a mere rock, this is an important possession of the British crown. HELIOMETER. A valuable scientific instrument for measuring the stars, invented by M. Bouguer, in 1774. The helioscope was invented by Christopher Scheiner in 1625. H]ELMETS. They were worn, it is said, by the most savage tribes. Among the Romans the helmet was provided with a vizor of grated bars, to raise above the eyes, and a bever to lower for eating; the helmet of the Greeks was round, and that of the Romans square. Richard I. of England wore a plain round helmet; and after this monarch's reign most of the English kings hadl crowns above their helmets. Alexander III. of Scotland, 1249, had a flat helmet, with a square grated vizor, and the helmet of Robert I. was surmounted by a crown, 1306.-Gvlillim. IHELOTS. The people of Helos, against whom the Spartans bore desperate 352 THE WORtLD'S PROGRESS. [ IHEln resentment for refusing to pay tribute, 883 B. c. The Spartans, not satisfied with the ruin of their city, reduced the Helots to the most debasing slavery; and to complete their infamy, they called all the slaves of the state, and the prisoners of war, by the degrading name of Helote, and further exposed them to every species of contempt and ridicule, 669 B. c. But in the Peloponnesian war the Helots behaved with uncommon bravery, and were rewarded with their liberty, 431 B. c. But this act of justice did not last long; and the sudden disappearance of 2000 manumitted slaves was attributed to the Lacedemonians.-He}rodots. ItEMP AND FLAX. Flax was first planted in England, when it was directed to be sown for fishing-nets, A. D. 1533. Bounties were paid to encourage its cultivation in 1783; and every exertion should be made by the government and legislature to accomplish such a national good. In 1785 theise were imported friom Russia in British ships, 17,695 tons of hemp and flax.-Sir Jo/ul Sinclair. The annual importations of these articles now amount to about 100,000 tons. More than 180,000 lbs. of rough hemp are used in the cordage of a first-rate man-of-war, including rigging and sails. HEPTARCHY. The Heptarchy (or government of seven kings} in England was gradually formed from A. D. 455, when Hengist became the king of' Kent, and that kingdom was erected. The Heptarchy terminated in A. D. 825, when Egbert reduced the other kingdoms, and became sole monarch of England. For the several kingdoms of the Heptarchy, see Br-itain. HERACLIDAg, THE, or the return of the Heraclidca into the Peloponnesus: a famous epoch in chronology that constitutes the beginning of profane history, all the time preceding that period being accounted fabulous. This return happened 100 years after they were expelled, and eighty years after the destruction of Troy, 1104 B. c. HERALDRY. Signs and marks of honor were made use of in the first ages of the world.-Nzsbet. The Phrygians had a sow; the Thracians, Mars; the Romans, an eagle: the Goths, a bear; the Flemings, a bull; the Saxons, a horse; and the ancient French, a lion, and afterwards the fleur-de-lis, wh/ich see. Heraldry, as digested into an art, and subjected to rules, may be ascribed in the first instance to Charlemagne, about the year 800; and in the next,to Frederick Barbarossa, about the year 1152; it began and grew with the feudal law.-Sir Gcorge Maclckezze. It was at length methodized and perfected by the crusades and tournaments, the former commencing in 1095. HERCULANEUM. An ancient city of Campania, overwhelmed, together with Pompeii, by an eruption of Vesuvius, Aug. 24, A. D. 79. Herculaneum was buried under streams of lava, and successive eruptions laid it still deeper under the surface. All traces of them were lost until A. D. 1711, from which year many curiosities, works of art, and monuments and memorials of civilized life have been discovered to the present time. 150 volumes of MSS. were found in a chest, in 1754; and many antiquities were purchased by sir' William Hamilton, and re-purchased by the trustees of the British museur-n, where they are deposited; but the principal antiquities are preserved in the museum of Portici. HERETICS. Formerly the term heresy denoted a particular sect; now here-' tics are those who propagate their private opinions in opposition to the Catholic church.-Bacon. Tens of thousands of them have sufibred death by torture in Roman Catholic countries.-Bn~'-et. See Itquisition. Simon Magus was the first heretic; he came to Rome A. D. 41. Thirty heretics came from Germany to England. to propagate their opinions, and wer? HIG ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 353 branded in the forehead, whipped, and thrust naked into the streets in the depth of winter, where, none daring to relieve them, they died of hunger and cold, 1160.-Speed. In the reign of Henry VIII. to be in possession of Tindal's Bible constituted leresy. The laws against heretics were repealed, 25 Henry VIII., 1634-5. HERMITS. The name first given to, those that retired to desert places, to avoid persecution, where they gave themselves up to prayers, fasting, and meditation. They were also called anchorets; and commonly lodged in dark caves, where their food was such roots as nature bestowed freely without culture. From these came the monks, and almost all the sorts of religious assemblies that live in monasteries. In the seventh persecution of the Christians, one Paul, to avoid the enemies of his faith, retired into Thebais, and became the first example of a monastic life, about A. D. 250. HERO AND LEANDER: their amour. The fidelity of these lovers was so great, and their attachment to each other so strong, that Leander in the night frequently swam across the Hellespont, from Abydos to Sestos, to have secret interviews with Hero, a beautiful priestess of Venus, she 4iirecting his course by a burning flambeaux. After many stolen interviews, Leander was drowned in a tempestuous night, and Hero threw herself from her tower, and perished in the sea, 627 B. c.-Livy, Herodctvs. HERRING-FISHERY. It was largely encouraged by the Scotch so early as the ninth century. The herring statute was passed in 1357. The mode of preserving herrings by pickling was discovered about 1390, and gave rise to the herring fishery as a branch of commerce.-Aibderson. The British Herring Fishery Company was instituted Sept. 2, 1750. HERSCHEL TELESCOPE, THE. Herchel's seven, ten, and twenty-feet reflectors were made about 1779. He discovers the Georgium Sidus (w.hic/h see), March 21, 1781. He discovers a volcanic mountain in the moon, in 1783; and about this time laid the plan of his great forty-feet telescope, which he completed in 1787, when he discovered two other volcanic mountains, emitting fire from their summits. In 1802, he by means of his telescopes, was enabled to lay before the Royal Society a catalogue of 5000 new nebule, nebulous stars, planetary nebulm, and clusters of stars which he had discovered. HESSE, HousE or. Its various branches derive their origin from Gerberge, daughter of Charles of Lorraine, uncle of Louis V. of France, who was descended from Louis the Courteous. She was married to Lambert II. earl of Louvain, from whom the present landgraves of Hesse-Cassel, by Henry V., first of the family who bore the title of landgrave, are descended. There is no family in Germany more noble by their alliances than this; and it gives place to none for the heroes and statesmen it has produced. Six thousand Hessian troops arrived in England, in consequence of an invasion being expected, in 1756. The sum of 471,0001. three per cent., stock, was transferred to the landgrave of Hesse, for Hessian auxiliaries lost in the American war, at 301. per man, Nov. 1786. The Hessian soldiers were again hired by England, and served in Ireland during the memorable rebellion there in 1798. HIEROGLYPHICS. The first writing men used was only the single pictures and engravings of the things they would represent. — Woodwnard. Hieroglyphic characters were invented by Athothes, 2112 a. c.-Usher. The earliest records of them were the Egyptian, the first step towards letters, and some monuments whose objects were described by exaggerated tradition, or when forgotten, imagined.-Phillips. HIGH CHURCH AND LOW CHURCH PARTIES. These were occasioned by 354 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ HOL the prosecution of Dr. Sacheverel, preacher at St. Saviour's Southwark, for two seditious sermons, the object of which was to rouse the apprehensions of the people for the safety of the Church, and to excite hostility against the dissenters. His friends were called High Church, and his opponents Low Church, or moderate men, 8 Anne, 1710. The queen, who favored Sacheverel, presented him with the valuable rectory of St. Andrew's, Holborn. He died in 1724. HIGH TREASON. The highest offence known to the law, and in regulating the trials for which was enacted the memorable statute, so favorable to British liberty, the 25th of Edward III. 1552. By this statute two living witnesses are required in cases of high treason; and it arose in the refusal of parliament to sanction the sentence of death against the duke of Somerset-it is that which regulates indictments for treason at the present day. By the 40th George III. 1800, it was enacted that where there was a trial for high treason in which the overt act was a direct attempt upon the life of the sovereign, such trial should be conducted in the same manner as the case of an indictment for murder. See Trials. HIGHNESS. The title of Highness was given to Henry VII.; and this, and sometimes Your Grace, was the manner of addressing Henry VIII.; but about the close of the reign of the latter mentioned king, the title of Highness and " Your Grace " were absorbed in that of Majesty. HINDOO ERA, or Era of the Caliyug, began 3101 B. c. or 756 before the Deluge, in 2348: and the Hindoos count their months by the progress of the sun through the zodiac. The Samoat era begins 57 B. c.: and the Saca era, A. D. 77: they are all used by the Hindoo nations. HISTORY. Previously to the invention of letters the records of history are vague, traditionary, and erroneous. The chronicles of the Jews, the Parian Chronicle, the histories of Herodotus and Ctesias, and the poems of Homer, are the foundations of early ancient history. Later ancient history is considered as ending with the destruction of the Roman empire in Italy, A. D. 476; and modern history dates from the age of Charlemagne, about A. D. 800. There was not a professorship of modern history in either of the. English universities until the years 1724 and 1736, when Regius professorships were established by George I. and George II. A professorship of history founded at Harvard College, was filled by Jared Sparks, who was succeeded by Francis Bowen, 1850. HOHENLINDEN, BATTLE or, between the Austrian and French armies, the latter commanded by general Morean. The Imperialists were defeated with great loss, their killed and wounded amounting to 10,000 men, and their loss in prisoners to 10,000 more, November 3, 1800. HOLLAND. The original inhabitants of this country were the Batavians, who derived their origin from the Catti, a people of Germany. Having been obliged to abandon their country on account of civil wars, they came and established themselves in a morass, formed by the waters of the Rhine and the Waal, which they named Bettuive, or Batavia, from Batton, the son Gf their chieftain. To these have since been added a pretty large proportion of Francs and Frisians. Sovereignty lbunded by Thierry, first Burgundy and its dependencies become count of Ii;!land - A. D. 868 a circle of the empire - - - 1521 The county o' Iolland devolves to the They fall to Spain, whose tyranny and counts of Hainault - - 1299 religious persecution cause a revolt It falls to the crown of Philip the Good, in Batavia - - - 566 duke of Burgundy - - 1436 The revolted states with William, 100,000 persons are drowned by the sea prince of' Orange, at their head, enbreaking in at Dort -.1446 ter into a treaty at Utrecht - - 1579 HOL ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 355 HOLILAND, continued. They elect William as Stadtholder - 1579 Holland erected into a kingdom, and The Stadtholder, William, is assassi- Louis Bonaparte declared king natedl 1584 June 5, 1806 The Dutch East India company found- Louis abdicates - July 1, 1810 ed -1602 Holland united to France - July 9, 1810 After a struggle of thirty years, the kIcing Restored to the house of Orange, and of Spain is obliged to declare the Ba- Belgium annexed to its dominions tavians free - - - -1609 Nov. 18, 1813 The republic wars against Spain in the The prince of Orange is proclaimed soEast, and inl America; the Dutch ad- vereign prince of the United Nethermiral, Peter I-Hen, takes several Spa- lands - - - Dec. 6, 1813 nish galleons, value 20,000,0001. ster- He receives the oath of allegiance ling - - -1635 from his subjects - March 30, 1814 Cromwell declares war against Hol- And takes the title of king as William land, and many naval battles are I. - - - March 16, 1815 fought; Blake signally defeats Van The revolution in Belgium (which see) TroIlp - -1653 commenced - - Aug. 25, 1830 AWilliamn, prince of Orange, having The Belgians take the city of Antwerp married Mary, daughter of James II., (whic/r' a.ee) - - Ot~.27, 1830 is called to the British throne - 1688 Belgium is separated from Holi-md, The office of Stadtholder is made here- and Leopold of Cobourg is elected ditary in the Orange family - -1747 king - - July 12, 1831 Era of the civil war - - -1787 Holland renews the war against BelThe French Republican army march gium - - - Aug 32 1831 into Holland; the people declare in Conference in London on the affiairs of their favor - - - 1793 Holland and the Netherlands termiThe Stadtholder expelled Jan. 15, 1795 nates, see Belgizm? - Nov. 15, 1831 I-le arrives in England - Jan. 21, 1795 Treaty between Holland and Belgium, Battle of Camnperdown, Duncan sig- signed in London - April 19, 1839 nally defeats the Dutch - Oct. 11, 1797 Abdication of William I. in favor of The Texel fleet, of twelve ships of the his son - - - Oct. 8, 1840 line, with thirteen Indiamnen, surren- Death of the ex-ling - Dec. 12, 1844 dered to the British admiral Duncan, The king promises his assent to all rewithout firing a gun - Aug. 28, 1799 forms passed by the chambers A new constitution is given to the Ba- March 14, 1848 tavian republic; the chief officer (R. New constitution appears, April 17, 1848 J. Schimmelpennick) takes the title Death of William II. - MIach 17, 1849 of Grand Pensionary - April 26, 1805 STADTHOLDERS, ETC. A.D.1554 William the Great succeeds his cou- 1702 John William Frizo, drowned in passsin Rene, to whvom the Ulnited Pro- ing a ferry in Holland. vinces owe their foundation and glo- 1711 Charles Henry Frizo. ry: killedl by an assassin, hired by 1747 William IV., first hereditary stadtPhilip of Spain. holder. 1584 IHenry Philip William. 1751 William V. 1618 Maurice, a consummate general. KINGS. 1625 Frederick HI-enry. 1813 William I. 1647 William II. 1840 William II. 1650 William III. made stadtholder in 1672, 1849 William III., present king, (1852.) and king of England in 1689. See Belgium..HOLLAND, NEW. It is not clearly ascertained when this country was first discovered. In 1605, ct seq., various parts of' the coast were traced by the Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, and English. What was deemed till lately the south extremity, was discovered by Tasman, in 1642. The eastern coast, called New South Wales, was taken possession of, in his Britannic majesty's name, by captain Cook, in 1770. See Botaety Bcay, NJCt Sosttit Wkles, and Vacb Ditteictb's Lcasd. HOLY ALLIANCE. A league so called between the emperors of Russia and Austria, and the king of Prussia, by which they ostensibly bountd themselves, among other things, to be governed by Christian principles in all their political transactions. This alliance was ratified at Paris, September 26, 1815. HOLY WATER is said to have been used in churches as early as A. D. 120.Asite. 356 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ HO HOMER'S ILIAD AND ODYSSEY. The misfortunes of Troy furnish the two most perfect EPIC* poems in the world, written by the greatest poet that has ever lived; about 915 a. c. The subject of the first is the wrath of Achilles; the second recounts the voyages and adventures of Ulysses after the destruction of Troy. Among the thousands of volumes burnt at Constantinople, A. D. 477, were the works of Homer, said to have been written in golden letters on the great gut of a dragon, 120 feet long. —Univ. Hrtit. The works of Homer are supposed by some to have done great injury to mankind, by inspiring the love of military glory. Alexander was said to sleep with them always on his pillow.-Darwin. HOMICIDE. This crime was tried at Athens by the Areopagites, 1507 B. c. He that killed another at any public exercise of skill, or who killed another that lay perdue to do a person mischief of a grievous nature, was not deemed guilty. He who killed a man taken with another's wife, sister, daughter, or concubine, or he who killed a man who, without just grounds, assaulted another violently, was not deemed a homicide. Among the Jews, wilful murder was capital; but for chance-medley, the offender should fly to one of the cities of refuge, and there continue till the death of the high priest. In the primitive church, before the Christians had the civil power, wilful homicide was punished with a twenty years' penance. Our laws dis tinguish between justifiable homicide and homicide in its various degrees of guilt, and circumstances of provocation and wilfulness. See 12er'de'r. HONEY-MOON. Among the ancients, a beverage prepared with honey, such as that known as mead, and as metheglin, in England, was a luxurious drink. It was a custom to drink of diluted honey for thirty days or a roon's age, after a wedding-feast, and hence arose the term honey-moon, of Teutonic origin. Attila, the devastating Hun, who ravaged nearly all Europe, drank, it is said, so freely of hydromel on his marriage-day, that lhe died in the night from suffocation, 453 A. D. His death is, however, ascribed to another cause. See Atlila. "HONI SOIT QUI MAL Y PENSE." It is said that the countess of Salisbury, at a ball at court, happening to drop her garter, the king, Edward III., took it up, and presented it to her with these words: " Hoeni soit quti mzeal y sense," "evil be to him who evil thinks." They afterwards became the motto of the Garter; but this statement of the origin of the motto is unsupported by sufficient authority.- Goldsmith. HONOR. Honor was a virtue highly venerated by the ancients, particularly among the Romans, and temples were ultimately erected to Honor by that people as a divinity. The first temple was built by Scipio Africanus, about B. c. 197; and others were raised to her worship by C. Marius, about 102 B. c. These temples were so constructed that it was impossible to enter that to Honor without going through the temple of Virtue; and Marius ordered his edifices not to be built too much elevated or too lofty, thereby to intimate to the worshippers that humility was the true way to hon or. HOPS. Introduced from the Netherlands into England, A. D. 1524, and were used in brewing; but the physicians having represented that they were unwholesome, parliament was petitioned against them as being a wicked weed, and their use was prohibited in 1528.-Anderson. At present there are between fifty and sixty thousand acres, on an average, annually under the * The epic poems of HOMErE and VIRGIL, the Gierusalesmme of TAsso, the Paradise Lost of MILTON, and the -Ienliade of VOLTAIRE, are the noblest that exist; and MILTON'S is considered fo rank next to HeonEar's. "Paradise Lost is not the greatest of epic poems," observes Dr. JOHNSON, "only becatuse it is not the first." —Butler. HUD ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 357 culture of hops in England. They are grown chiefly in Hereford, Kent, and Worcestershire. HORATII AND CURATTI, TIE, COMBAT OF THE, 669 B. C. The Romans and the Albans contesting for superiority, agreed to choose three champions on each side to determine to which it belonged; and the three Horatii, Roman knights, and the three Curatii, Albans, being elected by their respective countries, engaged in the celebrated combat which, by the victory of the Horatii, united Alba to Rome. HORSE. The people of Thessaly were excellent equestrians, and probably were the first, among the Greeks at least, who rode upon horses, and broke thenl in for service in war; whence arose the fable that Thessaly was originally inhabited by centaurs. And Solomon had 40,000 stalls of horses for his chariots, and 12,000 horsemen. —1 Kigs, iv. 26. The power of the horse is equal to that of five men.-Smeatoa. A horse can perform the work of six men.-Bossuet. The Greeks and Romans had some covering to secure their horses' hoofs from injury. In the ninth century, horses were only shod in the time of frost. The practice of shoeing was introduced into England by William I., 1066. In England there are two millions of draught and pleasure horses, and one hundred thousand agricultural horses, which consume the produce of seven millions of acres. The horsetax was imposed in 1784, and was then levied on all saddle and coach horses in England. The existing duty upon " horses for riding" only in England, amounts to about 350,0001. per year. See Race Horses. HOSPITALLERS. Military knights of the order of St. John, of Jerusalem, who were under religious vows; instituted by opening a hospital for the reception of pilgrims at Jerusalem, in A. D. 1048. They became a monastic order in 1092; and a military order in 1118. See Maltea. HOSPITALS or LONDON. Several of these most valuable and mercifill institutions are of ancient date, and richly endowed. One of the most munificent erections by a single individual is that of Guy's Hospital, Southwark, a London bookseller of that name having built it at the cost of 18,7931., and endowed it, in 1724, by a bequest of 219,4991. See Infire'aies. HOST, ELEVATION OF TI-IE. Introduced in Roman Catholic worship, and prostration enjoined, in A. D. 1201. Pope Gregory IX. was the first pontiff who decreed a bell to be rung as a signal for the people to betake themselves to the adoration of the host, which is done to this day.-Dr. A. Rees. HOURS. The day began to be divided into hours from the year 293 B. c., when L. Papirius Cursor erected a sun-dial in the temple of Quirinus at Rome. Previously to the invention of water-clocks (whichl see), 158 B. c., the time was called at Rome by public criers. The Chinese divide the day into twelve parts of two hours each. The Italians reckon twenty-four hours round, instead of two divisions of twelve hours each, as we do. In England, the measurement of time was alike uncertain and difficult: one expedient was by wax candles, three inches burning an hour, and six wax-candles burning twenty-four hours: these candles were invented by Alfred, clocks and hourglasses not being then known in England, A. D. 886. HUDSON'S BAY. Discovered by captain Henry Hudson, when in search of a North-West passage to the Pacific Ocean, A. D. 1610; but in fact, this part of North America may more properly be said to have been discovered by Frobisher in the reign of Elizabeth, although Hudson ventured further north. The latter, passing the winter in this bay on his fourth voyage, was, with four others, thrown by his sailors into a boat, and left to perish. The Hudson-Bay Company obtained chartered possessions here, in 1670. The forts were destroyed by the French in 1686 and 1782. 358 THIE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ if;U HUE AND CRY. The old common-law process of pursuing' "with horn and with voice," from hundred to hundred, and county to county, all robbers and felons. Formerly the htnlelred was bound to make good all loss occasioned by the robberies therein committed, unless the felon were taken; but by subsequent laws it is made answerable only for damlage committed by riotous assemblies. HUGUENOTS. This word is of uncertain derivation. It was used, as a termf of reproach, by the French Catholics, to nickname their countrymen of the reformed churches, or Protestants of France, and had its rise in 1560. The memorable massacre of the Huguenots of France, on the festival of St. Bartholomew, took place on Aug. 24, 1572.-See Bartholomewv, St. A considerable number of Huguenots emigrated after that event to North America, and settled on the Delaware, and in the Carolinas. HUMILIATI. A congregation of religious in the church of Rome, which was formed by some Milanese who had been imprisoned under Frederick I., 1162. This order had ninety monasteries; but it was abolished for luxury and cruelty by pope Pius V., and their houses were given to the Domiricans and Cordeliers, in 1570. HUNGARY. The Pannonia of the ancients, and subject to the Romans, 11 B. c., and kept possession of by them until, in the fourth century of the Christian era, the Vandals drove thetm out of it. About forty years afterwards, the Vandals migrated towards Gaul, and their deserted settlements were occupied by the Goths, who in the beginning of the fifth century were expelled by the Huns, a ferocious tribe of Scythians, headed by Attila, whose dreadful ravages obtained him the appellation of " The Scourge of God."-In more recent times, the Hungarians have been much intermixed with Sclavonic nations, as Bohemians, Croats, Russians, and Vandals; besides German settlers, as A ustrians, Styrians, Bavarians, Franks, Swabians, Saxons, &c. Hungary was annexed to the empire of Germany under Chailemagne, but it became an independent kingdom in 920. Stephen receives the title of Aplostolic IHe obtains the crown of Bohemia, and kcing from the pope - - A. D. 997 is elected emperor of Germany - 1410 The Poles overrun Hungary - 1061 Albert of Austria succeeds to the throne,. Dreadful ravages of the Tartars under of Hutngary, thus laying the foundathe sons of Jenghis Khan, throughout tion of the subsequent power and Hungary,Bohemia,and Russia, 1226 et seq. greatness of the house of Austria - 1437 Victories of Louis the Great in Bulga- It passes to the king of Poland - 1439 ria, Servia, and Dalmatia - - 1342 Solyman II., emperor of the Turks, inLouis carries his arms into Italy -1342 vades Hungary, and takes Buda;. lie dies, and the history of Hungary battle of Mohatz (zvhich see)- - 1526 now presents a frightful catalogue of Buda sacked a second time by the crimes.....1378 Turks, and all the inhabitants put to Charles Duras is murdered; Elizabeth, the sword - - - 1540 queen of Louis, is drowned, and king' Sclavonia taken by the Turks - - 1540 IMIary, their daughter, marries Sigls- Temeswar taken by them - - 1552 moncl, marquis of Brandenburg, and Transylvania seized by Solyman - 1556 causes the rivers of tHungary to flow The duke of Lorraine loses 30,000 men with blood - - - 1378 in a fruitless attempt to take Buda The unhappy Hungarians call the fi'om the Turks - 1681 Turks to their assistance - -1380 I-e at lenth carries Buds by storm, Sultan Bajazet vanquishes Sigismond and delivers up the Mahonmetans to in battle - - 1389 the fury of the soldiers - -1680 Sigismond recovers from this blow, Temeswar wrested from the Turks by and makes Wallachia and Moldavia prince Eugene- - 1710 tributary to him - 1390 * The Hlungarian people have an irreconcilable aversion to the name of qteen; and consequently, whenever a female succeeds to the throne of Hungary, she reigns with the title of kting. Thus, in 1383, when Mary, the daughter of Charles Duras, came to the crown, she was style-d King lMary. .UN DICTIONARY OF DATES. 359 HUNGARY, coeTliutecd. Servia and Wallachia ceded to Turkey miles of Vienna; Jellachich also adat the peace of Belgrade - - 1739 vances there, October 11; Kossuth Temeswar incorporated with the king- retreats to H-Iungarian territory, 17th, dom of Ilungary - - - 1778 Hungary declares itself an independent Tihe struggle for independence cornm- republic - - - Dec. 18418 menced in -1818 Raab (Dec.) and Buda Pestlh, entered Count Lomnburg, Austrian commission- by Windisgratz - - Jan. 5, 1849 er, murdered at Pesth Sept. 27, Ukase of Russian emperor Nicholas, The Hungarian Diet dissolved by the declaring his purpose of aiding Ausemperor of Austria; martial law tria against Hungary - April 26, proclaimed; Jellachich, Ban of Cro- Glrgey, commander-in-chief, surrenatia, appointed to the supreme gov- ders the Itungarian army to the Ausernment, - - Oct. 3, 1848 trians at Villargos - Aug. 11, 1&49 Kossuth appointed by the Diet presi- The war ended by the complete subjudent of the defence committee and gation of Hungary, and the flight or dictator - Oct. 1848 execution of her leaders. [Insurrection of Vienna, Oct. 6.] See Germcany. Hungarian army advances within six KINGS OF HUNGARY. A. D. 997 Stephen, duke, assumes the title of king. 1309 Charles Robert. 1038 Peter I., deposed. 1342 Louis I. the Great. 1041 Otto, killed in battle. 1383 Mary. 1044 Peter again ascends the throne; is 1389 Mary, and her husband Sigismr, ad. again deposed, and has his eyes put 1437 Albert; he died of a surfeit of melons. out. 1440 Ladislaus IV., killed in battle with the 1047 Andrew, assassinated by his brother Turks. Bela. 1444 Ladislaus V., poisoned while an infant. 1059 Bela, killed by the fall of a ruinous 1458 SMatthias I., son of Huniades, late retower. gent. 1063 Solomon, deposed by his son. 1490 Ladislaus VI. 1073 Geiga 1. 1516 Louis II. drowned whilst fighting the 1076 St. Ladislaus. Turks. 1095 Coloman. 1526 John Sepusius, deposed. 1114 Stephen II., surnamed Thunder; turn- 1527 Ferdinand, kcing of Bohemia. ed monk. 1534 John Sepusius, again. 1131 Bela II.; he had his eyes put out by 1539 John II. his uncle Coloman, so that his queen 1561 Maximilian, qfterzeoads emperor of ruled the kingdom. Germany. 1141 Geiga II. 1573 Rodolplius. 1161 Stephen III. 1609 Matthias II. 1173 Bela III. 1618 Ferdinand 1I., emperor of Germany. 1191 Emeric. 1625 Ferdinand III., ditto. 1200 Ladislaus II. 1647 Ferdinand IV. 1201 Andrew II. 1656 Leopold, emperor of Germany. 1235 Bela IV. 1687 Joseph, ditto. 1275 Stephen IV. 1711 Charles VI, ditto. 1278 Ladislaus III., murdered. 1740 Maria Theresa. 1291 Andrew III. 1780 Joseph, her son, emperor of Germany. 1301 Wenceslaus. See Germnany. 1304 Otho. On the death of Charles VI., in 1740, his daughter, Maria Theresa, who had married into tlhe house of Lorraine, was in danger of being deprived of her father's hereditary dominions by France, and also by Bavaria; but at length overcoming all difficulties, her husband was elected emperor, and Hungary, Austria, and Bohemia are at this time governed by their descendants. See Gee'mawy. HUNS. A fierce and warlike nation, occupying eastern Tartary nearly 1200 years; they were almost wholly exterminated by the Chinese, in A. n. 93, and the remnants settled on the Volga, and attacked the Roman allies on the Danube, in 376; but having been subsidized under Attila, they turned their arms towards Germany. The latter country and Scythia were conquered by them, about A. D. 433. 100,000 of them were slain on the plains of Champagne in 447. They were defeated by Charles the Great in several battles during eight years, and were almost extirpated, and soon ceased to appear as 360 THE WORLDUS PROGRESS. IA-. a distinct nation after 780. When they settled in Pannonia, they gave it the name of Hungary, wovhichi see; see also Attila. HUSS, JOHN; HIs MARTvYRnoM. The clergy having instigated the pope to issue a bull against heretics, Huss, who had been zealous to promote a reformation, was cited to appear before a council of divines at Constance to give an account of his doctrines. To encourage him to do so, the emperor Sigisnmund sent him a safe conduct, and engaged for his security. On the strength of this pledge he presented himself accordingly, but was soon thrown into prison, and after some months' confinement was adjudged to be burned alive. He endured this dreadful death with magnanimity and resignation, July 6, 1415. The same unhappy fate was borne with the same fortitude and constancy of mind by JERaoM oF PRAGUE, the intimate colmpanion of Huss, who came to this council with the generous design of supporting and seconding his persecuted friend: he, too, suffered, May 30, 1416. See Cranmer', and M2artyrs. HUSSARS. This species of force originated in Poland and Hungary; and as they were more fitted for a hasty enterprise than a set battle, they are supposed to have taken their names from the ]hazzas or shout they made at their first onset. They were generally opposed to the Turkish horse, "and were oddly clothed, having the skins of tigers and other wild beasts hanging their backs, against bad weather, and wore fur caps, with a cock's feather," -Pardon. HYDROMETER. The oldest mention of the Hydrometer occurs in the fifth century, and may be found in the letters of Synesius to Hypatia; but it is not improbable that Archimedes was the inventor of it, though no proofs of it are to be found.-Bec/cmani?. Hypatia was torn to pieces, 415 A. D., and Archimedes was killed 212 a. c. Hydraulic chemistry became a science in 1746. HYDROSTATICS were probably first studied in the Alexandrian school, aboJt 300 a. c. The pressure of fluids was discovered by Archimedes, about 250 B. c. The forcing-pump and air-fountain were invented by Hero, about 120 B. C..Water-mills were known about the time of the birth of Christ. The science was revived by Galileo, about A. D. 1600. The theory of rivers wmas scientifically understood in 1697. The correct theory of fluids and oscillation of waves, explained by Newton, in 1714. A scientific form was given to hydrodynamics, by Bernoulli, 1738. HYMNS. Religious songs, or odes, were at first used by the heathens in pra;ise of their false deities, and afterwvards introduced both into the Jewish anca Christian churches. St. Hilary, the bishop of Aries, in France, is said to have been the first who composed hymns to be sung in Christian churches, about A. D. 431. The hymns of the Jews are usually accompanied with trumpets, drums, and cymbals. IAMBIC VERSE. Iambe, an attendant of MetaniT,' wife of Coleus, king of Sparta, when trying to exhilarate Ceres, while the latter was travelling over Attica in quest of her daughter Proserpine, entertained her with jokes; stories, and poetical effusions; and from her free and satirical verses hale, been called Iclmbics.-A)potlodoer's. Iambic verses were first written, abol 700 a. c., by Archilochus, who had courted Neobule, the daughter of Lycambes; but after a promise of marriage, the father preferred another suitor. richer than the poet; whereupon Archilochus wrote so bitter a satire on t: - old man's avarice, that he hanged himself. lIeCodotus. -no ] DICTIONARtY OF DATES. 361 ICE. Galileo was the first who observed ice to be lighter than the water which composed it, and hence ice floats, about 1597. Ice produced in summer by means of chemical mlixtures, prepared by Mr. Walker and others, in 1782. Leslie froze water under the receiver of an air-pumlp by placing under it a vessel full of' oil of' vitriol. One part of sal-allmmonia and two of col-mmon salt, with five of snow, produce a degree of cold twelve degrees below the zero of Fahrenheit. Five parts of muriate of lime and foour of snow freeze mercury; and mercury cain be solidified by preparations of sulphuric acid, so as to bear the stroke of a hamnmer. See Coel. ICE TRADE, TIHE, in the United States, was commenced by Frederick Tudor, of Boston, in 1805, who shipped the first cargo to Viartinique and the first to Calcutta, 1833. The ice-houses of the dealers near Boston at present are capable of containing 141,332 tons. ICELAND. Discovered by some Norwegian chiefs who were compelled to leave their native country, A. D. 871; according to some accounts, it had been previously visited by a Scandinavian pirate. It was peopled by the Norwegians, in 874. In 1783, there occurred here the most tremendous volcanic eruption on record; it was accompanied by violent wind and rain, and a darkness of the heavens; and it was feared that the island wnauld fall to pieces. Three-fire spouts broke out of' Mount Skapta, which, after rising to a considerable height in the air, formed a torrent of red-hot lava that flowed for six weeks, and ran a distance of 60 miles to the sea, in a broken breadth of nearly 12 miles: 12 rivers were dried up; 21 villages totally overwhelmed by fire or water; and 34 others were materially injured. ICELANDIC LITERATURE, ROYAL SOCIETY OP, in Copenhagen. Their library, containing 2000 Icelandic MSS. and many books, burnt, September 26, 1847.'CONOLOGY. The science that describes men and deities, distinguished by some peculiar characteristic, and the doctrine of picture or image representation. Thus, Saturn is represented as an old man with a scythe; Jupiter with a thunderbolt, and an eagle by his side; Neptune with a trident, in a chariot drawn by sea-horses; Mercury, with wings on his hat and at his heels; Bacchus, crowned with ivy; Pallas, leaning on her regis; Venus, drawn by Swans or pigeons; Juno, riding in a cloud, &c. I-Ieathen mythology gave rise to the later worship of the sun, moon, stars, and other objects; and to the representation of the true God in various forms; and to images. The Iconoclastic schism rent asunder the Rolman Catholic church in the early part of the eighth century. See Idols. DES. In the Ronian calendar, the ides meant the thirteenth day of each month except in March, May, July, and October, in which Ilonths it was the fifteenth day, because in these four it was six days before the nones, and in the other months four days. The ides of March was the day on which Julius Cesar was assassinated in the senate house by Casca and other conspirators, 44 B. c. -DIOTS. It is shown by the latest returns, that exclusive of lunatics (see Insanity), there are in England, pauper idiots, or idiots protected by national institutions, males, 83372; females, 8893; total, 7265. In England there is one lunatic or idiot in every 1033 individuals; in Wales, there is one in every 807; in Scotland, one in 731; and in Ireland, one in 812. DrOLS, AND IDOLATRY. The public worship of idols was introduced by Ninus, king of Assyria, 2059 B. c. — Vossius. Idols are supposed to have originated in the pillar set up by Jacob, at Bethel, about 1800 B. c. —Dzf'esnoy. Constantine, emperor of Rome, ordered all the heathen temples to be destroyed, and all sacrifices to cease, 330 A. D.-Dltfresnoy. In Britain, the 1.6 362 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ J1~. religion of the Druids gave way to the more gross and barbarous superstitions of the Saxons, who had their idols, altars, and temples, and they soon overspread the country with them: they had a god for every day in tile week. See WTeek. The idolatrv of the Saxons yielded to Christianity after the coming of St. Augustin. See Chtristianity. ILIUM. A city was built here by Dardanus, and called Dardania, 1480 B. C. Troy (whuichb see), another city, was founded by Troas, about 1341 B. c.; atid Ilus, his successor, called the country Ilium. This kingdom existed 296 years from the reign of Dardanus, Priam being the sixth and last king. The Trqjan war was undertaken by the united states of Greece to recover Helen, whom Paris, son of Priam, had borne away from her husband, Menelalis, king of Sparta, 1204 B. C. See Helen. AMore than 100,000 warriors engaged in this expedition; and the invaders, having wasted many defenceless townse and villages, laid siege to the capital, 1193 B. c. Troy was taken after ten years' war by stratagem, and burnt to ashes by the conquerors, who put the inhabitants to the sword, or carried them off' as slaves, 1184 B. c. —ApElodorus. ILLINOIS. One of the United States, first settled on the Kaskaskia and Cahokia by the French from Canada. Ceded to Great Britain at the peace of 1763. Chiefly settled by emigrants from other states since 1800. In 178t. 1: was part of the North-West territory. In 1809 it was made a separate terrl tory, and in 1818 admitted into the Union, being the 23d state. Populatior in 1810, 12,282; in 1830, 157,575; in 1840, 476,183. It is a free state and has always been so. The chief products are grain and Indian corn; it has inexhaustible lead-mines. New constitution adopted August 31, 1847. ILLUMINATI. These were heretics who sprang up in Spain, where they wer( called Alumbrados, about A. D. 1575; and after their suppression in Spain they appeared in France. One of their leaders was the friar Anthony Be, chet. The chief doctrine of this sect was, that they obtained grace, an attained perfection, by their own sublime manner of prayer..A secre society bearing this name was founded by Dr. Adam Weishaupt, in May 1776. ILLUMINATED BOOKS AND PAGES. The practice of adopting ornaments drawings, and emblematical figures, and even portraits, to enrich MSS., is c great antiquity; and illuminated pages are, many of them, exquisitely painted Varro wrote the lives of 700 illustrious RPomans, which he embellished witl their likenesses, about 70 B. c.-Plin. Hist. Nat. IMPEACHMENT. The first impeachment by the commons house of parli, ment, and the first of a lord chancellor, was in 1386. By statute of the 12. and 13th of William and Mary, it was enacted, that no pardon under t' great seal shall be pleaded to an impeachment by the commons in parl ment, 1699 and 1700. Memorable impeachment of Warren Hastings, Fe 13, 1788; the trial lasted seven years, ending April 25, 1795, in an acquitta Impeachment of lord Melville, April 29, and his acquittal, June 12, 180t Inquiry into the charges preferred by colonel Wardle against the duke York, commenced Jan. 26, and ended March 20, 1809, in his acquit. Trial of Caroline, queen of George IV., by bill of pains and penalties, Uefore the house of lords, commenced Aug. 16; Mr. Brougham entered her majesty's defence, Oct. 3; and the last debate on the bill took plac Nov. 10, 1820. See Queen of George IV. IMPERIAL PARLIAMENT. By the Union with Ireland, the parliament,;. Great Britain became Imperial; and the first Imperial parliament, admit ting 100 Irish members into the commons, and 28 temporal and 4 spiritusl peers into the house of lords, wgs held at Westminster, January 22, 180 SM.? J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 363 The Imperial parliamnent is now constituted thus: in the Commons, since the passing of the Reform Bill (wuAicA see), in 1832, there are 471 English; 29 Welsh; 105 Irish; and 53 Scotch mnembers-in all 658. In the Lords, 459 members, of whom 28 ale temporal, and 4 spiritual representative peers of Ireland; and 16 representative peers of' Scotland. See Commons, Lords, ParliascLt, and Refo rm. IMPORTS or MERCHANDISE IN THIE UNITED STATES. See E. poq-ls, &c. Table, p. 317. VALUE OF IMPORTS INTO GREAT BRITAIN, FROM ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD. In 1710 - ~4,753,777 In 1800 - ~30,570,605 I In 1830. ~46,245,241 1750 - 7,289,582 1810 - - 41,136,135 1840 - 62,004,000 1775 - 14,815,855 1820 - - 36,514,564 1845 - 85,281,958 MPOSTORS. The names and pretensions of religious, political, and other impostors, would fill a volume; they have been, of course, found in every country, and have existed'ij every age. The following are selected from various authorities, as being among the most extraordinary:Aldebert, who, in the eighth century, pre- Boleyn. She and her confederates were tended he had a letter from the Redeem- hanged at Tyburn, 24 Henry VIII, 1534.er, which fell from heaven at Jerusalem; Rapin. he seduced multitudes to follow him into In the first year of Mary's reign, after her woods and deserts, and to live in imitation marriage with Philip of Spain, Elizabeth of John the Baptist. Croft, a girl of 18 years of age, was seGonsalvo Mlartin, a Spaniard, pretended to creted in a wall, and with a whistle, made be the angel Michael; he was bullt by for the purpose, uttered many seditious the inquisition of Spain, in 1360. speeches against the queen and the prints, George David, son of a waterman at Ghent, and also against the mass and confession, styled himself the nephew of God, sent for which she was sentenced to stand upon into the world to adopt children worthy of a scaffold at St. Paul's cross, during serheaven; he denied the resurrection,'mon-time, and snake public confession of preached against marriage, in favor of a her imposture, 1553: she was called the community of women, and taught that Spirit of the Wall.-Baoker's Chrlon. the body only could be defiled by sin; he William Ilacket, a fanatic, personated our had many followere; died at Basle, 1556. Saviour, and was executed for blasphemy, Demetrius Griska Eutropeia, a friar, pre- 34 Eliz., 1591. tended to be the son of Basilowitz, czar of James Naylor, personated our Saviour; he Muscovy, whom the usurper Borls had was convicted of blasphemy, scourged, put to death; but he maintained that ano- and his tongue bored through with a hot ther child had been substituted in his iron on the pillory, by sentence of the place: he was supported by the arms of House of Commons, under Cromwell's Poland; his success astonished the Itus- administration, 1656. sians, who invited him to the throne, and Valentine Greatrakes, an Irish impostor, delivered into his hands Fedor, the reign- who pretended to cure all diseases by ing czar, and all his family, whom he stroking the patient; his imposture decruelly put to death: his imposition being ceived the credulous, and occasioned very discovered, he was assassinated in his warm disputes in Ireland, in 1665, and in palace, 1606.-D'Alembeort's Revoloetioes England, where it fell into disrepute, in of Russia. 1666, upon his examination before the Sabbata Levi, a Jew of Smymna, amused Royal Society, after which we hear no the Turks and Jews a long time at Con- more of him. Birch's Memnoirs of the stantinople and other places, by person- Roy. Society. ating our Saviour, 1666. Dr. Titus Oates. See Conspiracies. Mary Tofts, of Godalming, by pretending IMPOSTORS EXTRAORDINARY IN BRITISH she bred rabbits within her, so imposed HISTORY. upon many persons (among others, Mr. Two men crucified, both pretending to be St. Andre, surgeon to the king), that they the Messiah; and two women executed for espoused her cause, 1726. assuming the characters of the Virgin The Cock-lane ghost imposture by William Mary and Mary Magdalen, 5 Henry IlI., Parsons, his wife, and daughter, 1762. 1221. - Johanna Southcote, who proclaimed her Elizabeth Barton, styled the IHoly maid of conception of the Messiah. and had a mulKent, spirited up to hinder the Reforma- titude of followers; she died in Dec. 1814. tion, by pretending to inspirations from IN THE UNITED STATES. heaven, fortelling that the kinr would have Matthias, alias Matthews, who professed to an early and violent death if he divorced be the Messiah, New-York. 1830-31. Catherine of Spain, and married Anne Joseph Smith. See article Mormons. IMIPRESSMENT or SEAMEN. Affirmed by Sir M. Foster to be of ancient 364 THE WORLD'S PROGIESS. [LOD practice. The statute 2 Richard II. speaks of impressment as a matter well known, 1378. The first commission for it was issued 29 Edward III. 1355. Pressing, either for the sea or land service, declared to be illegal by the ]nritish parliament, Dec. 1641. None can be pressed into the king's naval service above 55, nor under 18. No apprentice nor landsimen who hlave not served at sea for 3 or 2 years. No masters of merchants' ships, first-mates of 50 tons, and boatswains and carpenters of 100 tons. No men employed by the public boards, and none except by an officer with a press-warrant. INCENDIARIES. The punishment for arson was death by the Saxon laws and Gothic constitutions. In the reign of Edward I. incendiaries were burnt to death. This crime was made high treason by statute 8 Henry VI., 1429;?ird it was denied benefit of clergy, 21 Henry VIII., 1528. INCIEST. It has been looked upon with horror by most nations, but Persia and Egypt are exceptions. The history of the latter country abounds with instances of incestuous marriages among its sovereigns. Physcon married his brother's queen, then repudiated her, and married her daughter by his brother, and murdered his children by both wives, 129 B. c. See Eg/ypt. In our own country, Vortigern, a king of South Britain, married his own daughter, A. D. 446. The instances are numerous in Portugal. Maria, queen of Portugal, married her uncle, the prince of Brazil, June, 1760; and the son of that incestuous marriage, Joseph, then in his sixteenth year, married his aunt, the princess Mary, Feb., 1777. The present Don Miguel of Portugal was betrothed to his niece, Donna Maria, by procuration at Vienna, in Oct. 1826, she being then only seven years of age. In England, incest was early punished with death; and was again made capital by a law of the Commonwealth, in 1650. INCOME TAX IN ENGLAND. This is not. as some suppose, a new impost. In 1512, parliament granted a subsidy of two fifteenths from the comanons, and two tenths from the clergy, to enable the king to enter on a war with France. —Rapix. This tax was attempted in 1793, and 1799: and again in 1802; but was abandoned. In 1803, it was revived, at the rate of 5 per cent. on all incomes above 1501., and lower rates on smaller incomes. Iln 1805, it was increased to 61 per cent.; and in 1806 was raised to 10 per cent. embracing the dividends at the bank. It produced — In 1804, at Is. in the pound - ~4,650,000 In 1806, at 2s. in the pound - ~11,500,00( In 1805, at Is. 3d. ditto - 5,937,500 And subsequently - 16,548,938 The tax produced from lands, houses, rentages, &c., 8,657,9371.; from ftun ed and stock properties, 2:885.5051.; the profits and gains of trade, 3,831,08 ~and salaries and pensions, 1,174,4561.; total, sixteen millions and a 1i Repealed in March, 1816. Sir Robert Peel's bill, imposing the present tt' of 21. 18s. 4d. per cent. pcr cxnn., to subsist for three years, passed June 22 1842; it produced about 5,350,0001. a year. This tax was renewed for thret yearss more, in March, 1845. INDEPENDENTS. Sects of Protestants, chiefly in England and Holland. The: are such as hold the independency of the church, or that each congt-eg:-tioi may govern itself in religious matters. They say there is no absolute occa sion for synods or councils, whose resolutions may be taken to be wise mut prudent advice, but not as decisions to be peremptorily obeyed; they afrirn that one church may advise or reprove another, but has no authority to ex communicate or censure. Their first meeting-house founded in England wa that by Henry Jacobs, 1616. INDEX EXPURGATORY. A catalogue of prohibited books in the Church o Rome, first made by the inquisitors, and approved by the council of T eu' :iN3D DICTIONARY OF DATES. 365 The index of heretical books, by which the reading of the Scriptures was forbidden (with certain exceptions) to the laity, was confirmed by a bull of pope Clement VIII. in 1595. It enumerated most of the celebrated works of France, Spain, Germany, and England, and which are still prohibited. -Ashe. INDIA. Known to the ancients, many of whose nations, particularly the Ty-rians and Egyptians, carried on much commerce with it. It was conquered by Alexander, 327 B. c., and subsequently the intercourse between India and the Roman empire was very great. The authentic history of Hindoostan is reckoned to commence with the conquests of Mahmudl Gazni, A. D. 1000.Renneel. Irruption of the Mahometans, under whom 123 perish in ohe night. See IMIahmud Gazni - - A.D. 1000 Blackchole. - - May 19, 1756 Patna, or Afghan empire founded - 1205 Calcutta retaken by colonel, afterwards Reign of Jenghis Khan, one of the most lord Clive; he defeats the soubah, at bloody conquerors of the world; Plassey - - June 20, 1757 14,000,000 of the human race perish Warren Hastings becomes governor of by his sword, under the pretence of Bengal -April 13, 1772 establishing the worship of one god; India Bill. See Idia Bill June 16, 1773 he died - - — 1237 Supremine court established - -1773 The Mogul Tartars, under the conduct Pondicherry taken - Oct. 11, 1778 of the celebrated Timour, or Tamer- The strong fortress of Gualior taken by lane, invade Hindostan - - 1398 major Popham - Aug. 4,1778 Tamerlane takies the city of Delhi; de- Hyder Ali overruns the Carnatic, and feats the Indian army, makes a con- defeats the British - Sept. 10, 1780 quest of Ilindostan, and butchers He talkes Arcot - - Oct. 31, 1780 100,000 of its people - - - 1399 Lord Macartney arrives as governor of The passage to India discovered by Madras - June 22, 1781 Vasco da Gama - 1497 Hyder Ali signally defeated by Sir Eyre Conquest of the country completed by I Coote -. - July 1, 1781 the sultan Baber, founder of the 1Mo- Death of Hyder, and accession of his gul empire - - - - 1525 son, Tippoo Saib - Dec. 11, 1782 Reign of the illustrious Acbar, the Trial of Warren Hastings. See Telastgreatest prince of Itindostan - - 1555 inzgs, 7'Tial of - Feb. 13, 1788 Reign of Aurungzebe; his donlinions Definitive treaty with Tippoo; his two extending from 10 to 35 degrees in sons hostages - - March 19, 1792 latitude, and nearly as much in longi- Government of lord Mornington, aftertude, and his revenue amounting to wards marquis Wellesley May 17, 1793 32,000,0001. sterling - 1660 Seringapatam stormed, and Tippoo Invasion of the Persian, Nadir Shah, or Saib ktilled - - May 4, 1799 -tuli Khan - 1738 Victories of the British; the Carnatic.Delhi he orders a general massacre, conquered - - - 1800,and 150,000 persons perish - 1738 Victories of Sir Arthur WVellesley - 1803.-le carries away treasure amounting Marquis Cornwallis resumes the govto 125.000,0001. sterling - 1739 emiinent - - July 30, 1805 Defeat of the last imperial army by the I Act by which the trade to India was Rohillas - 1749 thrown open; that to China remain[The Mlogul empire now became mere- ing1 with the company July 31, 1813 ly nominal, distinct and independent Lord Amherst's government - Aug. 1, 1823 sovereignties being formel by nu- Lord William Bentinck arrives as gomerous petty princes. The empe- vernor-general - - July 4,1828 rors were of no political consequence Act opening the trade to India, and tea from this period. trade, &c. to China, lorming a new era in British commerce - Aug. 28, 1833 BRITISH POWER IN TNDIA. Lord Auckland, governor-general; he Attempt made to reach Indial by the leaves England - - Sept. 1835 north-east and north-west palssages - 1528 Battle of Ghizny; victory of Sir John, Sir Francis Drake's expeditions - 1579 now Lord Keane. (See Ghizsy) Levant company make a land oxpedi- July 23, 1839 tioni to Itidia - - -1589 Shah Soujah restored to his sovereignty, First advrenture from England - 1591 and he and the British army enter First charter to the London compai-ly Cabul - - - Au. 7, 1839 of merchants - - - - 1600 English defeat Dost Mahomed, - Oct. 18, 1840 Second charter to the East India com- Kturrock Singe, Iking of Lahore, tlies; at paty -1609 his funeraL his successor is killed by Calcutta purchased - - -1698 accident, and Dost Maholmed, next Capture of Calcutta by Serajah Dowla. heir, surrenders to England - Nov. 5, 1840 See Calcultta. - -17561 General rising against the British at lie imprisons 146 British subjects, of' 366 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. ['^.L, INDIA, contieznsed. Cabul; Sir Alexander Burnes and Ameers of Scinde defeated by Sir Char. other officers murdered - Nov. 2, 1841 les Napier; Scinde is afterwards anLord Ellenborough appointed governor- nexed to the British empire - Feb. 17, 1843 general -. Oct. 13, 1841 Battles of Maharajpoor and Punniar; Sir William Macnaghten treacherously the strong fort of Gwalior, the " Gibassassinated - - Dec. 25, 1841 raltar of the East," taken - Dec. 29, 1843 The British, under a convention, evacu- Sir Henry Hardinge appointed goverate Cabul, placing Lady Sale, &c., as nor-general - May 2, 1844 hostages in the hands of Akba:r Khan; a dreadful massacre ensues - Jan. 6, 1842 THE LATE WAR BETWEEN THE SIKHS AND THE BRITISH. The Sikh troops cross the Sutlej river, The citadel of Lahore is occupied by and attack the British post at Feroze- the British under Sir Hugh Goug1h; pore, which was held by Sir John and the war terminates - Feb. 20, 1846 Littler - - Dec. 14, 1845 Great battle between the British under Battle of Aliwal; the Sikhs defeated Lord Gough, and the Sikhs under Jan. 28, 1846 Sheere Singh, at Ramluggar, Nov. 22, 1848 Battle of Sobraon; the enemy defeated Moultan taken, after a long sie _e, Janl. 3, 1849 with immense loss in killed and Sheere Sing defeated by Lord Gough drowned - - Feb. 10, 1846 Feb. 21, 1849 [The Sikhs lost 10,000 men; the British The Punjaub formally annexed to the 2,338 in killed and wounded.] British crown March 29, 1849 INDIA COMPANY, THE EAST. The first commercial intercourse of the English with the East Inclies, was a private adventure with three ships fitted out in 1591; only one of them reached India, and after a voyage of three years, the commander, captain Lancaster, was brought home in another ship, the sailors having seized on his own; but his information gave rise to a capital mercantile voyage, and the Company's first charter, in Dec. 1300. Their stock then consisted of 72,0001., and they fitted out four ships, and meeting with success, have continued to trade ever since. India stock sol' at 5001. for a share of 1001., in 1683. A new company was formed in 1698, and both were united in 1702. The India-house was built in 1726, and enlarged in 1799. Board of' control instituted 1784. INDIA BILL. The bill placing the company's affairs under the control of the British government, and re-organizing the various departments in India passed June 16, 1773. See East India Bill. Mr. Fox's celebrated bilb passed in the commons. but was thrown out in the lords' house, 1783. Mr. Pitt's bill constituting the Board of Control passed August 13, 1784. INDIA RUBBER. Also called Caoutchouc, first brought to Europe firow South America, about the beginning of the eighteenth century. Se:'vera plants produce various kinds of elastic gum; but that in comnmerce i. chiefly the juice of the Siphonia Elastica, or syringe tree. Incisions in th( bark of this tree give vent to a liquid which forms India rubber. No subl stance is yet known which is so pliable, and at the same time so exceeding. elastic; it oozes out under the form of a vegetable milk, from incision. made in the tree, and is gathered chiefly in the time of rain, because i flows then most abundantly. —M. Macquer. INDIANA, one of the western United States, first settled at Vincennes by tht French; ceded to England at the peace of 1763, but no settlement mlad by them until 1787. Was part of the N. W. Territory in 1801. Sutfere, much during the war of' 1812. See battle of Tippecanoe. Admitted int, the Union in 1816. Population in 1800, 5,641; in 1820, 147,178; in 18-4( 685,866. INDIANS, NORTH AMl.ICrcAN. The origin of the aborigines of this continet: continues to be a matter of speculation among the ethnologists. The have gradually but now almost entirely disappeared before the track of th white man east of the Mississippi, and even in the far west their nunbhfa, Ir.D ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 367 are yearly becoming smaller. King Philip's Indian war in New England, 1675. Indians joined the French against the English colonies, 1690. Attacked by Capt. Church, 1704; burned Deerfield, Mass., 1704; and Haverhill, N. H., 1708; Indian war in South Carolina, 1715; again joined the French, 1754-9; Cheroxees subdued, 1761; Indians besieged Detroit, 1763. [During the revolutionary war the Indians were employed at times on both sides, but chiefly by the British.] Treaty with the Choctaws, 1786; with the Creeks, 1790; Gen. Harmer defeated by the Indians near Chillicothe, 1790; Gen. Butler defeated by the Indians on the Miami, 1791; treaty with Six Nations, &c., 1794; with the Delawares, 1804; Gov. Harrison defeated hostile Indians on the Wabash, May 16, 1811; Creek war in Florida, Gen. Jackson, 1813; treaty with Choctaws, Cherokees, &c., by Gen. Jackson, 1816; Indian land in Ohio ceded to the United States, 1816; war with Seminoles, 1817; bill for removing the Indians west of Mississippi, passed May 27, 1832; war with Winnebagoes, 1832; Black Hawk captured, Aug. 27, 1832; Winnebagoes subdued by Gen. Scott, 1832; war against the Indians in Florida, Alabama, and Georgia, conducted by Gens. Scott, Gaines, Jessup, &c., 1835-40. In 1836 the Secretary of War reported as follows: Number of Indians emigrated from the Atlantic States to the lands provided for them west of the Mississippi 3L,357 Number yet to be removed 72,181 Number of Indians of indigenous tribes, between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains -150,341 Total within the territory of the United States - 352,879 Treaty with the Sioux, they relinquishing 5,000,000 acres west of Mississippi for $1,000,000, Sept. 29, 1837; with Winnebagoes, Oct. 1, 1837; Powell alias Osceola, the Seminole chief, with 50 warriors, taken prisoners in Florida, Oct. 20, 1837; great mortality from small-pox among the Mandans, Mintarees, Blackfeet, and other Indians in Missouri territory-the Mandans tribe entirely destroyed-Nov., Dec., 1837; fight in Arkansas between the Ross and Ridge parties and Cherokees-Ross and about 40 others killed, June 28, 1839; 150 Chippewas treacherously massacred by the Sioux, at a meeting for a treaty at the Falls of St. Anthony, July 1, 1839; Cayuse Indians in Oregon having attacked and murdered 15 persons, and carried off 64 prisoners from a missionary station, are chastised by the settlers in a severe engagement, Nov. 29, 1847. INDIGO. Before the American colonies were established, all the indigo used in Europe came from the East Indies; and until the discovery of a passage round the Cape of Good Hope, it was conveyed like other Indian products, partly through the Persian Gulf, and partly by land to Babylon, or through Arabia and up the Red Sea to Egypt. The real nature of indigo was so little known in Europe, that it was classed among minerals, as appears by letters-patent for erecting works to obtain it from mines in the principality of Halberstadt, dated Dec. 23,,1705; yet what Vitruvius and Pliny call indicum is supposed to have been our indigo.-Beckmasnn. The first mention of indigo occurs in English statutes in 1581. The first brought to Europe was procured from Mexico. Its cultivation was begun in Carolina, in 1747. The quantity imported into Great Britain in 1840, was 5,831,2691b., and in 1845, it was 10,127,4881b. INDULGENCES. They were commenced by Leo. III., about A. D. 800; were much used by Urban II. 1090; and were subsequently conferred by the Roman pontiffs in the twelfth century as rewards to the crusaders. Clement V. was the first pope who made public sale of indulgences, 1313. In 1517, Leo. X. published general indulgences throughout Europe, when the practice led to the Reformation in Germany, in 1517, and to the Reformation in 368 THEU WOrLD'S PROGRESS. [ IN. England, in 1534.-Bower's Lives of the Popes. Indulgences were for the pardon of sins, and were sometimes so extensive as to be for the past, present, and to come. They were written upon parchment, and sealed anti signed by the pope or his delegates.-Ashe. INFIRMARIES. Ancient Rome had no houses for the cure of the sick. Diseased persons, however, were carried to the temple of Asculapius for a cure, as Christian believers were taken to churches which contained wonderworking images. Benevolent institutions for the accommodation of travellers, the indigent, and sick, were first introduced with Christianity, and the first infirnaries or hospitals were built close to cathedrals and monasteries. The emperor Louis II. caused infirmaries situated on mountains to Lb visited, A. D. 855. In Jerusalem the aknights and brothers attended on the sick. There were hospitals for the sick at Constantinople, in the 11th century. The oldest mention of physicians and surgeons established in infirmaries, occurs in 1437.-Beckima-ro. See Hospitals. INFORMERS. This tribe was once very numerous in Greece and Rome, they being countenanced by wicked princes. The emperor Titus punished informers by banishment, and sometimes death; and Pliny gives i)raise to Trajan for the like good policy. In England, and iparticularly in London, numbers of unprincipled men obtain large gains as informers against pe. sons whose slightest infractions of the law, often unconsciously committed, subject them to the power and exactions of this despised class. INK. The ancient black inks were composed of soot and ivory-black, and Vitruvius and Pliny mention lamp-black; but they had likewise valiouc: colors, as red, gold, silver, and purplle. Red ink was made by them of vermilion and various kinds of gum. INDIAN INK is brOUight from China, and must have been in use by the people of the cast from the earliest ages, most of the artificial Chinese productions being of very great antiquity. It is usually brought to Europe in small quadrangular cakes, and is composed of a fine black and animal glue.-Beckmanav. INNS or' COURT. A number of inns of court were established at different periods, in some degree as colleges for teaching the law. The Temple (of which there were three societies, nanely, the Inner, the Middle and the Outer) was originally founded in the Temple chulrch, built by the knig'hts Templars, 32 Henry II. 1185. The inner and Middle Temple were made inns of law in the reign of Edward III., about 1340; the Outer not until the reign of Elizabeth, about 1560.-Stowe's Sur'vey. INOCULATION. Lady Mary Wortley Montague introduced inoculation in England from Turkey. In 1718 she had her own son inoculated at Adrianople, with perfect success; and she was allowed to have it tried, for the first time in England, on seven condemned criminals, 7 George I. 1721. The practice was preached against by many of the bishops and other clergy from that period until 1760.* Vaccine inoculation was introduced by Dr. Jenner, January 21, 1799; he had discovered its virtue in 1796, and had been making experiments during the intermediate three years. He was voted 10,0001. as a reward by parliament, June 2, 1802. The emperor Na poleon valued this service of Dr. Jenner to mankind so highly that he libeberated Dr. Wickham, when a prisoner of war, at Jenner's request, and subsequently the emperor liberated whole families of English, making it a i Inoculation was deemed a very precarious affair by our grandfathers. The London Daily Advertiser (Nov. 7, 1751) has this paragraph:-" We hear that the son and daughter of Thomas Davison, esq., of Blakestone, have been inoculated in this town (Newcastle), and that they are both well recovered." Dr. Mead practised inoculation very successfully up to 1754, and Dr Dimsdale of London inoculated Catharine II., empress of Russia, in 1768. See small Pox. tNS ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 369 point to refuse him nothing that he asked. Innoculation introduced in the United States by Dr. B. Waterhouse, 1800. See SliLall Pox and Vaccinatio;n. INQUISITION. Before the conversion of Constantine the Great, the bishops only examined into doctrines, and punished heresy with excommunication; but after the emperors became Christians, they ordained that such as were excommunicated should be also banished and forfeit their estates. This continued till about the year 800, when the western bishops' power was enlarged to the authority of citing persons to their courts, both to convict and punish them by imprisonment, penances, or death. In the twelfth century, heresy, as it was then called, was much increased; and the inquisition arose in the persecution of the Albigenses and Waldenses. It was instituted by pope Innocent III., in 1203; and Gregory IX. in a council held at Toulouse in 1229, gave it its final form, committing the management of it to the bishops; but afterwards thinking these too indulgent, he gave the direction of his inquisition to the Dominicans. It was established in France, by St. Louis, in 1226; and in the four Christian kingdoms of Spain. It was established in Portugal in 1536. The last great Auto da Fe was celebrated in 1781; and although the rack and faggot are not now employed in the work of torture and death, yet the power of the Holy office is still exercised in encouraging vexations; enjoining ridiculous penances and privations; prohibiting liberal institutions; and interdicting useful books. INSANITY. In England within twenty years, insanity has more than tripled. In France it is more extensive in proportion to its population than it is in most other countries. The total nullber of lunatics and idiots in England is as follows: lunatics 6806-idiots 5741-together 12.547; but allowing for defective retulrns, the number may be taken at 14,000-an average of onte to every t/housaLd of the population. In Wales: lunatics 133idiots 763-total 896; and adding for parishes that have made no returns, they may be set down at 1000 —a proportion of one to eight hunmdred. Scotland has 3652 insane persons-or ogle to about seven hundred. In Ireland the number of lunatics and idiots exceeds 8000, as shown by returns, which, however, were not completed.-Sir Andrew elalliday. The number of insane persons and idiots in the United States, in 1840, was 17,434. There were 23 asylums *-capable of containing 2840 patients. Great advances have been made of late years in the treatment of insanity. The late Dr, A. Brigham of Utica, formerly of Hartford, was an able and successful philanthropist in. this cause. INSOLVENCY IN THE UNITED STATES. In May, 1837, a'commercial crisis' was at its height. The'heavy' failures, in two months, in New York alone amounted to 260, besides countless smaller ones. Failures in New Orleans to the amount of' $27.000;000 in two days. In Boston 168 failures from Nov. 1, 1836, to May 12, 1837. New York city Banks all suspended specie payments May 10, 1837. The New England Banks generally; immediately after. INSOLVENCY. The first Insolvent Act in England was passed in 1649, but it was of limited operation; a number of acts of more extensive operation were,passed at various periods, and particularly in the reign of George III. The benefit of the act known as the Great Insolvent Act, was taken in Eugland, by 50,733 insolvents, from the time of its passing in 1814, to March 1827, a period of thirteen years. Since then, the acts relating to insolvency have been several times amended. Persons not traders, or, being traders, whose'debts are less than 3001., may petition the Court of Bankruptcy, and propose compositions, and have pro ten. protection from all process against his person and property, 6 Vict., 1842. Act amended, 8 Vict., Aug., 1844. INSURANCE ON SHIPS AND MERCHANDISE. Suetonius conjectures that 16* 370 THE WORLDIS PROGRESS. [INV Claudius was the first contriver of it, A. D. 43. Insurance was in general use in Italy in 1194, and in England in 1560. Insurance policies were first used in Florence in 1523. The first law relating to insurance was enacted in 160;i. Insurance of' houses and goods in London began in 1667. This was the year following that of the great fire of London. An office was then set up for insuring houses and buildings, principally contrived by Dr. Barton, one of the first and most extensive builders of the city of London. The first regular office set up in London was the Hand-in-Ltanld, in 1696. A duty was laid on insurances of Is. 6d. per hundred pounds insured, in 1782: this duty was increased in 1797, and was variously altered since. The date of the first insurance office in the United States, has not been ascertained. INSURRECTIONS IN THE UNITED STATES. Shay's Insurrection in Massachusetts (caused by the scarcity of money and heavy taxes), 1786. Insurrection in Pennsylvania, caused by duties on spirits, 1794. See the accounts of Conspiracies, Massacrles, Rebellions, Riots, &c. INTEREST or MONEY. It was twenty per cent. in Europe in the twelfth century. Fixed at twelve per cent. in Spain, Germany and Flanders, by Charles V. in 1560.-Robertson. Till the fifteenth century,. no Christians were allowed to receive interest of money, and Jews were the only usurers, and, therefore, often banished and persecuted. Interest was first settled by law'in England at ten per cent., 37 Henry VIII., 1546. This law was repealed by Edward VI.; but it was restored by Elizabeth. In those days the monarch could not borrow without the collateral security of the metropolis. Interest was reduced to eight per cent., and the word first used instead of usury, 21 James I., 1624. Reduced by the Rump-parliament to six per cent.; and so confirmed at the Restoration. Reduced to five per cent., 13 Anne, 1714, at which rate it remains. The rate in Ireland is six per cent.; regulated 14 George III., 1773. All interest above the legal standard of Britain is usury. and punishable by the statute.-Btackstone. The law does not now apply,-t bills having only 60 days to run. See Usury Laws. INTEREST or MONEY IN THE UNITED STATES. The rates vary in different States, viz:-In La. five pr. ct., in Maine, N. H., Vt., Mass., R. I., Conn., N. J., Pa., Del., Md., Va., N. Ca., Tenn. Kent., Ohio, Ind., Illin., Misco., Ark., and the United States government claims, the rate is six per cent. In N. Y., S. Ca., Mich., and Wise., seven per cent. In Geo., Ala., Mississ., and Flor., eight per cent. Laws against usury, with penalty of forfeiting the whole debt, in Me., ConI., N. Y., N. J., Penn., Del. Forf'eit of the usury, and double, treble, the usury, in 14 other States. Usurious contracts void in Md., N. Ca., Geo., Tenn., Ohio, Ark. INUNDATIONS, It would be impossible to record in this volume the numerous catastrophes which class under this head; the following are among the most remarkable:An inundation at Glasgow, which drowned lands, and were called The Great Waters more than 400 families, 738.-Fordun. for 100 years after, 1 Richard 1II. 1483. — Flanders inundated by the sea, and the town Hollinshed. and harbor of Ostend totally immersed, A general inundation by the failure of th, 1108. The present city was built above a dikes in Holland, 1530; the numberi of league from the channel where the old one drowned said to have been 400,000. lies submerged.-Iistoise de Flandre. At Catalonia, where 50,000 persons perishAt the Texel, which first raised the cornm- ed, 1617. merce of Amsterdam, 1400. An inundation at Yorkshire, when a rock The sea broke in at Dort, and drowned 72 opened,'and poured out water to the height villages, and 100,000 people, and formed of a church steeple, 1686. —Vide Phil. the Zuyder Sea (see Dort), April 17,1446. Trans. The Severn overflowed during ten days, and Part of Zealand overflowed, 1300 inhabitants carried away men, women, and children, were drowned, and incredible damage was in their beds, and covered the tops of many done at Hamburg, 1717. mountains; the waters settled upon the At Madrid, several of the Spanish nobility lOW J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 371 ~INUNDATIONS, conotintned. and other persons of distinction perished, At Vienna, the dwellings of 50,000 of its in1723.-Du Fresnoy. habitants laid under water. Feb. 1830. In Navarre, where 2000 persons lost their 10,000 houses swept away, arkd about i000 lives by the torrents from the mountains, persons perished, at Cantor.,. ir Chma, in Sept. 1787. consequence of an inundation, occasioned At Pest, near Presburg, the overflow of the by incessant rains. Equal or greater caDanube, by which 24 villages and their lamity was pruduced by the same cause inhabitants were swept away, April 1811. in other parts of China. Oct. 1833. By the overflow of the Danube, a Turkish Awful inundation in Firance; the Saone corps of 2000 men, on a small island near poured its waters into the Rhone, broke Widdin, were surprised, and met instant through its banks, and covered 60,000 death, Sept. 14, 1813. acres; Lyons was inundated, in Avignon In Silesia, 6000 inhabitants perished, and the 100 houses were swept away; 218 houses ruin of the French army under Macdonald were carried away at La Guillotiere; and was accelerated by the floods; also in Po- upwards of 300 at Vaise, Marseilles, and land 4000 lives were supposed to have Nismes; the Saone had not attained such been lost, same year. a height for 238 years, Oct. 31 to Nov. 4, In Germany, 119 villages were laid under 1840. water, and great loss of life and property Inundation of the Mississippi at New Orwas sustained, in March 1816. leans, 160 squares and 1600 houses floodAwful inundation at Dantzic, occasioned by ed, May 12, 1849. the Vistula breaking through some of its The inundations of the Ohio, Mississippi, dikes, by which 10,000 head of cattle and &c., at different times, have caused great 4000 houses were destroyed, and numerous destruction of property, and (at times) of lives lost, April 9, 1829. life. INVOCATION OF THE VIRGIN AND SAINTS. The practice of the Romish church of invoking the intercession of saints with God, particularly the prayers to the Virgin, has been traced to the time of Gregory the Great, about A. D. 593.-Ashe. The Eastern church begun (in the fifth century) by calling upon the dead, and demanding their suffrage as present in the divine offices; but the Western church carried it so far as frequently to canonize those they had any regard for, though the wickedness of their lives gave'them no title to any such honor, to make processions, masses, litanies, prayers and oblations for and to them. IODINE. This most important substance was discovered by M. de Courtois, a manufacturer of saltpetre at Paris, in 1812; the discovery was pursued with great advantage by M. Clement, in 1813. Iodine is very active; it is of a violet hue, easily evaporates, and melts at 220 degrees; changes vegetable blues to yellow, and a seven-thousandth part converts water to a deep yellow color, and starch into a purple. Five volumes of oxygen and one of iodine form iodic acid. IONIAN ISLANDS. They were subject to Venice until ceded byche treaty of Campo-Formio to France, in 1797. By a treaty between Russia and Great Britain they were placed under the protection of the latter power, November 5, 1815. A constitution was ratified by the prince regent of England for the government of these islands in 1818. The Ionian Islands are now among the free states of Europe. Corfu is the principal, and the seat of government. IONIC ORDER oF ARCHITECTURE. This order which is an improvement on the Doric, was founded by the Ionians, about 1350 B. c.- Vitruvius by Perra ault. IONIC SECT or PHILOSOPHERS. Founded by Thales of Miletus, 570 B. c. This sect distinguished itself for its deep and abstruse speculations, under the successors and pupils of the Milesian philosopher, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Auaxagoras, and Archelaus, the master of Socrates. IOWA, now one of the United States, once formed part of the French possessions, and was included in the vast tract of country purchased in 1803 under the general name of Louisiana. First purchase of land from the Indians in Iowa was made in 1832. Iowa separated from Wisconsin as a territory, 1838. Admitted into the Union, Dec. 1846. Population in 1840, 43,111. 372 TIE WORLD'S PROG.IJSS. [ IRO IPSUS, BATTLE OF, by which Seleucus is confirmed in his kingdom by the defeat and, death of Antigonus, king of Asia. On the one side were Antigonus and his son; on the other Seleucus, Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Cassander. The former led into the field an army of above 70,000 foot, and 10,000 horse, with 75 elephants. The latter's forces consisted of 64,000 infantry, besides 10,500 horse, 400 elephants, and 120 armed chariots. Antigonus and his son were defeated, 301 B. c.-Plutarc/b. IRELAND. It is disputed by historians from what nation this country was originally peopled. It seems, however, to be satisfactorily shown that the first colonists were Phoenicians. The Partholani landed in Ireland about 2048 B. c. The descent of the Damnonii was made about 1463 B. c. This was followed by the descent of Heber and Heremon, Milesian princes, from Galicia, in Spain, who conquered Ireland, and gave to its throne a race of 171 kings. Arrival of Heremonr - B. C. 1070 sacre the Protestant settlers iniUlster, A colony from Spain bring with them to the number of 40,000 persons, cornthe Phoenician letters, about - - 500 menced on St. Ignatius's day, Oct. 23, 1641 Arrival of St. Patrick - A. D. 448 Cromwell and Ireton reduce the whole The renowned Brian Boiroimhe is island to obedience between 1649 and 1656 crowned at Tara - - - 1002 Landing of king William III. at CarBattle of Clontarf, which terminates rickiergus - - June 14, 1690 the power of the Danes -1039 Battle of the Boyne; the Duke of [In the twelfth century Ireland is divi- Schomberg killed. July 1, 1690 ded into five kingdoms, viz.: Ulster, Memorable Irish rebellion commenced Leinster, Meath, Connaught, and May 4,1798, and was not finally supMunster; besides a number of petty pressed until the next year - - 1799 principalities, whose sovereigns con- Legislative Union of Great Britain and tinually war with each other.] Ireland - - - Jan. 1, 1S0-L Adrian IV. permitted Henry II. to in- Emmett's insurrection - July 23, 1803 vade Ireland, on condition that he Roman Catholic emancipation. (See compelled every Irish family to pay sRomean Catholics) - April 13, 1829 a carolus to the Holy See, and held Great repeal movement; meeting at it as a fief of the church - 1157 Trim. (See Repeal) - March 19, 1843 Henry II. lands near Waterford, and re- O'Connell's trial. (See Ts-ials) Jan. 15, 1844 ceives the submissions of the kings O'Connell died at Genoa, aet. 72, May 13, 1847 and princes of the country, settles the Famine and great distress in Ireland government upon a footing similar to throughout - - - - 1847 that of England, and makes his son Relieved by England, and by voluntary John lord of Ireland - -1172 gifts from the United States. Ireland wholly subdued - - - 1210 Bill for suppression of crime in Ireland English laws and customs introduced passed parliament - Dec. 20, 1517 by king John - - - - 1210 Mitchell convicted of treason - AMay26,1848 Henry VIII. assumes the title of king, Habeas Corpus act suspended, July25, 1848 instead of lord of Ireland - - 1542 Smith O'Brien arrested, and the rebelThe Catholics enter into a conspiracy to lion put down - Aug. 5, 1848 expel the English, and cruelly masIRON. It was found on Mount Ida by the Dactyles, owing to the forests of the mount having been burnt by lightning, 1432 B. c.-Ar)lbdeliast 1MIarblcs. The Greeks ascribed the discovery of iron to themselves and referred glass to the Phoenicians; but Moses relates that iron was wrought by Tubal-Cain. Iron furnaces among the Romans were unprovided with bellows, but were placed on eminences with the grate in the direction of the prevailing winds. Swedish iron is very celebrated, and Daunemora is the greatest mine of Sweden. British iron was cast by Ralph Page and Peter Baude, in Sussex in 1543.-Rysnmer-'s Eaderca. Iron-mills were first used for slitting iron into bars for smiths by Godfrey Bochs, in 1590. Tinning of iron was first introduced from Bohemia in 1681. There are upwards of 800,000 tons of iron produced annually in England.* For iron vessels, iron war-steamers, &d., see Steamers. * There is iron enough in the blood of forty-two ien to make a ploughshare weighing twentyfour pounds.-Anon. iTA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 373 IRON-MASK, THE MAN OF THE. A mysterious prisoner in France, wearing a mask, and closely confined, under M. de St. Mars, at Pignerol, Sainte Marguerite, and afterwards at the Bastile. He was of noble mien, and was treated with profound respect; but his keepers had orders to dispatch him if he uncovered. M. de St. Mars himself always placed the dishes on his table, and stood in his presence. Some conjecture him to have been an Armenian patriarch forcibly carried from Constantinople, although he died ten years before the mask; others that he was the count de Vermandois, son of Louis XIV., although he was reported to have perished in the camp before Diximude. More believe him to have been the celebrated duke of Beauf0lt, whose head is recorded to have been taken off before Candia; while,till more assert that he was the unfortunate James, duke of Monmouth, who, in the imagination of the Londoners, at least, was executed on Tower-hill. But there are two better conjectures; he is said to have been a son of Anne of Austria, queen of Louis XIII., his father being ttl-: duke of Buckingham; or the twin-brother of Louis XIV., whose birth was concealed to prevent civil dissensions in France, which it might one day have caused. The mask died after a long imprisonment, Nov. 19, 1703. ISLAMISM. The religion of Mahomet, planned by him in a cave near Mecca, where he employed a Persian Jew, well versed in history and laws, and two Christians, to assist him. One of' these latter was of the Jacobite, and the other of the Nestorian sect. With the help of these men he framed his Koran, or the book which he pretended to have received at different times from heaven by the hands of the angel Gabriel. At the age of forty he publicly assumed the prophetical character, calling himself the apostle of God, A. D. 604. See Ko'rant,.Mecca, f c. ISLE OF FRANCE. Discovered by the Portuguese in 1500; but the Dutch were the first settlers in 1598. The French formed their establishment at Port Louis in 1715. This island, together with six French frigates and many Indiamen was taken by the British, Dec. 2, 1810. They retain possession of it, and it is now a fixed British colony. Seecacsoitiius. ISMAEL, SIEGE or', in Bessarabia. After a long siege by the Russians, who lost 20;000 men before the place, the town was taken by storm, December 22, 1790; when the Russian general, Suwarrow, the most merciless and savage warrior of modern times, put the brave Turkish garrison, consisting of 30,000 men, to the sword; every man was butchered; and Suwarrow, not satisfied with this vengeance, delivered up Ismael to the pillage of his ferocious soldiery, and ordered the massacre of 6000 women, who were murdered in cold blood. ISSUS, BATTLE OF. Alexander defeats Darius in this, his second great battle with him; Darius loses 100,000 men, and his queen and family are captured, 333 B. c.-PIlt arcc. The Persians lost 100,000 foot and 10.000 horse in the field; and the Macedonians only 300 foot and 150 horse.-Diodoribs SiculLcs. The Persian army, according to Justin, consisted of 400,000 foot and' 100,000 horse, and 61,000 of the former, and 10,000 of the latter, were left dead on the spot, and 40,000 were taken prisoners.-Juistin. iSTHMIAN GAMES. These were combats among the Greeks, and received their name from the isthmus of Corinth, where they were observed, instituted in honor of Melicerta, 1326 a. c.-Lenglet. They were re-instituted in honor of Neptune by Theseus, and their celebration was held so sacred and inviolable that even a public calamity could not prevent it, 1259 B. c.Ar'ndelian farbicbles. ITALY. The garden of Europe, and the nurse of arts as well as arms. It received its name from ItalhZLs, a king of the country, or from Itrlos, a Greek word signifying an ox. The aborigines of Italy were the progeny of 374 THIE WORLD S PROGRESS. [JAG. Meshech, the sixth son of Japheth. In process of time, the Gomerites or Celts, who inhabited the greatest part of Gaul, sent several colonies into Italy, while other colonists arrived from Greece, and the country was di vided into three grand parts, viz.-Cisalpine Gaul, the settlement of the Celts; Italia Propria, the residence of the first inhabitants; and Magna Grwecia, the seat of the Grecian colonists. The modern inhabitants of Italy may be derived from the Goths and Lombards, who contributed so largely to the overthrow of the Roman empire, and who founded on its ruins the kingdoms of Italy and Lombardy. For Roman empire, see Taburlar VFiws. Rome taken and plundered by the Visi- The papal seat -removed for seventy goths under Alaric. See Rome A. D. 410 years to Avignon, in France - - 1308 The Ituns ravage the Roman empire The cardinals not agreeing in the elecunder Attila, "the Scourge of God" - 447 tion of a pope, they set fire to the conThe Western Roman empire is de- clave, and separate, and the papal stroyed by the Heruli, whose leader, chair is left vacant for two years - 1314 Odoacer, erects the kingdom of Italy 476 Louis Gonzaga makes himself master The reign of Totila, who twice pillages of Mantua, with the title of imperial Rome, and reduces the inhabitants to vicar 1328 such distress, that the ladies and peo- Lucca becomes an independent repuL ple of quality are obliged to beg for lic -1370 bread at the doors of the Goths - 511 to 552 Naples conquered by Clarles VIII. - 1492 The power of the Goths destroyed, and The republic of Venice loses all its Itatheir kingdom overthrown by the ge- lian provinces in a single campaign, nerals of the Eastern empire - - 553 assailed by the pope, the emperor, Narses, governor of Italy, invites the. and the kings of Spain and France - 1509 Lombards from Germany into this Leo X. having exhausted all his financountry 568 ces, opens the sale of indulgences and The Lombards overrun Italy - 596 absolutions, which soon replenishes Venice first governed by a doge - 697 his treasury - - - - 1517 Charlemagne invades Italy - - - 774 Parma and Placentia made a duchy - 1545 Ite repairs to Rone, and is crowned Cosmo de Medicis made grand-duke of emperor of the West - - 800 Tuscany by Pius V. - - - 1569 [During the reign of Charlemagne, the Pope Gregory XIiI. reforms the calenpope of Rome, who had hitherto been dar. See Calendar - - - 1582 merely a spiritual minister, finds Ambassadors from Japan to the pope. means to assume a temporal power, See Jeddo. -.161.) not only independent of, but superior The Corsicans'revolt from the Genoese, to all others.] and choose Theodore for their king. Pope Damasius II. is the first who caus- See Corsica - - - - 1736" es himself to be crowned with a tiara 1053 Milan vested in the house afAustria by Pope Gregory VII., surnamed Hilde- the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle 1748 brand, pretends to universal sove- Division of the Venetian states by reignty, in which he is assisted by the France and Austria - -1797 countess Matilda, mistress of the Italy overrun, and Pius VI. deposed by greater part of Italy, who makes a do- Bonaparte - 1798 nation of all her estates to the Church 1076 The Italian republic - - -1802 Disputes between the popes and empe- Italy formed into a kingdom, and Naporors, relative to the appointment of leon crowned - - -1866 bishops, begin about 1106, and agitate Eugene Beauharnois made Viceroy of Italy and Germany during several Italy -1805 centuries. The kingdom ceases on the overthrow The Venetians obtain many victories of Napoleon - - - 1814 over the Eastern emperors - -1125 [The various other events relating to Tuscany becomes independent - - 1208 Italy will be found under the respecThe duchies of Ferrara, Modena, and tive heads of Genoa, Lombardy. llMiReggio are created - - -1228 lan, Naples, Rsome, Venice, tc.] Milan erected into a duchy - -1277 Tile population of the whole of Italy proper now amounts to 23,677,000.Aln, de Gothia. J. J. Introduced into the alphabet by Giles Beys, printer, of Paris, 1660.-Du Fresnoy. JACOBINS. The name given to one of the principal parties in the French revolution. The Jacobin club originated from a small and secret association of about forty gentlemen and menof letters, who had united to disseminate JAN J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 375 political and other opinions; the members were called Jacobins fi-om their meeting in the hall of the Jacobin friars at Paris. The club became numerous and popular, and fraternal societies were instituted in all the principal towns of the kingdom. From its institution, one principal object was, to discuss such political questions as seemed likely to be agitated in the national assembly, in order that the members might act in concert. They are represented as having been determined enemies of monarchy, aristocracy, and the Christian religion, and may be regarded as the first grand spring of the revolution. They were suppressed October 18, 1794. The religious sect called Jacobins are those of both sexes who follow the rules of St. Dominick. See Dominicans. JACOBITES. A-sect among the eastern Christians, so called from Jacob Baradseus, a Syrian, whose heresy spread to a great extent in the sixth and seventh centuries. In England existed a political party called Jacobites. They were the partisans of James II., and were so named after his expulsion in 1688. Those who openly appeared in arms for, or who expressed their wishes to restore the.abdicated family, were called Jacobites; the distinction is now entirely lost. JAFFA. Celebrated in Scripture as Joppa, the port whence Jonah embarked, and the place where Peter raised Tabitha from the dead. In profane history, the place whence Perseus delivered Andromeda. Jaffa was taken by Bonaparte in February 1799; and the French were driven out by the British in June, same year. Here, according to -sir Robert Wilson, were massacred 3800 prisoners by Bonaparte: but this is reasonably doubted. JAMAICA. Discovered by Columbus, May 3, 1495. It was conquered from the Spaniards by admiral Penn, and the land forces commanded by Venables in 1655; the expedition had been planned by Oliver Cromwell against St. Domingo. An awful earthquake occurred here in 1692; and the island was desolated by a furious hurricane in 1722; and again 1734 and 1751. In June 1795, the Maroons, or original natives, who inhabit the mountains, rose against the English, and were not quelled till March 1796. Tremendous hurricane, by which the whole island was deluged, hundreds of houses washed away, vessels wrecked, and a thousand persons drowned, October 1815. An alarming insurrection, commenced by the negro slaves, in which numerous plantations were burned, and property of immense value destroyed. Before they were overpowered, the governor, lord Belmore, declared the island under martial law, Dec. 22, 1831. Awful fire here, Aug. 26, 1843. The Cholera in 1850. JANISSARIES. This order of infantry in the Turkish army was formerly reputed to be the grand seignor's foot guards. They were first raised by Amurath I. in 1361; and have several times deposed the sultan. Owing to an insurrection of these troops on the 14th June, 1826, when 3000 of them were killed on the spot, the Ottoman army was reorganized, and a firman was issued declaring the abolition of the Janissaries two days afterwards. JANSENISM. This sect was founded by Cornelius Jansen, bishop of Ypres, about 1625. Jansen was a prelate of piety and morals, but his "AZtlastinuss," a book in which he maintained the Augustine doctrine of free grace, and recommended it as the true orthodox belief, kindled a fierce controversy on its publication in 1640, and was condemned by a bull of pope Urban VIII. JANUARY. This month, the first in our year, derives its name from Janus, a divinity among the early Romans. See next article. January was added to the Roman calendar by Numa: 713 B. c. He placed it about the winter solstice, and made it the first month, because Janus was supposed to preside over the beginning of all business. This god was painted with two faces, 3876 THE WORLD S PROGIESS. L JEbecause, as some persons have it, on the one side the first of January looked towards the new year, and on the other towards the old one. On the first day, it was customnary for friends and acquaintances to make each otherpresents, from whence the custom of new year's gifts, still retained among us, was originally taken. JANUS, TEMPLE OF, at Rome. Was erected by Romulus, and kept open in the time of war and closed in time of peace. It was shut only twice, during above 700 years, viz: —under Numa, 714 B. c. and under Augustus, 5 B. c.; and during that long period of time, the Romans were continually employed in war. JANVILLIERS, BATTLE OF, between the French and Prussians, in which, after: an obstinate engagement, Blucher, who commanded the latter army, was driven back to Chalons with considerable loss, February 14, 1814. About this period there were many battles fought between Napoleon and Blucher, and Napoleon and prince Schxvartzenberg, until the capitulation of Paris, March 31, 1814. JAPAN. This island was first made known to Europe by Marco Paulo; and was visited by the Portuguese about 1535. The Japanese are as fabulous as the Chinese in the antiquity of their empire, but the certain period begins with the hereditary succession of the ecclesiastical emperors, from the year 660 B. c. The English visited Japan in 1612. There was once a great number of Christians in different parts of the empire; but, in 1622, they underwent great persecutions, insomuch that they were all extirpated. See Jeddo. JAVA. The atrocious massacre of 20,000 of the unarmed natives by the Dutch, sparing neither women nor ch-ildren, to possess their efbects, took place in 1740, and for its cruelty and cowardice fixes an indelible stain not only upon their nation, but upon man. The island capitulated to the British, August 8, 1811. The sultan was dethroned by the English, and the hereditary prince raised to the throne, -in June, 1813. Java was restored to Holland in 1814. JEDDO. The capital of Japan, containing about 1.680,000 inhabitants, a numnearly equal to London. In 1619, ambassadors fiom Japan arrived at the court of Paul V. to do him homage as the head of the Christian religion, which their master had embraced through the preaching of the Jesuit missionaries; but the misconduct of the Jesuits, who were endeavoring to overturn the Japanese government, caused them to be expelled in 1622, and thite inhabitants relapsed into their former idolatry. The emperor's palace is of indescribable magnificence; its hall of audience is supported by many pillars of massive gold and plates of gold cover its three towers, each nine stories high. Several other costly palaces, belonging to the emperor, empress, concubines, and vassal kings, enrich this great eastern city. JEMMAPPES, BATTLE OF, one of the most obstinate and bloody of modern times; 40,000 French troops forced 28,000 Austrians, who were intrenched in woods and mountains, defended by forty redoubts, and an immense number of cannon; the revolutionary general Dumouriez was the victor in this battle, which lasted four days. According to the most authentic accounts, the number of killed on the side of the Austrians amounted to 10,000, on that of the French to 12,000, Nov. 5, 1792. JENA, BATTLE OF, one of the most sanguinary of modern times, between the French and Prussian armies; the one commanded by the emperor Napoleon, and the other by the Prussian king, who was signally defeated, with the loss of 30,000 slain, and nearly as many thousands made prisoners. In -JES j DICTIONARY OF DATE-S. 377 this battle the Prussians lost 200 field-pieces, and Napoleon advanced to Berlin, Oct. 14, 1806. JERSEY. GUERNSEY, SARK, AND ALDERNEY, appendages to the duchy of Normandy, were united to the crown of England, by William the Conqueror, in 1066. Jersey was attempted by the French in 1779 and 1781. A body of French troops surprised the governor,' made him prisoner, and compelled him to sign a capitulation; but major Pierson, the commander of the English troops, refusing to abide by this forced capitulation, attacked the French, and compelled them to surrender prisoners of war; but he was killed in the moment of victory, Jan. 6, 1781. JERUSALEM. Built 1800 a. c. The first and most famed Temple was founded by Solomon, 1015 B. c.; and was solemnly dedicated on Friday, October 30, 1004 B. c., being one thousand years before the birth of Christ.-Blair; Usher; Bible. Jerusalem was taken by the Israelites, 1048 B. c. and by Nebuchadnezzar, 587 B. c. Razed to the ground by Titus, A. D. 70, after one of the most remarkable sieges in history. More than 1,100,000 of the Jews perished on this occasion. A city was built on the ruins of the former by the emperor Adrian, A. D. 130. The walls were rebuilt by the empress Eudoxia in 437. Jerusalem was taken by the Persians in 614; by the Sar.acens in 636; and by the crusaders, when 70,000 infidels were put to the sword, 1099. A new kingdom was founded, which lasted 88 years. Taken from the Christians by Saladin, in 1187; and by the Turks, who drove away the Saracens in 1217. Jerusalem was taken by the French under Bonaparte in February 1799. See Jews. JESTER. In some ancient works, a jester is described as " a witty and jocose person, kept by princes to inform them of their faults, and those of other men, under the disguise of a waggish story." Several of the early English kings kept jesters; and particularly the Tudors. There was a jester at court in the reign of James I., but we hear of no licensed jester afterwards. JESUITS. The order was founded by Ignatius Loyola (who was canonized), a page to Ferdinand V. of Spain, and subsequently an officer of his army. Loyola having been wounded at the siege of Pampeluna, in both legs, A. D. 1521, —devoted himself to theology while under cure, and renounced the military for the ecclesiastical profession. His first devout exercise was to dedicate his life to the Blessed Virgin as her knight; he next made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and on his return laid the foundation for his new order in France. He presented the institutes of it in 1539, to pope Paul III. who made many objections to them; but Ignatius adding to the three vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience, a fourth of implicit submission to the holy see, the institution was confirmed by'a bull, September 27, 1540, by which their number was not to exceed 60. That clog, however, was taken off by another bull, March 14, 1543; and popes Julius III., Pius V., and Gregory XIII., granted them such great privileges as rendered them powerful and numerous. But though Francois Xavier, and other missionaries, the first brothers of the order, carried it to the extremities of the habitable globe, it met with great opposition in Europe, particularly at Paris. The Sorbonne issued a decree in 1554, by which they condemned the institution, as being calculated rather for the ruin than the edification of the faithful. Even in Romish countries. the intrigues and seditious writings of this order, have occasioned it to be discountenanced. The Jesuits were expelled England by proclamation, 2 James I. 1604, and Venice 1606. They were put down in France by an edict from the king, and their revenues confiscated, 1764; and were banished Spain 1767. Suppressed by pope Clement XIV. in 1773. Restored by Pius VII. in 1814; and since tolerated in other states, 378 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ JEwand even where not tolerated, the body, as now in England, possesses a secret and extensive existence. JESUS CHRIST. Born on Monday, December 25, A. M. 4004, in the year of Rome 752; but this event should be dated four years before the commencement of the common era. See Nativity. Christ's baptism by John, and his first ministry, A. D. 30. He celebrated the last passover, and instituted the sacrament in its room, on Thursday, April 2. He was crucified on Fiiday, April 3, at three o'clock in the afternoon. He arose, April 5; ascended to heaven from Mount Olivet, on Thursday, May 14, following: and his Spirit descended on his disciples on Sunday, the day of Pentecost, May 24, A. D. 33. JEWELRY. Worn by most of the early nations. So prodigious was the extravagance of the Roman ladies, that Pliny the elder says, he saw Lollia Paulina wearing ornaments which were valued at 322,9161. sterling. Jewels were worn in France by Agnes Sorel, in 1434. The manufacture was extensively encouraged in England in 1685. See article Dress. JEWISH ERA. The Jews usually employed the era of the Seleucidse until the fifteenth century, when a new mode of computing was adopted by them. They date from the creation, which they consider to have been 3760 years and three months before the commencement of our era. To reduce Jewxxi-'h time to ours, subtract 3761 years. JEWS. A people universally known both in ancient and modern times. They derive their origin from Abraham, with whom, according to the Old Testament and the Jewish writers, God made a covenant, 1921 B. c. See Tabulr Views, p. 6 to p. 42. JEWS, MODERN HISTORY OF. Titus takes Jerusalem; the city and are condemned in a fine of 20,000 temple are sacked and burnt, and marks 1235 1,100,000 of the Jews perish, multi- They crucify a child at Lincoln, for tudes destroying themselves A. D. 70 which eighteen are hanged - 1255 100,000 Greeks and Romans are mur- 700 Jews are slain in London, a Jew dered by the Jews about Cyrene - 115 having forced a Christian to pay him Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem, and erects more than 2s. per week as interest a temple to Jupiter - - 130 upon a loan of20s.-Stowe. - 1262 More than 580,000 of the Jews are slain Statute that no Jew should enjoy a freeby the Romans, in 135 and -. 136 hold, passed.. 1269 [They are now banished from Judea by Every Jew lending money on interest an edict of the emperor, and are for- compelled to wear a plate on his bidden to return, or even to look back breast signifying that he was a usuupon their once flourishing and be- rer, or to quit the realm - -1274 loved city, on pain of death. From 267 Jews hanged and quartered for - this period, the Jews have been scat- clipping coin - -1277 tered among all other nations.] They crucify a child at Northampton, for which fifty are drawn at horses' GENERAL HISTORY. tails and hanged -1282 Jews first arrive in England - - 1078 15.660 Jews are apprehended in one Thinking to invoke the divine mercy, at day, and are all banished England. — a solemnization of the Passover, they Rapir - -.1287 sacrifice a youth, the son of a rich Massacre of the Jews at Verdun by the tradesman at Paris, for which the peasantry; 500 defend themselves in criminals are executed, and all Jews a castle, where, for want of weapons, banished France - 1080 they throw their children at their enThe Jews massacred in London, on the emies, and then destroy one another i:317 coronation-day of Richard I., at the A fatal distemper raging in Eulope, instigation of the priests - 1089 they are suspected of having poison500 being besieged in York castle by ed the springs, and 1,500,000 are masthe mob, they cut each other's throats sacred.-Lenglet. - - - 1348 to avoid their fury - - 1190 500,000 Jews ale banished Spain, and Jews of both sexes imprisoned; their 150,000 from Portugal - - 1492 eyes or teeth plucked out, and num- They are banished France - - 1494 bers inhumanly butchered, by king After having been banished England John -1204 365 years, they are re-admitted by They circumcise and attempt to cruci- Cromwell, in virtue of a treaty with fy a child at Norwich; the offenders Manasseh Ben Israel - - - 1552 JUD ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 379 JFWS, continued. Statute to naturalize them in England, land, lost on the second reading, by a passed -1753 majority in the Commons, 228 against This act repealed on the petition of all 165 - - - May 17, 1830 the cities in England - - 1754 Moses Montefiore, esq., elected sheriff The Jews of Spain, Portugal, and of London; and knighted by the Avignon are declared to be citizens queen, being the first Jew on whom of France - - - 1790 that honor has been conferred, Nov. 9, 1837 Sitting of the great Sanhedrim, of Paris, Ukase of the emperor of Russia, perconvened by the emperor Napoleon mitting the title of citizen of the first Jan. 20, 1807 class to be held by any Jew who renLondon Society for promoting Christi- ders himself worthy of it - - 1839 anity among the Jews - 1808 Owing to the disappearance of a Greek Alexander of Russia grants land on the priest, a persecution of the Jews besea of Azoph to converted Jews, gan at I)a. ascus.-See Damascus Sept. 1, 1820 Feb. 1, 1840 Bill for Jewish emancipation in EngJOAN OF ARC, OR MAID OF ORLEANS. The young and celebrated heroine of France. The English under Bedford closely besieging Orleans, Joan of Are pretended she had a divine commission to expel them, and Charles VII. intrusted her with the command of the French troops. She raised the siege, and entered Orleans with supplies, April 29, 1429, and the English who were before the place from October 12, preceding, abandoned the enterprise, May 8, following. She captured several towns in the possession of the English, whom she defeated in a battle near Patay, June 10, 1429. In her various achievements no unfeminine cruelty ever stained her conduct. She was wounded several times herself, but never killed any one, or shed any blood with her own hand. She was taken at the siege of Compiegne, May 25, 1431; and to the great disgrace of the English, was burnt for a witch five days afterwards at Rouen, in the 22d (some say 29th) year of her age.- Voltair'e's Pucelle d' Orleans. JOHN DOE AND RICHARD ROE. Names, as pledges to prosecute, well known in the law. Magna Char'ta demanded witnesses before trial, and since the reign of Edward III. the fictitious names of John Doe and Richard Roe are put into writs, as pretended witnesses. JUBILEE. By Mosaic institution the Jews celebrate a Jubilee every fifty years. Among the Christians a jubilee every century was instituted by pope Boniface VIII., in the year 1300. It was celebrated every fifty years by command of pope Clement VI.; and was afterwards reduced by Urban VI. to every thirty-third year; and Sixtus V. to every twenty-fifth year, at which period it is now fixed. JUDGES. On the Norman conquest the judges had the style of Jzusticia'iets Anglie.: these judges continued until the erection of the Courts of King's Bench and Common Pleas. The last who had the office of JtLsticiarixs Angtice was Phillip Basset, in 1261. Judges punished for bribery, 17 Edward I. 1288, when Thomas de Weyland was banished the land; and in 1351, William de Thorp was hanged. John de Cavendish was beheaded by the Kentish rebels, 1382. Tresylian, chief justice, was executed for favoring despotism, and other judges were seized and condemned, 1388. The prince of Wales was committed by Judge Gascoigne for assaulting himn on the bench, 1412. Sir Thomas More, lord chancellor, was beheaded, July 6, 1535. Judges threatened with impeachment, and Berkeley taken off the bench and committed by the commons, 1641. Three impeached, 1680. Most of them dismissed for not allowing the legality of a dispensing power in the crown, 3 James II. 1687. The celebrated Judge Jefferies was committed by the lord mayor to the Tower, where he died, 1689. The independence of the judges in England was established by making their appointments patents for life, 1761. Judges were sent to India, 1773. Three additional judges, 380 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [JUL one to each court, were appointed, 1784. A new judge took his seat as vice-chancellor, May 5, 1813. JUDGES IN THE UNITED STATES. Those of the Supreme Court, eight in number, are appointed for life or during good conduct, by the President and Senate. The chief justices of the Supreme Court of the United States have been John Jay, appointed, 1789; William Cushing, of Mass., 1796; Oliver Ellsworth, 1796; John Marshall, 1801; Roger B. Taney, 1836. U. S. Circuit Judges were first appointed 1801. The judges of the several States are thus appointed:By the Gove'rnor and Legislature, or Senate, or Council, in Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Maryland, Louisiana, Missouri, Indiana, and Michigan. By the Legislature alone, in Vermont, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Jersey, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Arkansas, Tennessee, Ohio, and Illinois. By the Governor alone in Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Kentucky. By popular vote, in Mississippi and in New York.* THE TERM OF OFFICE of the superior judges, is for life (or " during good behavior ") in Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia. North Carolina, South Carolina, Louisiana, Kentucky and Illinois. Until seventy years of age, in Maine, New Hampshire, Connecticut. Until sixty-five years of age, in Missouri. For periods varying from two to twelve years, in New Jersey, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Tennessee, Ohio, Indiana, Michigan; and for one year in Rhode Island, and Vermont. THEY ARE REMOVABLEBy impeachment in fourteen States. By conviction of misconduct in a court of law, in Maryland. By joint resolution of Senate, and two-thirds of Assembly, in New York. JUDICIAL COMMITTEE oP THE PRIVY COUNCIL, in lieu of the Court of Delegates, for appeals from the Lord Chancellors of England and Ire. land in cases of lunacy-from the Ecclesiastical and Admiralty Courts of England, and Vice Admiralty Courts abroad-fiom the Courts of the Isle of' Man, the Colonial Courts, &c., fixed by statute 3 and 4 William IV. 1833. JUGGERNAUT, or "Lord of the world." The first object of Hindoo venerawtion, is a celebrated idol of an irregular pyramidical black stone, with two rich diamonds to represent eyes; the nose and mouth are painted vermnillion, and the visage is frightful. The number of pilgrims that visit the god is stated at 1,200,000 annually: of these a great many never return, and7 to the distance of fifty miles the way is strewed with human bones: the temple of Juggernaut has existed above 800 years. JUGURTHA, THE WAR WITH. -A memorable war against the Numidian to reduce his kingdom, commenced 111 B. c. and continued five years. Cecilius Metellus was first sent against him, and defeated hinm in two battles; and afterwards Sylla and Marius; the latter of whom dragged him in chains to Rome to adorn his triumph. The name and wars of Jugurtha have been immortalized by the pen of Sallust. JULIAN PERIOD. A term of years produced by the multiplication of the lunar cycle 19, solar cycle 28, and Roman indiction 15. It consists of 7980 * The election of judges by the people, in New York, was first provided for by the new consti. tution of 1846. JUIt] DICTIONAIRY OF DATES. 381 years, and began 4713 years before our era. ~ It has been employed in computing time, to avoid the puzzling ambiguity attendant on reckoning any period antecedent to our era, an advantage which it has in common with the mundane eras used at different times. By subtracting 4713 from the Julian period, our year is found; if before Christ, subtract the Julian period from 4714. For Julian year, see Calendcar and Year. JULY. The seventh month of the year, from the Latin Jadiis, the surname of C. Cesar, the dictator of Rome, who was born in it. It was the fifth month in the Roman calendar until Numa added January and February to the year, 713 B. c. See t/hose mont/es severally, and article Year. rUNE. The sixth month, but originally the fourth month of the Roman year. It had its name Juenis, which some derive a Jueneone, and others 4 JenDioribils, this being for the young, as the month of May was for aged persons. When Numa added two months before March, this month became, as it is now, the sixth of the calendar, 713 B. c. See Year. JUNIUS'S LETTERS. Junius was the assumed name of a concealed political writer, who published his letters in the Public Advertiser', in 1769. They were written in a nervous, sarcastic, and clear style, and produced a powerful impression, and the volume is now one of the most admired in British literature. These letters have been ascribed to Mr. Burke, Mr. William Gerard Hamilton, commonly called single-speech Hamilton, John Wilkes, Mr. Dunning (afterwards lord Ashburton), Mr. serjeant Adair, the rev. J. Rosenhagen, John Roberts, esq., Mr. Charles Lloyd, Mr. Samuel Dyer, general Lee, Hugh Boyd, esq., and sir Philip Francis; but'lse matter is still hidden in obscurity. "I am the depositary of my own secret, and it shall perish with m e."-Jitniqss. JUPITER. Known as a planet to the Chinese and the Chaldeans: to the formner, it is said 3000, B. c.; and correctly inserted in a chart of' the heavens, made about 600 B. c., and in which 1460 stars are accurately described; this chart is said to be in the royal library at Paris. The satellites of Jupiter were discovered by Galileo, A. D. 1610; but Jansen, it is affirmed, claimed some acquaintance with them about twenty years before. JURIES. Trial by jury was introduced into England during the Saxon Heptarchy, mention being made of six Welsh and six Anglo-Saxon freemen appointed to try causes between the English and Welsh men of property, and made responsible with their whole. estates, real and personal, for false verdicts.-Lanbard. But by most authorities their institution is ascribed to Alfred. In M~/agcna Chartae, juries are insisted on as the great bulwark of the people's liberty. When either party is an alien born, the jury shall be one-half denizens, and the other half aliens, statute 28 Edward III. 1353. By the common law a prisoner upon indictment or appeal, might challenge peremptorily thirty-five, being under three juries; but a lord of parliament, and a peer of the realm that is to be tried by his peers, cannot challenge any of his peers. JURIES, COERCION oF. About the year 927, the plaintiff and defendant used to feed the jury empanelled in their action, and hence arose the common law of denying sustenance to a jury after the hearing of the evidence. A jury may be detained during the pleasure of the judge if they cannot agree upon a verdict; and may be confined without meat, drink, or candle, till they are unanimous. Some jurors have been fined for having fruit in their pockets, when they were withdrawn to consider of their verdict, though they did not eat it.-Leon. Dyer, 137. A jury at Sudbury not being able to agree, and having been some time under duress, forcibly broke from the court where they weire locked up, and went home, October 9, 1791.Phillips. 382 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ Kih' JUSTICES OP THE PEACE. These are local magistrates, invested with extensive powers in minor cases, but subject to supercession and punishment by the king's bench for an abuse of' their authority. Justices of tlhe,peace in every county first nominated by William the Conqueror, in 1076. -Stowe. Ini the United States the office is held by special appointment, and the tenure is different in different States; it is usually for seven years. JUSTINIA.N CODE. Wherein was written what may be termed the statut3 law, scattered through 2000 volumes, reduced to fifty, completed A. D. 529. To this code of laws Justinian added the Pandects, the Institutes, and Novels. These compilations have since been called. collectively, the body of civil law (coipmus jl'riS civilis). A digest was made in 533.-Blair. K. KALEIDOSCOPE. This optical instrument, which combines mirrors, and produces a symmetrical reflection of beautiful images, was invented by Dr. Brewster of Edinburgh; it was first suggested in 1814, and the instrument perfected in 1817, when it found its way into every body's hands. It is intended to assist jewellers,, glass-painters, and other ornamental artists, in the formation of patterns, of which it produces an infinite number. KAMTSCHATKA. The peninsula on the eastern coast of Asia. It was discovered by Morosco, a Cossack chief, A. D. 1690; and was taken possession of by Russia in 1697; it was not ascertained to be a peninsula until visited by Behring, in 1728. Four months, commencing at our midsummer, may be considered as the spring, summer, and autumn here, the rest of the year being dreary winter. KENILWORTH CASTLE. Built in 1120, but much of the pile was erected subsequently by John of Gaunt; and its remains now form one of the most picturesque objects in the kingdom. This celebrated castle was conferred on Dudley, earl of Leicester, by queen Elizabeth, whom he afterwards entertained within its walls for seventeen days. His sumptuous entertainment of the queen commenced July 19, 1575, and cost the earl daily 10001. a vast expenditure in those times. KENTUCKY, one of the United States, was first explored by Daniel Boone, an enterprising hunter, in 1770. First white settlement near Lexington, 1775 Was a part of Virginia until 1782, when it was made a separate district. Ad mitted into the Union 1792. Population in 1790, 73,677; in 1810, 406,511 in 1830, 688,844; in 1840, 779,828, including 182,258 slaves. KEYS. The invention of them is ascribed to Theodore, of Samos, by Pliny, about 730 B. c. But this is an error, as keys are mentioned in the siege of Troy, 1193 i. c. Keys were originally made of wood, and the earliest form was a simple crook similar to the common picklock now in use. The ancient keys now to be found in the cabinets of the curious are mostly of bronze. The late Francis Douce, esq., had some of remarkable shapes, the shaft terminating on one side by the works, on the other by a ring. Keys of this description were presented by husbands to wives, and were returned again upon divorce or separation. KIEL, TREATY OF. Between Great Britain, Sweden, and Denmark, signed January 14, 1814. By this treaty Norway was ceded to Sweden. Previously the Norwegians had been deserted by the king of Denmark, and had sent a deputation to England, to interest that country in their favor. The missioln was fruitless. On the contrary, the English blockaded the ports of Norway, and the Swedes entered by land. The Norwegians fought sonime brave actions, but they were defeated. The prince of Denmark quitted Norway, and the diet elected the king of Sweden to be their king. :(klN |. DICTIONARY OF DATES. 383 KING. The Latin Rex, the Scythian Reis, the Spanish Rey, the French Roi, all come fiom the Hebrew Rosch, chief, or head. Nimrod was the first founder of a kingdom, 2245 B. C.-Due, Fi1esnoy. 3Misraim built cities in Egypt, and was the first who assumed the title of' king in that division of the earth. Saul was the first king of Israel, 1095 B. C. Most of the Grecian states were governed by kings; and kings first ruled in Rome. The Egyptians understood the only just principle of government, namely, to make the people happy; and although among them the monarchy was hereditary, the sovereign was as much bound by the laws as his meanest subject: there was a peculiar code for his direction in the most minute particulars of public and private life. The king's hour of rising, the portion of time he should devote each day to the services of religon, the administration of justice, the quality of his food, and the rank of persons by whom he was served, were all prescribed. KING oF ENGLAND. The style " kirg of England," was first used by Egbert A. D. 828; but the title Rex gentis Anglo'rua, king of the English nation, existed during the Heptarchy. See Britain. The plural phraseology of we, us, our, was first adopted by king John, in 1207. The title of "king of Ireland," by British sovereigns, was not assumed until T542, when Henry VIII. changed lor'd of Ireland into king. The style " Great Britain " was adopted at the union of England and Scotland, 6 Anne, 1707; and of the "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland " at the union of these countries, January 1, 1801, when the royal style and title was appointed to run thus:"Geor'ius Tertius, Dei Graltia Britanniaru'oL Rex, Fidei Defensor," ".George the third, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland King, Defender of the Faith." KING or THE FRENCH. Decreed by the National Assembly that the title of "king of France" should be changed in the person of Louis XVI. to that of "king of the French," October 16. 1789. The royal title was abolished in 1792; but restored in the Bourbon family, in 1814. Louis-Philippe I. was invited to the monarchy under the style of the " king of the French," August 9, 1830. See France. KiNG op HUNGARY. The averseness of the Hungarian people to the term queen, has led to the custom among them, that whenever a female succeeds to the throne, she shall be called king. Thus it will be seen in the annals of Hungary, that the daughter of Louis I. reigned as kin-g Mary, in 1383. See HIungary. KING OF THE ROMANS. The emperors of Germany, in order that their eldest sons might be chosen their successors, in their own lifetime politically obtained them the title of "king of the Romans," this people being comprehended in that sovereignty. The first emperor so elected was Henry IV., in 1055. Richard, brother of Henry III. of England, was induced to go to Germany, where he disbursed vast sums under the promise of being elected next emperor; he obtained the title of "king of the Romans," but failed in succeeding to the Imperial crown. The style " king of Rome " was revived by Bonaparte, who conferred it on his son, upon his birth, in April, 1811; but the title ceased with the extinction of the dynasty of Napoleon, April 5, 1814. SCING'S BENCH, COURT oP, IN ENGLAND. Obtained its name from the king..sometimes sitting here on a high bench, and the judges, to whom the judicature belongs in his absence, on a low bench at his feet. The jurisdiction of this court extends all over England, and is not so subject to control as others, because the law presumes the king to be here in person. The name of this court has been altered to that of Queen's Bench, since the 384 THE WORLD IS PROGRESS. [ E^'accession of Victoria, in'June, 1837, as is the case with all institutions in immediate connection with, or dependent upon the sovereign. KING'S EVIL. Supposed to be cured by the touch of the kings of Englanhd. The first who touched for it was Edward the Confessor, 1058. This vulgar credulity had in the age of Charles II. arisen to such a height, that in foLrteen years, 92,107 persons were touched; and, according to Wiseman, the king's physician, they were nearly all cured! Queen Anne officially an1nounced in the Loadoen Gazette, March 12, 1712, her royal intention to touch publicly for the cure of the evil; and touching for it continued a custom un. til it was wisely discouraged, and ultimately dropped by George I., 1714. KING'S SPEECH. The first royal speech from the throne was delivered 1 y Henry I., in 1107. A late celebrated writer, after remarking with his accustomed harshness upon Mr. Canning, who had just then (April 1827) become chief of a new administration, said-" Canning being now minister, of one thing, and one thing only, we are certain, we shall have no more grammatical blunders in king's speeches; these things will still be written in the same meagre way, in point of matter, as before; but we shall have them in a perspicuous and pure style."-Cobbett. KINGDOMS. The origin of kingdoms may be referred to Belus, supposed to have been the Nimrod of Holy Writ; he was the founder of the Babylonr;iA monarchy, 2245 B. c.-Usher-. Menes, or Misraim, makes his son Atholas, surnamed the first Mercury, king of Upper Egypt; and another son, Tosothrus, he establishes at Memphis, 2188 B. c.-Blair. Ninus founds the Assyrian monarchy, 2059 B. c.-Leaglet. KISSING. Kissing the hands of great men was a Grecian custom. Kissing was a mode of salutation among the Jews, as we may collect from Judas approaching his master with a kiss; it was also customary in Rome. Kissing the pope's foot took its rise from the custom of kneeling to sovereigns, and began with Adrian I. or Leo III. at the close of the eighth centart-y. From kneeling to sovereigns came also the ceremony of a vassal kneeling to his lord in homage, first practised, A. D. 709. KIT-KAT CLUB. A society which consisted of about thirty noblemen and gentlemen of distinguished abilities, instituted in 1703, for the purpose -of promoting the Protestant succession in the house of Hanover, which they' effected by spirited publications as well as other measures. Addison, Steele, and Dr. Garth were members, and made several epigrams upon the toasts o" the club. The club took its name from one Christopher Kat, a pastry-coolr who lived near the tavern where they met, in King-street, Westminster, and who served them with pastry.-Bolwyer's Life of Qneeva Anne. KNIGHT. The origin of this title as a military honor is said to be derived fiom the siege of Troy, but this solely depends upon a passage or two in Homer. With certainty we may trace the distinction to the Romans, who. after their union with the Sabines, created three centuries of knights, about 750 B. C.-Livy. KNIGHT-ERRANTRY. Took its rise in the combats of the Celtic nations, particularly the judicial combats, and much prevailed in Spain, France,ar' Germany. Tilts and tournaments commenced with the return of the crui saders from the holy wars, and for about 300 years they were the chief amusements of courts, and the successful combatants acquired knighthood, and the favor of the ladies. When public combats declined, the knights travelled in search of adventures, to correct injustice, and fight in the cause of the fair; and the consequent follies gave rise to the novel of Doll Quixote. KNIGHTHOOD. Was conferred in England by the priest at the altar, after kIll] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 385 confession and consecration of the sword, during the Saxon Heptarchy. The first knight made by the sovereign with the sword of state was Athelstan, on whom Alfred bestowed this new dignity, A. D. 900. —Spelmr a. The custom of ecclesiastics conferring the honor of knighthood was suppressed in a synod held at WestIninster in 1100.-As/hzole's Institutes. All persons having ten pounds yearly income were obliged to be knighted, or pay a fine, 38 Henry III. 1254. — Sa' mon. KNIGHTHOOD IN EUROPE. As a system, under the denomination of chivalry, knighthood is to be dated from tile eleventh century. On the decline of the empire of Charlemagne, all Europe being reduced to a state of anarchy, the proprietor of every manor became a petty sovereign; his mansion was fortified by a moat, and defended by a guard, and called a castle. Excursions were made by one petty lord against another, and the women and treasure were carried off by the conqueror. At length the owners of rich fiefs associated to repres these marauders, and to. make p'operty secure, and to protect the ladies; binding themselves to these duties by a solemn vow, and the sanction of a religious ceremony. The first knights being men of the highest rank and largest possessions, adixission into the order was deemted a great honor. MILITARY, tRELIGIOUS, AND HONORARY ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD. Alcantara, instituted - - A.. 1160 Generosity, Brandenburgh - 1685 Alexander Nevskoi, Russia - 1700 Golden Fleece, instituted at Bruges by Amaranta, Sweden - - 1645 Philip, surnamed the Good - -1429 Angelic Knights, Greece - 456 Golden Lion, Hesse-Cassel - -1785 Annunciada, Mantua - -1618 Golden Shield and Thistle - - 1370 Annunciation, Savoy - -1355 Golden Spur, by Pius IV. - 1559 Argonauts, Naples - - -1382 Guelphic, Hanover - - -1816 Avis, Portugal - - - 1147 Holy Ghost, France, 1468. Revived - 1559 Band, Spain - - - -1232 Holy Ghost, Romne - - 1193 Bannerets, England, 1360. Renewed. Holy Trinity - - 1211 See Bannerets - - 1485 Hospitallers (which see) - 1092 Bath, England, 1399. Renewed. See Januarius, Naples. - 1738 Bath - - 1725 Jerusalem. See 3lalta - - 1048 Bear, Switzerland - - - -1213 Jesus, France - - 1206 Black Eagle, Prussia, instituted by Jesus Christ, Rome, instituted by John Frederick I. - - - 1701 XXII., 1415. Reformed by Paul V. 1610 Blood of Christ, Ma3ntua - - - 1608 Knot, Naples. - -1351 Brotherly Love, instituted - 1708 La Calza, Venice. - 1400 Burgundian Cross - - 1535 Legion of Honor, France, instituted by Calatrava, Castile, instituted by San- Napoleon Bonaparte - - -1802 cho II. - -. - 1156 Lily of Arragon - - 1403 Carpet, England - - 1553 Lily of Navarre - - - -1048 Catharine, Russia - - - 1698 Loretto, Lady of - - 1587 Chase, instituted by the duke of Wir- Malta. See Alallta. - - - 1531 temberg - - - 1719 Martyrs, Palestine - - -1319 Christ, Livonia - - - 1203 Maria-Theresa, Order of Ladies, Spain 1792 Christ, Portugal - - - 1319 Mauritians, Savoy - - - 1430 Christian Charity, France - - 1590 Merit, instituted by the landgrave of Cincinnatus, America - 1783 Hi-esse Cassel -1785 Conception of the Virgin - -1619 Merit, Prussia - - - -1740 Concord, Prussia, instituted by Chris- Noble Passion, Germany - - 1704 tian Ernest, elector of Brandenburgh 1660 Oak of Navarre, Spain - - 722 Crescent, Naples - 1448 Passion of Jesus Christ, France -1382 Crown Royal, France - - - 802 Pinus, founded by Pius IV. - 1559 Daneburgh, Denmarkl, instituted by Porcupine, France - - - 1393 Waldemar II., 1219; revived by Red Eagle, Prussia - - - 1792 Christian V. - - 1671 Redemption, instituted - - 1212 Death's Head, Female Order, by the Rosary, Spain - - 1172 widow Louisa Elizabeth of Saxe Round Table, England-See Knights Mersburgh - - 1709 of the Roused Table - - - 528 Dove of Castile - - 1379 St. Andrew, Russia (tradition ascribes Dragon, IIungary - - 1439 to this saint the introduction of ChrisEar of Corn, Brittany - - - 1050 tianity into Muscovy) - 1698 Elephant, Denmark, by Christian I. -1478 St. Andrew, Scotland, 809; renewed Ermine, France - - - 150 1452; and again by James VI. - 1605 Garter, Engla.nd - - 1350 St. Anthony. Ethiopia - 357 17 386 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [mM-.: KNIGHTHOOD IN EUROPE, continued. St. Anthony, Hainault - 1382 St. Michael, Germany - - ]6iC St. Blaze, Acon - - - 1250 St. Patrick, Ireland - - 7S3 St. Catharine, Palestine- - 1163 St. Paul, Rome - - - 1540 St. Catharine, Russia - - 1698 St. Peter, Rome - - 1520 St. Denis, France - - 1267 St. Rupert, Germany, by the archbishSt. George, Austria -1470 op of Saltzbutrgl' - - 1701 St. George, Carinthia - - - 1279 St. Sepulchre, Palestine - 1092 St. George, Defender of the Immacu- St. Stephen, by Casimir de Medicis, late Conception, Bavaria - - 1729 grand-dulke of Tuscany -1561 St. George, England; instituted by Ed- St. Thomas of Acon - - 1370 ward III. See Gariter - 1349 Saviour, Greece - June 1. 1833 St. George; tutelary saint of Genoa, by Seraphirns, Sweden - - - - 1334 Frederick II. - - - - 1460 Ship and Crescent, France -1269 St. George, Rome - -1496 Sincerity, instituted by the elector of St. George, Russia - - - -1782 Saxony — 1690 St. George, Spain - - - 1318 Slaves of Virtue, Germany - -1662 St. George, Venice - - - -1200 Swan, Cleves - - - 960 St. Hubert, Germany, by the dulce of Sword, Cyprus - -119[ Juliers and Cleves - 1447 Sword, Sweden, 1523; revived - - 1772 St. James, Holland - - - 1290 Templars.-See 7Teemplars - 1118 St. James, Portugal - -1310 Teste Morte, Wurtemburg - - - 1652 St. James, Spain - - - 1030 Teutonic, 1190; renewed in Prussia - 1522 St. Jerome, Germany - - - 1154 Thistle of Bourbon - - - 1370 St. John of Acon - 1370 Thistle of Scotland, 812; revived 1540) St. John of Jerusalem - 1048 Tl'rinitarians, Spain - - 1.94 St. Johtn of Malta - - 1522 Truxillo, Spain - - - 27 St. John of Rhodes - - -1300 United Ladies for the honor of ile St. Julien, of Alcantara - - 1176 Cross, in Germany - - 1666 St. Lazarus, and St. Maurice, by Eman- Virgin Mary - - -1233 uel Philibert, duke of Savoy - - 1572 Virgin of Mount Carmel, France - 1607 St. Louis, France - - 1693 - Warlare of l'hrist, Poland - - 1705 St. Mark, Venice, 830; renewed - 15il Warfare of Christ, Russia - - 1325 St. Mary the Glorious - - 1233 Winlg of St. Michael, Portugal - 1165 St. Mary de Merced, Spain - 1218'Wladimlir, Russia - - 1689 St. Michael, France - - - 1469 KNIGHTS, FEMALE. The title of knight, which was given to men of superior worth, ability, and fortune, in former times, was sometimes given to w.nle also. As an instance, it was conferred on the women who preserved the city of Tortosa from falling into the hands of the Moors in 1149, by their stout resistance and vigorous attack of the besiegers, by which means the Moors were forced to raise the siege. Large immunities and favors wv-ere granted to them and their descendants for their heroism on this occasion. KNIGHTS or THE ROUND TABLE. Instituted by king Arthur, about A. I 528. —Asser's Life of Alfred. T'his ancient order was revived by Edlwai III. at Windsor, upon New Year's day, 1344. The king, with a view to tl recovery of France, which descended to him in right of' his mother, became anxious to draw the best soldiers of Europe into his interest, and thereupor projecting and setting up king Arthur's Round Table, he proclaimed,. solemnn tilting, to invite foreigners of quality and courage to the exerciseHe published his royal letters of protection, for the safe coming and return of such foreign knights as had a mind to venture their reputation at those jousts and tournaments.-BecLtsol. KNIGHTS o' THE SHIRE. The barons, or tenants in chief, or freeholders b Doomsday-book, were'700 in number, but being split into small parts. wgreater and lesser, all of whom were entitled to sit in parliament; but tf. latter. or lesser barons, were allowed to choose two representatives, henc, called knights of the shire, A. D. 1307. KNIGHTS TEMPLARS. A religious and military order, instituted A. Di. 111' They came to England early in Stephen's reign, alend settled at the Temo in London; and at other places in the reign of Henry II. All the knigh, were arrested in France in one day, being charged with great crimes, an possessing great riches; fifty-nine of them were burnt alive at Paris in Oc: Lta 1 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 387 1307. Those in England were all seized the same year. Their order was abolished by Philip the Fair of France, at the council of Vienne, in 1312; and many thousanrds were subsequently massacred, their wealth being given to the knights of ]Malta. See.,dlldce. (NIVES. First made in England ii 1563. They were the earliest branch of cutlery, and were first manufitcttured by one Mlathews, of Fleet-Bridge, London, 5th Eliz., 1563.-CiCt2bc'lain's EL'nglanld, edit. 1683. See For?/s. KORAN, OR ALKORAN or MAHOMET, written about A. D. 610. Its general aim was, to unite the professions of Idolatry and the Jews and Christians in the worship of one God (whose unity was -the chief point inculcated), under certain laws and ceremonies, exacting obedience to Mahomet as the prophet. It was written in the Koreish Arabic, and this language, which certainly possessed every fine quality, was said to be that of paradise. Maho. met asserted that the Koran was revealed to him, during a period of twentythree years, by the angel Gabriel. The style of this volume is beautiful, fluent, and concise, and where the majesty and attributes of God are described, it is sublime and magnificent. Mahomet admitted the divine mission both of Moses and Jesus Christ.-Dr. Joltin. The leading arti.le of faith which this impostor preached, is compounded of an eternal truth, and 1a necessary fiction, namely, that there is only one God, and that Mahomet is the apostle of God. —Gibbon. The Koran was translated into Latin in 1143; and into English and other European languages about 1763, et seq. It is a rhapsody of 3000 verses, divided into 114 sections. See Alcorcan; Islarnissm; Mecca; 3lrla/ometism, i-c. L. LA HOGUE, BATTLE Or, between the English and Dutch combined fleets, under admirals Russel and Rooke, and the French fleet commnanded by admiral Tourville. The English attacked the French near La Hogue, gaining a splendid victory, burning thirteen of the enemy's ships, destroying eight more, forcing the rest to fly, and thus preventing a threatened descent upon England, May 19, 1692. Lii PEROUSE'S VOYAGE. It was commenced in 1785, when Perouse sailed from France for the Pacific, with the BouLssolc and Astrolabe under his command. The last direct intelligence received from him was from Botany Bay, in March 1788. Several expeditions were subsequently dispatched in search of Perouse, but no certain information was had until captain Dillon, of the East India ship ResearcAh, ascertained.that the French ships had been cast away on two different islands of the New Hebrides-a fate authenticated by various articles of the wreck of these vessels, which capt. Dillon brought with him to Calcutta, April 9, 1828, 40 years afterwards. LA VENDEE, WAR oF. The French Royalists here took to arms, and were successful in a number of battles with the Republican armies, fought between July 12, 1793, and January 1, 1794, when they experienced a severe reverse. Numerous other engagements were fought, with various success, antil this war terminated, Jan. 10, 1800. LABYRINTH. There were four most famous in history: the first was built by Dcedalus, in the island of Crete, to secure the Minotaur, about 1210 B. c.; the second in Egypt in the isle of Mceris, by Psammeticus, king of' that place, 683 B. c.; and the fourth in Italy, erected by Porsenna, king of the Hetrurise, about 520 s. c.-Plinzy. The beauty and art of the labyrinth of Egypt were almost beyond belief; it had 12 halls and 3000 chambers, with pillars, was encrusted with marble, and adorned with sculpture.-Herodotes. The labyrinth of Woodstock is famous from its connection with the story of 388 THIE WORLD7S PROGRESS. Lt'ent Fair Rosamond, mistress of Henry II.; there is a curious Maze at Hampton Court that is much visited. LACE. Mention is made of it as being of very delicate texture in France ald Flanders in 1320; and fine laces were much in use for ruffles and frills for the men, and headdresses for the women, in the fifteenth century. Lace was general in the court costume of ]Elizabeth's reign. Dresden, Valenciennes, Mechlin, and Brussels, have long been famous for their fine lace. An ounce weight of Flanders thread has been frequently sold for four pounds in London, and its value when manufactured has been increased to forty pounds, ten times the price of standard gold. LACED1EMON. See Spar'ta. Lelez begins the kingdom of Lelegia, in Laconia, 1516 B. c. Eurotas gives his daughter Sparta in marriage to Lacedamon, and makes him partner on the throne, 1490 B. c. The city of Spart., was built about this time, and hence the name by which the country is most known. The Lacedl'mon republic became famous in history after 700 B. c. particularly by the conquest of Athens. It was made a Roman province 71 B. c. The territory now belongs to the Turks.- T/lucydides; Priestlcy. LADIES. The mistresses of manor-houses, in former times, served out to the poor weekly with their own hands certain quantities of bread, and were therefore called Lef-daqys-two Saxon words signifyling bread-giver, and -Ythe words were at length corrupted, and the mistress is called to this day Lady, that is, Lef-day. The introduction of ladies to court, was first to that of Louis XII. of France in 1499. As a title of honor, the title of lady properly belongs only to the daughters of earls, and all of higher rank; but custom has made it a term of complaisance for the wives of knights, and all women of eminence or gentility. See Loi'd. LADRONE ISLES. Discovered by Magellan, in 1520; they are eleven in nun_ ber; at the island of Guam he first touched. Here, some of the natives having stolen some of his goods, and showing a great disposition to theft, he, named the islands the Ladrones, or Islands of Thieves, which they are called to this day. LADY DAY. This festival, the 25th March, was instituted about A.o. 350, according to some authorities, and not before the seventh century acdording to others. On this day, the 25th of March, the angel Gabriel brought to the Virgin Mary the message concerning her son Jesus; hence it is called the Annunciation, and is celebrated in the Catholic church as one of its chief feasts; and in the Reformed church also, on account of the col' nection between the circumstance commemorated and the Incarnation. I. England, before the alteration of the style, the new year began on the 25tl1 of March. LA FAYETTE'S first visit to the United States, to aid the cause of America. independence; he arrived at Charleston, April 25, 1777, being then nin6teer years old. He raised a corps at his own expense; was wounded at Brandy. wine; employed in Rhode Island, 1778; visited France, promoting new re. inforcemnents for the United States, and returned 1779. His triumpha reception in the United States on'a visit of pleasure, Aug. 18, 182' r1: ceived from C6ngress the sum of $200.000 and a township of land in rewvare for his services; returned to France in the frigate Brandywine, Septembe? 7, 1825. LAMPS. See Landterns. Lamps are mentioned in all the early ages;,the? were in use in Egypt, Greece, and Rome. The earthen lamp which Epic tetus the philosopher had in his study sold, after his death, for 300G drachllas, A. D. 161. Lamps with horn sides were the invention of Alfred LTamps were in general use through the streets of London up to the cl LAN ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 389 of the 18th century, as were flambeaux which were carried by link-boys. London streets were first lighted by oil-lamps in 1681; and with gas lamps in 1814. The domestic lamp is now of elegant mlanuflteture; of this kind is the Argand lamp, brought into general use in England in 1785, et seq. See Safetly Lamnp. LANCASTERIAN SCHOOLS. On a system of education by means of mutual instruction, propagated by Joseph Lancaster and Dr. Bell; they were not much patronized till about 1808, when Lancaster's system attracted general -attention, notwithstanding the prejudices that existed against the founder, wnho had been laboring to introduce schools upon his economic plan fiom 1798. They became general in 1818, and there are now some hundreds of them in England, and in London more than forty. They were founded in Senegal, and were extensively instituted in Russia, in 1819. LAND. Was let generally in England for Is. per acre, 86 Henry VIII. 1544. The whole rental of' the kingdom was about 6,000,0001. in 1600. It was about 14,000,0001. in 1688. In 1798 Mr. Pitt proposed his Income Tax of 10 ye? cent. on an estimate of 100 millions, taking the rent of land at 50 millions, the rent of houses at 10 millions, and the profits of trade at 40 millions; but in this estimate were exempted much land and the inferior 2lass of houses. See Icomte Tax.. The rental of the United Kingdom has been recently estimated in parliament at 127 millions, but authorities vary much on the amount. See Pulblic Lands, U. S. LANDGRAVE. This is from lanzd, and glrave a count, a German title of dominion, which appears to have commenced in the eleventh century; it became the title of the house of Hesse Cassel, about the year 1300; and the rank was subsequently assumed by the branches of Hesse Homburg, Hesse Philipstal, HIesse Darlmstadt, &c. See Hesse. LANGSIDE, BATTLE OF; between the forces of the regent of Scotland, the earl of Murray, and the army of MIary queen of Scots, in which the latter suffered a complete defeat, May 15, 1568. Immediately after this last fatal battle, the unfortunate Mary fled to England, and landed at Workington, in Cumberland, on May 16; and was soon afterwards imprisoned by Elizabeth. LATGUAGE. Language nmust. either have been revealed originally firom heaven. or it is the firuit of human invention. The latter opinion is embraced by Horace, Lucretius, Cicero, and most of the Greek and Roman writers; the former opinion by the great ma jority of the Jews and Christians,and the profoundest philosophers of France and England. It has been affirmed that Hebrew was the language spoken by Adam: but others deny this, and say that the Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic, are only dialects of the original, which has for many ages been lost andt unklnown. Psanmmeticus the Powerful, desiring to know the most ancient people and language on the earth, caused two children to be kept from all knowledge of the use of speech, until they were two years old:, they were then brought into his presence, and they both pronounced the sound beccos, the Phcenician term for bread. He therefore gave the Phoenician the preccdence, in point of antiquity, to all other nations, 647 a. c.-Her'edot;s, PPolye.., Strabo. ANGUAGES. Of the Hebrew, the Chaldee and Syriac are dialects. The original European ones are thirteen, viz: Greek, Latin, Dutch, Sclavonian, spoken in the east; Welsh, Biscayan, spoken in Spain; Irish, Albanian, in the mountains of Epirus, Tartarian, the old Tllyrialn, the Jazygian, remaining yet in Liburnia; the Chauci 1, in the north of Hungary; and the Finnic, in East Friesland. Arabic is the mother tongue of Africa. From the Latin sprung the Italian, French and Spanish; and fi'Olll the Spanish the Portuguese. The Turkish is a mixed dialect of the Tartarian. Fromn the High Dutch, or Teutonic, sprang the Danlish, Swedish, Norwegian, English, Scotch, 390 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [LAT &c. There are 3661 known languages now used in the world. Of these, 937 are Asiatic; 587 European; 276 African; and 1624 American languages and dialects.-Professor Adeluog. LANTERNS. In general use from a very early date. Those of scraped horn were invented in England, it is said by Alfred, and it is supposed that horn was used for window-lights also, as glass was not known in Alfred's reign, A. D. 872-901. —Stowe's C/hoon. London was lighted by suspended lanterns, with glass sides, A. D. 1415. The pellucid laminee of the ox horn has served for ages for the sides of lanterns instead of glass, and for many uses are preferred. See article, Lasups. LAOCOON. This exquisite work of art, executed in marble, is univers:lly allowed to be the triumph of Grecian sculpture. It was modelled by Agesander, Athenodorus. and Polydorus. all of Rhodes, and of great eminence as statuaries; and in all ages, and by all nations, this beautiful group is allowed to be the greatest victory of art that has ever been achieved by human hands. LATERAN, COUNCILS oF THE. They were held in the Basilica cf the La. teran, at Rome. Of these councils there were five: by the first, the right of investitures was settled between pope Calixtus II. and the emperor Henry V., 1122; by the second council was secured the temporalities of eccles-agtics, 1139; the third was to denounce schismatics, 1.179; the fourth on church affairs, attended by 400 bishops and 1000 abbots; and the fifth was the faimous council of Julius II., 1512. LATHE, for turning ivory, wood, iron, and other substances, so as to sl'ape them to the views of the artist, was originally an instrument of rude construction, invented by Talus, a grandson of DTedalus, about 1240 B. c. Pliny ascribes the invention to Theodore of Samos. Modern lathe eng-inc frequently cost thousands of pounds. LATIN LANGUAGE. One of the thirteen originl languages of Europe,' and from which sprang the Italian, French, and Spanish. It is named after the Latini, and the Latini fromn Latinus, their king. A vast portion of ouli most beautiful and expressive words are derived friom the Isatin. It ceased to be spoken in Italy, about A. D. 581; and was first taught in England by,Adelinus, brother of Ina, in the seventh century. During six or seven hundred years the Latin tongue prevailed in all public proceedings fronm the Tweetd to the Euphrates, and fiom the Danube to Mount Atlas, and has been mort or less retained even to this day. In Elgland it was ordered to be discoe1tinued in conveyancing, and in courts of law, in 1731. LATITUDE. First determined by Hipparchus of Nice, about 170 B. c. It i. the extent of the earth, or of the heavens, reckoned from the equator t( either pole. Maupertuis, in latitude 66.20, measured a degree of latitudc and made it 69.493; he measured it in 1737. Swanberg, in 1803, made 69.292. At the equator, in 1744, four astronoimers made it 68.732; arm Lambton, in latitude 12, made it 68.743. Mudge, in England, mlade i 69.148. Cassini, in France, in 1718 and 1740, made it 69.12; andl Bio 68.769; while a recent measure in Spain makes it but 68.63-less tlhln a the equator; and contradicts all the others, proving the earth to be a p(: late spheroid, which was the opinion of Cassini, Bernouilli, Euler. ans others, while it has more generally been regaCrded as an oblate spheroid. LATIUM. Now the city of Romania; built by Latinus, king of Janicululm who gave his name to tle country, calling his subjects Latines, 90 B. ( Laurentun m was the capital of the country in the reign of Latinus, Lavillim under.ineas, and Alba unclder Ascanius. The Latins, though originall known only among their neighbors, soon rose in rank when Romulus 1founded the city of Romle in their country. LAW ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 391 LATTER-DAY SAINTS. A. new sect, whose principles are variously represented. By some we are told that their tenets do not vary much from those of the Clhurch of England, the Scriptures, without mysticism, being the foundation of them. By others it is said that they assume the power of curing the sick, resisting the operations of the deadliest poisons, and working miracles of several kinds; and maintain that this is the last generation of men. They have appeared in Hertfordshire, Lancashire, and Yorkshire: and anaddress was published by them at Manchester, in May, 1840. Great numbers of these fanatics have lately emigrated to the United States. LAWS, ANCIENT. The laws of Phoroneus, in the kingdom of Argos, 1807 B. c., were the first Attic laws, reduced to a systelll by Draco, for the Athenians, 623 B. c.; but the latter code was afterwards superseded by that of Solon, 578 B. c. The Spartan laws of Lycurgus were made 884 B. C.B they remained in full force for 700 years, and are calculated to raise our admliration, as well by their singularity, as by the effect they had in forming a iace of men totally different-fi om all others living in civilized society. The Roman laws were founded on those of Phoroneus. The Gregorian and Hermlooin;au codes were published in A. n. 290. The Theodosian code in 485. The JuLtinian code, in 529, andlthe digest, in 533.-Blair. See Civil Lacw. LAWS, BRITISH. The British laws of earliest date were translated into the Saxon, in A. D. 590. The Saxon laws of Inia were published in 709. Alfred's code of laws, which is the foundation of the common law of England, was compiled in 887, but in use previously. Eclward the Confessor prlomulgated his laws, in 1065. Stephen's charter of general liberties, 1186; Henry II.'s confirmation of it, 1154 and 1175. The maritime laws of Richard I., 1194. See article Oleron. Magna Charta, by king John, 1215. Its confirmation by Henty III., 1216, et seq. See clag"na~ Cheartla and Foresis, Charlatc' of tlhe. Celebrated declaration made by the lord chief justice of' the King's Bench, "That no fiction of law shall ever so far prevail against the real truth of the fact as to prevent the execution of justice," May 21, 1784.-Lord in Msfield. LAW'S BUBBLE. The most ruinous speculation of modern times. The projector, John Law, of Edinburgh. raised himself to the dignity of comptrollergeneral of the finances of France, upon the strength of a scheme for establishing a bank, an East India, and a Mississippi company, by the profits of which the national debt of France was to be paid off. He first offered his plan to Victor Amadeus, king of Sardinia, who told him he was not powerful enough to ruin himself. The French ministry accepted it in 1710; and in 1716, he opened a bank in his own name, under the protection of the duke of Orleans, regent of France; and most of the people of property of every rank in that kingdom, seduced by the prospect of immense gains, subscribed both in the bank and the companies. In 1718 Law's was declared a Royal bank, and the shares rose to upwards of twenty-fold the original value, so that in 1719, they were worth more than eighty times the amount of all the current specie in France. But the following year this great fabric of false credit fell to the ground, and almost overthrew the French government, ruining tens of thousands of families. It is remarkable that the same des-perate game was played by the South Sea directors in England, in the same fatal year, 1720.-H-Iist. of bro-awnce, Nouv. Dict. LAWYyERS. The pleaders of the bar, called barristers, are said to have been first appointed by Edward I. or in his reign, 1291. Seijeants, the highest nembers of the bar, are alone permitted to plead in the court of Com1mon Pleas. The first kiing's counsel under the degree of seljeant was sir Francis Bacon, in 160-1. There are about 1200 barristers in England: and the number of lawyers in England and Wales, counting London and country attorneys, solicitors, &c., is about 14,000. A list of 19,527 practising lawyers in the United States, was published in New-York, 1850. 392 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. rLEA LEAD. Is found in various countries, and is abundant in various parts of Britain, and in some places richly mixed with silver ore. The famous Clydesdale mines were discovered in 1513. The lead mines of Cumberland amn, Derbyshire yield about 15,000 tons per annLwa. The finest sort of black lead, that most fit for pencils, is produced only at Borrowdale, but there in great quantities. Leaden pipes for the conveyance of water were brought into use in 1236. LEAGUES, POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS. The League of the Public Good, was one between the dukes of Burgundy, Brittany, and Bourbon, and other princes against Louis XI. of France, in 1464. The League of Cambray was entered into in 1508. The Holy League against Louis XII., 1510. The League of Smalcald, 1529. The League of the Beggars (the Protestants so called, though Catholics joined the league) to oppose the institution of the Inquisition in Flanders, 1560.'Tfe League, so denominated by way of eminence, to prevent the accession of Henry IV. of IFrance, who was then of the reformed religion, was commenced in 1576. The LeanLe of Wurtzburg, 1610. League against the emperor, 1626. Solemn Leagle and Covefant in Scotland, against the episcopal government of the church, and the regal authority, 13 Charles I., 1638. League of Augsburg, 1686. LEAP-YEAR, on BISSEXTILE. The Leap-year originated with the astrono, mers of Julius Cesar, 45 B. c. They fixed the solar year at 365 days 6 hours, comprising, as they thought, the period from one vernal equinox to another; the six hours were set aside, and at the end of four years, foilming a day, the fourth year was made to consist of 366 days. The day thus added:was called intercalary, and was added to February. See Bisscxlile. This almost perfect arrangement was denominated the Julian style, and prevailed throughout the Christian world till the time of pope Gregory XIII., in 1582, when the calendar was altered to its present state. See Calendac?. The difference between 365 clays 6 hours, and 365 days 5 hours, 48 minutes, 51 seconds, and 6 decimals, which last is the true length of the astronomical year, in the course of years caused 1700 and 1808 not to be leap-years. nor will 1900 be a leap-year; but the year 2000 will be one. See Jetirit Yccar, Grceg-oicei Ccaldenda, 4.c. LEARNING AND THE ARTS. These were carried to their height among the Greeks during the fourth century B. c.; and with the Romans with the commencement of the Christian era. On the death of Augustus they declined until the refugees from Greece caused them to revive in Italy, about A. D. 1250. Learning had been found so to obstruct the tyranny of the emperors, that mathematicians and philosophers were, by several decrees, banished from Rome, A. n. 16, and 89, et seq. After the dark ages, came Brunetto, Latini, and numerous enlightened men; and Leo X., about 1513, gave vast encouragement to literature and the arts. The illustrisus Medici fanmily greatly promoted learning in Italy, about 1550. -Fontancca. And about this time literature began to flourish in France, Germany, and England. The reign of Anne has been called by some the " golden," by others, the "Augustan age" of English literature. LEATHER. It was very early known in Egypt and Greece, and the thongs 6f manufactured hides were used for ropes, harness, &c., by all ancient nations. The Gordian knot was made of leather thongs, 330 B. c. The ancients understood the art of tanning leather, and it was practised early in England, and great improvements made in it up to 1795. Leather is converted into many uses: a leathern cannon was proved at Edinburgh, fired three times, and found to answer, Oct. 23, 1788.-Phlillips. The duty on leather produced annually in England, 450,0001., and in Ireland, about 50,0001. It was abolished in both countries, May 29, 1830. LEP ] DICTIONARIY OF DATES. 393 LEGHORN. Livorlo. This city suffered dreadfully by an earthquake in 1741. It was entered by the French army in the revolutionary war, July 17, 1796, but the immense amount of British property then there had been previously removed. Leghorn was evacuated by the French in 1799, and was retaken the following year. It was unsuccessfully attacked by the British and Italian allied forces, in Dec. 1813. LEGION. The Legio was a corps of soldiers in the Roman armies, and was first formed by Romulus; under whom it consisted of 3000 foot and 300 horse, about 750 B. c. When Hannibal was in Italy, 216 B. c., the legion consisted of 5000 soldiers; and under Marius, in 88 B. C. it was 6200 soldiers, besides 700 horse. There were ten and sometimes as many as eighteen legions kept at Rome. Augustus maintained a standing army of twenty-five legions, about 5 B. c.; and the peace-establishment of Adrian w.s thirty of these formidable brigades. The peace of Britain was protected by three legions, A legion was divided into 10 cohorts, and every cohort into 6 centuries, with a vexillum, or standard guarded by 10 men. LEGIO()N oF HONOR. A military order in France, embracing all distinctions in the army: and including in its incorporation civil officers, and all such individuals as have eminently distinguished themselves for services to the state, military deeds, and for public virtue; instituted by Napoleon Bonaparte, when first consul, May 18, 1802. On the restoration of the Bourbon family, Louis XVIII. confirmed this order, April 1814. LEIPSIC. Famous for its university and its fair. Here Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, defeated the Imperialists, Sept. 7, 1631. The siege of Leipsic was sustained in 1637. Leipsic was taken by the Prussian army, 1756. In the same year, the Austrians laid siege to Liepsic in vain, but they took it two years afterwards, though they did not retain it long. In the late wars it has fiequently fallen into adverse hands. See next article. LEIPSIC, BATTLE OF. One of the greatest: most sanguinary, and decisive of modern times, between the French army, commanded by Napoleon, on the one side, and the Austrian, Russian, and Prussian armies on the other; the former 160,000, and the latter 240,000 strong. This great battle was lost by the French, chiefly owing to 17 German battalions, their Saxon allies, tursing upon them in tile heat of the engagement. 80,000 men perished in the field, of whom more than 40,000 were French, who also lost 65 pieces of artillery, and many standards. The victory of the allies was followed by the capture, next day, of Leipsic, and of the rear-guard of the French army. The king of Saxony and his family were also made prisoners; and the emlperor of Austria and Russia, the king of Prussia, and crown prince of Sweden, entered Leipsic immediately after the battle, Oct. 16 and 18, 1812. LENT. The quadragesimal fast observed in the Catholic church, from AshWednesday (which see) to Easter-day, and supposed to be of apostolic institution. The primitive Christains did not commence their Lent until the Sunday which is now called the first Sunday of Lent: and the four days beginning were added by pope Felix III., in the year 487, in order that the number of fasting days should amount to forty. Lent was first observed in England by command of Ercombert, king of Kent, in 640. Baier's Chlt'on. LIEPANTO. BATTLE OF. The great naval engagement between the combined fleets of Spain, Venice, and Pius V., and the whole maritime force of the Turks., Don John of Austria commanded the Christian fleet, which consisted of 206 galleys, and 30,000 men, while the Turks had 250 galleys, of which, after a dreadful conflict, they saved but 100, losing 30.000 men in killed and prisoners; and thus was prostrated for a time the naval power of Turkey, Oct. 7, 1571. —Voltaie. 17* 394 THE WOULD7S PROGRESS. [LEX' LETTERS. Those of the alphabet were invented by Memnon, the Egyptian, 1822 s. c. —Usher, Blai?. The first letter of the Phoenician and Hebrew alphabet was aleplh, called by the Greeks nlp/6a, and abbreviated by other nations to A. The letters, both in the ancient and modern languages, so vary in number and sound, that a volume mnight be written in describing the alphabets which are known. See Alpicabet. LETTERS oF MARQUE AND REPRISAL. These are licenses, first issued in England by Edward I., for the seizure of the enemy's vessels, and for reprisal and retaliation upon the enemy on the sea. —Rynzer"s Eaderta. They were first granted in 1295.-Bake"r's Ch'bon. They are usually granted in time of war to private armed ships, and do great mischief to the commerce of belligerent nations.-Powel. LETTERS DE CACHET. These instruments of oppression were so much in use by the French government previously to the Revolution, that one of the earliest acts of the National Assenmbly was to denounce them, and decree their abolition. and the abolition of arbitrary imprisonment, Nov. 1, 1789.Hist. of the FPrencl Reveol. LEUCTRA, BATTLE OF. One of the most faluonus of ancient history, fought at the village of Leuctra, between Plati-a and Thespia, between the Thebans, under Epaminondas, and the superior force of Cleombrotus, king of Sparta, the victory being with the former. In this battle, 4000 Spartans, with their king, were slain, and not more than 300 Thebans; July 8, 371 B. c. From this day the Spartans lost their preponderance in Greece, which they had maintained for about 500 years, and it passed to the Thebans.-Plseiarch. LEVELLERS. Men whose purpose is to destroy superiority, and' bring all things to a level or equality.-Collier. There were various associations of this kind. The most extraordinary was that of which Muncer and Storck were the chiefs. These two began by pulling down all the images in the churches which Luther had left standing; and then, finding an army in their followers, they became levellers, and Muncer openly taught that all distinctions of rank were usurpations on the rights of mankind. At the head of 40,000 men, he wrote to the sovereign princes in Germany and to the magistrates of cities to resign their authority; and on his march to enforce these principles of equality and reformation, his followers ravaged the country. The landgrave of Hesse at length defeated him; 7000 of the enthusiasts fell in battle, and the rest, with their leader, fled; he was taken and beheaded at Mulhausen, in 1525.-Nolwv. Didt. Hist. At the period of the French Revolution some knots of persons styled levellers appeared in England. LEWES, BATTLE O0., Between Henry III., king of England, and Montfort, earl of Leicester, and the rebellious barons, fought May 14, 1264. In this battle the royal army was overthrown, and the king, his brother, Richard king of the Romans, his son, and prince Edward, afterwards Edward I., were taken prisoners. One division of four of Montfort's army, a body of Londoners, gave way to the furious attack of prince Edward, who pursuing the fugitives too far, caused the battle to be lost. From this time Montfort used his power so despotically as to be in the end the cause of his own destruction. See Eveshasn. LEXICOGRAPHY. Morrison mentions a standard dictionary in the Chinese language of 40,000 hieroglyphic characters, as having been compiled 1100 B. c. Numerous dictionaries appeared in Europe about the close of the fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth century. Calipini's dictionary appeared about A. n. 1500. The Lexicon Heptaglotton was published in 1759. See article, Dictiocary. LEXINGTON, BATTLE OF. This battle claims distinction as being the first fought between Great Britain and the United States of America, in the wa*r LIB ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 395 of independence. The British troops, under Major Pitcairn, sent from Boston to destroy the American stores at Lexington, were attacked by the Americans and 273 of theim were killed and wounded, April 19, 1775. LEYDEN, SIEGE or. A memorable siege sustained against the armies of Spain, and during which 6000 of the inhabitants died of famine and pestilence, A. D. 1574. In commemoration of this long siege, a university was founded, celebrated for its colleges and medicinal garden, and valuable library, 1575. The university was almost destroyed by the catastrophe of a vessel laden with 10,000 lbs. weight of gunpowder blowing up, and demolishing a large part of the town, and killing numbers of people, Jan. 1807. LIBEL. By the laws of Rome (those of the XII. Tables), libels which affected the reputation of another, were made capital offences. In the British law, whatever renders a man ridiculous, or lowers a man in the opinion or esteem of the world, is deemed a libel. "The greater the truth, the greater the libel," the well-known law maxinm of a high authority, is now disputed. Amnong the most remarkable cases of libel were, viz.: Lord George Gordon's libel on the queen of France, for which he was sentenced to imprisonment for five years and fined 5001., Jan. 28, 1788. The Tirnes' libel on the prince of Wales, afterwards George IV., Feb. 1790. The Mor'igb Post's libel on lady Elizabeth Lambert, damages 40001. July 9, 1792. Peltier's libel on Napoleon Bonaparte, in L'Aanzbigqu, of which he was found guilty, Feb. 21, 1803. Act against blasphemous and seditious libels, punishing the offender by banishment for the second offence, passed in England, 1820. Act regulating the law of libel in England, July 1830. By statglte in New York and Massachusetts, the truth may be a justification, if the publication was made with good motives and for justifiable ends. LIBERIA. Colony in West Afiica, founded by colored people sent out by American Colonization Society, 1822; Jehudi Ashmnun was the first superintendent of the colony; new Constitution-Roberts elected presidentOct. 5, 1847; ratification of a treaty of commerce with Great Britain, August 1, 1849. LIBERTINES. A sect distinguished by its monstrous doctrines. Its heads were persons named Quintin and Corin. They maintained that whatever was done by men was done by the Spirit of God, and that there was no sin but to those who thought so; that to live without any doubt or scruple was to return to the state of innocency; that the soul died with the body; that heaven was a dream, and hell a phantom;'religion a mere state trick; with many other monstrous opinions. This sect arose in A. D. 1525; and the term libertine has been held in a bad sense ever since. LIBRARY. The first public library of which we have any certain account in maistery was founded at Athens, by Pisistratus, 544 B. c. The second of any note was founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus, 284 B. c. It was nearly destroyed when Julius Cmesar set fire to Alexandria, 47 B. c. 400,000 valuable books in MS. are said to have been lost by this catastrophe.-Blair-. The first private library was the property of Aristotle, 334 B. c.-St'abo. The first library at Rome' was instituted 167 B. c.: it was brought from Macedonia. The library of Apellicon was sent to Rome, by Sylla, from Athens, 86 B. c. This library was enriched by the original manuscripts of Al istotle's works. A library was founded at Constantinople by Constantine the Great, about A. D. 335; it was destroyed in 477. A second library was formed frorn the remaians of the first, at Alexandria, by Ptolemy's successors, conststing of 700,000 volumes, which was totally destroyed by the Saracens, who heated the water of their baths for six months, by burning books instead of wood, by command of Omar, caliph of the Saracens, in 642.-Nouzov. Di/t. Hist. Pope Gregory I. ordered that the library of the Palatine 396 TmHE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [LI: Apollo should be committed to the flames, under the notion of confining the clergy to the attention of the Scriptures. From that time, all ancient learning which was not sanctioned by the authority of the church, has beer emphatically distinguished as profane in opposition to sacred. The early Chinese literature suffered a similar misfortune to that of the west in the destruction of the Alexandrian library; their emperor, Chee-whang-tee, ordered all writings to be destroyed, that every thing might begin anew as from his reign; and books and records were afterwards recovered by succeeding emperors with great difficulty. LIBRARIES IN EUROPE. There are in Europe 383 public libraries, containing over 10,000 volumes each. The number of books which are thus publicly accessible are in this proportion, viz.: in Saxony, for every 100 inhabitants, there are 417 books; in Denmark, 412; in Bavaria, 339; in Tuscany, 261; in Prussia, 200; in Austria 167; in France, 129; in Belgium, 95; in Great Britain, 53. The first public library in Europe, before the invention of printing is said to have been founded by Richard de Bury, chancellor of England, as early as 1341. The first in Italy was founded by Nicholas Niccoli, one of the great restorers of learning; at his death he left his library for the use of the public, A. D. 1436. It was enlarged by Cosmoo de Medici. The first permanent libraries were, Turin Univ., 1436; Vienna, (imperial,) 1440; Vatican, 1465; &c. See table, below. In the following tables, the libraries containing less than 10,000 volumes each (of which there are, in France alone, at least seventy or eighty,) are not taken into the account: France has 107 Public Li- Saxony has 6 containing 554,000 vols braries, containing 4,000,000 vols. Bavaria'" 17 do. 1,267,000 " Belgium has 14 do. 538,000 " Denmarlc' 5 do. 645,000 " Prussia " 44 do. 2,400,000 " Tuscany " 9 do. 411,000 " Austria " 48 do. 2,400,000 " G. Britain" 33 do. 1,771,493 Taking the capital cities we find the following results:Paris has 9 Public Li- Dresden has 4 containing 340,500 vols. braries, containing 1,474,000 vols. Munich "2 do. 800,000 i Brussels has 2 do. 143,500 " Copenhaagel" 3 do. 557,000 " Berlin " 2 do. 530,000 " Florence 6 do. 318,000 Vienna " 3 do. 453,000: London "4 do. 490,500' Milan: 2 do. 230,000 " Arranging these libraries according to their extent, they would stand as follows:Fsoznded. Vols. Fourrdecl. Vols. Paris (1) National Lib., 1595 824,000 Milan, Brelea Lib., 1797 170,00YQ Munich, Royal Lib., 1550 600,000 Paris (3), St. Genevieve, 1624 150,000 Petersburg Imperial Lib., 446,000 Darmllstadt, Grand Ducal, 1760 150,000 London, British Museum, ]753 435,000 Florence, Magliabecchian, 1714 150,000 Copenhagen, Royal Lib., 1550 412,000 Naples, Royal Lib., 150,000 Berlin, Royal Lib., 1650 410,000 Brussels, Royal Lib., 1839 133,500 Vienna, Imperial Lib., 1440 313,000 Rome (1), Casanate Lib. 1760 120,00q Dresden, Royal Lib., 1656 300,000 Itague, Royal Lib., 100,00f Madrid National Lib., 1712 200,000 Paris (4), Blazarine Lib., 1661 100,00, Wolfenbuttel, Ducal Lib., 1604 200,000 Rome (2), Vatican Lib., 1465 100,00C Stuttgard, Royal Lib., 1765 187,000 Parma, Ducal Lib., 1760 10000.. Paris (2) Arsenal Lib., 1781 180,000 The chief University Libraries may be ranked in the following order:-:Folunded. Vols. Focndrled. Vol. Gottingen, University Lib., 1736 360,000 Vienna, University Iib., 1777 115,0N Breslau, University Lib., 1811 250,000 Leipsic, University Lib., 1544 112,0 Oxford, Bodleian Lib., 1597 220,000 Copenhag en, University Lib., 1730 110,0( Tubingen, University Lib., 1562 200,000 Turin, University Lib., 1436 ll0,0O Munich, University Lib., 200,000 Louvaine TUniversity Lib., 1639 105,0tHeidelburg, University Libt., 1703 200.000 Dublin, Trinity College Lib., 104,2:., Cambridge, Public Lib., 1484 166,724 Upsal, University Lib., 1621 100,000 Bologna, University Lib., 1690 150,000 Erlangen, UJniversity Lib., 1743 100.000 Prague, University Lib., 1777.130,000 Edinburgh, Univ. Lib., 1582 90,;35 IIB J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 397 The largest Libraries in Great Britain are those of the Founded. Vols, Foundeid. Vole 1 British Museum, London, 1753 435,000 Royal Institution, London, 2 Bodleian, Oxford, 1598 220,000 London Institution, 3 University, Cambridge, 1484 166,724 Iondon Library. 4 Advocates, Edinburgh, 16S2 148,000 Sion College, &c. 5 Trinity College, Dublin, 1601 104,239 LIBRARIES IN TEIE UNITED STATES. The number of volumes in the chief public and college libraries of the United States'n 1849, was stated to be 1.294,000. The number of libraries is 182. Of these, 43 contain over 10,000 volumes each; 9 over 20,000; and only 2 over 50,000. In 1849 the precedence of the largest as to numbers stood thus: Vols. Vols. I Harvard College, including Divin- 6 lercantile Library, New York - 32,000 ity and I,aw Schools - - 72,000 7 Georgetown College, D. C. - 25,000 2 Philadelphia and Loganian Library 60,000 8 B1rown University - 24,000 3 Boston Athenu - - -50,000 9 New Yorl State Library 24,000 4 Library of Congress - - - 50,000 10 Yale College - - 21,000 5 New Yorkl Society Library- - 32,000 11 Astor I,ibrary, New York- - 20,000 The Astor Library is scarcely yet opened, and the building is not yet erected. The Smithsonian Institute at Washington has not yet commenced collecting its library. The number of volumes in the School District libraries of' the State of New York, in 1819, was 1,338,848. There are 10.621 school districts. and 1,785 incorporated dr private schools. The mercantile libraries, chiefly for merchants' clerks, in tile large cities, are of comparatively recent date and of great utility. That in New York was founded in 1820, and contains 32,000 volumes; in Boston, founded 1820, contains 7,637 volumes'; in Philadelphia, founded 1822, contains 12.200 volumes. There are similar ones in Baltimore, Cincinnati, St. Louis, Troy, &c. The public libraries containing over 5000 volumes, were distributed (according to evidence in the British Museum Report in 1849) thus:Vols. Vols. 1 Alabama, has 1 Public Library, 6,000 Blrought up, - 34, 454,366 2 Columbia, Dist. of, has 2, 53,000 12 New Jersey, has 3. 28,500 3 Connecticut. " 6, 81,449 13 New Yorkl, 12; 157,411 4 Georgia, " 1, 13,000 14 North Carolina, " 1, 10,000 5 Kentucky, 1. 7.000 15 Ohio, " 1, 30,497 6 Louisiana, " 1; 5,500 16 Pennsylvania, " 14, 159,200 7 Maine,' 3, 38,860 17 Rhode Island, " 3, 37,185 8 Maryland, "4 1, 12,000 18 South Carolina, " 2, 30,000 9 Massachusatts, " 14, 200.000 19 Tennessee, 2, 16,000 10 Missouri, " 2, 14,300 20 Vermont, " 2, 16,254 11 New Hampshire, " 2, 22,500 21 Virginia, " 4, 41,000 34, 454,366 Total - - - 81, 980,134 The above estimate is perhaps below the mark, and does not in-6ludc school, parish and town libraries, which are numerous, but of moderate extent. The city of Paris alone has 1,474,000 volumes, in large public libraries; i. e. half as many again as the whole of the United States. See Parl. Rep. Brit. MIcs.; Prof. Jewelt's Rep. Smithsooiara Inst.; G. Livel rmore ie N. Anmer. Rev., July 1850, 4c.,IEGE. Formerly called, on account of the number of its churches and convents, " the paradise of priests, the purgatory of men, and the hell of women." In the time of Louis XI. of France, A. D. 1461, Liege was a large and wealthy place, and the prince bishop was a prelate of almost sovereign power. Taken by the English under the duke of Marlborough, in 1702; and by the French and other powers, at variouls times, up to 1796, when it was annexed to France. Liege was incorporated with the Netherlands, in 1814. 398 mTHE:WORLD S PROGRESS. [ LIS LIGHT-HOUSES. They were erected by all the ancient commercial people, and called Tros, or pillars, as those of Hercules, near Gibraltar; that of Pharos, at Alexandria, 550 feet high, and visible forty-two miles; the Pharos of gM.Iessina; the Colossus of -Rhodes, &c. There are forty-two round the coasts of England, fifteen on the east coast, thirteen in the English channel, and folbujteen in the Irish chanuel. There are seventeen on the Scottish coasts, and twenty-six on the Irish coasts. 1JGURIAN REPUBLIC. Founded in June, 1802, upon the ruins of that of Genoa. The doge of this new republic was solemnly invested at Genoa, August 10. 1802. The Ligurian republic was incorporated with France, it; having denmanded a union with the latter country, May 25, 1805. It merged into the kingdom of Italy. LIMA. See Amer?'icac and Colinalbia,. In 1524, Pizarro, marching through Peru, was struck with the beauty of the valley of Rimac, and there he founded a city, and gave it the name of Cisdcad de los Reyes, or City of the Kings. This Spanish name it retains in all legal deeds, but it is better known as Lima. Awful earthquakes occurred here, since solemnly commemorated by annual festivals, A. D. 1586, 1630,; 1687, and October 28, 1746. In the last it was almost totally destroyed, as well as Callao, wvhich see. LINEN. A fabric of very remote antiquity. Pharaoh arrayed Joseph in vestures of fine linen.-Ge~. xli. 42. This article was first manufactured in England by Flemish weavers, under the protection of Henry III.. 1253. Befbre this period woollen shirts were generally worn. A company of linen weavers established itself in London, in 1368; and the art of staining linen _becamle known in 1579. A colony of Scots in the reign of James I., and other Presbyterians wvho fled friom persecution in that country in the succeeding inglorious reigns, planted themselves in the northeast part of Ireland, and there established the linen manufacture. It was liberally encouraged by the lord deputy Wentworth, in 1634. Hemp, flax, linen, thread, and yarn, from Ireland, were permitted to be exported duty free, 1696. This law gave rise to the subsequently improved state of the manufacture there. The Irish Linen Board was established in 1711; the Linen-hall, Dublin, was opened, 1728; the board was abolished in 1828. Dunfernmline in Fifeshire, Dundee in Angusshire, and Barnsley in Yorkshire, are, in Great Britain, chief seats of the linen manufacture. I,TNNSAN SYSTEM. The system of Botany of the eminent Linne. a Swede, or, as his nlame is Latinized, Linnweus, was commenced about 1725-30; and his first great work was a dictionary of 7300 plants arranged in classes, orders and genera; he classed the plants according to the number and situation of the sexual parts, and made the flower and fruit the test of his various genera. The Linnman Society in London was instituted in 1788, and was incorporated March 26, 1802. LISBON. The Moors are said to have given the name of Lisboa to this city when they conquered it, An. 716. It was made the capital of Portugal by Emanuel, 1506. Lisbon was almost destroyed by an earthquake, November 1. 1755. See Eas'tlqezakes. It became a point of the late Jwar, and the coiurI fled to the Brazils, November, 1807, in which month (the 30th) the French, arimy under Junot entered Lisbon, and held possession of it until the battle of Vineiram in which they were defeated by the British, under sir Arthur Wellesley, August 21, 1808. Insurrection at Lisbon, August 21, 1831. Alassaocre at Lisbon, June 9, 1834. See Poril-ale. LISLE, SI oGE oF. Lisle was besieged by the duke of Marlborough and the allies; and though its immense fortifications were deemed impregnable, it was taken after a three months' siege, in 1708. It was restored by the treaty of Utrecht, in 1713, in consideration of the demolition of the fortifications LIV ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 399 of Dunilrk: this siege is reckoned one of the most famous of modern history. In the Revolutionary war, Lisle sustained a severe bombardment from the Austrians, who were obliged to raise the siege, Oct. 7, 1792. LITANIES. They were first used in processions and other devotions, about A. D. 400. Litanies to the Virgin Mary were first introduced by pope Gregory I., in or about 595.-=-Newlon on the Prophecies. The first English litany was conmmandel to be used in the Reformed Churches by Henry VIII., in 1543.- Cotlier's Ecc. List. LITERARY PROPERTY, IN ENGLAND. See Copyright. The statute of queen Anne, 1709-10, securing literary property, was confirmed by a memoerable decision at the bar of the House of Lords, and the claim of perpetual copyright was overruled Feb. 22, 1774. The statute declared the author to have an exclusive right for 14 years, and if at the end of that term he were living, the right to again return to him for the same term of years. The later acts extended the author's right to 28 years, and if living at the end of that time, then to the remainder of' his life. By the 5th and 6th of Victoria, the right is to endure for the life of the author, and for seven years after his death; but if that time expire earlier than 42 years, the right is still to endure for 42 years, for which term also any work published after the author's death is to continue the property of the owners of' the manuscript; act passed July 1, 1842. The Dramatic Authors' Protection act, passed June 10, 1833. The International Copyright bill, passed July 31, 1838; this act secures protection in England to works of authors of any country which concedes the same protection to English authors. LITERARY SOCIETIES, CLUB, FUND, &c. The various societies connected wvitll literature in London, will be found in their respective places through the volume. The celebrated Literary Club was instituted by Dr. Johnson, and included many of the illustrious men in literature of the age, 1765. The Literary Fund, in Lincoln's-Inn Fields, was founded in 1790, to relieve authors and literary men who by age or infirmities are reduced to poverty: this society was incorporated in 1818. The Royal Society of Literature was established Sept. 15, 1825. L1THOGRAPHY. The invention of it is ascribed to Alois Sennefelder, whose first essays were executed about 1796; and shortly afterwards the art was announced in Germany, and was known as polyautography. It became partially known in England in 1801 et seq., but its general introduction lnay be referred to Mr. Ackermann, of' London, about 1817. Sennefelder died in 1841. LITURGY. In the ancient Greek and Roman lchurchles the word Liturgy was iestrained to signify the mass only. The present ENGLISI- LITURGY was first composed, and was approved and confirmed by parliament, in 1547-8. The offices for morning and evening prayer were then put into nearly the same form in which we now have them, but other parts were different. Upon the solicitation of Calvin and others, the liturgy was reviewed and altered to very nearly its present state, 1551. It was first read in Ireland. in the Eng-lish language in 1550, and in Scotland, where it occasioned a tumult, in 1637. Again altered in 1661. The liturgy was revised by Whitehead, formerly chaplain to Anna Boleyn, and by bishops Parker, Grindall, Cox, and Pilkington, and dean May, and secretary Smith. LIVERIES. In England they originated with our ancestors, who clothed their vassals in uniform, thereby to distinguish families; they were originally a single article of dress, or a plarticular color used on a part of some one garment; and in the end they became rich suits and gaudy trappings.-Ashe. LtTVERPOOL. This town, which within the last century has, by a progressive 400 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ LOt increase in extent, population, and commercial importance, obtained the first rank after the metropolis, in England, is supposed to. be noticed in Domesday-book under the name Esmedune, or, Smedune. In other ancient records its various appellations are, Litherpuil, and Ly7rpul, signifying probably, in the ancient dialect'of the county, the lower pool'; though some have deduced its etymology from a pool frequented by an aquaticfowl, called the "Liver," or from a sea-weed of that name; it was but a small fishing place, until, in 1172, its favorable situation, and the convenience of its port, attracted the notice of Henry II., who made it the place of rendezvous and embarkation of his troops for the conquest of treland. Ih 1843, the number of ships which entered the port of Liverpool was as follows; British,'2,615, of the aggregate burthen of 691,707 tons;'foreign, 1,014, burthen, 417,621 tons. The amount of duties paid at the custom-house for the year ending 5th January, 1844, was ~4,121,522.-Parl. Ret. LLOYD'S, LONDON. The coffee-house in connection with the Royal Exchange, and held previously to the late fire (see Exchange) on the northern side of that building. Lloyd's was established in 1772, and is the resort of eminent merchants, underwriters, insurance brokers, &c.; and here are effected insurances for all the world on ships and merchandise. The books kept here contain an account of the arrival and sailing of vessels, and -are remarkable for their early intelligence of maritime affairs. LOADSTONE. One of the most wonderful productions of the earth. Its virtues were but indistinctly known to the ancients, yet its attractive quality had been taken notice of from very remote times.-Sturmisus. Aristotle assures us that Thales made mention of it, and Hippocrates speaks of'it under the name of stone that attracts iron, and Pliny was struck with its attractive power. The polar attraction of the loadstone was, it is said, known in France before A. D. 1180; but this honor is accorded to Roger Bacon about I267. The Italians discovered that it could communicate jis virtues to steel or iron; and Flavio Giojo of Amalfi, was the inventor of the mariner's compass. See Coimipass. LOANS. Those for the service of the crown of England were generally borrowed at Antwerp until after the reign of Elizabeth. In 1559, that queen borrowed 200,0001. -of- the city of Antwerp, to enable her to reform her own coin, and sir Thomas Gresham and the city'of London joined in the secu*rity,-Rapin. The amount of the English loans, during four late memorable periods, was, viz: Seven years' war - fiom 1755 to 1763 - - ~52,100,000 American var - from 1776 to 1784 - - - 75,500,000 French revolutionary war. - from 1793 to 1802 - - 168,500,000 War against Bonaparte — from-1803 to 1814 - 206,300,000 Besides the property tax. In 1813, were raised two loans of twenty-one millions and twenty-two millions; and it deserves to be recorded that-a subscription loan to carry on the war against France was filled up in London in fifteen hours and twenty minutes, to the amount of eighteen millions, Dec. 5, 1796. LOCHLEVEN CASTLE, KINRoss. Built on an island in the celebrated lake of Loch Leven, in 1257, and was a royal residence when Alexander III. and his queen-were forcibly taken from it to Stirling. It was besieged by the English in 1301, and again in 1335.. Patrick Graham, first archbishop of St. Andrew's, was imprisoned and died within its walls, 1447. The earl of Northumberland was confined in it in 1569. It is, however, chiefly r-"markable as the place of the unfortunate -teen Mary's imprisonment, in 1567, and of her escape, on Sunday, May 2, 1568. In this castle Mary was compelled to sign her abdication of the throne of Scotland, of which an interesting account is given by sir Walter Scott, in The Abtbot; and of whict LOM J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 401 also, some new and affectig particulars are given by Mr. Tytler, in the 7th volume of his tistory of Scotland, published in August, 1840. LOCKS. Those of the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, were clumsy contrivances. Denon has engraved an Egyptian lock of wood. Du Cange mentions locks and padlocks as early as A. D. 1381. The French are accounted the worst locksmiths in Europe and the English the best. Bramah's celebrated patent locks were registered in 1784. Locks have been made at Wolverhampton in suits of eight, ten, or more, of exquisite workmanship, all with different keys, so that none of them call open any but its own lock, yet a master key will open all. See Keys. LOCUSTS. The visits of these animals in Eastern countries have frequently superinduced pestilence and death, and many instances are recorded of these consequences. Owing to the putrefaction of vast swarms in Egypt and Lybia, upwards of 800,000 persons perished, 128 B. c. The country of Palestine was infested with such swarms that they darkened the air, and after devouring the fruits of the earth they died, and their intolerable stench caused a pestilential fever, A. D. 406. A similar catastrophe occurred in France in 873. ~A remarkable swarm of locusts settled upon the ground about London, and consumed the vegetables; great numbers fell in the streets, and were preserved by the curious; they resemlbled grasshoppers, but were three times the size, and their colors more variegated, Aug. 4, 1748. They infested Germany in 1749, Poland in 1750, and Warsaw in June 1816. TODI, BATTLE OF TmIE BRIDGE OF. One of the great early achievements in Italy of Bonaparte. He commanded the French army, which was opposed to the Austrians commanded by general Beaulieu, and obtained a brilliant and decisive victory after a bloody engagement in which several thousands o.f the Imperialists perished on the field, and many thousands were made prisoners, May 10, 1796. The conqueror pursued his advantage with wonderful rapidity, as after this battle all Lombardy lay open to his army, and the republican flag floated in:Milan a few days afterwards. LOG-LINE, used in navigation, A. D. 1570; and first mentioned by Bourne in 1577. The log-line is divided into spaces of fifty feet, and the way which the ship makes is measured by a half-minute sand glass, which bears nearly the same proportion to an hour that fifty feet bear to a mile: the line used in the royal navy is forty-eight feet. IOGARITHMS, so useful in mathematics, are the indexes of the ratio of numbers one to another. They were invented by baron Merchiston, an eminent Scotchman (sir JTohn Napier) in 1614. The method of computing by means of marked pieces of ivory was discovered about the same time, and hence called Napier's bones. The invention was afterwards completed by Mr. Briggs, at Oxford. LOLLARDS. The name given to the first reformers of the Roman Catholic religion in England, and a reproachful appellation of the followers of Wickliffe. —Chiancer. The original sect was founded by Walter Lollard in 1315; he was burned for heresy at Cologne in 1322. After his death the disciples of Wickliffe were called Lollards. The first martyr in England on account of religious opinions was William Sawtree, the parish priest of St. Osith, London, Feb. 19, 1401, reign of Henry IV. The Lollards were proscribed by the English parliament in 1416, and about 1414, numbers of them, or persons to whom the name was given, were burnt alive. —MAlorei; Caste. LOMBARD MERCHANTS. In England they were understood to be composed of natives of some one of the four republics of Genoa, Lucca, Florence, or Venice. —Anderson on Commerce. Lombard usurers were sent to England 402 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ LOG b)y pope Gregory IX. to lend money to convents, commnnities, and private persons, who were not able to pay down the tenths which were collected throughout the kingdom with great rigor that year, 13 Henry III., 1229. They had offices in Lombard-street, which great banking street is called after them to this day. Their usurious transactions caused. their expulsion friom the kingdom in the reign of Elizabeth. LOMBARDY. The Lombards were a detachment of Alemanni from the marches of Brandenburgh, famous for their bravery. They were invited into Italy by Justinian, to serve against the Goths. To reward their services, the emperor gave them part of Upper Pannonia, A. D. 548. They passed into Italy, and their chief was proclaimed king by his army at Milan, in 570. The kingdom of Lombardy supported itself and:made considerable conquests till 772, when Charlemagne took Desiderius, the last king, and annexed his territories to the German empire.-La Cowmbe. See Milan, &c. LONDON. The greatest and richest city in the world. Some will have it that a city existed on the spot 1107 years before the birth of Christ, and 354 years before the foundation of Rome. It was the capital of the Trinobantes 54 B. c. and long previously the royal seat of their kings. In A. D. 61, it was known to the Romans as Lundinium. Lundiniuml or Colonia Augusta was the chief residence of merchants at that period, and the great mart of trade and commerce, though not dignified with the name of a colony.Tacitus. It is said, but not truly, to.have derived its name from Lucd, an old British king, who was buried near where Ludgate formerly stood; but its name is from LlyI-Dimt, the "town on the lake." See Fires, Plague, &c. LONGEVITY. In Great Britain the instances of it are remarkable, though rare. Golour M'Crain, of the Isle of Jura, one of the Hebrides, is said to have kept 180 Christmasses in his own house, and died in the reign of Charles I., being the oldest man on any thing approaching to authentic record for upwards of 3000 years. —Greig. Thomas Parr, a laboring man of Shropshire, was brought to London by the earl of Arundel, in 1635, and considered the wonder of his time, being then in his 153d year, and in perfect health; but the journey and change of air and diet killed him, Nov. 15, the same year. Henry Jenkins, of Yorkshire, died in 1670, and was buried in Bolton church-yard, Dec. 6, in that year, aged 169 years. There are some extraordinary instances of great age in Russia; and at Dantzic a man is said to have died at 184; and another to be living in Wallachia, aged 186 years. In Holy Writ, Methuselah is stated to have lived 969 years, the,. greatest age of any on record, according to the reckoning before the Flood; but the length of the years of that time is not ascertained; hence there is no fixed principle to determine the real ages of that epoch. LONGITUDE, determined by Hipparchus at Nice, who fixed the first degree in the Canaries, 162 B. c. Harrison made a time-keeper in A. D. 1759, which in two voyages was found to correct the longitude within the limits required by the act of parliament, 12th Anne, 1714; and in 1763, he applied for the reward of 20,0001. offered by that act, which he received. The celebrated Le Roi of Paris, in 1776, invented a watch that keeps time better; and the chronoimeters of Arnold, Earnshaw, and Br6guet bring the longitude almost to the truth. Philosophers have sought the longitude in vain; but Newton has said it will yet be discovered by a fool. LOOKING-GLASSES. Made only at Venice in 1300. They were made in England, by Venetian artists, some of whom took up their abode in Lambeth, in 1673.-Salnzon. The French excelled in their manufactur e of them in the last century; but the English have brought their factories to great perfection of late years, and now make looking-glasses to cover, in a single plate, the walls of large rooms. LOT ] DICTIONARtY OF DATES. 403 LOOM-ENGINE. The weaver's, otherwise called the Dutch loom, was brought into use in London from Holland, in or about the year 1676, since when the general principal of the loom has been infinitely varied by mechanical ingenuity. There are about 250,000 hand-looms in Great Britain, and 75 000 power-looms, each being equal to three hand looms, making twenty-two yards each per day. The steam-loom was introduced in 1807. LORD. In the Old and New Testament, Lord is a particular appellation for the supreme majesty of GoD and CHRIST, and in that sense cannot be applied to any other being. With us, it is a term of nobility.-See Lo'rds and Bacro?. The word lord is abbreviated from two syllables: it was originally HIIaford, which, by dropping the aspirate became Laford, and afterwards by contraction Lord. "The etymology of this word," a writer observes, "is worth observing, for it was composed of hlafj a loaf of bread, and ford, to give or afford; so that Hlclford, now Lord, implies a giver of bread; because in those ages, such great men kept extraordinary houses, and fed the poor; for which reason they were called givers of bread."-See Ladies. The nickname of " My Lord," given by vulgar people to hunchbacked persons, is from the Greek word lordos, crooked.-cHaydn. LORDS. The now recognized nobility of England take their creation from the 1st of William the Conqueror, 1066, when William Fitzosborne, the first peer, was made earl of Hereford; Walter Devereux made earl of Salisbury; Copsi, earl of Northumberland; Henry de Ferrers made earl of Derby, and Gerbodus (a Fleming) made earl of Chester. Twenty-two other peers were nlade in this sovereign's reign. Peers of England are free from all arrests for debts, as being the king's hereditary counsellors. Therefore a peer cannot be outlawed in any civil action, and no attachment lies against his person; but execution may be taken upon his lands and goods. For the same reason, they are free from all attendance at courts leet or sheriff's turns; or, in case of a riot, fiom attending the posse co2aitatus. See Bacros; Earl; liIar'quess, &c. LORDS, HousE or. The peers of England were sumnioned ad consLdlendml7a, to consult, in early reigns, and were summoned by writ 6 and 7 John, 1205. The commons did not form a part of the great council of the nation until some ages after the conquest. —HLzee. Deputies from certain boroughs were returned to meet the barons and the clergy in 1258.-GoldsmitA. And writs are extant of the date of Jan. 23, 1265; but severll historians maintain that the first regular parliament of the three estates, as now constituted, was held 22 Edward I., 1293-4. The house of lords includes the spiritual as well as temporal peers of England. The bishops are supposed to hold certain ancient baronies under the king, in right whereof they have seats in this house. The temporal lords consist of the several degrees of nobility: some sit by descent, as do all ancient peers; some by creation, as all newmade peers; and otlhers by election, since the union with Scotland in 1707, and with Ireland in 1801. Scotland elects 16 representative peers, and Ireland 4 spiritual lords by rotation in sessions, and 28 temporal peers for life. The house of lords now consists of 3 princes, 20 dulkes, 21 mnarquesses. 115 earls, 22 viscounts, 201 barons, 16 Scotch lords, 28 Irish lords, 26 English prelates, and 4 Irish bishops-in all 456 peers. LOTTERY, STATE. The first mentioned in Enolish history began drawring at. the western door of St. Paul's cathedral, Jaiuary 11 11, 169, and continued day and knig'ht until May 6 following. Its profits were for repairing the fortifications on the coast of England. and the prizes were pieces of plate. The first lottery mentioned for sums of money took place in 1630. Lotteries were established in 1693, and for more than 130 years yielded a large annual revenue to the crown. The Irish state lottery was drawn in Dublin 404 TIE WOXLD7S PROGRESS. [ LUT in 1780. All lotteries were suppressed in France by a decree of the national convention, Nov. 15, 1793. They were abolished in England, 1826; and an act was passed imposing a penalty of 501. for advertising foreign or any lotteries in the British newspapers, 1836. Abolished in Bavaria by unanimous vote of the deputies, Oct. 19, 1847. They have long been abolished in New England; in New York they were prohibited about 1830. In nearly all the states there is a penalty against lotteries not specially authorized by the legislatures. IOUISIANA, ONE OF THE UNITED STATES. First explored by the French, and received its name in 1682, from M. La Salle, in honor of Louis XIV., and a settlement was attempted in 1684, but failed. In 1699, a more successful attempt was made by M. Iberville, who entered the Miss., and founded a colony. His efforts were folowed up by one Crozat, a man of wealth, who held the exclusive trade of the country for a number of years. About the year 1717, he transferred his interest in the province to a chartered company, at the head of which was the notorious John Law, whose national bank and Mississippi speculation involved the ruin of half the French nobility. In 1731; the company resigned the concern to the crown, who, in 1762, ceded the whole of Louisiana to Spain. In 1800, Spain reconveyed the province to the French, of -whom it was piirchased by the United States, in 1803, for $15,000,000. The purchase included the territory of the United States WV. of the Mississippi. In 1812, the present State of Louisiana formed a constitution, and was admitted into the Union. Population in 1810, 76,556; in 1820, 153,407; in 1830, 215,575; in 1840, 352,411, including 168,452 slaves. LOUVRE. This renowned edifice in Paris was a royal residence in the reign of Dagobert, A. D. 628; but Francis I. laid the foundation of what is now called the Old Louvre, 1522. Here were deposited the finest collection of paintings, of statues, and treasures of art known in the world. The chief of them were brought from Italy during the triumph of Bonaparte's arms, but most of them have since been'restored to the rightful possessors. LUCCA, TIIE DrICHY OF, adjoining Tuscany. On the fall of the Lombard kingdO1n, A. D. 774, it was annexed to the German empire. In 1815 it was occupied by the Austrians and granted to Maria Louisa, daughter of Charles IV. of Spain. The duke retires to Massa, but returns and yields to his people's demand for reforms, Sept. 3, 1847: appointed a regency and again fled, Sept. 15. The duchy sold by the duke to Tuscany for an annuity of $215,000, until he should succeed to the duchy of Parma, on the death of Maria Louisa, present duchess, Oct. 10, 1847. LUCIA, ST,. First settled by the French in 1650. Taken by the British several tiuves in the subsequent wars. Memorable insurrection of the French negroes, April 1795. In this year Guadaloupe, St. Vincent, Grenadla, Dominica, St. Eustatia, and St. Lucie, were taken by the British. St. Lucia was restored to France at the peace of 1802; but was again siezed on by England the next year, and confirmed to her by the treaty of Paris in 1814. See Colonies. LUNEVILLE, PEACE OF, concluded between the French republic and the emperor of Germany, confirming the cessions made by the treaty of Campo Formio, stipulating that the Rhine, to the Dutch territories, should form the boundary of France, and recognizing the independence of the Batavian, Helvetic, Ligurian, and Cisalpine republics, Feb. 9, 1801. LUSTRUM. An expiatory sacrifice made for the whole body of the Roman people, at the end of every five years, after the census had been taken, 572 B. c. Every five years were called a ltLst'rus; and ten, fifteen, or twenty years were commonly expressed by two, three, or four lfest?'a. LUTHERANISM. Sprung up in Germany in 1517, in which year Leo X. published his indulgences for money; and Iccelius, a Dominican friar, who was LY ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 405 deputed with others of his order to collect in Saxony, carried his zeal to such a height as to declare his commission unbounded; that no crime could be committed too great to be pardoned: and that by purchasing indulgences, not only past sins, but those which were intended, were to be forgiven. Against these practices Luther openly preached with wonderful success, and thus began the Reformation in Germany.-Melc/ior Adam, in Vita Lilltheli. LUTZEN, BATTLE OF, between the French army commanded by Napoleon on the one side, and the combined armies of Russia and Prussia, commanded by general Wittgenstein, fought May 2, 1813. This sanguinary battle opened the campaign of that year; and though each of the adversaries claimed the victory, it was manifestly on the side of France; but in this engagement marshal Duroc was mortally wounded. The battles of Bautzen and Wurtzen immediately followed (May 20 and 26), both in favor of Napoleon, when the allies were compelled to pass the Oder, and an armistice was agreed to, and afterwards prolonged, but unfbrtunately for the French emperor it did not produce peace. LUTZENGEN, on LUTZEN, BATTLE OF; Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, against the emperor. In this sanguinary and memorable battle, Gustavus, the most illustrious hero of his time, and the chief support of the Protestant religion in Germany, and in alliance with Charles I. of England, was foully killed in the moment of victory, Nov. 6, 1632. This is also called the battle of Lippstadt. LUXEMBURG. Considered the strongest fortress in the world. It was taken and pillaged by the French in 1543; was taken by the Spaniards in 1544 by the French in 1684; and restored to Spain in 1697. It was again taken by the French in 1701; and afterwards given to the Dutch as a barrier town, and ceded to the emperor at the peace in 1713. These are among the chief occurrences. Luxemburg withstood several sieges in the last century; it surrendered to the French after a long and memorable siege, June 7, 1795. The garrison, on their capitulation, took an oath not to serve against the republic of France until exchanged, and were conducted to the right side of the Rhine immediately after. LUXURY. The instances of extravagance and luxury are numerous in the histor-' of almost all countries, ancient and modern, and many laws have been enforced to repress them. Horace mentions fowls dressed in Falernian wine, muscles and oysters from the Lucrine lake and Circean promontory, and black game from the Umbrian' forests.-Larldeter. Lucullus, at Rome, was distinguished for the immoderate expenses of his meals; his halls were named from the different gods; and when Cicero and Pompey attempted to surprise him, they were amazed by the costliness of a supper which had been prepared upon the word of Lucullus, who merely ordered his attendants to serve it in the hall of Apollo: this feast for three persons casually met, would have sufficed for three hundred nobles specially invited. In England, luxury was restricted by a law wherein the prelates and nobility were confined to two courses every meal, and two kinds of food in every course, except on great festivals. The law also prohibited all who did not enjoy a free estate of 1001. per asnnt2et, from wearing furs (see PFTtrs), skins, or silk; and the use of foreign cloth was confined to the royal family alone; to all others it was prohibited, A. D. 1337. An edict was issued by Charles VI. of France, which said, " Let no man presume to treat with more than a soup and two dishes," 1340. LYCEUM. The Lyceum took its name from its having been originally a temple of Apollo Lyceus; or rather, a portico, or gallery, built by Lyceus, son of Apollo. The Lyceum was a celebrated spot neat the banks of the Ilissus in Attica, where Aristotle taught philosophy; and as he generally taught 406 TI-HE WORLD7S PROGRESS. [ LY:. his pupils while he walked, hence they were called peripctetics, and his philosophy was called from this place, the philosophy of the Lyceum, 342 B. C. -SlaLley. LYDIA. A very ancient kingdom under a long dynasty of kings, the last of whom was Croesus, whose riches became a proverb: he was con4'ttered by Cyrus, 548 a. c. The coinage of money of gold and silver (together with many other useful inventions, and the encouragement of commerce) is as cribed to the Lyclians. A numlber of illustrious men flourished here.-Herodlot-ts. Argon, a descendant of Hercules, reigns Crcesus, son of Alyattes, succeeds to the in Lydia.-He-rod. - B. C. 1223 throne, and becomes celebrated for his The kingdom of Lydia, propertly so victories and conquests - B.. 56 called, begins under Ardysus I.- Ephesus falls into his hands; the IoniBlair-. 797 ans, ZEolians, and other parts of Asia Alyattes reigns. v. 761 Minor are subjected to his dominion - 55-1 Meles commences his rule - - 747 All the nations west of the Halys are Reign of Candaules - - 735 conquered, and that river becomes Gyges. first of the race called Mermna- the boundary of the kingdom.Blair - 550 din, puts Candaules to death, marries Cresus, dreading the power of Cyrus, his queen, usurps the throne, and whose conquests had reached to the makes great conquests - - 718 borders of Lydia, crosses the Halys Ardysus II. reigns; the Cimbri besiege to attack the Medes, with an army of Sardis, the capital of Lydia - 680 420,000 men and 60,000 horse 5AR The Milesian war commenced under I-Ie is defeated by Cyrus, pursued, beGyges, is continued by Sadyattes, who sieged in his capital, and taken - 548 reigns - - 631 The conqueror orders Cresus to be Reign of Alyattes II. 619 burned alive, and the pile is already Battle upon the river Halys between the. on fire, when lie calls on the name of Lydians and Medes, intercepted by an Solosl in agony of mind, and Cyrus almost total eclipse of the sun, which hearing him pronounce it, spares his superstitiously occasions a conclu- life 548 sion of the war.-Blair - May 28, 585 Lydia, the kingdom of the "richest of [This eclipse had been predicted many mankind," is made a province of the years before by Thales, of Miletus.- Persian empire - 548 Blair.] PEsop, the Phrygian fabulist, Aleman, the first Greekl poet who wrote in a style of gallantry, Thales of Miletus, Anaximenes, Xenophanes, Anacreon of Tees, Heraclitus of Ephesus, &c., flourished in Lydia. The country reinained subject to the Persian empire until the latter was conquered by Alexander, about 330 B. c. It next became part of the new kingdom of Pergamus, founded by Philmterus, the eunuch; Attalus afterwards ibequeathed it to the Romans, and finally the Turkls conquered it fiom the Eastern Empire, A. D. 1326.-Prieslecy. LYONS. Founded by L. Plancus, 43 B. c. The city was reduced to ashes in a single night by lightning, and was rebuilt in the reign of Nero. Two general councils were held here in the 18th and 14th centuries. The silk manufacture commenced in the reign of' Francis I., 1515. Lyons was besieged in 1793 by the convention army of 60,000 men, and surrendered Oct. 7 when awful scenes of blood and rapine followed. The National Convention decreed the demolition of the city, Oct. 12, same year. It capitulated to the Austrians, March 1814, and July 1815. An insurrection among the artisans, which led to great popular excesses for many days, broke out, Nov. 21. 1831. Dreadful riots, April 15, 1834. A dreadful inundation occurred at Lyoan, Nov 4, 1840. See Isnzndcations. LYRE. Its invention is ascribed to the Grecian Mercury, who, according to Homer, gave it to Apollo, the first that played upon it with method, and accompanied it with poetry. The invention of the primitive lyre with three strings, is due to the first Egyptian Hermes. Terpandcer added several strings to the lyre, making the number seven, 673 B. c. Phrynis, a musician of Mitylene, added two more, making nine, 438 B. C. MitAC ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 407 MI.:ACEDON. The first kingdom was founded by Caranus, aboutt 814 B. c. It \was an inconsiderable country, sometimes under the protection of Athens, sometimes of Thebes, and sometimes of Sparta, until the reign of Philip. the father of Alexander the Great, who by his wisdom as a politician, and exploits as a general, made it a powerful kingdom, and paved the way to his son's greatness. Macedon had twenty-one kings, from Caranus to Alexander inclusive,; after the conqueror's death, when his dominions were divided among his generals, Cassander seized Macedon, and established a new kinngdom. See Tabudlar Views, p. 15 to p. 37. Reign of Caranus - - nB.. 814 to the ground; the house of Pindar is Reign of Perdiccas I. - - 729 alone left standingl - 335 Reign of Argweus I. - 678 The Almighty- oIvors Alexander with a Reign of Philip I - - - - 640 vision, in which the high-priest of the Reign of 2ropas; he conquers the Illy- Jews appears to him, exhorting him rians - - - - 602 to pass into Asia. See Jews - 334 Reign of Amyntas - - 547 lie passes into Asia, and gains his first Reign of Alexander I. - - 497 1 battle over Daris., Sue GranicLus, Reign of Perdiccas II. - 454 Battle of - - 334 Archetaus, natural son of Perdiccas, Sardis surrenders to the conqueror; ITamurders the legitimate heirs of his licarnassus is taken, and numerous father, and seizes the throne - - 413i cities in Asia Minor - - - 334 Ie is surnamed the "Patron of Learn- i Memnon ravages the Cycla(tes; Darius in".4' - - - - - 411 takes the field with 460,000 inlantry Iie is murdered by a favorite to whom and 100,000 cavalry - 333 he promised his daugihter in marriage, [ Battle of Issues (which see) - 333 yet gave her to another - 399 Alexander, in his way to Egypt, lays Reign of Amyntas II. - - 399 siege to T'yre, which is destroyed after He is driven from the throne - - 398 seven months - 332 Recovers his crown, and puts Pausanaias Damascus is taken, and the vast treato death - 397 sures of Darius comle into the possesThe Illyrians enter Macedonia, expel sion of the victor - 332 Amyntas, and put Arggeus, brother of Gaza surrenders - - - - 332 Pausanias, on the throne - - 392 Alexander enters Jerusalem; and Amyntas again recovers his kingdlom -'390 Egypt conquered - 332 Reign of Alexander I. - - - 371 Alexandria founded - - - - 332 He is assassinated - - - 370 Great battle of Arbela, the third and Reign of Perdiccas III. - - 366' last between Alexander and Darius; He is killed in battle 360 the Persian army totally defeated. Reign of Philip II. and institution of the See Arbela - - - 331 Macedonian phalanx 360 Alexander proclaimed master of Asia; Philip gains the battle of Methon over he enters Babylon in triumph - 331 the Athenians. 360 He defeats the Illyrians in a desperate GRECIAN OR MACEDONIAN EtPItE. engagement 359 Alexander sits on the throne of Darius, He takles Amphipolis, and receives an at Susa - - - 330 arrow in his right eye. See Archery 358 Parthia and Ilyrcania are overrun by He conquers Thrace and Illyria 356 Alexander - 329'Birth of Alexander the Great 3561 Thalestris, queen of the Amazons, visits:Philip adds to his conquests - 348 himn, attended by a retinue of 300 woClose of the first sacred war 348 men. See Amnazozs - - 329 Illyricum overrun by the army of Philip 344 l Ie puts his friend Parmenio to death, Thrace made tributary to Macedon - 343 on a charge of conspiracy, supposed Aristotle appointed tutor to the young to be false - 329 prince Alexander - - - 343 Alexander makles more conquests - 328 War against the Athenians - - 341 His expedition to India; Porus, king of Philip besieges Byzantium - 341 India, is defeated and taken; and the Battle of Chweronea; Philip conquers. country as far as the Ganges is overSee Clharone - - - 338 run 327 Philip is assassinated by Pausanias, at Calisthenes is put to the torture for reEgxea, during the celebration of games fusing to render divine homage to in honor of his daubhter's nuptials - 336 Alexander - 326 Alexander III., surnamed the Great, Subjection of the Cosseas - - 326 succeeds his father - 336 Death of Alexander - - 323 He enters Greece 335 His conquests are divided among his The Greeks appoint him general of their generals - - - - 323 armies against the Persians - 335 His remains are transported to AlexalnThe Thebans revolt; he levels Thebes dria, and buried by Ptolemy - 322 408 ) THE WORLD'S rROGRESS. [ MA' MACEDON, conltinuLed. The Greeks defeated by sea and land Reign of Antigonus Gonatus - n. c. 277 near Cranon (which see) - B. c. 322 Pyrrhus invades Macedon, defeats AnThebes rebuilt by Cassander - - 315 tigonus, and is proclaimed king - 274 Seleucus recovers Babylon - - 312 Pyrrhus slain; Antigonus restored 272 Cassander puts Roxana and her son to Antigonus takes Athens - - 268 death, and usurps the throne 311 The Gauls again invade Macedon - 268 Battle of Ipsus (which see) -. 301 Revolt of the ParLhians - - 250 New division of the empire - 301 Reign of Demetrius 11. - 242 Reign of Philip, his son - 232 ~MACE3DON It. His war against the Rhodians 202 Death of Cassander - - 298 Philip is defeated by the Romnans - 198 Reign of Alexander and Antipater 298 He is totally subdued - - - 196 Demetrius murders Alexander, and The reign of Perseus - - 179. seizes the crown of Macedon - - 294 Perseus defeated by the Romans - 171 Irruption of the Gauls - - - 279 The consul aEmilius Pautlus enters Macedon, and pronounces it a Roman province. Perseus and his sons are made prisoners, 168 B. c., and next year walk in chains before the chariot of 2Emilius in his triuQpph for the conquest of Macedon. The country is finally conquered by the Turks under Amurath II. in A. D. 1429. Piriestley. MACHIAVELIAN PRINCIPLES. These are principles laid down by Nicholas Machiavel, of Florence, in his Practice of Politics, and T/ee Prince. By some they are stigmatized as "the most pernicious maxims of government, founded on the vilest policy;" and by others as " sound doctrines, notwithstanding the prejudice erroneously raised against them." The work appeared in 1517; and was translated into English in 1761.* MADAGASCAR. One of the largest islands in the world, discovered by Lcrenzo Almneida A. D. 1506. In the centre of the island is said to exist a race of dwarfs, with a strange peculiarity of form; but this rests on the unsupported statement of a French traveller who was in possession of a preserved pigmy which he had brought fiom Madagascar. A paper describing the pigmy was presented to the Royal Society by an eminent physician, in 1800'. MADEIRA. So called on account of its woods; it was discovered, it is said, by Mr. Macham, an English gentleman, or mariner, who fled from England for an illicit amor. He was driven here by a storm, ancl-his mistress. a French lady, dying, he made a canoe, and carried the news of his discovery to Pedro, king of Arragon, which occasioned the report that the island was discovered by a Portuguese, A. D. 1345. But it is maintained that the Portuguese did not visit this island until 1419, nor did they colonize it until 1431. It was taken possession of by the British in July 1801. And again, by admiral Hood and general (now viscount) Beresford, Dec. 24, 1807, and retained in trust for the royal family of Portugal, which had just then emigrated to the Brazils. It was subsequently restored to the Portuguese crown. MADRAS. Colonized by the English, and Fort George built by permission of the king of Golconda, 17 James I., 1620. Madras was taken by the French in 1746, and was restored in 1749, immediately after the peace of Aix-laChapelle. MADRID. Mentioned in history as a castle belonging to the Moors. It was sacked A. D. 1109. It was made the seat of the Spanish court in 1516. Tlhe Escurial was built in 1557, et seq. The old palace was burnt down in 1734. The French took possession of this city in March 1808, after the royal family hsad retired into France; and on May 2, the citizens rose up in arms to The writings of this celebrated politician countenanced (another commentator says) " the doing of any act to compass or bring about those things which are neither honorable nor just, whereby ambitious sovereigns or evil ministers may accomplish what their extravagant desires protrpt them to, at the expense of their subjects' peace, or their country's safety."-Ferguson. MitG'| DICTIONARY OF DATES. 409 expel them, when a dreadlfll conflict and carnage tookl place. Joseph Bonaparte entered Madrid as king of Spain, July 20, 1808; but soon retired. Retaken by the French Dec. 2, same year; and retained till Aug. 12, 1812, when. Madrid was entered by the British army. Ferdinand VII. was restored May 14, 1814. Madrid was the scene of various occurrences during the late civil war, for which see Spai'. iVfAESTRICHT. This city revolted from Spain 1570, and was taken by the prince of Parima in 1579. In 1632, the prince of Orange reduced it after a memorable siege, and it was confirmed to the Dutch in 1648. Lewis XIV. took it in 1673; William prince of Orange invested it in vain, in 1676; but, in 1678, it was restored to the Dutch. In 1748, it was besieged by the French, who were permitted to take possession of the city on condition of its being restored at the peace then negotiating. At the commencement of 1793, Maestricht was unsuccessfully attacked by the French, but they became masters of it toward the end of the following year. In 1814, it was delivered up to the allied forces. MAGDALENS AND MAGDALENETTES. Communities of nuns and women the latter class consisting chiefly of penitent courtesans. The convent of Naples was endowed by queen Sancha A. D. 1324. That at Metz was instituted in 1452. At Paris, 1492. The Magdalen at Rome was endowed by pope Leo X., in 1515; and Clement VIII. settled a revenue on the nuns, and further ordained that the effects of all public prostitutes who died without will should fall to them, and that those who made wills should not have their bequests sanctioned by the law unless they bequeathed a part of their effects to the Magdalen institution, which part was to be at least one-fifth, 1594. The Magdalen hospital, London, was founded in 1758, principally under the direction of Dr. Dodd. In New-York a similar institution called "a Home for the friendless," was founded, 1846. MAGELLAN, STRAITS osf. They were passed by Ferdinand Magellan (Fernando de Magelhae'ns) a Portuguese, with a fleet of discovery fitted out by the emperor Charles V., in 1519. The first voyage round the world was undertaken by this illustrious navigator; and his vessel performed the enterprise although the commander perished. The Spaniards had a fort here, since called cape Famine, because the garrison had all perished for want of food. MAGI, oR WORSHIPPERS OF FIRE. The prime object of the adoration of the Persians was the invisible and incomprehensible God, whom, not knowing, they worshipped as the principle of all good, and they paid particular homage to fire, as the emblem of his power and purity. They built no altars nor temples, as they deemed it absurd to pretend to confine an omnipresent God within walls; accordingly their sacred fires blazed in the open air, and their offerings were made upon the earth. The Magi were their priests, and their skill in astronomy rendered the secrets of nature familiar to them, so that the term Magi was at length applied to all learned men, till they were finally confounded with the magicians. Zoroaster, king of Bactria, was the reformer of the sect of the Magi: he flourished 1080 B. c.-Du Pivresoey. MAGIC LANTERN. This was the invention of the illustrious Roger Bacon, England's great philosopher, about A. D. 1260. Bacon first invented the convex magnifying glasses in 1252; and he afterwards, in his many experimenlts, applied them to this use. MAGNA CHARTA. The great charter of English liberty may be said to have been derived from Edward the Confessor, continued by Henry I. and his successors, Stephen, Henry II., and John. But the Charter more particularly meant, was a body of laws, the great charter of our rights granted by John, 18 410 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ M-iJ and signed at Runnymede, near Windsor, June 15, 1215. The barons took arms to enforce this sacred possession, which was many times confirmed, and as fiequently violated, by Henry III. This last king's grand chart-r was granted in the 9th year of his reign, 1224, and was assured by Edward I. It is remarked, that when Henry III. granted it, he swore on the word and faith of a king, a Christian, and a knight, to observe it. For this grant a fifteenth of all moveable goods were given to the king, whether they were temporals or spirituals; yet sir Edward Coke says that even in his days -it had been confirmed above thirty times. MAGNET. Sturmius, in his Epistola, dated at Altorf, 1682, observes that the attractive quality of the magnet has been taken notice of from time immemorial; but, that it was our countryman, Roger Bacon, of Ilchester,!n Somersetshire (he died the 17th June, 1294), who first discovered its property of pointing to the north pole. The Italians discovered that it could communicate its virtue to steel or iron. The variation not being always the same was taken notice of by Hevelius, Petil, and others. Flavio Gioja, of Naples, invented or improved the mariner's compass, in 1302. The important discovery of the inclination or dip of the magnetic needle was made about 1576 (published 1580) by Robert Norman, of London. Dr. Gilbert's experiment was made in 1600. Artificial magnets were invented, or rather improved, in 1751. A magnetic clock, invented by Dr. Locke, of Ohio, &anounced at Washington, Jan. 5, 1849. MAHOMETISM. See Alcora'n and Ko'ran. The creed of Mahomet was promulgated A. D. 604, by Mahomet, styled by some writers as a renowned general and politician; and by others as a successful impostor and tyrant. Mahomet asserted that the Koran was revealed to him by the angel Gabriel during a period of twenty-three years. It was written in the Koreish Arabic, which he asserted was the language of Paradise, and it is considered as possessing every fine quality of a language. It has 1000 terms for sword, 500 for lion, 200 for serpent, and 80 for honey. It is spoken and written iil various parts of Asia and Africa. Mahomet died in 631, of the effects, it is said, of a slow poison, given to him in a piece of mutton three years before, by a Jew, who took this method to discover if he was a true prophet, and immortal, as he had declared himself to be. —Pideaz x. MAIL-COACHES IN ENGLAND. Were first set up at Bristol in 1784; and were extended to other routes in 1785, at the end of which year they became general in England. This plan for the conveyance of letters was the invention of Mr. Palmer of Bath; the mails had been previously conveyed by carts with a single horse, or by boys on horseback. MAINE, cue of the United States; first permanent settlement in, at Bi'stol. The district was granted in 1635 to sir Ferdinand Gorges, who appointed a governor and council. It was purchased of the heirs of Gorges in 1652 by the State of Massachusetts, for $5,334; annexed to Massachusetts, under charter from William & Mary, in 1691: became a separate State in 1820. Population in 1790 was 96,540; in 1810, 228,705; in 1840, 501,793. MAJESTY. Among the Romans, the emperor and imperial family were addressed by this title, which was previously given to their great officers of state. Popes also had the title of majesty. The emperors of Germany took the title, and endeavored to keep it and the closed crown to themselves. It was first given to Louis XI. of France, in 1461.- Voltaire. Upon Charles V. being chosen emperor of Germany in 1519, the kings of Spain took the style of Majesty. Francis I. of France, at the interview with Henry VIII. of England on the Field of the Cloth of Gold, addressed the latter as Your Majesty, 1520.-See Field of the ClotA of Gold. James I. coupled this title with the term " Sacred," and " Most Excellent Majsty." See Titles. M[AN ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 411 MAJORCA AND MINORCA. For occurrences relating to these islands, see /Yii or ca. MALPLAQUET, BATTLE Or. The allies under the duke of Marlborough and prince Eugene, against the arms of France commanded by marshal Villars. The armies consisted on each side of nearly 120.000 choice soldiers, and the victory was with the allies; but this action was attended with great slaughter on both sides, the allies losing 18.000 men, which loss was but ill repaid by the capture of Mons; fought Sept. 11, 1709. MALTA, KNIGHTS OP. A military-religious order, called also Hospitallers of St. John of Jerusalem, Knights of St. John, and Knights of Rhodes. Some merchants of Melphis, trading to the Levant, obtained leave of the caliph of Egypt to build a house for those who came on pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and whom they received with zeal and charity, A. D. 1048. They afterwards founded a hospital for the sick, from whence they were called Hospitallers. This foundation was laid in A. D. 1104, in the reign of Baldwin, and they now became a military order in 1118, into which many persons of quality entered, and changed their name into knights. After the Christians had lost their interest in the East, and Jerusalem was taken, the knights retired to Margett, and then to Acre, which they defended valiantly in 1290; then they followed John, king of Cyprus, who gave them Limisson in his domninions, xwhere they staid till 1310, and that same year they took Rhodes, under the grand master Foulques de Vallaret, and next year defended it under the duke of Savoy, against an army of Saracens; since when, his successors have used F. E. R. T. for their device, that is, FortituLdo ejus Rlodtms teaeit, or, he kept Rhodes by his valor; from this they were called knights of Rhodes; but Rhodes being taken by Solyman in 1522, they retired into Candia, thence into Sicily. Pope Adrian VI. granted them the city of Viterbo for their retreat; and in 1530, the emperor Charles V. gave themu the isle of Malta. The emperor Paul of Russia declared himself grand-master of the order in June, 1799. MALTA. The memorable siege by the Turks, who were obliged to abandon the enterprise after the loss of 30,000 men, 1566. The island was taken by -general Bonaparte in the outset of his expedition to Egypt, June 12, 1798. He found in it 1200 cannons, 200,000 lbs. of powder, two ships of the line, a frigate, four galleys, and 40.000 muskets: besides an immense treasure collected by superstition; and 4500 Turkish prisoners, whom he set at liberty. Malta was blockaded by the British from the autumn of 1798, and was taken by major-general Pigot, Sept. 5, 1800; but, at the peace of Amiiens, it was stipulated that it should be testored to the knights. The British, however, retained possession, and the war recommenced between the two nations: but by the treaty of Paris, in 1814, the island was guaranteed to Great Britain. MAMELUKES. The name of a dynasty which reigned a considerable time in Egypt. They were originally Turkish and Circassian slaves, and were established by the sultan Saladin as a kind of body-guard, A. D. 1246. They advanced one of their own corps to the throne, and continued to do so until Egypt became a Turkish province in 1517, when the beys took them into pay, and filled up their ranks with renegades fiom various countries. On the conquest of Egypt by Bonaparte, in 1798, they retreated into Nubia. Assisted by the Arnauts, who were introduced into the country in the war, the Mamelukes once more wrested Egypt from the Turkish government In 1811 they were decoyed into the power of the Turkish pacha, and slain MANNHEIM. First built in A. D. 1606; and became the court residence in.1719; but the extinction of the palatinate family in 1777 causeal the re 412 THE WORLD2S PROGRESS. [ MAR moval of the court to Munich. Battle of Mannheim, between the armies of the allies and the French, fought May 30, 1793. Mannheim surrendered to the French, under command of general Pichegru, Sept. 20, 1795. On tile 25th of the same month, the Austrians under general Wurmser, defeated the French near the city. Several battles were fought with various success in the neighborhood during the late wars. Kotzebue, the popular dramatist, was assassinated at Mannheim, by a student of Wurtzburg, named Sandt, April 2, 1819. MANICHEANS. An ancient sect, founded by Manes, which began to infest the East, about A. D. 277. It spread into Egypt, Arabia, and Africa, and Particularly into Persia. A rich widow, whose servant Manes had been, left him a store of wealth, after which he assumed the title of apostle, or envoy of Jesus Christ, and announced that he was the paraclete or comforter that Christ had promised to send. He maintained two principles, the one good, and the other bad; the first he called light, which did nothing but good, and the second he called darkness, which did nothing but evil. Several other sects sprung from the Manicheans. Manes was put to deatlby Sapor, king of Persia, in 290. His offence against this prince was, hik having dismissed the physicians of the court, pretending he could cure one of the royal family by his prayers, instead of which the patient died in his arms.-Nlouv. Dict. Hist. MANILLA. Capital of the Philippine Isfes; a great mart of Spanish commerce. 3000 persons perished here by an earthquake in 1645. Manilla was taken by the English in 1757; and again in Oct. 1762, by storm. The captors humanely suffered the archbishop to ransom it for about a million serling; but great part of the ransom never was paid. Since the establishment of a free trade in the Spanish colonies, which took place in 1783, thc usual Acapulco ships and other government traders have been discontinued; and the commerce to the Manillas and other parts, is carried on in private bottoms by free companies of merchants.-Butler. MANTINEA, BATTLE OF, between Epaminondas, at the head of the Thebans, and the combined forces of Lacedaemon, Achaia, Elis, Athens, and Arcadia. The Theban general was killed in the engagement, and from that time Thebes lost its power and consequence among the Grecian states, 363 B. c. -Strabo. MANTUA. Virgil was born at a village near this city. Mantua surrendered to the French, Jan 7, 1797, after a siege of eight months; and it was attacked by the Austrian and Russian army, July 30, 1799, to which it,urrendered after a short siege. In 1800, after the battle of Marengo, the French again obtained possession of it; but they delivered it up to the Austrians in 1814. MAPS AND CHARTS. They were invented by Anaximander, the Milesia,. philosopher, a disciple of Thales, and the earliest philosophical astronomer on record, 5"0 B. c. He was also the first who constructed spheres. A ce-, lestial chart was, it is said, constructed in China, in the sixth century.FTreiet. And sea-charts were first brought to England, by Bartholomew Columbus, to illustrate his brother's theory respecting a western continent: A. D. 1489. The earliest map of England was drawn by George Lily in 1520, Mercator's chart, in which the world was taken as a plane, was invented ir 1556. A map of the moon's surface was first drawn at Dantzic, in 16417 See Clha.rts. MARATHON, BATTLE OF. One of the most extraordinary in ancient history The Greeks were only 10,000 strong, and the Persians amounted to 500,006 The former were commanded by Miltiades, Aristides, and Themnistocles who defeated the Persians, leaving 200,000 dead upon the field. Among the MAR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 413 number of the slain was Hippias, the instigator of the war; the remainder of the Persian army were forced to re-embark for Asia, Sept. 28, 490 B. c. MAR:BLE. Dipmnus and Scyllis, statuaries of Crete, were the first artists who sculptured marble, and polished their works; all statues previously to their time being of wood, 568 a. c. —Piy. Marbile afterwards came into use for statues, and the colimuns and ornaments of fine buildings. and the edifices and monuments of Rome, were constructed of, or ornamented with, fine marble. The ruins of Palmyra prove that its magnificent structures, which were chiefly of white marble, were far more extensive and splendid than those of even Rome itself: These latter were discovered by some English travellers from Aleppo, A. D. 1678. See Palsy'ra..11ARCH. This was the first month of the year, until Numa added January and February, 713 B. c. Romulus, who divided the year into months. gave to this month the name of his supposed father Mars; though Ovid observes, that the people of Italy had the month of March before the time of Romuinus, but that they placed it very differently in the calendar. The year formerly commenced oni the 25th day of this month. See -Year. IVIARENGO, BATTLE OF. In this ever-memorable engagement the French army was commanded by Bonaparte, against the Austrians, and after prodigies of valor, his army was retreating, when the timely arrival of general Dessaix (who was afterwards mortally wounded in this battle) turned the fortunes of the day. The slaughter on both sides was dreadful: the Austrians lost 6000 in killed, 12,000 in prisoners, and 45 pieces of cannon; and though the French boasted that the loss on their side did not much exceed 3000 men, it was afterwards known to be vastly more, June 14, 1800. By a treaty between the Austrian general Melas and the conqueror, Bonaparte, signed on the next day, twelve of the strongest fortresses in Italy were put into possession of the latter: and he became, in fact, the master of Italy. MARESCHAL, on MARSHAL. In France, marshals were the ancient esquires of the king; and by their first institution they had the command of the vanguard, to observe the enemy, and to choose proper places for its encampment. Till the time of Francis I., in A. D. 1515, there were but two French marshals, who had 500 livres per anuzc??, in war, but no stipend in time of peace. The rank afterwards became of the highest military importance, the number was without limit, and the comlmand supreme. During the empire of Napoleon, the marslhals of France filled the world with their renown. See Farsialsfl, Fild. MIARIGNAN, BATTLE OP, near Milan, in Italy, one of the most furious engagements of modern times. In this sanguinary conflict, which happened between the heroic Swiss and the French under Francis the First, upwards of twenty thousand men were slain; the former, after losing.all their bravest troops, were compelled to retire, September 13, 1515. -M.TARINER'S COMPASS. The Chinese ascribe the invention of the compass to their emperor Hong-Ti, who they say was a grandson of' Noah; and some of their historians refer the invention of it to a later date, 1115 a. C. See Coi7tftss. The honor of its discovery, though much disputed, is generally given to Flavio de Gioja: or Giovia. a native of Amalfi, an ancient commercial city of Naples, A. D. 1302. The variation of the needle was first discovered by Columbus in his voyages of discovery, 1492; and it was observed in London in 1580. The dipping-needle finis invented by Robert Norman, a compassmaker of Ratcifie, in that year. MARQUE, LE'rTERs oF. Instruments authorizing the subjects of one prince to make reprisals upon, and capture the ships, property, and subjects of another prince or country. Some such instruments are said to have been first used 414 T'rE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ nAAR by the Venetian government. The first letters of marque granted in England were in the reign of Edward I., against the Portuguese, A. D. 1295.Rymer's FPaderca. MARQUESS. This dignity, called by the Saxons Markin-Reve, and by the Gerlmans Maarkgrave, took its original from Mark or March, which, in the language of the northern nations, is a limit or bound, and their office was to guard or govern the frontiers of a province. It has the next place of honor to a dukce, and was introduced several years after that title had been established, in England. The first on whom it was conferred, was the great favorite of king Richard II., Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford, who was created marquess of Dublin, and by him placed in parliament between the dukes and earls, A. D. 1385. Alexander Stewart, second son of James III. of Scotland, was made marquess of that kingdom, as marquess of Ormond, in 1480. MARRIAGE. The first institution of this union between man and woman for life, with certain ceremonies of a binding and solemn nature, is ascribed to Cecrops, king of Athens, 1554 B. c. —EKssebiUs Pref. to C/oan. The preval!ing ceremony in most countries was that of' a man leading home his bricd, after a solemn contract with her friends. To render this contract the mor sacred,. it was made the work of the priest, instead of being that of a civil magistrate adopted by several civilized nations. The celebration of n:a rriage in churches was ordained by pope Innocent III., about A. nD. 1199. Marriage was forbidden in Lent, A. D. 364. It was forbidden to bishops in 692, and to priests in 1015; and these latter were obliged to take the vow of celibacy in 1073. Marriages were solemnized by justices of the peace under an act of the Conmmlons in Oliver Cromwell's administration, 1653.; A tax was laid on marriages, viz.: on the marriage of a duke 501., of a common person 2s. 6d.., the 8th of William III., 1695. Marriages were agair taxed in 1784. MARRIAGES BY SALE. Amlong the Babylonians at a certain time every year, the marriageable fetmales were assembled, and disposed of to the best bidder, by the public crier. The richest citizens purchased such us pleased them at a high price; and the money thus obtainecld was used to portion off those females to wllom nature had been less liberal of personal charniu When the beauties wiere disposed of, the crier put up the more ordinary lot beginning with the most ill-ftavored among those that remained, announcin a premium to the purchaser of each: the bidders were to name a sum belo. the given premium. at which they would be wmilling to take the maid; and he who bid lowest was declared the purchaser. By these means every female was provided for. This custom originated with Atossa, daughter of Belochus, about 1433 B. c. MARSEILLES. Is supposed to have been founded by the Phoceans. about 600 B. c.-U[Liv. tITst. Cicero styled it the Athens of Gaul. It was take by Julius Cmsar after a long and terrible siege; and it was sacked bx? th, Saracens, A. D. 473. Marseilles became a republic in 1214. It was subjected to the counts of Provence in 1251; ancd was again united to the crown ol France in 1482. In 1649 the plague raged with great violence in Marseilles. and with still greater in 1720, when it carried off 50,000 of the inhabitants. MARSHALS, FIELD, in the British army. The rank is of modern date. anc was preceded by that of captain-general, and that also of commnalandcl-inchief. The duke of Marlborough was captain-general, 1702. The first mil. itary chiefs bearinga the ralnky of m-arshal were those of France. Georoe T first conferred the rank npon John, dukre of Argyler and George, earl of'Ork ney in 1736. See M/arvesclhal. MARSTON MOOR, BATTLE Oei. This battle was the beginning of the misfor tunes and disgrace of the unfortunate Charles I. of England. The Scots an( MAR ] nDICTIONARY OF DATES. 415 parliamentarian army had joined, and were besieging York, when prince Rupert, joined by the marquis of Newcastle, deterimined to raise the siege. Both sides drew up on Marston Moor, to the number of fifty thousand, and the victory seemed long undecided between them. Rupert, who commanded the right wing of the royalists, was opposed by Oliver Cromwell, who now first came into notice, at the head of a body of troops whom he had taken care to levy and discipline. Cromwell was victorious; he pushed his opponents off the field, followed the vanquished, returned to a second engagement and a second victory. The prince's whole train of artillery was taken, and the royalists never afterwards recovered the blow; fought July 3, 1644. MARTINIQUE. This and the adjacent isles of St. Lucia and St. Vincent, and the Grenadines, were taken by the British fiom the French in February 1762. They were restored to France at the peace of the following year. They were again taken March 16, 1794; were restored at the peace of Amiens in 1802; and were again captured February 23, 1809. A revolution took place in this island in favor of Napoleon, but it was finally suppressed by the British, June 1, 1815; and Martinique reverted to its French masters at the late general peace, 1815. Ii.ARTYRS. The Christian Church, Catholic and Protestant, has abounded in martyrs, and history is filled with accounts of their wonderful constancy to their faith. The festivals of the martyrs are, many of them, of very ancient date, and took their rise about the time of Polycarp, who suffered martyrdom A. nD. 168. England has had its Christian martyrs; and the accounts of those who suffered for their adherence to the Protestant religion would fill volumes. The following documents in connection with the fate of' Cranier, Latimer, and Ridley, are of melancholy interest. They are taken from a' Bool of the Joint Diet, Dintner, acned Stlpper, and the charge thereof, or Cbranmzer, Lcatimeer, cand Ridlesy," kept by the bailiffs of Oxford, while they were in the custody of those officers, previously to their being burnt alive:IST. OCTOBER, 1554.-DINNER. Item, a post - - - ~0 1 4 Bread and ale - ~0 0 2 Item, 2 chains - 0 3 4 Oysters- 0 01 Item, 2 staples - - 0 0 6 Butter - 0 0 2 Item, laborers - 0 2 8 Eggs -0 0 2 Lyn. 0 0 8 1 5 8 A piece of fresh Salmton - 0 0 10 [They were burnt on October the 16th, 1555.] Wine - - 0 0 3 Cheese and pears - 0 0 2 CEARGE Fon THE BURNING OF THE BODY OF CRANMER. The three dinners - - 0 2 6 For 100 of wood faggots for the fire 0 6 0 For 100 and-J of furze 0 3 4 TO BURN LATIMER AND RIDLEY. For the carriage of them 0 0 8 For 3 load of wood fagrots to burn For two laborers - - - 0 2 8 Latimer and Ridley - - 0 12 0 Item, I load of furze faggots - 0 3 4 ~0 12 8 Item, for the carriage of these 4 lHe was burnt on March the 21st, in 1556.1 loads - - 0 2 6 MARTYRS, ERA oF. This is also called the era of Diocletian, and was used by the writers of ecclesiastical history until the Christian era was introduced in the sixth century; and it still continued to be the era of some nations, particularly the Abyssinians and Copts. It commences from the day upon which Diocletian was proclaimed emperor, August 29, A. D. 284; and the persecutions of the Christians in his reign caused it to be so called. MIARYLAND. one of the middle United States, was originally included in the patent of Virginia, granted under charter to Calvert, lord Baltimore, in 1632; namled in honor of Henrietta Maria, queen of Charles I.; first colony were Catholics who settled at St. Mary's, on the Potomac, 1634; free toleration of all religions and creeds granted by lord Baltimore; Constitution settled 416 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ MAS in 1650, and again in 1776; the State bore an active part in the revolution adopted the Federal Constitution April 28j 1788, by 63 to 12. Population in 1790 was 319,728; in 1810, 380,546; in 1840, 469,232, including 89,4885 slaves. Maryland resumed the payment of interest on her debt, -Iarch, 1847. MASKS. Poppsea, the wife of Nero, is said to have invented the mask to guard her complexion from the sun. But theatrical masks were in use among the Greeks and Romans. Horace attributes them to zEschylus; yet Aristotle says the real inventor and time of their introduction were unknown. Modern masks and muffs, fans, and false hair for the women, were devised by the harlots of Italy, and brought to England from France in 1572.-Stowe's Chron. MASQUERADES. They were in fashion in the court of Edward III. 1340; and in the reign of Charles, 1660, masquerades were frequent among the citizens. The bishops preached against them, and made such representations as occasioned their suppression, 9 George I. 1723. [No less than six masquerades were subscribed for in a month at this time.] They Jwere revived, and carried to shameful excess by connivance of the government, and in direct violation of the laws, and tickets of admission to a masquerade at Ranelagh were on some occasions subscribed for at twelnty-five guineas each, 1776.-Mortimer. MASS. In the Romish church, mass is the office or prayers used at the celebration of the eucharist, and is in general believed to be a representation of the passion of our Saviour. Hence every part of the service is supposed to allude to the particular circumstances of his passion and death. The general division of masses consists in high and low: the first is that sung by the choristers, and celebrated with the assistance of a deacon and subdeacon; low masses are those in which the prayers are barely rehearsed without singing. Mass was first celebrated in Latin, about A. D. 394. Its celebration was first introduced into England in the seventh century. Prostration was enjoined at the elevation of the host in 1201. MASSACHUSETTS, one of the United States. First settled at Plymouth by a colony of English Puritans from Holland, who landed Dec. 22, 1620. This was called the Plymouth colony. The Massachusetts colony at Salem and Charlestown, in 1628, and Boston, 1630. These colonies united in 1692. The American revolution originated here, at Boston and vicinity, and this State bore an important and honorable part in the contest. See Boston, Bunlker Hill, Lexington, qc. Present State Constitution formed in 1780; revised and altered in 1820; slavery abolished in 1783; Shay's rebellion in this State in 1786; Federal Constitution adopted Feb. 6, 1788, by 187 against 168. Population in 1721, 94,000; in 1790, 388,727; in 1810, 472,040; in 1820, 523,287; in 1840, 737,699. MASSACRES.. Ancient and modern history abound with events which class under this head; and perhaps the most frightful and unprovoked enormities of this kind have been perpetrated by opposing Christian sects, one upon another, in vindication of the Christian religion! The following are among the most remarkable massacres recorded by various authors:BEFORE CHRIST.. A dreadful slaughter of the Teutones and Of all the Carthagenians in Sicily, which ArAmbrones, near Aix, by Marius, the Rotook place 397 B. c. man general, 200,000 being left dead on 2000 Tyrians crucified, and 8000 put to the the spot, 102, B. c. sword for not surrendering Tyre to Alex- The Romans, throughout Asia, women and ander, 331 B. c. children not excepted, r.ruelly massacred The Jews of Antioch fall upon the other in- in one day, by order of Mithridates, king habitants, and massacre 100,000 of them, of Pontus, 88 B. c. for refusing to surrender their arms to De- A great number of Roman senators massamnetrius Nicanor, tyrant of Syria, 154 B. c. cred by Cinna, Marius, and Sertorius. iAS ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 417 IASSACRES, coniltueed. Many patricians dispatch themselves to Medicis, his mother. It is styled in his. avoid their horrid butcheries, 31i 5. C. tory, the Massacre of St. Bartholomew. Again, under Sylla, and Cadiline, his minis- Of the Christians in Croatia, by the Turks, ter of vengeance, 82 and 79 B. c. when 65,000 were slain, A. D. 1592. At Prteneste, Octavianus Caesar ordered 300 Of Protestants, at Thorn, put to death under Romana senators and other persons of dis- a pretended legal sentence of the chanceltinction, to be sacrificed to the manes of lor of Poland, flr being concerned in a Julius Casar, 41 B. c. tumult occasioned by a Roman Catholic procession, A. D. 1724. All the Protestant AFTER CHRIST. powers in Europe interceded to have this At the destruction of Jerusalem, 1,100),000 of unjust sentence revoked, but unavailingly. Jews were put to the sword, A. D. 70. At Batavia, 12,000 Chinese were massacred The Jews, -headed by one Andrte, put to by the natives, October 1740, under the death 100,000 Greeks and Romans, in and pretext of an intended irsurrection. near Cyrene, A. D. 115. At the taking of Ismrnael i y the Russians, Cassius, a Roman general under the empe- 30,000 old and young were slain, Decemror M. Aurelius, put to death 400,000 of er, 1790.-See Ismscel. the ilnhabitants of Seleucia, A. D. 167. In St. Domingo, where Dessalines made At Alexandria, many thousands of citizens proclamlation fobr the massacre,f' all the are massacred, by an order of Antoninus, whites. March 29, 1804, and many thouA. D. 213. sands perished. The emperor Probus put to death 700,000 Insurrection at Madrid, and massacre of the of the inhabitants upon his reduction of French, May 2, 1808. Gaul, A. D. 277. Massacre of the Mamelukles, in the citadel Of eighty Christian fathers, by order of the of Cairo, March 1, 1811. emperor Gratian, at Nicomedia; they Massacre at Nismes, perpetrated by the were put into a ship which was set on Catholics, May 1815. fire, and then driven out to sea, A. D. 370. Massacre of vast numbers of the inhabitants Of Thessalonica, when 7000 persons, invited of Cadiz, by the soldiery, whose ferocious into the circus, were put to the sword, by disorders continue for some days, March order of Theodosius, A. D. 390. 6, 1820. Belisarius put to death above 30,000 citizens of Constantinople for a revolt, to which MASSACRES IN BRITISH HISTORY. they were impelled by the tyranny and exactions of two rapacious ministers set over Of 300 English nobles on Salisbury Plain, them, A. D. 552. IMay 1, A. D. 474. Massacre of the Latins at Constantinople, by Of the monlts of Bangor, to the number of order of Andronicus, A. D. 1184. 1200, by Ethelfirid, king of NorthumberOf the Albigenses and Waldenses, com- land, A. D. 580. menced of Toulouse, A. D. 1209. Tens of Of the Danes in the southern counties of thousands perished by means of the England, in the nighit of Novemnber 13. sword and gibbet. 1002, and the 23d Ethllelred II. At London The Sicilians mlassacre the French tlrough- it was most bloody, the churches being nt out the whole island of Sicily, without sanctuary. AmongsttherestwasGunir id, distinction of sex or age, on Easter-day, sister of Sweinl kingo of Denllmark, left in the first bell for vespers being the signal. hostage for the perlbrmance of a treaty but This horrid afftir is known in history by newly concluded.-Bcaker's C(hroenicle. the name of the Sicilian vespers, A. D. Of the Jews in England. Some few press1282. —Dt Fi-esnzoy. in into Westninstter Htal at Richard I.'s A general massacre of the Jews at Verdun., coronation, were put to death by the peoby the peasants, who, firom a pretended pie; and a Ialse alarm beiing given that prophecy, conceived the Holy I and was the king had ordered a general massacre to be recovered from the infidels by them. of them, the people in many parts of E og500 of these Jews took shelter in a castle, land, from an aversion to them, slew all and defended themselves to the last ex- they met. In York. 500, who had taken tremity, when, for want of weapons, they shelter in the castle, killed themselves, threw their children at the enemy, and rather than fall into the hands of the multhen killed each other, A. D. 1317. titude, A. D. 1189. At Paris, of several thousand persons, at the Of the Bristol colonists, at Cullen's Wood, instance of John, duke of Burgundy, A. D. Ireland (see Ctullen's Wood), A. D. 1209. 1418. Of the English factory at Atmboyna, in order Of the Swedish nobility, at a feast, by order to dispossess its members of the Spice Isof Christian II., A. D. 1520. lands, A. D. 1623. Of 1'70,000 Huguenots, or French Protestants Massacre of the Protestants in Ireland, in throughout the kingdotl of France, attend- O'Neill's rebellion, Oct. 23, 16i41. Uped with circumstances of the most horrid wards of 30,000 British were killed in the treachery and cruelty. It began at Paris, commencement of this rebellion. —Sir in the night of the festival of St. Bartholo- Williamn Petty. In the first two or three mew, Aug 21, 1572, by secret orders from days of it, forty or fifty thousand of the Charles IX., king of France, at the insti- Protestants were destroyed.-Lord Clargation of the queen dowager, Catherine de endon. Before the rebellion was entirely 18* 418 ATHE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [MAk' MASSACRES, contilu~eca. suppressed, 154,000 Protestants wei'e mas- death by pikles, perpetrated by the insursacred. —,ir W. IbslJle. gent Irish, at the barn of Scullabogue, IreOf the unoffending Macdonalds of Glencoe, land, in 1798.-Sir Richard Mlhusgrave. May 9, 1691. —See Glencoe. Massacre of 64 American prisoners at DartOf 184 men, women, and children, chiefly moor, England, (disowned by British GovProtestants, burnt, shot, or pierced to ernment.) April 6, 1815. MASTER oF THE CEREMONIES. An officer in several of the principal courts of Europe. Following the usage in other countries, a master of the ceremonies was instituted in England for the more honorable reception of the ambassadors and persons of quality at court, 1 James I. 1603.Baker. MASTER IN CHANCERY. Owing to the extreme ignorance of Sir Christopher Hatton, lord Chancellor of England, the first reference in, cause was made to a master, A. D. 1588; and the masters have been since chosen from among the most learned equity members of the bar. MASTER OF THE ROLLS IN ENGLAND. An equity judge, so called from his having the custody of all charters, patents, commissions, deeds, and recognizances, which being made into rolls of parchment, gave occasion for that name. MATHEMATICS. With the ancients they meant all sorts of learning anc, discipline; but even then, as now, in a more particular manner, mathematics were restrained to those arts that more immediately related to numbers and quantity. They were first taught to the Jews, and by them to tht, Egyptians, so early as 1950 B. c.-Josep/ILus de ASLtiq. JLed. MATINS. The service or prayers first performed in the morning or beginning of the day in the Catholic church. Emphatically, the Frestcl Mlat ins imply the massacre of St. Bartholomew, August 24, 1572. The Matins of Moscow, the massacre of prince Demnetrius, and all the Poles his adherents at six o'clock in the morning of May 27, 1600. MAURITIUS. The Isle of France was discovered by the Portuguese, A, D, 1500; but the Dutch were the first settlers in 1598. They called it after prince Maurice, their stadtholder, but on their acquisition of the Cape of Good Hope they deserted it; and it continued unsettled until the Frencl landed, and gave it the name of one of the finest provinces in France. This island was taken by the British in 1810, and confirmed to them by the treaty of Paris in 1814. MAUSOLEUMIA. Artemisia, sister and wife of Mausolus, married her own bra — ther, famous for his personal beauty. She was so fond of her husband, that at his death she drank in her liquor his ashes after his body had been burned, and erected to his memory a monument, which, for its grandeur and magnificence, was called one of the seven wonders of the world. This monument she called Macusolesrn,, a name which has been given to all monuments of unusual splendor. She invited all the literary men of her age, and proposed rewards to him who composed the best elegiac panegyric upon her husband. The prize was adjudged to Theopomnpus, 357 B. c. MAY. The fifth month of the year, and the confine of spring and sumrmeg, received its name, say some, from Romulus, who gave it this appellation in respect to the senators and nobles of' his city, who were denominated majores; though others supposed it was so called from Maia, the mother of Mercury, to whom they offered sacrifices on the first day of it. Numa Pompilius, by adding January and February to the year, made this month the fifth, wich before was the third, 713 E. c. MAY-DAY. The ancient Romans used to go in procession to the grotto of Egeria on May-day. May-day has also been immemorially observed in MEC J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 419 England as a rural festival; and high poles, denominated May-poles, are in many places profusely decorated with garlands wreathed in honor of the day. The late benevolent Mrs. Montague gave, for many years, on Mayday, an entertainment at her house in Portman-square, to that unfortunate class the chimney-sweepers of London. They were regaled with the good English fare of roast-beef and plum-pudding, and a dance succeeded. Upon their departure, each guest received the donation of a shilling from the mistress of the feast. MAYNOOTH COLLEGE, IRELAND. Founded by act of parliament, and endowed by a yearly grant voted for its support, and the education of students who are designed for the priesthood of the Roman Catholic church in Ireland, 35 Geo. III., 1795. It contains 500 students. Permanent endowment of this college, at the instance of government, to which 30,0001. for the enlargement of the buildings, and 26,0001. annually, were granted by parliament, June, 1845. This endowment occasioned much excitement and controversy in England. MAYOR. The office of mayor arose out of the immunities granted to free cities by the emperors, and in some towns they had considerable power. Mayor of the palace was a high office in France. In this quality Charles Martel ruled with despotic sway, A. D. D735, et seq., under the last kzings of the Merovingian dynasty; his father had previously held this office, and had it made hereditary in his family. Mayors are the chief magistrates of corporate towns, before whose institution in England, towns were generally governed by portreeves. The office of mayor may be properly said to date from the reign of Richard I. MEASURES AND WEIGHTS. They were invented by Phidion of Argos, 869 B. c. —Ayq'nd. Marbles. They became general in most countries soon afterwards; and were very early known in England. Standards of weights and measures were provided for the whole kingdom by the sheriffs of London, 8 Richard I., A. D. 1197. Standards were again fixed in England, 1257. They were equalized for the United Kingdom in 1825. MECCA. This city is famous as being the birthplace of Mahomet, A. D. 571. The temple is a gorgeous structure, much visited by pilgrims. On one of the neighboring hills is a cave, where it is pretended Mahomet usually retired to perform his devotions; and where the greatest part of the Koran was brought to him by the angel Gabriel, A. D. 604. Two miles from the town is the hill where they say Abraham went to offer up Isaac, 1871 B. c. MECHANICS. The time when the simple mechanical powers were first introduced is so uncertain, and perhaps so little known, that they have been ascribed to the Grecian and other deities of the heathen mythology —for instance, the axe, the wedge, wimble, &c., are said to be the invention of Dtedalus. We know nothing of the machinery by which the immense masses of stone which are found in some of the ancient edifices were moved and elevated. The first writing on mechanics, was by The water-mill was probably invented Aristotle, about - - B.. 320 in Asia; the first that was described The Statera Romana invented - - * ~ was near one of the dwellings of The fundamental property of the lever Mithridates - B-. C. 70 and other instruments was demon- A water-mill is said to have been erectstrated by Archimedes - - 205 ed on the river Tiber, at Rome - 50 The hand-mill, or quern, was very early Floating mills on the Tiber - A. D. 536 in use; the Romans found one in Tide-mills were, many of them, in use Yorkshire - - - * in Venice about - - - 1078 Cattle mills, mnole j'umentaric, were Wind-mills were in very general use in also in use by the Romans, and in the twelfth century - -. parts of Europe * * 420 THE WORLDI'S PROGRESS. [ ME MECHANICS, coztti~ued. Saw-mills are said to have been in use Application of mechanics to astronomy, at Augsburg - - A. D. 1332 parallelogism of forces, laws of mnoTheory of the inclined plane investi- tion, &c., Newton - - -1679 gated by Cardan, about - i540 Problem of the catenary with the anaWork on statics, by Stevinus - 1586 lysis, Dr. Gregory - - 1697 Theory of falling bodies, Galileo - 1638 Spirit level (and many other invenTheory of oscillation, Huygens - 1647 tions), by Dr. Hookle, fiom 1660 to - 1702 Laws of collision, W'allis, Wren - 1662 The Mechanics' Institute in London was Epicycloidal form of the teeth of wheels, formed in - - - - 1823 Roemer - -1675 Mechanics' Institute in New York Percussion and animal mechanics, Bo- formed - - 1833.relli; he died - - - 1679 Mechanics' institutions are now very numerous in the United States and in England. MEDIA. In ancient times Media was a province of the Assyrian empire. It revolted from Arbaces 820 B. c., and afterwards became an independent kingdom, and conquered Persia; but Cyrus having vanquished Darius the Mede, 536 B. c., Media was from that time united to the Persian empire, and shared its fate.-Blair; Priestley. Revolt of the Medes-Blair - B. c. 820 Cyrus made kIing of Persia - B. c. 559 The country was subjected to the As- Astyages deposed by Cyrus - - 550 syrians.-Ide - - 766 Crcesus king of Lydia defeated, and his Phraortes reigns; he conquers Persia, throne seized by Cyrus - - 545 Armenia, and other countries - 647 Cyrus takes Babylon; puts Belshazzar Battle of Rages; the Assyrians defeat to death; and makes Astyages (or the Medes.-Blair - - 625 Darius, the Mede) viceroy - 538 War with the Lydians; the hostile ar- By the death of' Astyages, Cyrus bemies meet; but an eclipse of the sun comes master of all Persia; and this so alarms themn, they conclude peace era is properly the commencement without striking a blow - 585 of the Persian enmpire.-Lenglet - 357 The reign of Astyages.-Blair - - 585 The Medes were a brave people, but they degenerated, and introduced luxury into Persia. They admitted polygamy, and a man was deemed infamous who had less than seven wives, as was also a womlan who could not boast of at least five husbands.-Aspire. MEDICAL LITERATURE IN THE UNITED STATES. The Medical Repository, commenced at New York, 1797, was the first work of the kind. It was conducted by Dr. S. L. Mitchill. MEDICINE. The art of preparing simples was brought into Europe from the East, about A. D. 1150.. In the early stages of the practice, the preparation was principally confined to ecclesiastics in Europe generally, until the close of the fifteenth century, or the beginning of the sixteenth. The practice of medicine is now one of the highest sciences, and in most countries is in the hands of the most learned and distinguished mnen; and various statutes have been enacted to discourage pretenders to the healing art. MEDINA, IN ARABIA DESERTA, famous for the tomb'of Mahomet, contained in a large mosque, closed with rich curtains and lighted by a vast number of rich lamps. Medina was called the City of the Prophet, because here Mahomet was protected when he fled firom Mecca, July 16, A. nD. 622. This flight gave rise to the remarkable epocha in chronology called the tregir'a, a word that, in Arabic, denotes, to flee, or qusit osce's cosentry or friends. MEMORY. That faculty of the mind or soul whereby past things are represented to us as if they were present.-Pardon. Simonides, grandson of Simonides the elder, of Cos, poet and historian, obtained a prize at Olympia, for teaching artificial memory, of which he was the inventor, 477 B. c.Arsesedeliax2 MIarblcs. The science of mlnemonics was mnade known in Germany in 1807. See Mreleeonics. MENDICANT FRIARS. The term was applied to several orders of religions tLE S 1 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 421 who commenced their alms-begging in the thirteenth century, in the pontificate of Innocent III. Thley were confined by a general council, held by Gregory X. at Lyons, in 1272, to the following four orders-Dominicans, Franciscans, Carmelites, andc Augustines. The Capuchins and other orders subsequently branched from them. MENSURATION. The art of measuring geometrical superficies and solids is of very early date. The various properties of conic sections were discovered by Archimedes, to whoin the chief advancement in mensuration may be attributed. He also determined the ratio of spheres, spheroids, &c., about 218 B. c..MIERCATOR'S CHARTS. The true inventor of these charts is said to have been a Mr. Wright, who made several voyages; and in his absence Mercator published the charts in his own name, 1556. —Pacrdo. They are, however, now confidently ascribed to Mercator's own ingenuity. In these charts the meridians and parallels of latitude cut each other at right angles, and are both represented by straight lines, enlarging the degrees of latitude as they recede from the equator. MERCHANT-from neeccans. Tlhe name given to high commercial citizens who trade abroad. The merchants of London and Amsterdam were accounted the most enterprising and richest in the world. An attempt was made by queen Anne's ministry to exclude merchants from sitting in the House of Commons, in 1711; but it failed. The Merchant Adventurer's society (see Advenltgiers. lUe'chea)wt) was established by the duke of Brabant, in 1296; it extended to England in Edward III.'s reign; and was formed into an English corporation in 1564.-Haydn. MERCURY. This substance was known to the ancients, and has been found in vast qantities in various countries. The mines in Carniola in Germany are the most productive in Europe, and have yielded in some years 1200 tons; they were discovered by accident in 1497. The anti-venereal virtues of mercury were found by James Carpus, an Italian surgeon, A. D. 1512.Noev. Dict. The compound termed calomel was first mentioned by Crollius early in the seventeenth century; the first directions for its preparation were given by Beguin, 1608. It was given to patients under inoculation for the small-pox in 1745. Pallas congealed mercury by artificial cold in 1762. Its malleable qualities were discovered by M. Orbelin, of Vienna, 1,85. MERRY ANDREW. The name was first given to a droll and eccentric physician, whose name was Andrew Borde, who lived in the reign of Henry VIII., and who, on some occasions, on account of his facetious manners and good humor, appeared at court, 1547. He used to attend markets and fairs, and harangue the people, by whom he was called Merry Andrew. The name is now given to a buffoon, a. zany, or jack-pudding.-L'Est'ra7ge. Johlinson. MESSALIANS. A sect whose religious error consisted in adhering to the letter of the gospel, interpreting the words to justify and excuse their worst propensities and vices. Amongst other absurdities they refused to work, quoting this passage, "Labor not for the food that perisheth;" about A. D. 310.Bacs'onis, Anznl. MESSENIA, rPow Masl'rac-Mat'aa, a country of the Peloponnesus. This kingdom was commenced by Policaon, 1499 B. c. It is celebrated for its long and sanguinary wars against Sparta (see next article), and once contained a hundred cities, most of' whose names even are now unknown. Messenia joined the Achman league 216 B. c. MESSENIAN WARS, The celebrated wars between Lacedemon and Messenia. The first began 743. c., and was occasioned by violence having been offered 422 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. to some Spartanl women who had assembled in a temple of devotion commoT to both nations; the king of Sparta being killed in his efforts to defend th, females. This drceadful war raged for nineteen years, and at one period mad., so great a carnage, that the Spartan army sent orders home for all the nnmarried wonzen to prostitute themselves to recruit the population. In the end Ithome was taken, and the }M.[essenians became slaves to the conquerors. The second war was commenced 685 a. c,. to throw off the galling Spartan yoke, and lasted fourteen years, ending in the defeat of the IMessenians who fled to Sicily. The thki'd took place 465 B. c., it endured ten years, when the whole nation abandoned the Peloponnesus. MESSINA, IN SICILY. So named by the -Messinese, who seized this city, then called Zancle, 671 B. c. It belonged for many ages to the Roman empire, but fell to the Saracens A. D. 829.-Priest/ley. In the eleventh century Roger the Norman took it by surprise, and delivered it from the Mahometan oppression. Great Messinian conspiracy, 1282. The memorable revolt took place 1672. Almost ruined by an earthquake 1693; and nearly depopulated by a plague in 1743. In 1780 Messina suffered much by an earthquake; and in Feb. and March, 1783, was half destroyed by the same calamity; since. which it has been handsomely rebuilt. METALLURGY. In the fourth chapter of Genesis, Tubal Cain is mentione-T. as "an instructor of every artificer in brass and iron." The seven metals are mentioned by Moses and Homer. Virgil mentions the melting of steel in furnaces. The Phoenicians had an extraordinary skill in working metals. METAPHYSICS. This term, literally denoting "after physics," originated with Aristotle. What may be denoted the modern metaphysics, cannot be traced farther back than the fifteenth century-the period when an extraordinary imp)ulse was given in Europe to the human mind, and commonly called the revival of learning. METEMPSYCHOSIS. A doctrine supposing the transmigration of the soul from one body to another. The first belief in it is ascribed to the Egyptians, who would eat no animal food, lest they shoulcd devour the body into which the soul of a deceased fiiend had passed. They had also an idea, that so long as the body of the deceased was kept entire, the soul would not transmigrate; which accounts for the extraordinary pains they were at in embalming the dead; a doctrine of Pythagoras,.528 B. c. METHODISTS. A large and increasing body of religionists, whose tenets, di, cipline, and designs, are often misunderstood, and of course misrepresented. "Our end," says Mr. Benson, in his Apology, " is not to form a sect, or to bring people to this or the other speculative opinion, mode of worship, or form of church-government, but simply to make them Christians-Christians in heart and life, in temper, word, and work-such as lived in the early days of Christianity, and such as we conceive may still live."' The methodists may be said to have appeared f'ormally, if not originally at Oxford A. D. 1729; the reverend John Wesley being the first who there introduced methodism. John and Charles Wesley, and Mr. Whitfield, commenced the,'. career by teaching in 1734. The term appears to have been brought forward in the days of Puritanism, being suggested by the Latin appellative.Methtodistee, given to a college of physicians in ancient Rome, in consequence o: the strict regimen under which they placed their patients. The methodist missions were commenced and superintended by Mr. Wesley and Dr. Coke in 1769, when two missionaries were sent out to North America. But these missions were not reduced to a system, nor were societies regularly organized for their support, until- 1817. .ID ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 423: ~-XICO. Discovered in A. D. 1518. It was conquered by the Spaniards under Cortes, whose name is infamous on account of his cruelties to the vanquished, A. D. 1521. The mint of Mexico, the richest in the world, was begun in 1535. This country, like other states in the new world, has recovered its independence. Iturbide made emperor, May, 1822. Mexican constitution proclaimed by the president Vittoria, Oct. 1823. Iturbide shot July 19, 1824. Treaty of commerce with Great Britain ratified, April 1825. Titles suppressed, May 1826. The expulsion of the Spaniards decreed, March, 1829. Spanish expedition against Mexico surrendered, Sept. 26, same year. Mexican revolution; the president Guerrero deposed Dec. 23, same year. The independence of Mexico, previously recognized by the great European powers, also recognized by the emperor of Brazil, June 1830. Civil war between Bustamente and Santa Anna, 1832. Santa Anna elected president, March 1834. Declaration of war against France, Nov. 30, 1838. Castle of San Juan de Ulloa taken by the French, Nov. 27, 1838. This war terminated, March 9, 1839. Civil war with change of leaders at various times. Santa Anna displaced Bustamente again, Oct. 6, 1841. Insurrection of general Paredes against Santa Anna, Nov. 5, 1844, succeeds without bloodshed, and Herrera made president, Dec., 1844. Paredes overturns Herrera, Dec. 1845. War with the United States, 1846: Mexicans defeated at Palo Alto, May 8, 1846; and subsequently at Matamoras. Santa Fe captured, Aug. 23, and Monterey, Sept. 24, 1846. Mexican congress authorized their government to raise $15;000,000 for the war against the United States, upon the mortgage or sale of church property, Jan. 8, 1847. Battle of Buena Vista, Feb. 22, 1847. Vera Cruz surrendered to general Scott, March 29, 1847. Battle of Cerro Gordo, April 18. General Paredes landed at Vera Cruz in disguise, Aug. 14, 1847. Battles of Contreras and Churubusco, Aug. 20, 1847; of Chepultepec, Sept. 12. Surrender of city of Mexico to American general Scott, Sept. 14, 1847. Treaty of peace with the United States, ratified at Queretaro, May 30, 1848. Paredes excites a revolt at Guanaxuato, June 15. Mexico evacuated by the American troops, June 12. Herrera be"5omes president, July 6. Bustamente defeats Paredes, July 18. Vera Cruz surrendered by the United States, Aug. 1. See War? of the United States and Mexzico. Signor de la Rosa first Mexican minister to the United States after the war, presented his credentials, Dec. 2, 1848. MEZZOTINTO. A peculiar manner of engraving representing figures on copper, received its name from its resemblance to painting. The invention of it is generally ascribed to prince Rupert, A. D. 1648; but baron Heinikin states that colonel de Siegen engraved a large and admirable print of Amelia Elizabeth of Hesse in mezzotinto in 1643. See Eng-ra'ving. MICHIGAN, one of the United States, first settled by the French at Detroit in 1647. Many of the Hurons, a native tribe in this region, were converted to the Catholic faith by the Jesuits. The territorry ceded to England by the peace of 1763; made a separate territory of the United States, in 1805; admitted into the Union as a State in 1836. During the war of 1812-13 the territory was gained for a time by the British, but it was recovered by general Harrison. Population in 1810, was 4,528; in 1820, 9,048; in 1830, 31,639; in 1840, 212,267. MICROSCOPES. Invented nearly at the same time in Italy and Holland, A. D, 1621. Those with double glasses were made at the period when the law of refraction was discovered, about 1624. The honor of this invention is awarded to Drebel and Torricelli. Solar microscopes were invented by Dr. Hooke. In England, great improvements were made in the microscope by Henry Baker, F. R. S.. who wrote two treatises upon it, about 1763.-BiBog. Diet. )WIFERY. Women were the only practitioners of this art among the He 424 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ MII,brews and Egyptians. Hippocrates, who practised medicine in Greece, 46b B. C.. is styled by some the father of midwifery, as well as of phyvsic.* It advanced under Celsus. who flourished A. D. 37, and of Galen, who lived A. a. 131. In England midwifery became a science about the period of the institution of the College of Physicians, 1'0 Henry VII., 1518. The 6elebrated Dr. Harvey personally engaged in the practice of it, about 1603; and after his example the calling in of men in all difficult cases followed. Astruc affirms that the epoch of the employment of men-midwives goes no farthel back than the first lying-in of MVladame de la Vallibre, mistress of Louis XIV., 1663. She sent for Julian Clement, an eminent surgeon, who was conducted with great secrecy to the house. The same surgeon was employed in the subsequent labors of this lady, and he being very successful, men-midwive.t after came into repute, the name of accoucheur being given to them. MILAN. The capital of this celebrated dukedom. the ancient Liguria, is reputed to have been built by the Gauls about 408 B. c. It submitted to the Romans 222 B. c.; was formed into a republic A. D. 1221; and lastly was governed by dukes from A. D. 1395, until 1505, when it was conquered by Louis XII. John Galeazzo was the first who took the title of duke of Milan, about 1390. The French were expelled Liom. Milan, by Charles V. of Germany, about 1525; and this emperor gave it to his son, Philip II. Milan was given to Austria, upon Naples and Sicily being ceded to Spain, 1748. Seized by the French, June 30, 1796. Retaken by the Austrians in 1799; but regained by the French May 31, the next year. This city was made the capital of the late kingdom of Italy, and Napoleon Bonaparte was crowned with the Iron crown at Milan, May 26, 1805. The celebrated Milan decree of Napoleon against all Continental intercourse with England, declaring England in a state of blockade, was issued from this city, Dec. 17, 1807. Put under military occupation in consequence of disturbances, Sept. 8, 1847. Collision of the Milanese with the Austrian soldiers, Jan. 1, 1848; followed by conciliations. Martial law proclaimed in Lombardy, Feb. 1848; the govw ernment threatens the people with the fate of the Poles. The people revolted and expelled the Austrians, and Charles Albert of Sardinia entered' Milan in the popular cause, March 23, 1848. A vote taken in Lombardy on proposed union with Piedlmont:-561,002 in favor of it; 681 for postponing it till the end of the war, June 9, 1848. Vicenza surrenders to the A.ustri: ans under Radetsky, June 10. The duke of Genoa repulses the Austrians at Rivoli, July 1. Milan capitulates to the Austrians, Aug. 4, 1848. MILITARY oRa MARTIAL LAW. This is a law built on no settled principle, but entirely arbitrary, and in truth, no law; but sometimes indulged, rathei' than allowed, as law.-Si' Mlltthewv Hale. Martial law was several times proclaimed in Great Britain during rebellions. It was almost general throughout Ireland in 1798. The last proclamation of martial law was in that country, July 26, 1803.,. Paris was under martial law for several weeks after the insurrection of June, 1848. MILITIA. The standing national militia of Great Britain is traced by most historians to king Alfred, who, by his prudent discipline, made all his subjects soldiers, A. D. 872 to 901. The feudal military tenures became involvedl in this force. The first commission of array to raise a militia in England was in 1422. In the United States the laws relating to the militia and the Agnodice, an Athenian virgin, disguised her sex to learn medicine. She was taught by Hiero. pholus, her father, the art of Midwifery, and when employed, always discovered her sex to b, patients. This broughtt her into so much practice, that the males of her profession, who were n out of employment, accused her, before the Areopagus, of corruption. She confessed her sex to judges, and a law was made to empower all free-born women to learn midwifery.-Ifyg.fa. f27 1N ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 425 appointment of officers are different in the different States. See Encyclopedia Americana. The aggregate militia force of the United States, as reported in 1848, was 1,888 538, but as the returns in some instances were for former years, the number probably reached, in 1850, at least to 2,100,000. As the regular army has always been small (in time of peace about 8000) the republic has relied chiefly on the militia in time of war. MILKY WAY. Ancient poets and philosophers speak of the galaxy as the road by which heroes went to heaven. The Greeks supposed that Juno accidentally gave suck to Mercury when an infant, or to the infant Hercules, who, while she slept, was laid by her side; but perceiving who he was, she threw him from her, and the heavens were thus marked by the wasted milk. Democritus was the first who taught that the via lactea was occasioned by a confused multitude of stars, about 428 B. c. MILLENNIUM. This doctrine supposed that the world would end at the expiration of the seven thousandth year from the creation; and that during the last thousand years Christ and the saints would reign upon earth. It was generally inculcated as early as the second and third centuries. It was propagated by Papias, Justin-Martyr, and many others. The Millennium was grounded upon a doubtful text in the Apocalypse, to the effect that our blessed Saviour should reign with the faithful tipon earth after the resurrection, before the final completion of beatitude.-BurTe et. MILLINER. Defined by Shakspeare and Johnson as a seller of ribands and dresses for women, a very ancient occupation; the term is supposed to be derived from Milan. There are men-milliners in England, and the adoption of such a trade by the msale sex has been strongly and justly censured. In 1810, men-milliners and other classes of an epicene character were very strongly censured in the Society of Arts. Young females are employed at all seasons, and in all weathers, to carry bandboxes through the streets, exposed to the insolence of libertines, and the perils of vicious example, while the perfumed coxcomb [" He was perfumed like a milliner."-Shackspeare.] measures ribands safely at home, or folds gauzes, and lisps the while in lady phrases to females of distinction.s-Butler. MILLS. The earliest instrument for grinding manna and corn, was the mortar. Moses forbade them to be taken in pawn, because that, he says, would be like taking a man's life to pledge. The hand-mill was in use among the Britons previously to the conquest by the Romans. The Romans introduced the water-mill. See article Mechanics. 5UINES. Those of Great Britain are very numergus, rich, and of various kinds. Strabo and Tacitus enumerate gold and silver as among the products of England. The earliest instance of' a claim to a mine royal being enforced, occurs 47 Henry III., 1262.-fRi ding. It related to mines containing gold, together with copper, in Devonshire. In the United States, iron, coal, lime, and salt exist in great abundance, in various States: lead mines in Missouri are very productive. Gold mines have been found in Virginia, North Carolina, and Georgia, but their supply is but moderate. See Coal, Copper, Tin, Gold,,4c. MINNESOTA. A territory of the United States lying between 400 30' north lat., and between 910 10' and 102~ west long., inhabited chiefly by the Sioux Indians. First explored by the French; began to be settled by emigrants from the United States about 1845-6. I look upon a tnan-milliner not only as one of the most unworthy members of society, but as of the most injurious. When I hear one of these perlsons harailuingl upon the merits of muslin, e becoming color of a riband, anger will mingle itself with the feeling of contempt; for the oyment that degrades this man might have preserved a woman from prostitution.-Dr. YII./ 426 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [MIS MINORCA. This island and Majorca were called by the Greeks, Balearidc Minorca was captured by lieutenant-general Stanhope and sir John Leake i, August 1708, and was confirmed to the British by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713. It was retaken by the Spanish and French in June 1756. Admiral Byng fell a victim to the exasperation of the public mind, and to the safety of ministers, for not relieving it with a force greatly inferior to that of the enemy. See Byng. It was restored to the British at the peace in 1763, Besieged by the Spaniards, and taken, Feb. 5, 1782. It was again captured by the British, without the loss of a man, Nov. 15, 1798; but was given up at the peace of 1802. MINSTRELS. They were originally pipers appointed by lords of manors tc. divert their copyholders while at work. They owed their origin to the gleemen or harpers of the Saxons, and continued till about A. D. 1560. John of Gaunt erected a court of minstrels at Tutbury in 1380. So late as the reign of Henry VIII. they intruded without ceremony into all companies, even at the houses of the nobility. In Elizabeth's reign they had, however, sunk into neglect. MINT of THE UNITED STATES established at Philadelphia, 1792. Branch at New Orleans, 1838; at Charlotte, N. C., 1837; at Dahlonega, 1838. See Coining. MIRRORS, In ancient times mirrors were made of metal; and from a passage in the Mosaic writings we learn that the mirrors used by the Jewish women were made of brass. Mirrors in silver were introduced by Praxiteles, 328 B. C. See Lookinog Glasses. MISS. In the seventeenth century, the epithet Miss applied to females was considered a term of reproach. Miss Cross who is particularly noticed in Hayne's epilogue to Farquhar's Love in? a Bottle, about 1782, was the first actress announced as Miss.- Galt's Lives of the Players. MISSIONS. Among the Romanists, the religious orders of St. Dominick, St. Francis, St. Augustin, &c., had missions to the Levant and to America. The Jesuits had missions to China (whtic/h see), and to most other parts of the world. Among the Protestants, an early undertaking of this kind was a Danish mission, planned by Frederick IV., in 1706. But the Moraviarn Brethren may be said to have led the way to the new Christian missions, about 1732. The London Missionary Society held their first meeting, Nov. 4, 1794; and it has since been the parent of many benevolent institutions. The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, formed 1810; first mission at Bombay, 1813; at Ceylon, 1816; to Choctaws, 1817; Chcrokees, 1820. The Board has an annual income from voluntary contributions of about $200,000. The statistics of its operations in various parts of the world are given in its annual reports. The contributions of this Board and its missionaries to the fund of geographical and ethnographical science, to say nothing of religion and civilization, have been very important. The missions of the Baptists, Episcopalians, Methodists, &c., are also numerous. American Baptist Board of Missions, founded 1814. Board of Missions of General Assembly (Presbyterian), 1818. Methodist Missionary Society, 1819. American Home Missionary Society, 1826. See Beneve-. lent Societies. MISSISSIPPI, one of the United States. First settled by the French at Natchez, and claimed as part of Louisiana, 1716. Colony destroyed by the Indians. The country ceded to Great Britain by the peace of 1753. Palt of it belonged to Georgia, and the southern part to Florida. The territory, together with Alabama, constituted the " Mississippi Territory" until 1817, when it was admitted into the Union as a State. Population in 1816, 45,929; in 1830, 136,806; in 1840, 375,651, including 195,211 slaves. VIOG ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 427 MISSOURI, one of the United States. WVas included with Louisiana in the purchase from the French in 1803. Town of St. Louis settled by the French in 1764, but was little more than a trading post until 1804, when the territorial government was formed. Missouri admitted into the Union as a State in 1821, after a long debate on slavery, ending in the Missouri Compromise, which prohibits slavery north and west of Arkansas, but tolerates it in Missouri. Population in 1810, 19,833; in 1830, 140,074; in 1840, 383,702, including 58,240 slaves. MISSISSIPPI TRADE. This trade was begun in November, 1716. The celebrated Mississippi scheme or bubble in France, which was commenced about that period, exploded in 1720; at which time, the nominal capital is said to have amounted to 100,000,0001. See Law's Bubble. MITHRIDATE. A physical preparation in the form of an electuary, supposed to he tho oldest compound known to us at the present day. It was invented by Mitlhridated II. the king of Pontuoa about 70,. c,. t eteya formerly'thought to be a great antidote against poison; but though it is now out of date for that purpose, it is still used as an opiate, and is one of the capital medicines of our shops. MITHRIDATIC WAR. Caused by the massacre of 100,000 Romans, 86 B. c. and remarkable for its duration, its many battles, the devastation of human life it occasioned, and the cruelties of its commanders. Mithridates having taken'the consul Aquilius, made him ride on an ass through a great part of Asia, crying out as he rode, " I am Aquilius, consul of the Romans." He ultimately dispatched him, by ordering melted gold to be poured down his throat, which was done in derision of his avarice, 85 B. c.-Lessglet. MITRE., The cleft cap or mitre is of very ancient use, having been worn by the high-priest among the Jews. Among the primitive Christians, young women who professed a state of virginity, and solemnly consecrated thereto, wore a purple or golden mitre. The pope has four mitres, which according to the solemnity to be performed, or festival day it is worn on, is more or less magnificent. Anciently the cardinals wore mitres, but at the council of Lyons, in 1245, they were appointed to wear hats, which remains to this day. MNEMONICS. Artificial memory had its professors in the ancient world. The art of assisting memolry, by getting by heart, was introduced by Simonides the younger, 477 a. c.-Ars'eLd. Marbles. In modern times, mnemonics have been elaborately treated; and the Memorica TeclhAn,ica of Dr. Grey is an esteemed work on the subject. The science of mnemonics, as we now have it, was announced in Germany, in 1806-7; but it had been previously noticed in the London monthly periodicals. MODENA. Erected into a duchy in 1451. The duke was expelled by the French, 1796. By the treaty of Campo Formnio, the Modenese possessions were incorporated with the Cisalpine republic, 1797. The archduke Frnhcis of Este was restored in 1814. Insurrection here, Feb. 5, 1831. The archduke escaped; but the Austrian troops soon afterwards entered and restored the deposed authorities. The people revolt and imprison the duke, March 20, 1848. The troops of Tuscany occupy Modena, March 24; Provisional government appointed, April 9, 1848. MOGULS. They deduce their origin from Japhet, son of Noah. His son, Turk, they say, was the first king or khan of those nations afterwards known as Turks, Tartars, and Moguls. The first conqueror of the Mogul empire was Jenghis Khan, a Tartarian prince, who died A. D. 1236. Timour Beg became Great Mogul by conquest, 1399. Khouli Khan, the famous sophi of Persia, considerably diminished the power of the moguls, carried away immense treasures from Delhi, and since that event many of the nabobs have made themselves independent. See Incldia. 428 THM WORLD7S PROGRESS. L MOa MONARCHY. The most ancientwas that of the Assyrians, founded soon after the Deluge. See Assyria. Historians reckon four grand, or almost universal monarchies,-the Assyrian, Persian, Grecian, and Roman. Set tlicne respectively. MONASTERIES. The first founded was, according to somre authorities, il A. D. 270; and according to others, in A. D. 305. The suppression of monastic houses has been frequent, even in Catholic countries; and many religious communities have bowed to the variable notions of mankind regarding religion, and to the altered state of the world. Constantine IV., among other persecutors, eommanded a vast number of friars and nuns to appear at Ephesus: he there ordered them to change their black habits for white, and to destroy their images. They explained that this, on account of the vows they had taken, was impossible; whereupon he directed that their eyes should be put out, and that they should be banished, forfeiting their various monasteries, which he sold for the uses of the state. When St. Austin arrived in England A. D. 596, Ethelbert of Kent gave him an idol temple without the walls of his capital, as a burial-place for hiim and his successors, which was converted into the first monastery. Various monastic houses were suppressed in England in various reigns; and a vast number in 1515. But the general dissolution took place in the reign of Henry VIII. 1534-9. The abbey lands were afterwards granted to numerous courtiers, whose descendants enjoy them to this day. MONEY. It is mentioned as a medium of commerce in the 23d chapter of Genesis, when Abraham purchased a field as a sepulchre for Sarah, in the year of the world 2139. In profane history, the coinage of money is ascribed to the Lydians. Moneta was the name given to their silver by the Romans, it having been coined in the temple of Juno-Moneta, 269 B. c. Money was made of different ores, and even of leather and other articles, both in ancient and modern times. It was made of pasteboard by the Hollanders so late as 1574. Silver has increased more than thirty times its value since the Norman conquest, viz. a pound in that age was three times the quantity that it is at present, and twelve times its value in purchasing any commodity. See articles, Coin; Gold; Silver; Copper'; Mlint, c4c. MONK. The first is said to have been Paul of Thebais, who fled into the deserts to avoid the Decian persecution about A. D. 250. St. Anthony is supposed by other authorities to have been the first example of a regular monastic life, A. D. 305, soon after which time monks began to associate. St. Athanasius introduced the monastic life into Rome in 341. See Abbeys. MONMOUTH'S REBELLION. James, duke of Monmouth, a natural son of Charles II. was banished England for a conspiracy in 1683. He invaded England at Lyme, June 11, 1685. He was proclaimed king at Taunton on the 20th of the same month. Was defeated at Bridgewater, July 5; and was beheaded on Tower-hill, July 15, 1685. The county of Monmouth, from which he was named, was made an English county by Henry VIII. about 1535. MNONOPOLIES. Commercial monopolies reached to such a height in England, that parliament petitioned against them, and they were in consequence mostly abolished about the close of Elizabeth's reign, 1602. They were further suppressed, as being contrary to law, 19 James I., 1622; and were, totally abolished, and it was decreed that none should be in future created, as was previously the custom, by royal patent, 16 Charles I., 1640.-And-er son's History of Commerce. MONTANISTS. A sect founded by Montanus, of Ardaba, in Mysia, an extra. MIORt ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 429 ordinary enthusiast, about A. D. 171. He was reputed to have the gift of prophecy, and proclaimed himself the comforter promised by Christ, condelmned second marriages as fornication, permitted the dissolution of mar. riage, forbade to avoid martyrdom,, and ordered a severe fast of three lents; he hanged himself with Maximilla, one of his women-scholars, before the close of the second century.-Cave's Hist. Lit. MIiONTREAL. Surrendered to the English by the French in 1760. It was taken by the Provincials in the American war of Independence, November 12, 1775, and was retaken by the British, June 15, 1776. The church, Jesuits' college, prison, and many buildings burnt down, June 6, 1803. Great military affray, Sept. 29, 1833. Riot about the " Rebellion Losses " Act; the parliament house burnt by the mob, 1849. MOON. The full moon was held favorable for any undertaking by the Spartans, and the Greeks generally looked upon full moons, or the times of conjunction of the sun or moon, as seasons most favorable to marriage. Opacity of the moon, and true causes of lunar eclipses, was taught by Thales, 640 B. c. Posidonius accounted for the tides from the motion of the moon, 79 B. c.-Diog. Lae~t. A map of the moon was first taken at Dantzic, A. D. 1647. The strength of moon-light at the full moon is 90,000 times less than the light of the sun.-Dr. Seitl/. It is 300,000 times less.Boeg-eter. MOORS. They first invaded Spain, A.D. 173.-UnLiv. Hist. The Saracens in Spain beset by the Christians, called in the assistance of the Moors, who seized the dominions they canme to protect, and subdued the Saracens, A. D. 1091. Alphonsus I. of Navarre, defeated them in many battles, 1118, et seq. The Moors began the kingdom of Granada, being their last refuge firom the power of the Christians, 1238. Alphonsus XI. of Leon and Castile, slew 200,000 Moors in one battle; three leagues round the country was covered with the dead, 1327. The power of this people was overthrown by Ferdinand V., who conquiered Granada, 1492. Philip IIT. banished them to the number of 900,000, confiscating their property, 1610.-Priestley. MORAL PHILOSOPHY. The knowledge of our duty and felicity, the science of ethics, or art of being virtuous and happy. Socrates is universally regarded as the father of moral philosophy, about 430 B. c. And Grotius is esteemed by many writers as the father of moral philosophy in modern times, about A. D. 1623.-Bate, $c. MORAVIANS. UNITED BRETHREN. A sect which took its rise in Moravia, in, it is said, the fifteenth century, which some doubt; while the Brethren say that their sect is derived from the Greek church in the ninth century. They appeared in England about 1737, introduced by count Zinzendorf, who died at Chelsea, in June 1760. They settled at Bethlehem, Penn., 1741. In order to the conversion of the heathen world, these persevering brethren formed settlements also in Greenland, the Cape, East and West Indies, and other climes. The Moravians led the way to the Scriptural missions now so general. M[ORGARTEN, BATTLE or, the most memorable, as well as extraordinary and glorious in the annals of Switzerland; 1300 Swiss engaged 20,000 Austrians, commanded by the duke Leopold, whom they completely defeated. They seized upon the heights of Morgarten, which overlooked the defile through which the enemy was to enter their territory fiom Zug, and thus achieved their victory, Nov. 15, 1315. NMORMONS. The pretended revelation of the Mormon Scriptures to "Joe Smith " is said to have been made in the state of New York, about 1835. Surrender of a body of 700 Mormons under arms, with their leaders, Joe 430 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. M[iV Smith, Rigdon, &c., to the Missouri militia, under Gen. Atchinson, Oct. 28, 1838. Joe Smith and his brother murdered in jail by a mob, June 27, 1844. The Mormon temple at Nauvooe Illinois, sold to the Icarians, or Socialists, and the Mormons emigrated to Desseret and California, 1848-9. MOROCCO. Anciently M1lauritania. From its early possession by the RomanDi it underwent various revolutions. About A. D. 1116, Abdallah, a leader of a sect of Mahometans, founded a dynasty which ended in the lass sovereign's defeat in Spain. About this period, 1202, Fez and other provinces shook off their dependence; but the descendants of' Mahomlet, about 1650, subdued them, and formed the empire of Morocco. Hostilities with France provoked by Abdel-Kader, the heroic and indomitable ameer of Algiers: commence May, 1844; Tangier bombarded, Aug. 6, 1844; peace concluded, and the French forces evacuate Mogador, Sept. 16. 1844. Abdel-Kader taken prisoner by the French and carried to France, 1846. MORTARS, A short gun with an extraordinary large bore, and close chamber. used for throwing bombs, first made in England in 1543. The celebrated mortar left by Soult in Spain, was fixed in St. James's park in August, 1816. MOSCOW. One of the largest cities in Europe. It was founded in 1156; was taken by Tamerlane 1382; and subsequently it fell into the hands of the Tartars, whose last attack upon it was in 1571, when they set it on fire. This city was entered by the French, Sept, 14, 1812, and the Russian governor, Rostochin, ordered that it should be set on fire in five hundred places at once. In this memorable conflagration, 11,840 houses were burnt to the ground, besides palaces and churches. The French, thus deprived of quarters, evacuated Moscow Oct 19, and it was re-entered by the Russians Oct. 22, following. This city has been since rebuilt. MOSIKWA, BATTLE'OP, between the French anld Russians. See Borodirno. MOSS-TROOPERS. These were a desperate sort of plunderers, secreting themselves in the mosses on the borders of Scotland, defiling women, and perpetrating the most savage enormities, as well as minor mischiefs, extirpated A. D. 1609. MOST CHRISTIAN KING. The title given to Louis XI. by pope Paul II., 1469. It has been justly remarked, that never was the title or name of Christian given to a prince more unworthily bestowed, or less deserved. MOTTOES, ROYAL. Die, et mzom Droit was first used by Richard I., A. D. 1193. The Bohemian crest, viz. three ostrich feathers, and the motto Ich dienz, I'1 serve," was adopted by Edward the Black Prince, at the battle of Cressy, the king of Bohemia being slain in the battle, 1346. Toonci soit qsi mcal yj peirse, was made the motto of the Garter, 1349-50. Je nzcainetielnds'ai, "I will a;inlezaie," was adopted by William III., 1688. And S'empe' eodere was ordered by queen Anne to be used as her motto. MOURNING Fon THE DEAD. The practice of the Israelites was, neither to wash nor anoint themselves during the time of' mourning. The exhibition of grief for a friend lasted for seven days; and upon extraordinary occasion, it lasted a month. The Greeks and Romans also exhibited their grief for the dead by many public abstinences. The ordinary color for mourning in Europe is black; in China it is white; in Turkey, violet; in Ethiopia, brown; and it was white in Spain, until A. D. 1498.-lterrer'a. MUNSTER, TREATY OF, between France, the Emperor, and Sweden; Spain continuing the war against the former kingdom. By this peace, the principle of a balance of power in Europe was first recognized. Signed at Munster, Oct. 24, 1648. mUS J DICTIONAIPY OF DATES. 431 MURDER. The highest offence against the law of nature. A court of Ephetw was established by Itmophoon for the trial of murder, 1179 B. c. The Persians did not punish the first offence. In England, during a period of the Heptarchy, nmurder was punished by fines only. So late as Henry VIII.'s time, the crime was compounded for in Wales. Murderers were allowed benefit of clergy in 1503. Aggravated murder, or petit treason, may happen in three ways; by a servant killing his master; a wife her husband; and an ecclesiastical person his superior, statute 25 Edward III., 1350. The enactments relating to this crime are very numerous, and its wilful commission has been excepted from mercy by our sovereigns in every instance The act whereby the murderer should be executed on the day next but one after his conviction, was repealed 7 William IV., July 1836. —Haydn. MUIIJSEUM. Originally a quarter of the palace of Alexandria, like the Prytaneum of Athens, where learned men of extraordinary merit were maintained by the public, because of their considerable services to the commonwealth. The foundation of this establishment is attributed to Ptolemy Philadelphus, who here placed his library, about 284 B. c. See B~ritish] nIusemsa, 4c. MUTSIC. Lucretius ascribes its invention to the whistling of the winds in hollow reeds. Franckinus to the various sounds produced by the hammers of Tubal Cain. Cameleon Pontique and others to the singing of birds. And Zarlino to the sound of water. It is, however, agreed that music was first reduced to rules by Jubal, 1800 B. c. The flute, and harmony or concord in music was invented by Hyagnis, 1506.-Aunm'd. Mfarbles, Vocal choruses of men are first mentioned 556 i. c.-DI Fresnoy. Pythagoras maintained that the motions of the twelve spheres must produce delightful sounds inaudible to mortal ears, which he called " the music of the spheres." St. Cecilia, a Roman lady, is said to have excelled so eminently in music, that an angel was enticed from the celestial regions by the fascinating charms of her melody: and this hyperbolical tradition has been deemed sufficient authority to make her the patroness of music and musicians. She died in the third century. MUSICAL NOTES. The first six are said to have been invented by Guido Aretin, a Benedictine monk of Arezzo, A. D. 1025.-Blair. The notes at present used were perfected in 1338. Counterpoint was brought to perfection by Palestrina about 1515. Gaffurius of Lodi read lectures on musical composition in the sixteenth century, and they effected great improvement in the science. The Italian style of composition was introduced into these countries about 1616. MUSICAL INSTITUTIONS, ENGLAND. The Ancient Academy of Music was instituted in 1710. It originated with numerous eminent performers and gentlemen to promote the study of vocal harmony. The Madrigal Society was established in 1741, and other musical societies followed. The Royal Society of Music arose from the principal nobility and gentry uniting to promote the performance of operas composed by Handel, 1785. Royal Academy of Music established 1822. MUSKETS. They were first used at the siege of Arras in 1414. The Spanish historians state that Spain was the first power that armed the foot-soldier with these weapons. They were used at the siege of Rhegen in 1521. Introduced generally into the English army, and bows and arrows laid aside, 12 Henry VIII. 1521.-Carlte. It was the duke of Alva who first brought the musket into use in the Low countries, 1569.-Breanstonee. MUSLIN. A fine cloth, made wholly of cotton. According to some, it is so called as not being bare, but having a downy nap on its surface resembling moss, which the French call mouesse. According to others, it was first brought 432 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ sxy' from Mousol, in India, whence the name. Muslins were first worn in England in 1670.-Anlderson.,They were manufactured in great perfection in England in 1778. MUTE. A prisoner is said to stand mute when, being arraigned for treason or felony, he either makes no answer, or answers foreign to the purpose. Anciently, a mute was taken back to prison, placed in a dark dungeon, naked; on his back, on the bare ground, and a great weight of iron placed upun his body; in this situation he was fed with three morsels of bad bread one day, and three draughts of stagnant water the next, and so on alternately until he died. For a very memorable instance of this punishment in A. D. 1605, see article Pressing to Death. By statute 12 George III. judgment is awarded against mutes, in the same manner as if they were convicted or confessed. A man refusing to plead was condemned and executed at the Old Bailey on a charge of murder, 1778. Another on a charge of burglary, at Wells, 1792. At Shrewsbury a man tried and convicted notwithstanding, Aug. 21, 1801.-Phzllips. MUTINY ON BOARD U. S. BRIG SOMERS, commander A. S. Mackenzie: midshipman Spencer and two seamen hung, Dec. 1. 1842. MUTINY Os' THE BOUNTY, April 28, 1789. For particulars see Bouenty. MYCALE, BATTLE OF, fought September 22, 479 B. c., between the Greeks and Persians; being the identical day on which Mardonius was defeated and slain at Platea. The Persians consisted of about 100,000 men, who had just returned from an unsuccessful expedition of Xerxes in Greece. They were completely defeated, some thousands of them slaughtered, their camp burrnt, and the Greeks triumphantly embarked their troops and sailed bick to Samos with an immense booty. MYCENZE. A division of the kingdom of the Argives. It stood about fifty stadia from Argos, and flourished till the invasion of the Heraclidse. Perselus removes from Argos to Mycence, and reigns, 1313 B. c. Mycenme destroyed by the Argives, 568 B. c. MYSTERIES. They originated in Egypt, the land of idolatry, and were an institution of the priesthood to extend their own influence; so that all maxims in morality, tenets in theology, and dogmas in philosophy, were wrapt up in a veil of allegory and mystery. From the Egyptian mysteries of Isis and Osiris sprung those of Bacchus and Ceres among the Greeks. The Eleusinian mysteries were introduced at Athens by Eumolpus, 1356 B. c. The laws were-1. To honor parents; 2. To honor the gods with the fruits of the earth; 3. Not to treat brutes with cruelty. Cicero makes the civilization of mankind one of the beneficial effects of the Eleusinian mysteries. They were abolished by the emperor Theodosius, A. D. 389. MYTHOLOGY. Fable usurped the place of historical truth as soon as the authentic tradition concerning the Creation had been lost or adulterated; and persons who had rendered themselves renowned as kings or leaders in this life, and whose achievements had dazzled the benighted understanding of men living in a state of nature, were supposed to be more than mortal, and therefore after death the multitude were easily taught to reverence thewith divine honors. The Egyptians and Babylonians, after for getting the in visible and true God, worshipped positive objects, as the sun and moon; and then transferred their adoration to the operations of nature and the passions of their own minds. which they embodied under symbolical representations, and ultimately worshipped the symbols themselves. Thoth is supposed to have introduced mythology among the Egyptians, 1521 B. c.; and Cadmus, the worship of the Egyptian and Phcenician deities, among the Greeks, 1493 B. c. NAP ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 433 N. NABONASSER, ERA or. This era received its name froom the celebrated prince of Babylon, and began Feb. 26, 747 B. C. To find the Julian year on which the year of Nabonasser begins, subtlract the year, if before Christ, from 747; if after Christ, -add to it 748. N1'AMES. Originally every person had but one name. Plato recommended it to parents to give happy names to their children; and the Pythagoreans taught that the minds, actions,, and successes of men were according to their names, genius> and fate. The popes changed their names at their exaltation to the pontificate, " a custom introduced by pope Sergius, whose name till then was Swine-snout, A. D. 687."-Platiqna. Onuphrius refers it to John XII., 956; and gives as a reason, that it was done in imitation of Sts. Peter and Paul, who were first called Simon and Saul. In France it was usual to change the name given at baptism, as was done in the case of two sons of Henry II. of France. They were christened Alexander and Hercules; but at their confirmation, these names were changed to Henry and Francis. It is usual for the religious at their entrance into monasteries to assume new names, to show they are about to lead a new life, and have renounced the world, their family, and themselves. See Srnxames. NAMUR. Ceded to the house of Austria by the peace of Utrecht. It was garrisoned by the Dutch as a barrier town to the United Provinces in 1715. Namur was taken by the French in 1746, but was restored in 1748. In 1781, the emperor Joseph expelled the Dutch garrison. In 1792, it was again taken by the French, who were compelled to evacuate it the following year; but they regained possession of it in 1794. The French, however, delivered it up to the Allies, in 1814. NANTES, EDICT OF. See Edict. NAPLES, The continental division of the kingdom of'the two Sicilies. Naples was a part of the Roman territory at a very early period. In the fifth century it became a prey to the Goths, and afterwards to the Lombards; and the Saracens, Normans, and French, also successively had possession of this country. The Goths having become masters of Taken from the French and annexed to Naples and of Sicily, are expelled by Spain - 1504 Belisarius, general of the Eastern The tyranny of the Spaniards leads to empire - - - A.. 537 an insurrection, excitedby MIaaniello, The Lombards next get possession of a fisherman, who in fifteen days raises Naples, and are dispossessed by Char- an army of 200,000 men - - 1647 lemagne. - - 800 This insurrection subsides, and MasaCharles of Anjou, brother of St. Louis, niet[o is murdered - - 1647 king of France, obtains the crown Attempt of the duke of Guise to possess from the pope, to the exclusion of the the crown - - - 1647 rightful heir, Conradlin, who is be- The kingdom completely conquered by headed, aged sixteen years - 1266 prince Eugene - - - 1707 The French becoming hated by the Si- Discovery of'the ruins of Herculaneum. cilians, a general massacre of the in- See Ilerlculaneun - - - 1711 vaders takes place, one Frenchman Naples ceded to the emperor by the only escaping. See Sicilian Vespers treaty of Radstadt, 1714; Sicily - 1720 Mtarch 30, 1282 Both klingdoms are recovered by the Peter of Arragon reigns. - 1282 crown of Spain - - - 1734 The two crowns disjoined - 1303 And Charles, the son of Philip of Spain, Charles Durazzo, becoming king of reigns - -1735 I-Iungary, is murdered there by order Reign of Ferdinand IV. - - 1759 of the queen regent, in her presence - 1356 His flight on the approach of the French For this murder she is taken out of her republicans - an. 14, 1799 carriage, and drowned in the river Nelson appears, Naples is retaken, and Boseth - - 1386 the king restored - - July 13, 1799 Sicily again united to Naples, and the It is again talen by the French, April 7, 1801 kings ever since called king of the Dreadful earthquake felt throughout Two Sicilies - - 1442 19 434 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [NATl NAPLES, continuced. the kingdom, and thousands perish Demonstration in favor of Plus IX. and July 26, 1805 reform, fireld upon at Naples, and arTreaty offensive and defensive between rests made - - Dec. 15, 1847 France and Naples - Oct. 8, 1805 Sanguinary disorders at Messina Jai. 4, 1848 Ferdinand is again driven from Naples, Rebellion at Palermo, &c. - Jan. 12, 1848 and Joseph Bonaparte is crowned Palermo botmbarded - Jan. 13-19, 1848 king - - - Feb. 6. 1806 The kting signed a constitution Jan. 23, 1848 Jcaeph abdicates for the crown of Spain Messina expelled thle Neapolitan garJune 1, 180 rison - - - -Feb. 22, 1848 The crown is transferred to Joacllim The parliament of Sicily declares that Murat - - - July 1, 1808 island independent; Messina. bomNaples is surrendered to a British fleet, barded by the Neapolitan fleet Ap. 3, 1848 and Ferdinand re-enters - June 17, 1815 The national guard raises barricades at Execution of Joachitn Murat - Oct. 15, 1815 Naples - - - May 14, 1848 Revolutionary movement, headed by The people put down by the king's general Pepe - - July 15, 1820 troops; 1440 killed - May 15, 1843 Suppression of the Carbonari Sept 16, 1820 The Sicilian parliament elects the dulke Reign of Francis I. - - 1826 of Genoa as king of Sicily - July 10, 1848 And of Ferdinand II. - Nov. 8, 1830 Messina bombarded and taklen by the Commencement of the dispute relative Neapolitanr troops - Sept. 2, 1848 to the sulphur monopoly (which is New constitution conceded to Sicily afterwards amicably adjusted) March 6, 1849 March 15, 1840 Catania bombarded and reduced Apr. 5, 1819 NARYVA, BATTLE OF, in which Peter the Great of Russia was totally defeated by the renowned Charles XII. of Sweden, then in his nineteenth year. The army of Peter is said to have amounted to 100,000 men, while the Swedish army did not much exceed 20,000: fought Nov. 30, 1700. NASEBY, BATTLE OF, between Charles I. and the parliament army under Fairfax and Cromwell. The main body of the royal army was commanded by lord Astley; prince Rupert led the right wing, sir Marminaduke Langdale the left, and the king himself lheaded the body of reserve. The victory was with the parliament forces, and was decisive of the fate of the uinfortunate Charles, who was obliged to abandon the field to his enemies, losing all his cannon and baggage, and 5000 of his army were made prisoners, June 14, 1645. NATIONAL DEBT oF ENGLAND. The first mention of parliamentary security for a debt of the nation, occurs in the reign of Henry VI. The present national debt commenced in the reign of William III. It had amounted, in the year 1697, to about five millions sterling, and the debt was then thought to be of alarming n.agnitude. In 1702, On the accession of queen In 1802, Close of the French ReAnne, the debt amounted volutionary war, it ato - - - - 14,000,000 mounted to - ~571,000,000 In 1714, On the accession of Geo, In 1814, Close of the war against I. it amounted to - 54,000,000 Bonaparte - - - 865,000,000 In 1749, Geo. 1I.; after the Spa. In 1817, When the Irish and Engnisl war, it amounted to 78,000,000 lish exchequers were In 1763, George III.: end of the 7 consolidated - 848,282,477 years' war, it amounted In 1830, Total amount of the to - - - 139,000,000 funded and unfunded In 1786, Three years after the Ame- debt - - - - 840,1.840)22 rican war, it amounted to 268,000,000 In 1840, Total amount of ditto - 789,578,000 In 1798, The civil and foreign war, In 1845, Funded debt - - - 768,789,241 it amounted to - - 462,000,000 NATIONAL DEBT oF THE UNITED STATES. at different times. In 1791 the debt was - - - 75,463.476 In 1830 the debt was - - 848,565,466 In 1800 " " - 82,976,294 In 1835 " - - 37,733 In 1810 " " 53,173,217 In 1839' - - 11,983,738 In 1815 -99,833,661 In 1845 "' - - 16,801,647 In 1816 " " -. - 127,334,934 In 1848 " " 65,804,450 In 1820 " " - - 91,015,566 NATURALIZATION. It is defined to be "the making a foreigner or alien a denizen or freeman of any kingdom or city, and so becoming, as it were. hAV ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 435 both a subject and a native of a king or country, that by nature he did not belong to.' The first act of naturalization in England passed in 1437; and various similar enactments were made in most of the reigns firom that time, several of them special acts relating to individuals. An act for the naturalization of' the Jews passed in 1753, but it was repealed in the following year, on the petition of all the cities in England. See Uniled Slates. NATIONAL ASSEMBLY oF FRANCE. Upon the proposition of the abbe Si6yes, the states of France constituted themselves into the National Assembly, June 16, 1789. On the 20th, the hall of this new assembly was shut by order of the king; upon which the deputies of the TViers Etat repaired to the JeuL de PcmI2e, or Tennis-court, and swore not to dissolve until they had digested a constitution for France. On the 2d they met at the church of St. Louis. This assembly dissolved itself, Sept. 21, 1792. See next article. NATIONAL CONVENTION or FRANCE. Constituted in the hall of the Tuileries, Sept. 17, and formally opened, Sept. 21, 1792, when M. Gregoire, at the head of the National Assembly, repairecl thither and announced that that assembly had ceased its functions. It was then decreed, "That the citizens named by the French people to form the National Convention, being met to the number of 371, after having verified their powers, declare, that the National Convention is constituted." This convention continued until a a new constitution was organized, and the Executive Directory was installed at the Little Luxembourg, Nov. 1, 1795. See Directoryj. NATIONAL GALLERY, LONDON. The foundation of this great institution was the purchase, by the British governlent, for the public service, of the Angerstein collection of pictures, whose number did not much exceed forty. They were purchased of Mr. Angerstein's executors, in Jan. 1822; and the first exhibition of them took place in Pall Mlall, in May 1824. Sir G. Beaumont, Mr. Howell Carr, and many other gentlemen, as well as the British Institution, contributed many fine pictures; and the collection has been augmented by numerous later gifts, and recent purchases. The present edifice in Trafalgar-square was designed by Mr. Wilkins, and was completed and opened in 1837. NAVAL BATTLES. The Argonautic expedition undertaken by Jason is the first upon record, 1263. c. —Dt F.resnoy. The first sea-fight on record is that between the Corinthians and Corcyecans, 664 a. c.-Blair. The following are among the most celebrated naval engagements to be found on the page of history. BEFORE CHRIST. at Cnidos; Pisander, the Athenian First sea-fight on record, in which the adomiral, is killed; and the maritime Corinthians conquer the Cr'cyreans 664 power of the Itacedemonians deThe Athenian fleet under Themistocles, stroyedm.-TnfeCydides - 394 with 380 sail, defeat the Persian, con- Tle Roman fleet employed in the siege sisting of 2000, at the straits of Sa- of ilybeum, burned by the Carthalamis.480 ginians 249 The Carthaginian fleet destroyed by the Again, at the mouth of the river Eury- The carthagiian fleet estroyedby the mnedon; Cymon, the Athenian admi- consul Lutatus 242 ral, vanquishes the Persian fleet and The Roman tleess vanquished by I-anarmy, in one day. —Heodoteis - 470 lsbal, the Carthaginian general; 800 Tise Lacelemonian fleet talken by Alci- galleys taken, anid 16,000 prisoners, biades, the Athenian - - 410 second Punic war - - 209 The Spartan general, Lysander, totally At Actium, between the fleets of Octadeleats the Athenian fleet under Co- viantus C sac and Marc Antony. Tlis non; byis victohe pots as end battle decides the fate of the latter, to the maritime power of' Athens - 407 30 of his galleys going over to C sac, The Persians engage Conon to conm- by which he is totally del'eated 31 mand their fleet, with which he en- ANNO DOSMINI. tirely vanquishes the Lacedemonian The emperor, Claudius II. defeats the fleet., and talces fifty sail out of ninety 400 Goths, and sinks 2000 of their ships.The Persian fleet conquer the Spartan Do, F?'esnouy. 269 436 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS [NAV NAVAL BATTLES, coqetitaed. The fleets belonging to Spain, Venice, Tromp commanded the Dutch; Blake, and Pius V. defeat the Turkish fleet Monk, and Deane, the Enlg]ish Six in the Gull'of Lepanto. The Chris- Dutch ships were takent; 11 were tian fleet consistedl of 206 galleys, and sunk, and the rest ran into Calais 30,000 men. The Turks, out of 250' road - - June 2, 1653 galleys, saved only 100; and lost Again, on the coast of Holland; the 30,000 men in killed and prisoners.- Dutch lost 30 men-of-war, and adVoltaire - - - -1571 miral Tromp was killed - July 31, 1653 Bay of Gibraltar; Dutch and Spani- At Cadiz, when two galleons, worth ards. This was a bloody conflict and 2,000,000 pieces of eight, were taken decisive victory. and settled for a time by the English - - Sept. 1656 the superiority of the Dutch, Apr. 25, 1607 The Spanish fleet vanquished, and then burnt in the harbor of Santa Cruz, by NAVAL ENGAGEMENTS IN BRITISH HISTORY. Blake - - - April, L657 Alfred, with 10 galleys, defeated 300 sail English and French; 130 of the Borof' Danish pirates on the Dorset and deaux fleet destroyed by the duke of Hanlpshire coast.-Asser's Life of Yorl - - - 1Pec. 4,1664 A1ftel - - 897 The duke of Yorlc, (afterwards James Near Sluys; Edward III. defeated the II.) defeats the Dutch fleet off HarFrench fleet of 400 sail, Which were wich; the Dutch admiral blown up all sunk. 30,000 French were killed with all his crew; 18 capital shils in this engagement - - 1340 taken, 14 destroyed - June 3, 1665 The English and Flemings; the latter The earl of' Sandwich took 12 men of signally defleated - - - 1371 war and 2 India ships Sept. 4, 1665 English and French, in which the latter A contest between the Dutch and Enpower loses 80 ships - - - 1389 glish fleets for victory, maintained Near Milf'ord Haven; the English take for four days. The English lose 9, 14, and destroy 15 French ships - 1405 and the Dutch 15 ships, June L to 4, 1666 OffBarfleur; the duke of B-edl'od takes Decisive engagement at the mouth of 500 French ships - - - 1416 the Thames, when the English gain In the Downs; the French fleet cap- a glorious victory, the Dutch lose 24 tured by the earl of Warwick - 1459 men-of-war, 4 admirals killed,. and Bay of Biscay; English and French, 4000 officers and seamen. Fought the latter defeated - - - 1512 July 26, 1666 Sir Edward Howard defeats the French The English fleet of 16 sail, defeat the under Prejeant - - - 1513 French of 30, near Martinico - - 1667 In the Channel; the British defeat the Coast of HIolland; by Prince Rupert, French fleet with great loss - - 1545 May 28, June 4, and Aug. 1 1, D'Etrees The Spanish Armada driven frdm the and Ruyter defeated - - -1673 English Channel to the road of Calais, Several actions to the disadvantage of by a running fight, the Spaniards los- the Dutch. They agree to strike to ing 15 ships and 5000 men; they are the English colors in the British seas, again defeated, and obliged to bear 25 Charles II. - - - - 1673 away fobr Scotland and Ireland, when Off Tangiers, battle between the Entheir fleet is dispersed in a storm, and glish and Moors, which lasted 11 they lose 17 more ships, and 5000 days -1679 more men. See Armada - July 19, 1588 Off Beachy-head; the English and Dover Straits; between the Dutch ad- Dutch are defeated by the French, miral, Van Tronmp, and admiral June 30, 1690 Blake. The Dutcfli surprise the Eng- The English and Dutch combined fleets lish in the Downs, 80 sail engaging gain a signal victory over the French 40 English, six of which are taken or fleet, near Cape La Hogue; 21 of their destroyed; and the Dutch admiral largest men-of warwere destroyed.sails in triumph through the channel, See La Ilog-ue - May 19, 1609 with a broom at his mast-head, to de- Off St. Vincent; the English and Dutch note that he had swept the Englishi scluadrons, under admiral Rooke, defrom the seas - - June 29, 1652 feated by the French -,June 16, 1692 In the Downs; same admirals, and Off Carthagena, between admiral Besnnearly same loss bow and the French fleet, commanndSept. 28, Oct. 2S, and Nov. 29, 1652 ed by admiral Du Casse, iought The English gain a victory over the Aug. 1, Dutch fleet off Portsmouth, talcing The English and Dutch fleets, under ansd destroying 11 men of war and 30 sir George Rookce, defeat the French merchantmen. Van Tromp was the fleet (having the Spanish galleons in Dutch, and Blake tie English admiral convoy) in the port of'Vigo. They Feb. 10, 1653 take 9 out of' 13 galleons, laden chielf Again, near Portland, between the Eng- ly with silver, and six men-of-war; lish and Dutch; the latter deleated the other 4 galleons, and 14 men-ofFeb. 18, 1653 war, destroyed, ftbught Oct. 12, 1702 Again, off the NThftb Foreland. The Off the Lizard, when the English fleet Dutch and English:ieets consisted of was defeated Oct. 9, 1707 -near 100 mnen-of- yaw. each. Van Ax AV] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 437 NAVAL BATTLES, coltizmed. In the Mediterranean, admiral Leake the line taken, 2 burnt, 2 escaped, took sixty French vessels laden with Aug. 1, 1798 provisions Ma- - y 22, 1708 Gibraltar bay; engagement between The Spanish fleet of 27 sail totally de- the French and British fleets; the fea ed by sir George Byng, in the Faro lmisnzeibal of 74 guns lost Julv 6. 1801 of Messina - Au,. 11, 1718 Of'Cadiz; sir Jas-es Saumarez obtains Bloody battle off Toulon; Matthews a victory over tile French and Spanand Lestock against the fleets of ish fleets; 1 ship captu.:ed, ioLbght France and Spain. Here the brave July 12, 1801 captain Cornwall fell; and the vic- Sir Robert Calder with 15 sail. takes 2 tory was lost by a misunderstanding ships (both Spanish) out of 20 sail of between the En-lish admirals.-Na- the l'rench and Spanish combined val Ii'st. - -1744 fleets. off Ferrol July 22, 1805 OiF Cape Finistere, the French fleet Oit' Trafalgar; memorable battle, in taken by admiral Anson May 3, 1747 which lord Nelson defeated the fleets In the East Inlies; the French retired of France and Spain, and in which to Pondicherry - - - 1747 he received his mortal wound.-(See Off Ushant, when admiral HIawke took "'9ircfalgaor) - Oct. 21, 1805 seven men-of-war of the French Sir R. Strachan, with 4 sail of British, Oct. 14, 1747 captures 4 French ships of the line, Admiral Hawke defeats the French off Cape Ortesal - Nov. 4, 1805 fleet commanded by Conflans, in In the West Indies; the French defeatQuiberon Bay; and thus prevents a ed by sir T. Duckworth; 3 sail of projected invasion of England, fbught the line taken, 2 driven on shore Nov. 20, 1759. Feb. 6, 1806 Reppel toolsk 3 French frigates, and a Sir John Borlase Warren captures the fleet of merchantmen - - Oct. 9, 1762 French fleet under conmmand of adNear Cape St. Vincent, between admi- miral Linois - - March 13, 1806 ral Rodney and admlairal Don Lan- Admiral Duckworth effects the passage gara, tl-e latter delfeated anti taken of the Dardanelles. See Dctardanelles, prisoner, losing 8 ships Jan. 8, 1780 Feb. 19, 1807 At St. Jago; Mons. Sufi'ein defeated by Copenhagen fleet of 18 ships of the line% colmmodore Johnston April 16, 1781 15 frigates, and 31 other vessels, surAdmiral Rodney defeated the French renders to lord Cathcart and admiral going to attack Jamaica, took 10ships Gambier. (See Copelnhage?z) Sept 7, 1807 of the line, (1 sunk, and 3 blown up) The Rtusian fleet of several sail, in the and sent the French admiral, count Tagus, surrenders to the British, de Grasse, prisoner to England Sept. 3, 1808 April 12, 1782 Algiers bombarded by lord Exmouth. The British totally defeated the fleets See Algiers - - Aug. 27 1816 of France and Spain, in the bay of Navarino; the British, French, and Gibraltar.-See CGibral/ar Sept. 13, 1782 Russian squadrons, defeat and anniCape St. Vincent; the Spanish fleet de- hilate the Turtkish navy. See NAavafeated by Sir J. Jervis, and 4 line of'rino - - Oct. 20, 1827 battle ships taken - Feb. 14, 1797 Action between the British ships VolUnsuccessful attempt on Santa Cruz; age and itlycivth, and 29 Chinese admiral Nelson loses his ri ght arm; war junks, which were defeated July 24, 1797 Nov. 3, 1839 Camperdown; the Dutch signally de- Bombardment and fall of Acre. The feated by admiral I)uncan, and 15 British squadron under admiral Stopships of war, with the admiral (De ford achieved this triumph with triVslnter), taken - Oct. 11, 1797 fling loss, while the Egyptians lost Nile; Toulon fleet defeated by sir Ho- 2000 killed and wounded, and 3000 ratio Nelson, at Aboukir; 9 ships of prisoners. See Sy7ria - Nov. 3, 1840 NAVAL BATTLES oF THE UNITED STATES. Paul Jones, in the Providence priva- Constituti.oh captures British frigate teer, takes 16 prizes - 17;56 Guerrriere Aug. 13, 18i2 IIis descent on Whitehaven - April 1778 Captain Elliott captures two British IIe captures the British frigate Serapis fititates on lake Erie - Oct. 8, 1812 Sept. 23, 1779 Sloop Wasp captures British sloop Ftro Frigate Philadelphia taken by thie Tri- lic, Oct. 18; both vessels captured by politans - - - - 1803 British 74, Pictiers Oct. 20, 1812 -recaptured by Decatur - F- eb. 1. 1804 Frigate United States, captain Decatur, Tripoli bombarded by commodore PI e- captures BRitish fiigate Macedonian 1912 ble -A:og. 1lS04 Constitution captain Bainbridge, capFrigate Chesapeake fired upon by the | tures British fiigate.Java Oct. 29, 1812 lr'itish ship Leopard7 for reflssing to Itornet, captain Lawtrence, captures be searched - 1- - 807 British ship Peacock. captain Peake, Frigate President, vs. British sloop Feb,. 23, 1813 Iittle Belt May 1i, 1811 438 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ NSA NAVAL BATTLES, U. S. contbi'uted. [Delaware and Chesapeake bays block- Sloop Peacock, captain Warringlon, aded by British.] captures British brig Epervier Frigate Chesapeake surrendered to the April 29, 1814 Britiih frigate Shannon June 1, 1813 Sloop Wasp, captain IBlakeley, capSloop A rgus, captured by British sloop tures British bri Reindtleer, Jlune 8s, 181.4 Pelican - - Aug. 14, 1813 Flotilla, coulmoodore Iacdonoutl. vicBril E. terprise captures the British torious over the British on lake Chllainbrig Boxer - Au 1813 plain Sept II, 1l14 Fleet on lake Erie, commodore Perry, Frigate President, surrendered to the captures the British fleet Sept. 10, 1813 British frigate Endymion Jan. 15, 1s81t Flotilla, commodore Chauncey, cap- Frigate Constitution captures British tules British flotilla on lake Ontario, brigs Cyane and Levant. oftf Iaderia Oct. 5, 1813 Feibs 15 Frigate Essex, commodore Porter, cap- Sloop Hornet, commodore Biddle, cap- e tured by fiigate Pe ebe ad sloop tures British brig Penuuin, off Brazil, Cherub - - - March 28, 1814 Feb. 93, 1815 Sloop Frolic, commodore Bainbridge, U. S. naval force under commodore surrendered to British fiig-ate Or- Conner bombards Vera Csrz (jointly pheus - - April 21, 1814 with the land lorce under general Scott).- 1s14-7 NAVARINO, BATrTLE Or, between the comlbined fleets of England, Francn,, and Russia, under commluandc of admiral Codrington. and tihe Turkish navy, in which the latter was almost wholly annihilated. More than tllirty ships, many of them four-deckers, were blown up or buLrnt, chiefly by the Tiu ss themselves, to plrevent their falling into the hands of their enemies, Oct. 20, 1827. The species of policy which led to this attack upon Tur-key, was that of Mr. Canning's administtration. This destruction of the Tslrkiish nasval power was characteriized, by the illustrious cluke of Welliington, as being an " untoward event," a memorable phrase, applied to it to this day. NAVIGATION. It owes its origin to the Phmnicians, about 1500 B. c. The first laws of navigation originated with the Rhodians, 916 B. c. The first account we have of any considerable voyage is that of the Phoenicians sailing round Aftica 604 B. c. —Blair. Onl the destruction of Thlebes by Alexander the Great, 335 B. c., its commerce passed to Alexandria, and subseqlently the Romans became the chief masters of commerce. It passed successively from the Venetians, Genoese, and Hanse Towns, to the Portugnuese antd Spaniards; and froom these to thle English anc.Dutch. Plane charts and msariner's compass Logarithmic tables applied to navi'aused about - - -. 1420 tion by Gunter A. D. 1620 Variation of the compass discovered Middle latitudle sailing introducerl - 1623 by ColumbIs - - 149;821 Iesuration of a degree, Norwood - 1631 That the obliqsue rhumb lines are spi- Iiadley's quadrant -1 - -31 rals, discovered by Nonius - - 115371 Harrison's time-keeper used - 178i4 First treatise on navigation - - 14453 Nautical almanac first published - 176j7 The log first mentioned by Bourne - 1577 Barlow's theory of the deviation of the Mercator's chart - 15991 compass - - 182U'Davis's quadrant, or backstaf,'bfor See Constass, Latitude, Lozs'sizsude, 4ec. measuring angles, about - - 1600 NAVIGATION, INLAND, or THE UNITEDr STATrS. An official report of U. S. Engineers in 1842 states the number of miles of the rivers west of' the Alleghlianies. navigable for steamrboats, 16 674 miles; entire length of alhZe cores.i, of which 2000 belong to British possessions, 5000 miles. The steanlm i.l tonnage of the western rivers in 1846 was 249 055 tonls. Aggregate vall,'rf' commerce on the western rivers, $1883 609,725. Estimated amount of lakoe tonnage, $61,914,910. [For tonnage of ocean shipping at diffelent periods,; see S/eippisg.] NAVIGATION, INLAND. or GC:rET BaRITAIN. IMr. Nimmo. in his evidence before the Colmmittee onl the state of Ireland, in 1824, said, "we have molre inland navigation in Britain than in all the rest of the world put together.;" The total length of the inlaind navigation of England, including as well ic,'te xAv ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 439 navigable rivers as canals, is 5300 miles. See Caials.-HatJyd'n. This statement scarcely agrees with the preceding. NAVIGATION LAWS. The laws of Oleron were decreed, 6 Richard I., 1194. See Olerob. The first navigation act was passed. in 1381. Another and more extensive act was passed in 1541. Act relating to the tracle of' the colonies passed in 1646; and several acts follow ed relating to navigation. The act regulating the navigation of the river Thlamies was passed inl 1786. Navigation Act, f'or the encouragement of British ships and seamlen, passed 4 William IV., August 1833. British and Amlericaun navigation laws repealed; 184'9. NAVY oF THE'UNITED STATES. The first ship of war of the United States was built under the superintendence of the celebrated John Paul Jones, at Portsmouth, N. H., 1781; but the regular navy was commenced by Act of Congress, authorizing the building of six frigates, MiVarch 30, 1794. The Constitution launched at Boston. Constellation at Baltimore, 1797. [See Naval Battles.] NAVIES oF EUROPE AND AMERICA. COMPARATIVE VIEV OF TI-HE NAVAL FORCES OF THE POWErZS OF EUROPE AND AsERIncA, 1846. ]ncomnmisinorn IBuilding, ordina- Total. Relative naval In comisi Total.' ry, &c. I power of each nation. o Vessels. Guns. Vessels.i Guns. Vessels. Genes. Z Great Britain, - 332 4,583 304 13,098 ~636 17.681 40,000 141 France, - - - 215 4,293 131. 4,635 346 8,928 27,554 68 Russia,- 179 5,896 -- -- 179 5,896 59,000 32 Turlcey, - - - 62 2,636 4 24 66 2,660 26,820 9 United States, - 47 1,155 30 1.190 77 2,345 8,724 5 Egypt, 35 1,148 3'312 33 1,760 1 Hiolland,'' 48 302 86 1,344 134 1,646 4 Sweden, 330 660 50 1.196 380,856 2 Denmark, 96 344 32 732 108 1,076 Austria, 74 686. 74 686 Brazil,- 31 450 11 325 42 775 8 Sardinia, - - 11 226 4 220 15 446 2 Spain, -. 21 348 21 348 4 Two Sicilies, - 17 338 17 338 Portugal, 59 Mexico -23 42 -- I 23 42. COMPARATIVE VIEW OF THE COIMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE OF DIFFERENT NATIONS. No. of vessels No. of gunus o1 Nations, in the order of their commercial io. of vessel To each 100,000 imtportance. n fsee tons of com- d fisheies. erce. United Kingdom of Great Britain, - 23,898 3,007,58 588 United States 19,666 2,416,999 97 France, 13,782 839,608 i 1.063 Norway and Sweden 5,450 471,772 22 Iolland - - 1,528 241,676 683 Russia, Not known. 239,000 2,466 Two Sicilies, -9,174 213,198 158 Austria, 6,199 208,551 321 Turkey, 2,220 182,000 1,461 Sa-rdinia..3,502 167,360 265 Denomarkr, —.... 3,.036 153,408 709 Portual, - 798 80,525 Spain, 2,700 80,000 Brazil, Unknown. Unknown... Mexico. - Jlknown. Unknown. 440 THE WORLD7S PROGIRESS. [ NEm NAVY OF ENGLAND. The first fleet of galleys, like those of the Danes, was built by Alfred, A. D. 897. The numbler of galleys had increased under Edgair to 350, about A. D. 965. A formidable fleet was equipped by the pub-: lie contribution of every town in. England, in the reign of' Ethelred II., 1007, et seq., when it rendezvoused at Sandlvich to be ready to oppose the Danes. From this period fleets were occasionally furnlished by the maritilme towns, and the Cinque ports, and were usually comlmanded by the king, or an admiral under him: such was the fleet of Edward III. at the siege of Calais in 1347; it consisted of 40 ships, badly equipped, under no public fixed regulations. The date of the commencemlent of the Royal or British navy, mllay therefore be placed 4 Henry VIII. 1512, when the first Navy-office was appointed, with commissioners to manage naval affairs, and a number of stout ships of war began to be permanently kept on foot by the crown.-G-ibsov's Cacmden. In the time of Henry VIII. the navy consisted of 1 ship of 1200 tons, 2 of 800 tons, and six or seven smaller; the largest was called the Great tHarry. Elizabeth's fleet at the time of the Spanish Armada, in 1588, consisted of only 28 vessels, none larger than frigates. James I. added 10 ships of 1400 tons each, and 64 guns, the largest then ever bu i;. — Gibsoi's Contination of Camden. ACCOUNT OF THE PROGRESSIVE INCREASE O' THIE ROYAL NAVY OF EINGLAND, FROM IIENPY VIII'S REIGN TO THE CLOSE OF THE LAST WARl ]S14. Yr. S'hips.] Tons. Almen voted Gavy estini.. Y Shis. I'os..len voted Acav estlne 1521 16 7,260 - no account. 1 1760 412 321,134 70.000 ~3,227143 1578 24 10,506 6,700 no account. 1793 49S 433,226 45. 000 5.52')331 ie03 42 17,055 8,346l no account. 1800 767 663,744 135,000 112422.1837 1658 157 57,000 21,910 no account. 1808 869 892,800 143,800 17.496,047 1638 173 101,892 42,00 no account. 1814 01 9G6,i000 146,0100 183786C;09 1702 272 159,020| 40,000 ~1,056.95 In 1814, Great Britain had 901 ships, of which 177 were of the line; and in 1830, she had 621 ships, sonme of 14 0 guns each. and clown to surveying veysels of 2 guns only. Of these 148 sail w1ere employed on foreig'n and home service. On Jan. 1, 1841, the total number of ships of all sizes in comlllission was 183. NAVY or FRANCE. It is first mentioned in history A. D. 728, when, like that of England at an early period, it consisted of Galleys; in this year the French defeated the Frison fleet. It was considerably improved under Louis XIV. at the instance of his minister Colbert, about 1697. The French navy was in perhaps its highest splendor about 1781; but it became gr,.atly reduced in the late wars against England. NEBRASKA. A territory of the United States as yet (1850) unorganized, occupying 400,000 square miles, the entire space between the Missouri and White Earth Rivers on the east, the Rocky Mountains on the west, the 49th parallel lat. on the north, and the Kansas and Arkansas rivers on the south. First traversed by Lewis and Clarke's expedition, in 1805, and partly explored by Fremont, on his way to Oregon, in 1842. NEEDLES. They make a considerable article of commerce, as well as of home trade in England, German and Hungarian steel is of most repute for nee dles. The first that were made in England were fabricated in Chealiside, London, in the time of the sanguinary Mary, by a negro from Spain; bet, as he would not impart the secret, it was lost at his death, and not recovered again till 1566, in the reign of Elizabeth, when Elias Growse, a German, taught the art to the English, who have since brought it to the highest degree of perfection.-Stowe. The family of the Greenings, ancestors of lord Dorchester, established a needle manufactory in Bucks, about this time.-Anderson. NEMEAN GAMES. So called from Nemmla, where they were celebrateet I-EW ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 441 They were originally instituted by the Argives in honor of Archemorus who died by the bite of a serpent, and Hercules some tinme after renewed them. They were one of' the four great and solemn games which were observed in Greece. The Argives, Corinthians, and the inhabitants of Cleonte, generally presided by turns at the celebration, in which were exhibited foot and horse-races, chariot-races, boxing, wrestling, and contests of every kind, both gymnical and equestrian. The conqueror was rewarded with a crown of olives, afterwards of green parsley, in memory of the adventure of Archemorus. whom his nurse laid down on a sprig of that plant. They were celebrated every third, or according to others, every fifth year, or more properly on the first and third year of every Olympiad, 1226 B. c.Hetrodotns. NEPTUNE. The new planet predicted by Le Verrier; discovered by Dr. Galle of Berlin, Sept. 23, 1846. NESTO3RIANS. A sect of Christians, the followers of Nestorius, some time bishop of Constantinople, who, by the general strain of church historians, is represented as a heretic, for maintaining that though the Virgin Mary was the mother of Jesus Christ as man. yet she was not the mether of God, for that no human creature could participate that to another, which she had not herself; that God was united to Christ under one person, but remained as distinct in nature and essence as though he had never been united at all; that such union made no alteration in the human nature, but that he was subject to the same passions of love and hatred, pleasure and pain, &c., as other men have, only that they were better regulated, and more properly applied than in ordinary men. The generality of Christians in the Levant go under this name; they administer the sacrament with leavened bread, and in both kinds, permit their priests to marry, and use neither confirmation nor auricular confession, &c. Nestorius died A. D. 439.-Dh/ Pin. NETHERLANDS. They were attached to the Roman Empire under the name of Belgia, until its decline in the fifth century. For several ages this country formed part of the kingdom of Ahstrasia. In the twelfth century it was governed by its own counts and earls; and afterwards fell to the dukes of Burgundy, and next to the house of Austria. The seventeen provinces were united into one state, in 1549. For the late history of the Netherlands see Holland and Belgium. NEVIS. An English colony, first planted by the English in 1628. This island was taken by the French, Feb. 14, 1782, but was restored to the English at the general peace in the next year. The capital of this island (one of the Caribbees) is Charleston. See Colonies. NEW ENGLAND. The confederation of the northeastern colonies of America under this name, for mutual defence, 1643. Sir E. Andros, the tyrannical governor of New England, 1686. The New England States are Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Vermont, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. See these respectively. NEW HAMZPSHIRE. One of the United States; was first granted to Ferdinando Gorges in 1662; first settled at Dover and Portsmouth in 1623. It came voluntarily under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts in 1641; but was made a separate province by an act of Charles I. in 1679. It was several times afterwards connected with Massachusetts until 1741, since which it has remained a separate State. Constitution formed in 1784, and amended, 1792. Population in 1790 was 141,885; in 1800, 138,858; in 1830, 269,328; in 1840. 284 574. NEW HOLLAND. The largest known land that does not bear the name of a continent. When this vast island was first discovered is uncertain. In the beginning of the seventeenth century the north and west coasts were traced 19* 442 THE WVORLD'S PROGRESS. r.EW: by the Dutch; and what was deemed, till lately, the south extremity, was discovered by Tasman, in 1642. Captain Cook, in 1770, explored the east and north-east from 38~ south, and ascertained its separation from Neiwi Guinea; and, in 1773, captain Furneaux, by connecting Tasman's discoveries with Cook's, completed the circuit. But the supposed south extremity, which Tasman distinguished by the name of Van Diemen's Land, was found, in 1798, to be an island, separated from New Holland by a channel forty'leagues wide, named from the discoverer, Bass Strait. Different parts of the coast have been called by the names of the discoverers, &c. The eastern coast, called New South Wales, was taken possession of in the name of George III. of England, by captain Cook, and now forms a part of the British dominions. See New Soul/t Wales. NEW JERSEY. One of the United States; first settled by the Dutch from New York, at Bergen, 1614-20. A colony of' Swedes and Finns on the Delaware, 1627. The province included with New York in the grant by Charles II. to the duke of York in 1664; granted by the duke to lord Berkley and sir George Cartaret, who established a government in 1695. Subdued by the Dutch in 1672, but surrendered by them, 1674; purchased by a company of English emigrants, who formed the first English settlement at Salem, 1674; government surrendered to the crown (in consequence of difficulty about titles, &c.) and accepted by queen Anne, 1702; continued under royal instead of proprietary government until 1776. This State suffered much in the revolution, and acted an important part. Adopted the Federal Constitution by unanimous vote in 1787. Population in 1732, 47,000; in 1790, 1841,189; in 1830, 320,779; in 1840, 373,306. NEW MEXICO, according to Spanish and Mexican authorities, extends from about 320 to 42~, N. latitude. and from 230 to about 3830 long. W. of Washington-an area of about 200.000 square miles. The country taken possession of for Spain, by Juan de Onate, sent by count de Monterey, viceroy of Mexico, in 1594. A great massacre of the Spaniards in their pueblos or fort, by the Indians, 1680, when the governor retreated from Santa Fe, and founded Paso del Norte. The whole country reconqueLred by the Spaniards after a war of ten years; but a deadly hatred has since continued between the races. New Mexico ceded to the United States by the treaty with Mexico, 1848. A large part of it is claimed by Texas, and the boundary is yet (July 1850) undecided. NEW SOUTH WALES. See Nrcw iMollaend. The eastern coast of New Holland was explored and taken possession of by captain Cook, for England, in 1770. It was at the recommendation of this illustrious navigator that the design of a convict colony here was first formed. Governor Phillips, the first governor, arrived at Botany Bay with 800 convicts. January 20, 1788: but he subsequently preferred Sydney, about seven miles distant from the head of Port Jackson, as a more eligible situation for the capital. NEW STYLE. Ordered to be used in England in 1751; and the next year eleven days were left out of the calendar-the third of September, 1752, being reckoned as the fourteenth-so as to make it agree with the Gregorian Calendar, w~hich see, and also article Calendacr. In the year A. D. 20.0, there was no difference of styles; but there had arisen a difference of eleven days between the old and the new style, the latter being so much beforehand with the former; so that when a person using the old style dates the 1st of May, those who employ the new, reckon the 12th. From this variation in the computation of time, we may easily account for the difference of many dates concerning historical facts and biographical notices. NEW YEAR'S DAY. Its institution as a feast, or day of rejoicing, is the oldest on authentic record transmitted down to our times, and still observed. 1'iLWV ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 443 The feast was instituted by Numa, and was dedicated to Janus (who presided over the new year), January 1, 713 B. c. On this day, the Romans sacrificed to Janus a cake of new sifted nmeal, with salt, incense, and wine; and all the mechanics began something of their art or trade; the men of letters did the same as to books, poems, &c.; and the consuls, though chosen before, took the chair and entered upon their office this day. After the government was in the hands of the emperors, the consuls marched on New-year's day to the capitol, attended by a croxvd, all in new clothes, when two white bulls never yoked were sacrificed to Jupiter Capitolinus. A great deal of incense and other perfumes were spent in the temple; the flamens, together with the consuls, during this religious solemnity uffered their vows for the prosperity of the empire and the emperor, after having taken an oath of allegiance, and confirmed all public acts done by him the preceding year. On this day the Romans laid aside all old grudges and ill humor, and took care not to speak so imuch as one ominous or untoward word. The first of January. is more observed as a feast-day in Scotland than it is in England. In many parts of the United States, but chiefly in New York, this is observed as a holiday, the ladies receiving complimentary visits from the other sex. This custom is derived from the Dutch; but is also observed in Paris. NEW-YEAR'S GIFTS. Nonius Marcellus refers the origin of New-Year's gifts among the Romans to Titus Tatius, king of the Sabines. who having considered as a good omen a present of some branches cut in a wood consecrated to Strenia, the goddess of strength, which he received on the first day of the new year, authorized the custom afterwards, and gave these gifts the name of Strene, 747 B. c. In the reign of Augustus, the populace, gentry, and senators used to send him new-year's gifts, and if he was not ill town, they carried them to the capitol. From the Romans this custom went to the Greeks, and frino the heathens to the Christians, who very early came into the practice of making presents to the magistrates. Some of the fathers wrote very strenuously against the practice, upon account of the immoralities committed under that cover and protection; but since the governments of the several nations in Europe became Christian, the custom is still retained as a token of friendship, love, and respect. It is well observed in the United States. NEW YORK. One of the United States. The river Hudson and the island of Manhattan, where New York city now stands, were discovered by Henry Hudson, an Einglishman, in the service of the Dutch, 1609. First permanently settled on Manhattan island by the Dutch in 1621; surrendered to the English, under Richard Nichols, for the duke of York, in 1664; confirmed to England by the peace of Breda, 1667; retaken by a Dutch expedition in 1673; restored to the duke of York with a new patent, 1674; first legislative assembly, 1683; Jacob Leisler's revolution, 1689; episcopacy established by law, 1693; negro conspiracy, 1741; colony took an active part in French war, 1756, and the war of Independence; city captured by English, 1776; who evacuated it Nov. 25, 1783; State adopted the Federal Constitution by 30 to 35, 1.788; adopted new State Constitution, 1846. Population in 1732, 65,000; in 1790, 340,820; in 1810, 959,049; in 1820, 1,372;812; in 1840, 2,428,921. r:EW YORK, CITY OF. Founded by the Dutch, 1614; fort built by them at S. point of the island, 1623; surrendered to the English, 1664; assessed value of all the property in the town in 1668, was ~78,231; city taken by the British, 1776; evacuated, Nov. 25, 1783; meeting of first United States Congress here, 1785; Washington inaugurated President of the United States, at the City Hall in Wall-street, April 30, 1789; yellow fever prevailed here in 1795 and 1805; cholera in 1832, 1834, and 1849. Great fire in 444 THE WORLD'S PRORE.SS. [ NBwt the business part of the city, swept over 40 acres, and destroyed property valued at about $20,000,000, Dec. 16, 1835; another in same neighborhood, 1845; the whole district rebuilt and improved shortly after; celebratiaL. of the completion of Croton Aqueduct, Oct. 14, 1842. Population in 1790, 83,131; in 1810, 96,373; in 1830, 202,589; in 1840, 312,710. NEW ORLEANS, CITY Os,. Founded by the French in 1717; conveyed to the Spanish, 1762; recovered by the French,' 1800; purchased by the United States in the purchase of Louisiana, 1803. The battle of, between the Americans under Gen. Jackson, and the British under Packenham, in which the latter were defeated with loss of 3;000 killed and wounded, the Americans losing only 7 killed and 6 wounded, Jan. 8, 1815. Population in 1810, was 17,242; in 1830, 46,310; in 1840, 102,193, including 23,4K-; slaves. NEWCASTLE, ENGLAND. The first coal port in the world. The coal-mines were discovered here about A. D. 1234. The first charter which was granted to the townsmen for digging coal was by Henry III. in 1239; but in 1306, the use of coal for -fuel was prohibited in London, by royal proclamation, chiefly because it injured the sale of wood for fuel, great quantities of which were then growing about that city; but this interdiction did not long continue, and we may consider coal as having been dug and exported from this place for more than 500 years. NEWFOUNDLAND, discovered by Sebastian Cabot, who called it Primnl Vista. June 24, A. D. 1494. It was formally taken possession of by sir Henry Gilbert, 1583. In the reign of Elizabeth, other nations had the advantage of the English in the fishery. There were 100 fishing vessels from Spain, 50 fronm Portugal, 150 from France, and only 15, but of larger size, from England, in 1577.-Hacklchjt. But the English fishery in some years afterwards had increased so much that the ports of Devonshire alone employed 150 ships, a:td sold their fish in Spain, Portugal, and Italy, 1625. Nearly 1000 English f — milies reside here all the year; and in the fishing season, beginning in Mlay and ending in September, more than 15,000 persons resort to Newfoundland, which may be esteemed as one of our finest nurseries for seamen. Newfoundland has recently obtained the privilege of a colonial legislation. A bishopric was established here in 1839. Appalling fire at St. John's; a greal portion of the town destroyed; the loss estimated at ~1,000,000 sterling, June 9, 1846. NEWS. The origin of this word has been variously defined. News is a fresh account of any thing.-Sidney. It is something not heard before.-L'TFtrangge. News is an account of the transactions of the present times.-Addlison. The word "news" is not, as many imagine, derived from the adjective new. In former times (between the years 1595 and 1730) it was a prevalent practice to put over th6 periodical publications of the day the initial letters of the cardinal points of the compass, thus N e- -W importing that these papers contained intelligence firom the four quarters of the globe; and from this practice is derived the term Newspaper. NEWSPAPERS. The first published in England, which might truly be cons;dered as a vehicle of GENERAL INFORMATION, was established by sir Roger L'Estrange, in 1663; it wras entitled the Putblic Ietclligenscer, and continued nearly three years, when it ceased on the appearance of the Gaczette. A publication, with few claims however to the character of a newspaper, had .EW J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 445 previously appeared; it was called the English Mercuy,* and came out un. der the authority of queen Elizabeth. so early as 1588, the period of the Spanlish armada. An early copy of this paper is dated Jnly 23, in that year. In the reign of James I., 1622, appeared the LonLdon Weel/uly CoJ'ant, and in the year 1643 (the period of' the civil war) were printed a variety of publications, certainly in no respect entitled to the name of newspapers, of which the following were the titles:Eng-land's Memzorable Accidents. The _Parliament's Scout's Discovery, or The Kingidosn's Intelligencer. Certain jbrorialion. The Diurnal of Certain Passages in Par- The lMercurius Civicus, or London's Inliam7ent. telligencer. The 31ercurilus Aulicus. The (Country's Complaint, 4bc.'he Scotch intelligencer. The T'Veekloy Accozent. The Parliamnent's Scout. _ Mercurious Britannicus. A paper called the Londone Gctzette was published August 22, 1642. Thlle Lotedone Gazette of the existing series, was published first at Oxford, the court being there on account of the plague, Nov. 7. 1665, and afterwardo at London, Feb. 5, 1666. See Gazette. The printing of' newspapers and pamphlets was prohibited 31 Charles I., 1680. —/Seto'j's Chtron. Newspapers were first stamped in 1713. No. of the stamps issued:d In 1753 - - - 7,411,757 In11 0 - - - 20,172,837 In IS5. -32,874,652 In 1760 - - 9,404,790 In 1820- - - 24,862,186 In 1840 49,033,384 In 1774 - - 12,300,000 In 1825 - - - 26,950,693 In 1843 -56.443,977 In 1790 - - 14,035,639 In 1830- - 30,158741 In 1849 - -76 569 235 In 1800 - - 16,08-1,905 The total number of newspapers published in the United Kingdom in 1849 was 603, viz: 160 in Londclon, 232 in the English province, 117 in Ireland, and 94 in Scotland. The nunber of advertiseements inserted in the London newspapers in 1849 was 886,108. paying a gross duty of ~66,458 2s.; in the English provincial newspapers, 834 729, yielding to the crown a revenue of ~62 604 13s. 6d.; in the Irish papers, 220 524, paying ~11,026 4s., and in the Scotch papers, 2,40911, paying in duty ~18,075 16s. 6d. NEWSPAPERS, &c. IN T'OEI UNI'ED STATES. The first wras the " Boston News Letter," in 1704, which was continued till 1774; the second was the Boston Gazette, 1719; the third the Amee ticavn WIeel?/ 3ftMcc??ury, at Philadelphia, sta;ted one day after the last. First lNew YoWhc Gazeite, in 1725; first newspaper in the Carolinas. at Charleston, 1731-2; first Rhode Islased Gazette, at Newport, 1732; first Piv'isnia Gazette, at Williamsburgh, in 1736. In 1775. there were in all the colonies 37 newspapers; in 1810, in the United States, 358; in 1828, 802; in 1839, 1o55. See Periodical Lit. \TEWSPAPERS IN FRANCE. The first was the Gazette dte 1Ireence, established by Renandot, ill 1631, and continuted with few interruptions till 1827. when it ceased and another paper assumed its name. The Meonitese', commenced 1789, has been since 1800 the official journal of the Government. The Constitqntionelle and the Jonusnal des Debuts have lont had the largest circulation. There were 374 newspapers published in France in 1832. See Periodical Lit. NEWSPAPERS, IRISH. The first Irish newspaper was Puee's Occqreences, published in 1700: Fanelkner's Jouernal was established by George Faulkner, " a man celebrated for the goodness of his hseart, and the. weakness of his head," 1728. —Supplemetle to Swift. The oldest of the existing Dublin newspapers, * The full title is, " No. 50, The English A-Mercurie, published by authoritie, for the preventicn Af false repolts, imprinted by Christopher Barkler, her highness's printer, No. 50." It describes the armament called the Spanish Armada. giving " A journall of what passed since the 21st of this month, between her Majestie's fleet and that of Spayne, transmitted by the Lord Highe Admirall to the Lordes of council." lit is said by Mr. Watts of the British Museum (1850), that this paper was a forgery, and that:.e first English paper was the Weekley Newes, published by Nathaniel Butler in 1622.] 446 THiE WVVOItLD)S PROGRESS. L NICK is the Frescmat's Jourinal, founded by the patriot. Dr. Lucas, about the veal 1755. —Westmin.ster Rcview, Jan. 1830. The Lisme-icc C/r'onicle, the oldest of theg provincial prints, was established in 1768. —Idecs. ~NEY, TMARSHAL, aIs EXECUTION. Ney was the duke of Elchingen, and prince of the Moskwa, and one of the most valiant and skilful of the marshals of France. After the abdication o' Napoleon., 5th April, 1814, he took the oath of allegiance to the king, Louis XVIII. On Napoleon's return to France fiom Elba, he marched against him; but his troops deserting, he regarded the cause of the Bourbons as lost, and opened the invader's way to Paris. March 13, 1815. Ney led the attack of the French at Waterloo, where he fought in the midst of the slain, his clothes filled with bullet-holes, and five horses having been shot under hinm, unt.l night and defeat obliged him to fly. But though he was included in the decree of July 24,1815, which guaranteed the safety of all Frenchmen, he was afterwards sought out, and taken in the castle of a friend at Urillac, where he lay concealed, and brought to trial before the Chanmber of Peers. The 12th article of the capitulation of Paris, fixing a general amnesty, was quoted in his favor, yet he was sentenced to death, and met his fate with the fortitude which such a hero could hardly fail to evince, Aug. 16, 1815. NICENE CREED. A sumnmary of the Christian faith, composed at Nice by, the first general councii held there in the palace of Constantine the Great(. In this celebiated council, which assembled A. D. 325, the Arians were condemnied. It was attended by 318 bishops fiom divers parts, who both settled the doctrine of the Trinity, and the timle for observing Easter. NILE, BATTLE CW THE. One of the greatest in British naval history, betweehi the Toulon and British fleets, the latter comnianded by lord, then sir Horatio Nelson. This engagement took place near Rosetta, at the mouth of the celebrated river Nile; nine of the French line-of-battle ships were taken, two were burnt, and two escaped, August 1, 1798. This is sometimes calles the battle of Aboukir; it obtained the conqueror a peerage, by the title of baron Nelson of the Nile; his exclamation upon comniencing the battle was, " Victory or Westminster-abbey!" NILE, SOURCE OF THE. This great river rises in the Mountains of the Moon, in about ten degrees of N. lat., and in a known course of 1250 miles receives no tributary streams. The travels of BruLce were undertaken to discover the source of the Nile; he set out fiom England in June, 1768; on the 14th of Nov. 1770, he obtained the great object of his wishes, and returned home in 1773. This river overflows regularly every year, from the 15th of' June t-' the 17th of September, when it begins to decrease, having given fertility to the land; and it must rise 16 cubits to insure that fertility. In 1829, the inundation of the Nile rose to 26 instead of 22, by which 30,000 people were drowned, and immlense property lost. NIMEGUEN, TREATY OF. This was the celebrated treaty of peace between France and the United Provinces, 1678. Nimeguen is distinguished in history for other treaties of peace. The French were successful against the British- under the duke of York, before Nimeguen, Oct. 28, 1794: but were defeated by the British, with the loss of 500 killed, Nov, 8, following. NITRIC ACID, formerly called aqta. foortis, first obtained in a separate state by Raymond Lully, an alchemist, about A. D. 1287; but we are indebted to Cavendish, Priestley, and Lavoisier, for our present knowledge of its properties. Mr. Cavendish demonstrated the nature of this acid, in 1785. Nitrous acid; nearly similar to nitric, was discovered by Scheele, in 1771. Nitrous gas was accidentally discovered by Dr. Hales. Nitrous Oxide Gas was discovered by Dr. Priestley, in 1776. NOiR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 447 NOBILITY. The origin of nobility is referred to the Goths, who, after they had seized a part of Europe, rewarded their heroes with titles of honor, to distinguish them from the common people. The right of peerage seems to have been at first territorial. Patents to persons having no estates were first granted to Philip the Fair of France, A. D. 1095. George Neville, duke of Bedford (son of John, marquess of Montague), ennobled in 1470, was degraded from the peerage by parliament, on account of' his utter want of property, 19 Edward IV. 1478. Noblemen's privileges were restrained in June 1773. See the various orders of nobility through the volume; see also Peerage. NOBILITY or FRANCE. The French nobility preceded that of England, and continued through a long line, and various races of' kings, until the period of the memorable revolution. The National Assembly decreed that hereditary nobility could not exist in a free state; that the titles of dukes, counts, marquisses, knights, barons, excellencies, abbots, and others, be abolished, that all citizens take their family names; liveries, and armorial bearings, shall also be abolished, June 18, 1790. The records of the nobility, 600 volumes, were burned at the foot of the statue of Louis XIV., June 25, 1792. A new nobility was created by the emperor Napoleon, 1808. The hereditary peerage was abolished in that kingdom, December 27, 1831. See Flranzce, NON-CONFORMISTS. The Protestants in England are divided into conforraists and non-conformists; or, as they are commonly denominated, churchmen and dissenters. The former are those who conform to that mode of worship and form of church-governmlent which are established and supported by the state; the latter are those who meet for divine worship in places of their own. The first place of meeting of the latter, in England, sWas established at Wandsworth, near London, November 20, 1572. The name of non-conformists was taken by the Puritans, after the Act of Uniformity had passed, August 24, A. D. 1662, when 2000 ministers of the established religion resigned, not choosing to conform to the Thirty-nine Articles. NON-JURORS, IN ENGLAND. Persons who suppose that James II. was unjustly deposed, and who, upon that account, refused to swear allegiance to the family that succeeded him. Among this class of persons were several of the bishops, who were deprived in 1690. Non-jurors were subjected to a double taxation, and were obliged to register their estates,'May 1723. NOOTKA SOUND. Discovered by captain Cook in 1778. It was settled by the British in 1786, when a few British merchants in the East Indies formed a settlement to supply the Chinese market with furs; but the Spaniards, in 1789, captured two English vessels, and took possession of the settlement. The British ministry made their demand for reparation, and the affair was amicably terminated by a convention, and a free commerce was confirmed to England in 1790. NORFOLK ISLAND. A penal colony of England. It was discovered in 1774, by captain Cook, who found it uninhabited, except by birds. The settlement was made by a detachment from Port Jackson, in 17 88, in Sydney bhay, on the south side of the island. This has latterly been made the severest penal colony of Great Britain. NORMANDY. Anciently Neustria. From the beginning of the ninth century this country was continually devastated by the Scandinavians, called Northmen or Normans, to purchase repose from whose irruptions Charles the Simple of France ceded the dulchy to their leader Rollo, A. D. 905 to 912, and from its conquerors it received its present name. Rollo was the first duke, and held it as a fief of the crown of France, and several of his successors after him, till William, the seventh duke, conquered England, in 448 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [NOi 1066, from which time it became a province of England, till it was lost in the reign of king John, 1204, and reunited to the crown of France. The English, however, still keep possession of the islands on the coast, of which Jersey and Guernsey are the principal. NORITH-WEST PASSAGE. The attempt to discover a northwest passage was made by a Portuguese named Cortereal, about A. D. 1500. - It was attempted by the English in 1553; and the project was greatly encouraged by que an Elizabeth, in 1585, in which year a company was associated in London, and was called the " Fellowship olr the Discovery of the Northwest Passage." The following voyages with this design, were undertaken, under British navigators, in the years respectively stated:Sir Hugh Willoughby's expedition to Captain Parry, again in the IRec7a, find a north-west passage to China, sails fiom Deptford - March 25, 1827 sailed from the Thameso May 20, 1553 And returns -Oct. 6, 187 Sir Martin Frobisher's attempt to find Capt. Ross arrived at HIull, on his rea north-west passage to China - 1576 turn from his arctic expeditl n, after Captain Davis's expedition to find a an absence of follr years, ai.d when north-west passage - - 1585 all hope of llle return had been nearBarentz's expedition - 1594 ly abandoned - Oct. 18, 1833 Weymouth and Knight's 1602 Capt. Back and his companions arrived Hudson's voyages; the last undertalken at Liverpool fi-om their perilous Arc(See Hudson's Bay.) — 1610 tic land Expedition, alter having Sir Thomas Button's - 1612 visited the Great Fish River, and exBaffin's.-See Bagfin's Bay - 1616 amined its course to the Polar Seas Foxe's expedition - - - 1631 Sept. 8, 1835 [A number of enterprises undertaken Captain Back sailed from Chatham in by various countries, followed.] comtmand of His Majesty's ship TerMiddleton's expedition - - 1742 rsor, on an exploring adverltltre to Moore's and Smith's- - - 1746 Wager River. [Captain Back, in Hearne's land expedition - -1769 the month of' Dec. 1835, was awardCaptain Phipps, afterwards lord Mul- ed, by the Geographical Society. the grave, his expedition - - - 1773 king's annual premium for his polar Captain Cook in the Resolsztions and discoveries and enterprise June 21, 18-'6 Discovery - - - July 1776 Dease and Simpson traverse the interMackenzie's expedition - - 1789 vening space between the discover-' Captain Duncan's voyage - - 1790 ies of Ross and Parry, and establish The Discovery, captain Vancouver, re- that there is a north-west passage turned from a voyage of survey and Oct. 1839 discovery on the north-west coast of Sir John Franklin and capt. Crozier in America - - Sept. 24, 1795 the Erebus and'Terror leave EngLieut. Kotzebue's expedition - Oct. 1815 land - - - May 24, 1-45 Captain Buchan's and lieut.. Franklin's Capt. Ross returned from an unsuccessexpedition in the Dor-othea and T7rent 1818 ful expedition in search of Franklin 1849 Captain Ross and lieut. Parry, in the Another expedition (one sent out by Isabella and Alexander - - 1818 lady Franklin) in search of sir John Lieuts. Parry and Liddon in the Hecla Franlin, consisting of two vessels, and Griper - May 4, 1819 sailed from England, April-May 185C They return to Leith - - Nov. 3, 1820 Still another, consisting of two vessels, Capts. Parry and Lyon, in the sLary' the Advansce and Rescute, liberally and IHecla - - - May 8. 1821 purchased for the purpose by Henry Capt. Parry's third expedition with the Grinnell, a New York merchant, and Hecla - - - May 8, 1824 manned at Government cost from the Capts. Franklin and Lyon, after having U. S. navy, under command of lieut. attempted a land expedition, again de Haven, sailed from New York sail from Liverpool - Feb. 16, 1825 May 1850 NORTH CAROLINA, ONE OF THE, UNITED STATES. First permanent settlement at Albemarle, by emigrants from Virginia, who fled from religious pIlrThe gallant sir IHugh Willoughby tools his departure from Radcliffe, on his fatal voyage for discovering the north-east passage to China. He sailed with great pomup by Greenwich, where.the court then resided. Mutual honors were paid on both sides. The council and courtiers appeared at. the windows, anct the people covered the shores. The young king, Edward VI., alone lost the noble and novel sight. for he then lay on his death-bed; so that the principal object of the parade was disappointed. Sir Hugh Willoughby was unfortunately entangled in the ice, and frozen to death, on the coast of Lapland.-Tiackhlyt. NUL ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 449 secution, about 1660. The district granted to lord Clarendon, who induced the celebrated John Locke to prepare a constitution for it 1663. The chief magistrate was called the palatine, and there was an hereditary nobility. This constitution abolished, as defective, 1693. The two Carolinas purchased by the crown for ~17,500, and divided into North and South, in 1720. NORWAY. Until the ninth century, Norway was divided into petty principalities, and was little known to the rest of Europe except by the piratical excursions of its natives. It was converted to Christianity in A. D. 1000. The city of Bergen was founded in 1069. The kingdom was united to Denmark in 1378; and the three kingdoms of Norway, Denmark and Sweden were united, in 1439. Pomerania and Rugen were annexed to Denmark in exchange for Norway, in 1814, and on Nov. 4, in that year, Charles XIII. was proclaimed king by the National Diet assembled at Christiapa. The two countries of Sweden and Norway have since then been termed the Scandinavian Peninsula, of which Bernadotte was crowned king by the title of Charles XIV., Feb. 5, 1818. See Sweden. NOTABLES OF FRANCE. An assembly of the notables of France was convened by Calonne, the minister of Louis XVI., in 1788. The deranged state of the king's finances induced him to convoke the notables, who assembled Nov. 6, when Calonne opened his plan, but any reform militated too much against private interest to be adopted. Calonne not being able to do any good, was dismissed, and soon after retired to England: and Louis. having lost his confidential minister, Mons. de Vergennes, by death, called Mons. de Brienne, an ecclesiastic, to his councils. In the end, the States General were called, and firom this assembly sprang the National Assembly, wi/ic/s see. The notables were dismissed by the king, Dec. 12, 1788. The Spanish notables assembled and met Napoleon (conformably with a decree issued by him commanding their attendance,) at Bayonne, May 25, 1808. See Sprain. ITOTARIES PUBLIC. They were first appointed by the primitive fathers of the Christian church, to collect the acts or memoirs of the lives of the martyrs, in the first century.-Dn Fresnoy. This office was afterwards changed to a commercial employment, to attest deeds and writings, so as to establish their authenticity in any other country. NOVA SCOTIA. Settled in A. D. 1622, by the Scotch, under sir William Alexander, in the reign of James I. of' England, from whom it received the name of Nova Scotia. Since its first settlement it has more than once changed rulers and proprietors, nor was it confirmed to England till the peace of Utrecht, in 1713. It was taken in 1745, and 1758; but was again confirmed to England in 1760. Nova Scotia was divided into two provinces, in 1784; and was erected into a bishopric in August, 1787. See Baroonets. NOVEMBER. This was ancienly the ninth month of the year (whence its name), but when Numa added the months of January and February, 713 B. c., the Romans had it for the eleventh, as it is now. The Roman senators (for whose mean servilities even Tiberius, it is said, often blushed) wished to call this month in which he was born, by his name, in imitation of Julius Cmesar, and Augustus; but this the emperor absolutely refused, saying, "What will you do, conscript fathers, if you have tk/irteen Cmesars 2"' NOVI, BATTLE OF, in which the French army commanded by Joubert was defeated by the Russians under Suwarrow, with immense loss, Aug. 15, 1799. Amonz 10,000 of the French slain was their leader, Joubert, and several other distinguished officers. A second battle fought here between the Austrian and French armies, when the latter were signally defeated, January 8, 1800. NULLIFICATION OF THE LAWS OF THE UNITED STATES. The right 450 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ OAT — claimed by South Carolina, and various threats held out by the legislature of that State, in 1832. Proclamation of president Jackson against the Nullifiers, 1)ec. 10. A "State Rights" convention at Columbia, S. C.. same day. Calhoun resigned the office of vice-president of the United States, Dec. 28, 1832. Nullification nullified by South Carolina convention in consequence of' Mr. Clay's compromise tariff, March 11, 1834. NUMANTINE WAR, AND SIEGE. The celebrated war of Numlantia with the Romans was commenced solely on account of the latter having given refuge to the Sigidians, their own allies, who had been defeated by the Romans, 141 B. c.-Livy. It continued for fourteen years; and though Numantia was unprotected by walls or towers, it bravely withstood the siege. The, inhabitants obtained some advantages over the Roman forces till Scipio Africanus was empowered to finish the war, and to see the destruction of' Numantia. He began the siege with an army of 60 000 men, and was bravely opposed by the besieged, who were not more than 4000 men able to bear arms. Both armies behaved with uncommon valor, and the courage of the Numantines was soon changed into despair and fury. Their provisions began to fail, and they fed upon the flesh of their horses, and afterwards on that of their dead companions, and at last were obliged to draw lots to kill and devour one another; and at length'they set fire to their houses, and all destroyed themselves, B. c. 133, so that not even one remained to adorn the triumph of the conqueror. NUNCIO. A spiritual envoy from the pope of Rome to Catholic states. In early times they and legates ruled the courts of several of the sovereigns of' Germany, France, and even England. The pope deputed a nuncio to the Irish rebels in 1645. The arrival in London of a nuncio, and his admission to an audience by James II., 1687, is stated to have hastened the Revolution. NUNNERY. The first founded is said to have been that to which the sister of St. Anthony retired at the close of the third century. The first founded in France, near Poitiers, by St. BMarcellina, sister to St. Martin, A. n. 360. —Db Fresnoy. The first in England was at Folkstone, in Kent, by Earclbald, king of Kent, 630.-DeLgdale's LJMonasticon A'liCZicaqzt. See articles Abbeys and Monasteries. The nuns were expelled from their convents in Germany; in July, 1785. They were driven out of their convents in France, in Jan., 1790. 0.. OATES TITUS, HIs PLOT. This Oates was a wicked man, at one time chaplain of a ship of war. Being dismissed the service for his immoral conduct, he became a lecturer in London; and, in conjunction with Dr. Tongue, invented a pretended plot to assassinate Charles II., of which several persons, Catholics, were accused, and upon false testimony, convicted and executed, A. D. 1678. Oates was afterwards tried for perjury, (in the reign of James II.) and being found guilty, he was fined, put in the pillory, publicly whipped from Newgate to Tyburn, and sentenced to imprisonment for life, 1685; but was pardoned, and a pension granted him, 1689. OATHS. The administration of an oath in judicial proceeclings was introduced by the Saxons into England, A. D. 600.-Rapiz,. That administered to a judge was settled 1344. Of supremacy, first administered to British subjects, and ratified by parliament, 26 Henry VIII., 1535. Of allegiance, first framed and administered 3 James'I., 1605.-Slowe's Chi'ona. Of abjiuration, being an obligation to maintain the government of king, lords, and commons, the Church of England, and toleration of Protestant dissenters, and OGY 1 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 451 abljuring all Roman Catholic pretenders to the crown, 13 William III. 1701. Oaths were taken on the Gospels so early as A. D. 528; and the words " So help me God and all saints," concluded an oath until 1550. OATHS, ANCIENT. The Greeks and Romans looked upon the infiingement of an oath with still greater abhorrence than Christians; they permitted oaths to be taken upon every object in which the person who swore had a decided and sincere belief, upon all kinds of animals, fruits, and vegetables, the stars, the sun, the moon, and other things, without rendering the oaths less binding than if they had been sworn by Jupiter. Jaques Lydius has left us a long catalogue of the numerous objects by which the ancients swore. It was usual with them to swear by what they held most dear; as, for instance, by their own heads, by that of their fiiend, or by those persons whom they loved most tenderly. The most sacred oath far above any other was by the eyes of their mistress, by her kisses, by her hair.Ovid, 4ic. OBELISK. The first mentioned in history was that of Rameses, king of Egypt, about 1485 B. c. The Arabians call them Pharaoh's needles, and the Egyptian priests the fingers of the sun; they differed very much as to their costliness, magnitude and magnificence. Several were erected at Rome; one was erected by the emperor Augustus in the Campus Martius, on the pavement of which was a horizontal dial, that marked the hour, about 14 B.c. OBSERVATORIES. The first is supposed to have been on the top of the temple of Belus at Babylon. On the tomb of Osymandias, in Egypt, was another, and it contained a golden circle 200 feet in diameter: that at Benares was at least as ancient as these. The first in authentic history was at Alexandria, about 300 a. c. The first in modern tinles was at Cassel, 1561. The Royal Observatory at Greenwich was founded by Charles II. A. D. 1675; and from the meridian of Greenwich all English astronomers make their calculations. First modern meridional instrument, Berlin, erected under Leibnitz's direcby Copernicus- - - D. 1540 tion - - - 1711 First observatory at Cassel -. - 1561 At Boloona - - 1714 Tycho 1Brahe's, at UJraniboturg - 1576 At Petersburg -- - 1725 Astronomlical tower at Copenlhagen 1657 Oxford, Dr. lcldclife - 1772 Itoyal (French) - - - 1667 Dublin, Dr. AndrcrerLs - 1783 Royal Observatory at Greenwich - - 1675 Cambridge, Egiland - 1824 Ob1servatory at Nuremberg - 1678 Camabridge, Mass. At Uecht - - 1690 New Haven - Cincinnati OCTOBER. The eighth month in the year of Romulus, as its name imports, and the tenth in the year of Numa, 713 B. c. From this time October has still retained its first name, in spite of hll the different appellations which the senate and Roman emperors would have given it. The senate ordered it to be called Ptcatsti?s1s, in honor of Pcerusti'na, wife of Antoninus the emperor; Cominmodus would have had it called I7eviCtss; and Donlitian Dosssiteianus. October was sacred to Mars. OI)ES are nearly as old as the lyre; they were at first extempore compositions accompanying this instrument, and sung in honor of the gods. Perhaps the most beautiful and sublime odes ever written, as well as the oldest, alre those of the royal prophet Isaiah, on the fall of Babylon, composed about 757 B. c. The celebrated odes of Anacreon were composed about 532 B. c.; and from his time this species of writing became usual. Anciently odcs were divided into Strophe, Antistrophe, and Epode. This species of writing is that of our court poets at this clay., OGYGES, DELUGE or. The Deluge so called, from which Attica lay waste -200 years, occurred 1764 B. c. Many authorities suppose this to be no other 452 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ omI than the universal deluge; but according to some writers, if it at all oecurred, it arose in the overflowing of one of the great rivers of the country. See Deluge. OHIO. One of the United States. First permnanently settled at Marietta, April 1788; second settlement was Symmes's purchase, 6 miles below Cincinnati, 1789; third by French emigrants at Gallipolis, 1791; fourth by New Englanders, at Cleveland and Comeant, 1796. First territorial legislature met at Cincinnati, 1799. The Western Reserve, under jurisdiction of Connecticut, was sold by that State for the benefit of her " School fund" in 1800. Ohio formed her State Constitution and was admitted into the Union, 1802. Population in 1790, was 3,000; in 1800, 45,365; in 1810, 230,760; in 1830, 937,637; in 1840, 1,519,467. OIL. It was used for burning in lamps as early as the epoch of Abraham, about 1921 B. c. It was the staple commodity of Attica, and a jar full was the prize at the Panathenmean games. It was the custom of the Jews to anoint with oil persons appointed to high offices, as the priests and kings, Psalm cxxxiii. 2; 1 Sam. x. 1; xvi. 13. The anointing with this liquid seems also to have been reckoned a necessary ingredient in a festival dress. RJtth iii. 3. The fact that oil, if passed through red-hot iron pipes, will be resolved into a combustible gas, was long known to chemists; and after the process of' lighting by coal-gas was made apparent, Messrs. Taylor and Martineau contrived apparatus for producing oil-gas on a large scale. OLBERS. The asteroid of this name was discovered by M. Olbers, in 1802. OLYMPIADS. The Greeks computed time by the celebrated era of the Olympiads, which date from the year 776 B. c., being the year in which Corcebus was successful at the Olympic games. This era differed from all others in being reckoned by periods of four years instead of single years. Each period of four years was called an Olympiad, and in marking a date, the year and Olympiad were both mentioned. The second Olympiad began in 772; the third, in 768; the fourth, in 764; the fifth, in 760; the 10th in 740, &c. OLYMPIC GAMES. These games, so famous among the Greeks, were instituted in honor of Jupiter. They were holden at the beginning of every -fifth year, on the banks of the Alpheus, near Olympia, in the Peloponnesus, now the Morea, to exercise their youth in five kinds of combats. Those who were conquerors in these games were highly honored by their countrymen. The prize contended for was a crown imade of a peculiar kind cf wild olive, appropriated to this use. The games were instituted by Pelops, 1307 B. c. They are also ascribed to an ancient Hercules; and were revived by Iphytus among the Greeks, 884 B. c.-Dnfresnoy. OMENS. See Aw'gury. Amphictyon was the first who is recorded as having drawn prognostications from omens, 1497 B. c. Alexander the Great is said to have had these superstitions; and also Mithridates the Great, celebrated for his wars with the Romans, his victories, his conquest of twentyfour nations, and his misfortunes. At the birth of this latter there were seen, for seventy days together, two large comets, whose splendor eclipsed that of the noonday sun, occupying so vast a space as the fourth part of the heavens; and this omen, we are told, directed all the actions of Mithridates throughout his life, so much had superstition combined with nature to render him great, 135 B. c. —JLstin. OMINIBUSES. These vehicles, of which there are nearly 4000 in the Londoul circuit, were introduced there by tn enterprisi6ig coach proprietor named Shillibeer, and first licensed at Somerset house in July, 1829. They probably originated in Paris, where they are now also very numerous. In Neow OPT ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 453 York, Boston, &c., they were common as early as 1830. There were 465 licensed in New York in 1849. OPERA. Octavio Rinuccini, of Florence, was the inventor of operas, or of -the custom of giving musical representations of comedy, tragedy, and other dramatic pieces. Emrelio de Cavalero, however, disputed this honor with him, A. D. 1590.-Nol v. Di. D Hii. is. Among the Venetians, opera was the chief glory of their carnival. About the year 1669, the abbot Perrin obtained a grant from Louis XIV. to set up an opera at Paris, where, in 1672, was acted Pomona. Sir William Davenant introdluced a species of opera in London, in 1684. The first regularly performed opera was at York-buildings, in 1692. The first at Drury-lane was in 1705. The operas of Handel were performed in 1735, and they became general in several of the theatres a few years after. Among the favorite performances of this kind was Gay's Beggar's Opera, first performed in'1727. It ran for sixty-three successive nights, but so often offended the persons in power, that the lord-chamberlain refused to license for performance a second part of it, entitled "Polly." This resentment induced Gay's friends to come forward on its publication with so handsome a subscription, that his profits amounted to 12001., whereas the Beggare's Opera had gained him only 4001.-Life of Gay. OPORTO. By nature one of the most impregnable cities in Europe; the great mart of Portuguese wine known as "Port." A chartered company for the regulation of the Port-wine trade was established here in A. D. 1756. See article Wines. The French under marshal Soult were surprised here by lord Wellington, and defeated in an action fought May 11, 1809. The Miguelites attacked Oporto, and were repulsed by the Pedroites, with considerable loss, Sept. 19, 1832. See Portugal. OPTICS. As a science, optics date their origin a little prior to the time of Alhazen, an Arabian philosopher, who flourished early in the twelfth centnry. It has advanced rapidly since the time of Halley, and is now one of our most flourishing as well as useful sciences. Burning lenses known at Athens at [Jansen and Galileo have also been least -.. a. c. 424 stated to be the inventors.] Two of the leading principles known Cassegrainian reflector - - 1621 to the Platonists - 300 Law of refraction discovered by SnelltFirst treatise on, by Euclid, about 280 ins, about - - - A. ). 1624 The magnifying power of convex glass- Reflecting telescope, James Gregory - 1663 es and concave mirrors, and the pris- Newton - - 1666 matic colors produced by annular Motion and velocity of light discovered glass, mentioned bySeneca, aboutA.D. 50 by Roemer, and after him by Cassini 1667 Treatise on Optics, by Ptolemy -. 120 [Its velocity demonstrated to be 190 Greatly imlproved by Alhazen - -1100 millions of miles in sixteen minutes.] Hints for spectacles and telescopes giv- Double refraction explained by Barthoen by Roger Bacon about - - 1280 inus 1669 Spectacles (said to have been) invented Newton's discoveries - - 674 by Salvinus Armatus, of Pisa, before 1300 Telescopes with a single lens, by Camera obscure said to have been in- Tschirnhausen, about - 1690 vented by Baptista Porta - - 1560 Polarization of light, Huygens, about. - 1692 Telescopes invented byLeonard Digges, Structure of the eye explained by Petit, about -1571 about.1700 Telescope made by Jansen (who is said Achromatic telescope constructed by also to have invented the micro- Mr. HIall (but not made public) in - 1733 scope), about - -1609 Constructed by Dollond, most likely [The same instrument constructed by without any knowledge of Hall's - 1717 Galileo, without using the produc- Herschel's great reflecting telescope, tion of Jansen] erected at Slouh - - - 1789 Astronomical telescope suggested by Camera lucida (Dr. Wollaston) - 1807 Kepler 1611 Ramase's reflecting telescope erected Microscope, according to Huygens, in- at Greenwich - - 1820 vented by Drebbel, about -.1621 6P1TIC NERVES. The discoverer of the optic nerves is reputed to have been N. Varole, a surgeon and physician of Bologna, about A. D. 1538. —NoTv. Dict. 454 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. l Ri> ORACLES. The most ancient oracle was that of Dodona; but the most famous was the oracle of Delphi, 1263 B. c. See Delphi. The heathen oracles were always delivered in such dubious expressions or terms, -that let what would happen to the inquirer, it might be accommodated or explained to mean the event that caune to pass. Anmong the Jews there were several sorts of oracles; as first, those that were delivered vivcv voce, as when God spoke to Moses; secondly, prophetical dreams, as those of Joseph; thirdly, visions, as when a prophet in an ecstasy, being properly neither asleep nor awake, had supernatural revelations; fourthly, when they were accompanied with the ephod or the pectoral worn by the high priest, who was indued with the gift of foretelling future things, upon extraordinary occasions', fifthly, by consulting the prophets or messengers sent by God. At the beginning of Christianity, prophecy appears to have been very common; but it immediately afterwards ceased.-Lemipriere; Pardon. ORANGE, HousE OF. This illustrious house is as ancient as any in Europe, and makes a most distinguished figure in history. Otho I., count of Nassau, received the provinces of Guelderland and Zutphen with his two wives, and they continued several hundred years in the family. Otho II. count of Nassau Dilemnbourg, who died in 1369, got a great accession of territories in the Low Countries by his wife Abelais, daughter and heiress of Godfrey count of Vianden; and his grandson Gilbert, having married Jane, daughter and heiress of Philip, baron of Leck and Breda, added these to his other domains in 1404. The title of prince of Orange came first into the Nassau family by the marriage of Claude de Chalons with the count of Nassau in 1530. William prince of Orange, afterwards William III. of England, landed at Torbay, with an army, Nov. 5, 1688, and was crowned with his queen, the princess Mary, daughter of James II., April 11, 1689. ORATORIOS. Their origin is ascribed to St. Philip Neri. The first oratorio in London was performed in Lincoln's-Inn theatre, in Portugal-street,'iri 1732. ORCHARDS. As objects of farming or field culture, orchards do not appear to have been adopted until about the beginning of the seventeenth century, although they had doubtlessly existed in Great Britain for many ages previously, as appendages to wealthy religious establishments.-Loudon. ORDEAL. The ordeal was known among the Greeks. With us it is a term signifying the judiciary determination of accusations for criminal offences by fire and water. It was introduced into England with other superstiticnJ taken from the codes of the Germans. That by fire was confined to the upper classes of the people, that of water, to bondsmen and rustics. Hence the expression of going through fire and water to serve another. Women accused of incontinency formerly underwent the ordeal, to prove their innocence. A prisoner who pleaded not guilty, might choose whether he would put himself for trial upon God and his country, by twelve men, as at this day, or upon God only; and then it was called the judgment of God, presuming he would deliver the innocent. The accused were to pass barefooted and blindfold over nine red-hot ploughshares, or were to carrtl burning-irons in their hands; and accordingly as they escaped, they were judlged innocent or guilty, acquitted or condemned.* The ordeal was used from Edward the Confessor's time to that of Henvy III. It was abol-' The water ordeal was performed in either hot or cold: in cold water, the parties suspected were adjudged innocent, if their bodies were borne up by the water, contrary to the course of nature; in hot water, they were to put their bare arms or legs into scalding water. which if they brought out without hurt, they were taken to be innocent of the crime. oR R] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 455 ished by a royal proclamation, 45 Henry III., 1261. —Lalw Dict. Rymenr's ORDINATION. In the ancient church there was no such thing as a vague and absolute ordination; but every one ordained had a church whereof' he was to be clerk or priest. In the twelfth century, they grew more remiss, and ordained without any title or benefice. The church of Rome is episcopal; and the Church of England so far acknowledges the validity of the ordlination of that church, that a Catholic priest is only required to abjure its peculiar distinctions, and he can officiate without re-ordination. OREGON. Territory of the United States, on the N. W. coast of America. First visited by the Spaniards under Juan de Fuca, 1592; by sir Francis Drake, 1578; by Vancouver, 1792. The Columbia river discovered and entered by Capt. Gray, of merchant ship Columbia, of Boston, United States, May 7, 1792; overland expedition of Lewis and Clarke, sent out by Jefferson, 1804-5-6. Missouri Fur Company established at St. Louis, 1808; Pacific Fur Company (J. J. Astor) at New York, 1810; Astoria founded it the mouth of the Columbia, by Astor's colony, 1811: sold to the N. W. Company, 1813: occupied by the British until restored by treaty of Ghent, 1815; operations of the Hudson's Bay Company (English) commenced 1821; the territory divided at the 49th parrallel of lat., leaving all north of that line, with the whole of Vancouver's island to Great Britain, remainder to the United States, by Mr. lMcLane's treaty, signed at London, ratified by the Senate, 41 to 14, June 18, 1846. Population at that time about 20,000. Territorial government established by the U. S. Congress, Aug. 2-13, 1848. ORGANS. The invention of the organ *is attributed to Archimedes, about 220 a. c.; but the fact does not rest on sufficient authority. It is also attributed to one Ctesibius, a barber of Alexandria, about 100 B. c. The organ was brought to Europe from the Greek empire, and was first applied to religious devotions, in churches, in A. D. 658.-Bellar'mine. Organs were used in the Western churches by pope Vitalianus, in 658.-Ammoxiquhs. It is affirmed that the organ was known in France in the time of Louis I., 815, when one was constructed by an Italian priest. St. Jetrome mentions an organ with twelve pairs of bellows, which might have been heard a mile off; and another at Jerusalem which might have been heard on the Mount of Olives. The organ at Haerlem is one of the largest in Europe; it has 60 stops, and 8000 pipes. At Seville is one with 100 stops, and 5300 pipes. The organ at Alnsterdam has a set of pipes that imitate a chorus of human'voices. ORGANS IN ENGLAND. That at York-minster is the largest; and the organ in the Music-hall, Birmingham, the next; both equal, perhaps, to that at Harlaem. ORKNEY AND SHETLAND ISLES. These islalnds were ceded by Denmark to Scotland in A. D. 839, and were confirmed to James III., for a sum of money, in 1468. The Orkneys were the ancient Orcades; and united with Shetland, they now form one of the Scotch counties. The bishopric of Orkney was founded by St. Servanus early in the fifth century, some affirm by St. Colm. It ended with the abolition of episcopacy in Scotland, about 1689. ORLEANS, SIEGE OF, by the English, under John Talbot, earl of Salisbury, Oct. 12, 1428. The city was bravely defended by Gaucour, the more so as its fall would have ruined the cause of Charles VI., king of France; and it was relieved and the siege raised, by the intrepidity and heroism of Joan of Are, afterwards surnamed the Maid of Orleans, April 29, 1429. Siege of Orleans, when the duke of' Guise was killed, 1563. 9RRERY. The employment of planetary machines to illustrate and explain ~56 THE WOCRLD)S PROGRESS. [ovl-.the motions of the heavenly bodies, appears to have been coeval with the construction of the clepsydrT and other horological automata. Ptolemy devised the circles and epicycles that distinguish his system about A. n. 13. The planetary clock of Fin6e, was begun A. nD. 1553. The planetarium of De Rheita was formed about 1650. The Orrery, so called, awas invented by Charles, earl of Orrery; but perhaps with more justice it is ascribed to Mr. Rowley of Lichfield, whom his lordship patronized, 1670. This Orrery has been greatly improved of late years. OSTEND. This town is famous for the long siege it sustained against the Spaniards, from July 1601 to September 1604, when it surrendered by an honorable capitulation. On the death of Charles II. of Spain the French seized Ostend; but, in 1706, after the battle of Ramilies, it was retaken by-thie allies. It was again taken by the French in 1745, but restored in 1748. In the war of 1756, the French garrisoned this town for the empress-queen Maria Theresa. In, 1792, the French once more took Ostend, which they evacuated in 1793, and repossessed in 1794. OSTRACISM. From the Greek word Osl'acov, an oyster; a mode of proscription at Athens, where a plurality of ten voices condemned to ten years' banishment those who were either too rich, or had too much authority, for fear they might set, up for tyrants over their native country, but without any confiscation of their goods or estate. This custom is said to have been first introduced by the tyrant Hippias; by others it is ascribed to Clysthenes, about 510 B. c. The people wrote the names of those whom they most suspected upon small shells; these they put into an urn or box, and presented it to the senate. Upon a scrutiny, he whose name was oftenest written was sentenced by the council to be banished, ab aris etfocis. But this law at last was abused, and they who deserved best of the commonwealth fell under the popular resentment, as Aristides noted for his justice, Miltiades for his victories, &c. It was abolished by ironically proscribino Hyperbolus, a mean person. OTAHEITE, OR TAHITI. Discovered in 1767, byWallis, who called it George th Third Island. Captain Cook came hither in 1768, to observe the transit oi Venus; sailed round the whole island in a boat, and staid three months: it was visited twice afterward by that celebrated.l navigator. See Cook. Omai, a native of this island, was brought over to England by captain Cook, and carried back by him, in his last voyage. In 1799, king Pomare ceded the district of Mataivai to some English missionaries. Queen Polmare conmpelled to place herself under the protection of France, Sept. 9, 18-13. She retracts, and Otaheite and the neighboring island are taken possession of Dy admiral Dupetit-Thouars in the name of the French king, Nov. 1843. Seizure of Mr. Pritchard, the English consul, March 5, 1844. OTTERBURN, BATTLE OF, fought in 1388, between the English under the earl of Northumberland and his two sons, and the Scots under sir William Douglas, who was slain by Henry Percy, surnamed Hotspur; but the Scots obtained the victory, and the two'Percies were made prisoners. On this battle the ballad of Chevy Chease is founded. — Walsinghtczm. OTTOMAN EMPIRE. The sovereignty of the Turks, founded by Othma.r 1. on the ruin of the empire of the eastern Greeks, A. D. 1293. See Tor1:ej. OVATION. An inferior triumph which the Romans allowed the generals of their army whose victories'were not considerable. He ewho was thus rewarded, entered the city with a nlyrtle crown upon his head. that tree being consecrated to Venus; wherefore when Marcus Crassus was decreed the honor of an ovation, he particularly desired it as a favor of the senate to be allowed a laurel crown instead of a myrtle one. This triumph was called ovation, because the general offered a sheep when he came to the capitfc1 CA.5l ] DICTIONARY O DATES. 457 whereas in thfe great triumph he offered a bull. Publius Posthumius Tubertus was the first who was decreed ail ovation, 503 r. c. OWHYHEE oit HAWAII, ONE OF rl'E SANDWICH ISLANDS. Discovered by captain Cook in 1778. Here this illustrious seaman fell a victim to a sudden resentment of the natives. A boat havine been stolen by one of the islanders, the captain went on shore to seize the king, and keep him as a hostage till the boat was restored. The people, ho-wever, were not disposed to submit to this insult; their resistance brought on hostilities, and captain Cook and some of his companions were killed, Feb. 14, 1779. OXFORD UNIVERSITY. This university is supposed by some to have, been a seminary for learning before the time of Alfied, and that it owed its revival and consequence to his liberal patronage. Others state that though the university is ascribed to Alfred, yet that no regular institution deserving the name existed even at the period of the Norman conquest. COLLEGES. bishop of Winchester; first called St. All Souls' College, founded by Henry Mary of Winchester - - 1375 Chichely, abp. of Canterbury A. D. 1437 Oriel College. King Edward II. Baliol. John Baliol, lint., and Deborah Adam de Brom; archdeacon of Stow 1334 his wife; he was father to Baliol icing Pembroke. Thos. Teesdale, and R. of the Scots -1263 Whitwick, clerk - 1620 Brazen-nose. William Smith, bishop Queen's College. Robert Eglesfield, of Lincoln, and Sir Richard Sutton - 1509 clerk, confessor to queen Philippa, Christ Church. Cardinal Wolsey, 1525; consort of Edward III. -. - 1340 and afterwards by Henry VIII. - - 1532 St. John's. Sir Thomas White - 1557 Corpus Christi. Richard Fox, bishop Trinity. Sir Thomas Pope - -1554 of Winchester - - - 1516 University. Said to have been founded Exeter. Walter Stapleton, earl of Ex- by king Alfred, 872; founded by Wileter - - 1314 liam of Durham - 1172 Ilertford College - - 1312 Wadham. Nicholas Wadham, and Jesus College. Dr. Hugh Price; queen Dorothy his wife.. -1612 Elizabeth - - - 1571 Worcester. Sir-Thomas Coke of BentLincoln College. Richard Fleming, ley in Worcestershire; it was orlg1427; finished by Rotheram, bishop inally called Gloucester College -1714 of Lincoln - - 1475 HALLS. Magdalen. Waynfilete, bishop of Win- St. Albans - - 1547 chester -1458 St. Edmund's - - 1269 Merton (College. Walter de Merton, St. Mary's - - - -1616 bishop of Rochester - - 1274 St. Mary Magdalen - - - 1602 New College. William of Wykeham, New Inn I-all - - - 1392 QXYGEN AIR oa GAS. One of the most important agents in the chemical phenomena of nature, and the processes of art, discovered by Dr. Priestley, Aug. 1774. P. PADLOCKS. This species of lock was invented by Bechar at Nuremberg in A. D. 1540. PAGANISM. Pagans, in the Scriptures called the heathen, idolaters and gentiles, are worshippers of idols, not agreeing in any set form or points of belief, except in that of one God supreme, in which point all travellers assure us they concur, and their having gods is a demonstrative proof of that belief. Constantine ordered the Pagan temples to be destroyed throughout the Roman empire, A. D. 331; and Paganism was finally overthrown in the reign of Theodosius the Younger, about 390. — Tillemoset. PAINTING. An art, according to Plato, of the highest antiquity in Egypt.'asymantdyas (See,gFypt) causes his exploits to be represented in painting; 210 B. c.- Usher?. Pausias of' Sicyon was the inventor of the encaustic, a method of burning the colors into wood or ivory, 335 B. c. The ancients considered Sicyon the nursery of painters. Antiphiles, an Egyptian, is said to have been the inventor of the grotesque, 332 B. c.-Pliny. The art was 20 458 THE WORILD'S PROGRESS. [ "aL introduced at Rome from Etruria. by Quintus Fabius, who on that account was styled Pictor, 291 B. c.-Liry.* The first excellent pictures. were brought from Corinth by Mulmmius, 146 B. c. After the death of Augustus, not a single painter of eminence appeared for several ages; Ludius, who was very celebrated, is supposed to have been the last, about A. D. 14. Painting on canvas seems to have been known at Rome in A. D. 66. Bede, the Saxon historian, who died in 735, knew something of the art. It rev ved about the close of the 13th century, and Giovanni Cimabue, of Florence, is awarded the honor of its restoration. It was at once encouraged and generously patronized in Italy. John Van Eyck, of Bruges, and his brother Hubert, are regarded as the founders of the Flemish school of paintinl ir oil, 1415. —Di F'esy(7Jy. Pauld Uccello was the first who studied perss)ective. The earliest mention of the art in England, is A. D. 1523,.about whicI time Henry VIII patronized Holbein, and invited Titian to his court. PAINTING IN THE UNITED STATES. The first practising artist of celebrity was John Watson (born in Scotland, 1685), who commenced painting portraits in New Jersey, 1715. Nathaniel Stmybert, of Edinburgh, began in Boston, 1728. Benjamin West was the first native American artist; born in Chester County, Pennsylvania, 1708: painted his first portrait in Lancaster, Pa., 1753. John Singleton Copley, born in Boston, 1738; first painted in 1760: he was the father of lord Lyndhnrst, lord chancellor of' Great Britain. Chas. W. Peale (born in Maryland, 1741), Gilbert Charles Stuart (Rhode Island, 1754), John Trumbull (Connecticut, 1756), William Dunlap (Neowi Jersey, 1766), E. G. Malbone (Rhode Island, 1777), were the next artists in succession in the United States. See Dunlcap's Arts of Desigw, &ec. PALATINE. A German dignity. William the Conqueror made his nephew Hugh D'Abrincis, count palatine of Chester, with the title of earl, 10T7. Edward III. created the' palatine of Lancaster, 1376. See Lanccaster, DuIc/i of, The bishoprics of Ely and Durham were also made county palatines. PALATINES AND SUABIANS. About 7000 of these poor Protestants, fron the banks of the Rhine, driven from their habitations by the French, arrive(l in England,'and were encamped on Blackheath and Camberwell common; a brief was granted to collect alms for them. 500 families went under the protection of the government to Ireland, and settled chiefly about Limericlk where parliament granted them 24 0001. for their support. 3000 were sen. to New York and Hudson's Bay, but not having been received kindly by the inhabitants, they ewent to Pennsylvania, and being there greatly encourliged by the Quakers, they invited over some thousands of German and Swis Prote ttants, who soon made this colony more flourishing than any other,' Anne, 1709. —A?der1son., PALLADIUM. The statue of Pallas, concerning which ancient authors dis: gree. Some say it fell from heaven, near the tent of Ilus. as he was bbild ing Ilium; but oh its preservation depended the safety of Troy; which th. oracle of' Apollo declared should never be taken so long as the palladiunl was found within its walls. This fatality being made known to the Greeks they contrived to steal it away (luring the Trojan war, 1184 B. c., thougl: some maintain, that it was only a statue of similar size and shape. and tha; the real palladium was conveyed from Troy to Italy by Eneas, 1183 a. c. *Parrhasius of Ephesus and Zeuxis were cotemporary painters. These artists once cont.ende' for pre-eminence in their profiession. and when they exhibited their respective pieces, the birc6 came to peck the grapes which Zeuxis had painted. Parrhasius then produced hlis piece, an, Zeuxis said.'IRemove the curtain, that we may see the painting."' The curtain itself was t.i. painting, and Zeuxis aclknowleed ci himself to be conquered, exclaiming,' Zeuxis has deceive, the birds; but Parrhasius has deceived Zeuxis!" Parrhasius dressed io a purple robe, and wor a crown of gold, calling himself king of painters, 415 a. c.-Plhtfarccr. PAP ] DICTIONARY OF DATEIS. 459 and preserved by the Romans with the greatest secrecy in the temple of Vesta, and esteemed the destiny of' Rome. PALMAI SUNDAY. When Christ made his triumphal entry into JurusalMm, multitudes of' the people who were come to the ibast of' the Passover, took branches of the palll-tree, and went forth to meet him, with ac;lamations and hosannas, A. D. 33. In memory of this circumstance it is usual, in popish countries, to carry palms on the Sunday before Easter; hence called Palmn Sunday. Conquerors were not only accustomed to carry palm-trees in their hands; but the Romans, moreover. ini their triumphs, sometimes wore togffa pacllLtca, in which the figures of the palm-trees were interwoven. PALMYRA, RuINs oF, in the deserts of Syria, discovered by some English travellers from Aleppo, A. D. 1678. The ruins of Palnyra, which are chiefly of' white marble, prove it to have been more extensive and splendid than even Rome itself. It is supposed to have been the Tadmor in the wilder-.ness built by Solomon. Zenobia, the queen of Palmyra, resisted the Roman power in the timne of Aurelian, who having made himself master of the place, caused all the inhabitants to be destroyed, and gave the pillage of the city to the soldiers. The stupenduous ruins of this city were visited, in 17 51, by Mr. Wood, who published an account of them in 1753. Mlr. Bruce, on ascending a neighboring mount, was struck with the most magnificent sight which, he believes, ever mortal saw: the immense plains below were so covered with the grandest buildings (palaces and temples), they seemed to touch one another. PALO-ALTO, BATTLE OF. See Battles. PANDECTS. A digest of the civil lan' made by order of Justinian, about A. D. 50-4. These pandects were accidentally discovered at Amalfi, A. D. 1137; they were removed from Pisa in 1416; and are now preserved in the library of Medici at Florence, as the PacdectCe Floreetbilce. PANORAMA. This ingenious and useful species of exhibition is the invention of Robert Barker. Panoramas are bird's-eye views painted in distemper round the wall of a circular building, with a striking resemblance to reality. In 1788, Mr. Barker exhibited at Edinburgh a view of that city, being the first picture of' the kind. He then commenced similar exhibitions in London, having adopted the name of' PcaLorebcac,' to attract notice, and was ultimately enabled to build commodious premises in Leicester-square for -that purpose. He died 1806. The panorama of the Mississippi, by Banvard, a self-taught Ainmerican artist, was a gigantic undertaking, without precedent in dimensions, coimpleted about 1846; silce which numerous similar works have been achieved. PANTHEON AT ROME. A temple built by Augustus Csesar, some say by Agrippa. his son-in-law, 25 a. c. It was in a round form, having niches in the wall, w'vere the particular image or representation of a particular god was set up; the gates were of brass, and bealms covered Iwith gilt brass, and the roof covered with silver plate. Pope Boniface III. dedicated it to the Virgin Maly, and all the saints, by the name of St. Mary de la Rotunda. PAINsTOMIMES. They vwere representations by gestures and attitudes among the ancients. They were introduced on the Roman stage by Pylades and Bathyllus. 202. c.; and were then considered as the most expressive part of stage performances.- Us/he. Pantomime dances were introduced about the samc time.-Idelm. Representation by gestulre and action only, is contemporaneous with our stage. PAPER. See PrFpsylps. Paper is said to have been invented in China. 170 B. C. It was first made of cotton, about A. D. 1000; and of rags in 1319. White coarse paper was made by sir John Spelilman, a German, at Dartford, 460 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ AII in England, 33 Eliz., 1590; and here the first paper-mills were erected.Stowe. Paper for writing and printing, manufactured in England, and an act passed to encourage it, 2 William III., 1690; before this time we paid for these articles to France and Holland 100.0001. annually. The French refugees taught our people, who had made coarse brown paper almost exclusively, until they camle among us. White paper was first made by us in 1690.-Andersoel. Paper-making by a machine was first suggested by Louis Robert, who sold his model to the celebrated M. Didot, the great printer. The latter brought it to England, andchere, conjointly with MI. Fourdrinier, he perfected the machinery. MN. Fourdrinier obtained a patent for nianufacturing paper of an indefinite length, in 1807; it had previously been made tediously by the hand. A sheet of' paper was made 13,800 feet long, and four feet wide, at Whitehall-mills, Derbyshire, in 1830. PAPER-HANGINGS. Stamped paper for this purpose was first made in Spain and Holland, about A. D. 1555. Made of Velvet and floss for hanging apartments, about 1620. The manufacture of this kind of paper rapidly imprrved in this country from early in the eighteenth century; and it has now been brought to such perfection that rich stained paper is made at twelve shJllings for one yard, and the common kinds a dozen yards for one shilling. PAPYRUS, the reed from which was made the celebrated paper of Egypt r.nd India, used for writings until the discovery of parchment about 190 B. ci Ptolemy prohibited the exportation of it from Egypt, lest Eumenes of Pergamus should make a library equal to that of Alexandria. A manuscript. of the Antiqtities of Josephns on papyrus of inestimable value was aimong the treasures seized by Bonaparte in Italy, and sent to the National Libiary at Paris; but it was restored in 1815. PARCHMENT. Invented for writing books by Eumenes (some say by Attalusof Pergamus, the founder of the celebrated library at Pergamus, formed on the model of the Alexandrian, about 190 a. c. Parchment-books from lhis time became those most used, and the most valuable as well as oldest in the world are written on the skins of goats. It should be mentioned that the Persians, and others, are said to have written all their records on skins long before Eumenes's time. PARDONS. General pardons were proclaimed at coronations; first by Edward III., in 1327. The king's power of pardoning is said to be derived a lege sucn diznitatis; and no other person has power to remit treason or felonies. stat. 27 Henry VIII., 1535. In democracies there is no power of pardoning; hence Blackstone mentions this prerogative to be one of the greatest ad,-antages of a monarchy above any other form of government. But the king cannot pardon a nuisance to prevent its being abated; or pardon where private justice is concerned.-Blacckstoqne. A pardon cannot follow an impeacl ment of the House of Commons.-Haydb?. In the United States, the.,pa. doning power is vested in the governors of the several states-a pracztic which upsets Blackstone's theory. PARIAN MARBLES. The chronology of the Parian Marbles was composerc 264 B. c. The Parian Marbles were discovered in the Isle of Paros, 4. n. 1610. They were brought to England, and were presented to the universitr of Oxford, by Thomas Howard, lord Arundel, whence they are called thi Arundelian Marbles, wlticl see. PARIS. At the time of the Roman invasion, Paris was only a miserable town ship. It began to be called the city of the Parisii, A. D. 380. Clovis aixe( upon it as the capital of his states in 507. This city was several times ra vagecl by the Normans; and in 1420 was taken by the English, who held i fifteen years. More than 50,000 persons died of famine and plague in 1438 when th.e hun gry wolves entered the city and committed, we are told, i're PAri ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 461 devastation. The events in connection with this great city wvill be found under their respective heads. St. Denis founded A.. 613 The Luxembourg, by Mary ofMedicis - 1594 Rebuilt - - -Hospital of Invalids - - -1595 Clhurch of Notre Dame built - - 170'l'he Hjtel Dieu Iounded - 1601 The Louvre built (see Lozvse) -1522 Tlhe Palsis-ltoyal built - - 1610 Iotel de Ville - - - 15:31 The Val-de-Grace - - 1645 The Boulevards commenced - 1536 Arch fSt. Denis erected - -1672 Fountain of the Innocents - - 1 51 The Palace ol' the Deputies - 1722 The Tluileries built (see Tuileries) - 1564 The MAilitary Schlol - - 1751 The Pont MNeuf begun - - 1578 The Pantheon; St. Genevieve - -1764 Fortifications of Paris, a continuous wall embracing both banks of the Seine, -,nd detached forts, with an evceintte of 154 leagues, were commenced in Dec. 1840, and completed March. 1846, at an expense exceeding ~5,000,000 sterling. See Francce. PARK, MUNGO, Ins TRAVELS. This enterprising traveller set sail on his first voyage to Africa, under the patronage of the African Society, to trace the source of the river Niger, May 22, 1795; and returned Dec. 22, 1797, after having encountered great dangers, without his journey through intertrouical regions having enabled him to achieve the glreat olbject of his ambition. He again sailed from Portsmouth on his second voyage, Jan. 30, 1804, appointetl to a new expedition by government; but never returned. The accounts of his murder on th.z Niger were a long time discredited; unhappily however, they were at length too well authenticated by later intelligence. It appears that Park and his party were attacked by the natives at Boussa, and all killed, with the exception of one slave. PARKIS. The Romans attached parks to their villas. Fulvius Lupinus, Pompey, and Hortensius, among others, had large parks. In England, the first great park of whllich particular mention is made, was that of Woodstock, fbrmed by Henry I., 1125. The parks of London are in a high degree essential to the health of its immense population, St. James's Park was drained by Henry VIII., 1537. It was imnproved, prlanted. and made a thoroughfare for public, use 1668. The Green Park forms a ipart of the ground inclosed by Henry VIIi. In Hyde Pa-rk, the sheet of water called the Serpentine River, although in the form of a parallelogram, was made between 1730 and 1733, by order of queen Caroline, consort of George II. This queen once inquired of the first Mr. Pitt (afterwards the earl of Chatham), how much it would cost to shut up the parks as private grounds. He replied, "Three crowns, your majesty." She took the hint, and the design was never afterwards entertained. PARLIAMENT, IMPERIAL, oF GREAT BRITAIN. It derives its origin from the Saxon general assemblies, called Witlenacenieots; but their constitution totally differed, as well as the title, which is more modern, and is taken fnom parile la meet, which in the Norman law-style signifies to speak one's msicd. This at once denotes the etssence of British parliaments. The name was applied to the general assemblies of the state under L.ouis VII. of France, about the middle of the twt lfth century, but it is said not to have appeared Mn our law till its mention itl the statute of Westminster I., 3 Eclward I., A. D. 1272; and yet Coke declaretl in his Institutes, and spoke to the same effect, when speaker (A. D. 1592): tliat this name was used even in the time of Edward the Confessor, 1041. The first summons by writ on record was directed to the bishop of Salisbury,. John, 1205. The first clear account we Lave of the representtatives of tioe people formting a house of commoiins, was in the 43rd Henry III., 1258, when it was settled, by the statutes at Oxford, that twelve persons should be chosen to represent tihe conmmons in the three parliamlents, whichl by the sixth statute, were to be held yearly. —Bertoe?'s -Avlnals. The general representation by knights, citizens, and burgesses, took 462 THE WORLD;S PROGRESS. [ cAS place 49 Henry III., 1265.-Dlqgdale's SzLmnaonses to Partiaze't, edrt. 1685. Tht power and juriscliction of parliament are so transcendlent and absolute, that it cannot be confined, either for causes or persons, wsithin any bouls. It hath sovereign and uncontrollable authority in making and repealing laws. It can regulate or new-monoel the succession to tle crown. as was done in the reigns of Henry VIII. and William III. It can alter and establish the religion of the country, as was done in the reigns of:Henry VIII., Edward VI.. Mary, and Elizabeth.-Sir Edlvard Coke. PARMA. Formed by the ancient Etrurians. It was made a duchy (with Placentia) A. D. 1545. It fell to Spain by Phillip V.'s marriage with Elizabeth Farnese, 1714. The duke of Parma was raised to the throne of Tuscany, with the title of king of' Etruria, in Feb. 1801. Parma was afterwards tunited to France (with Placentia and Guastalla), and on the fall of Napoleowas conferred on Maria Louisa, the ex-empress, by the treaty of Fontaine — bleau, April 5, 1814. Battle of Parmlla: the confederates Enlllancd, France, and Spain, against the emperor; indecisive, both armies claiming the vict')ry, June 29, 1734. Great battle of Parma, in which the French, under Mlacdonalcl, were defeated by Suwarrow, with the loss of 10.000 men, and four generals, July 12 1799. Maria Louisa died Dec. 17, 1847, and the duke of Lucca succeeds by previous comnpact. The new duke refulses petitions for reforms; Parma occupied by Austri an soldiers, Dec. 21, 1847. The pebp'le revolt; barricades, and slaughter, March 20. The duke'appoints a regency; flees; is brought back; the dcnchy proclailmed to be annexed to Piedmont, M.iarch 20. 1848. The duke promises to join the leagne against Austria and is then liberated, April 1; 18-8, but is deposed, April 9. PARRICIDE. There was no law against it in ancient Rome, such a crimle not being supposed possible. About 500 years after Nunma's reign, L. Ostir having killed his fatherl the Roomans first scourged the parricide; theL sewed him up in a leathern sack made air-tight. with a live dog. a cockl, a vitperx., a'i-d an ape, and thus cast him into the sea. The old Egyptians used to run shlarp reeds into every part of the bodies of parricides; and after having tlllus wounded them, threw them upon a heapl of thorns. and set fire to them. In1 France, before the execution of the ciimninal, the hand was cut ofE PARTHIA. The Parthians were originally a tribe of Scythians. who, beingo exiled as their name implies, from their own country, settled near Hyrcania. Arsases laid the foundation of' an empire which ultimately extended over all Asia, 250 B. C.; and at one time the Parthians disputed the empire of the world with the Romans, and could never be wholly subdued by that naion, who had seen no other people upon earth unconquered by their alrms. The last king was Artabanus V.. who being, killed A. D. 2'29. his territories werec annexed to the new kingdonm of Persia, under Artaxerxes. PARTITION TREATIES. The first treaty between England and Hollsanu for regulating the Spanish succession. was signed Oct. 11, 1698; and the second (between France, England, and Holland, declaring the arlchdulke Charles pressumptive heir of the Spanish monarchy, Joseph FerdinaLncd haLving died in 1699), March 13, 1700. Treaty for the partition of Poland: thle' first was a secret convention between Russia and Prussia, Feb, 17, 1772''thl-i second, between the same powers and Austria, Aug. 5. same year; thle,it?., was between Russia. Austria. and Prussia, Nov. 25. 1795. There were otheli similar treaties relating to Poland, but not under this name. PASQUIN-ADES. This naime. which is given to humorounslibels, oliginatc- iru this way:-At the stall of a cobbler named Pasquin, at Roml. a number O. idle persons used to assemble to listen to the pleasant sallies of Pasquin. and to relate little anecdotes in their turn, and indulge themselves in raillery a', the expense of the passers-by. After the cobbler's death in the sixteen"c -itv ] DICTIONARlY OF DATES. 463 century, the statue of' a gladiator was found near his stall, to which the people gave his name, and on which the wits of the time affixed their lampoons upon the state, and their satirical effusions on their neighbors, secretly at night. Small poems, and writings of a similar kind, from this obtained the name of Pasquinades, about A. D. 1533. PASSOVER. A solemn festival of the Jews, instituted 1491 B. C., in commemnloration of their coming' out of Eg'ypt; because the night before their departure, the destroying angel, who put to death the first-born of the Egyptians, passedl over the houses of thle Hebrews without entering them: they being marked with the blood of the lamb that was killed the evening before, and which for this ecason is called the Paschal Lamb. It was celebrcated in the new Temple, April 18, 515 a. c. —Us/er'. PATAY, BATTLE OF, in which the renowned and ill-fated Joan of' Are (the Maid of Orleans) signally defeated the English, June 10, 1429. Talbot was taken prisoner, and the valiant Fastolfe w as foceed to fly. In consequence of this victory, Charles of France enteredc Rheims in triurnph, and was crowned July 17, same year, Joan of Are assisting in the ceremony in full armor, and holding the sword of state. See Joac of A'c.'PATENTS. Licenses and authorities granted by the king. Patents granted for titles of nobility, were first nmnde A. D. 134, by Edward III. They were first granted for the exclusive privileg'e of printing books, in 1591, about which time the property and right of' inventors in arts aLnd manufactures were secured by letters patent. PATRIARCHS. Socrates gives this title to the chiefs of dioceses. The dignity among the Jews is referred to the time of Nerva, A. D. 97. In tile Christian church it was first conferred on the five grand sees of Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. The Latin church had no patriarchs till the 7th century. PAUL'S, ST., CATHEDRAL, LONDON. The noblest Protestant church in the world. The best authority that exists illustrative of the origin of this church is its great restorer, sirl Christopher Wren. Hiis opinion, that there had been a church on this spot, built by the Christians in the time of' the Romans, was confirmed when he searched for the foundations for his own design. I-Ie explodes the notion of there having been a temple of Diana. The first church is supposed to hbave been destroyed durilng the Dlioclesian persecution, and to have been rebuilt in the reign of Constantine. This was demolished by the pagan Saxons, and restored by Sebert in 603. It was destroyed by the great conflagration in 1086, after which Mauritius, then bishop of London, commenced the magnificent edifice which immediately preceded the present. cathedral. St. Paul's vwas totally destroyed by the memorable fire of 1666; and the first stone of the present edifice was laid June 21, 1675, and the whole was completed in 1710-11, under the illustrious architect sir Christopher Wren. Length of St. Paul's, within - 500 feet. Length of St. Peter's, Rome - 669 feet. Its greatest breadthl - 223 Its'reatest breadth within - 442 Ileight from the ground - 340 Height fiom the ground - 432 PAVEMENT. The Carthaginians are said to have been the first w'ho paved their towns with stones. The Romans in the time of Augustus had pavement in many of their streets; but the Appian Way was a paved road, (and was constructed 312 a. c. In England there were few paved streets before Henry Vl[.'s reign. London was first paved about the year 1533. Wood pavement commenced in 1839; but was generally disused in 1847. PAVIA, BATTIE OF, between the French and Imperialists, when the former were defeated, and their king, Francis I., after fighting with heroic valor, 464 THE WORLD 7S PROGRESS. PmL and killing seven men with his own hand, was at last obliged to surrender himself prisoner. Francis wrote to his mother, Louisa of Savoy, regent of the kingdom in his absence, the melancholy news of his captivity, conceived in these dignified and expressive terms:-Toult est perd'l, nmadcame. fo's t'ho~ne6w'; Feb. 24, 1525. Collision between the students and the Austrian soldiers, 10 killed and 40 wounded, Jan. 8, 1848. PAWNBROKERS. The origin of borrowing money by means of pledges deposited with lenders is referred, as a regular trade, to Perousa, in Italy, about A. D. 1458; and soon afterwards in England. The business of pawnbrokers was regulated 30 George II., 1756. Licenses were issued 24 George III., 1783. In London there are 334 pawnbrokers; and in England, exclusively of London, 1127. PEARLS. The formation of the pearl has embarrassed both ancient and modern naturalists to explain, and has given occasion to a number of vain and absurd hypotheses. M. Reaumur, in 1717, alleged that pearls are formed like other stones in animals. An ancient pearl was valued by Pliny at 80,0001. sterling. One which was brought, in 1574, to Philip II. of the size of a pigeon's egg, was valued at 14,400 ducats, equal to 13 9961. A pearl spoken of by Boetius, named the Licomrlcparble, weighed thirty carats; equal to five pennyweights, and was about the size of a muscadine pear. Thle pearl mentioned by Tavernier as being in possession of the emperor of Persia was purchased of an Arab in 1683, and is valued at a sum equal to 110,4001. PEERS. The first of the present order created in England was W~illiam Fitz Osborn, as earl of Hereford, by William the Conqueror, in 1066. The first peer who was created by patent was lord Beauchamp of Holt Casatle, by Richard II., in 1387. In Scotland, Gilchrist was created earl of Angus by Malcolm III., 1037. In Ireland, sir John de Courcy was created baron of Kinsale, &c., in 1181; the first peer after the obtaining of that kingdom by Henry II. The house of lords consisted of, viz:At the death of Charless II. - 176 peers. At the death of George IlI. 339 peers. At the death of William III. - 192 At the death of George 1V. 396 At the death of Anne - - 209 At the death of William I. - 456 At the death of George I. 216 In 10th Victoria, 1847 - 454 At the death of George II. - 229 PELAGIANS. A sect founded by Pelagius, a native of Britain. The sect maintained, 1. That Adam was by nature mortal, and whether he had sinned or not, would certainly have died. 2. That the consequences of' Adam's sin were confined to his own person. 3. That new-born infants are in the same condition with Adam before the faIl. 4. That the law qualified men for the kingdom of heaven, and was founded upon equal promises with the gospel. 5. That the general resurrection of the dead does not follow in virtue of our Saviour's resurrection, &c. This sect appeared A. D. 400 at Rome, and in Carthage about 412. PELEW ISLANDS. Discovered by the Spaniards in the seventeenth century. The wreck here of the East India Company's packet Antelope, captain Wilson, 1783. The king, Abba Thule, allowed captain Wilson to bring prince Lee Boo, his son, to England, where he arrived in 1784, and died soon after of the small-pox; and the East India Company erected a monument over his grave in the Rotherhithe churchyard. PELOPONNESIAN WAR. The celebrated war which continued for twentyseven years between the Athenians and the inhabitants of Peloponnesus, with their respective allies. It is tihe most famous and the most interesting of all the wars which happened between the inhabitants of Greece. It began 431 B. c., and ended 404 B. c. PPER ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 465 PENAL LAWS, AFFECTING ROMAN CATHOLICS. The laws enacted against Roman Catholics in Great Britain were very severe; and even up to the period of passing the Emancipation Bill many of them remained unrepealed. All the laws there against Roman Catholics were repealed by the Relief Bill, passed April 13, 1829. PENANCE. Called by the Jews Thejouvtha. Penance, they said, consisted in the love of God attended with good works. They made a confession upon the day of expiation, or some time before; and had stated degrees of penance in proportion to the crimes committed. Penance was introduced into the Romish church A. nD. 157. In our canon law, penance is chiefly adjudged to the sin of fornication. PENDULUMS FOR CLOCKS. Affirmed to have been adapted by Galileo the younger, about A. D. 1641. Christian Huygens contested the priority of this discovery: the latter brought clocks with pendulums to perfection, 1656.Dltfresawoy. PENITENTS. There are various orders of penitents, Magdalens, Magdalenettes, &c. The order of Penitents of St. Magdalen was founded at Marseilles, about A. D. 1272. The Penitents of the Name of Jesus was a congregation of religious in Spain who had led a licentious life, formed about 1550. The Penitents of Orvieto were formed into an order of nuns about 1662. PENNSYLVANIA, one of the United States. Granted by James II. to William Penn. of the Society of Friends, in 1681. (Previously settled by Sqwedes and Fins, and conquered by the Dutch in 1654.) A tract of 20,000 acres sold by Penn for ~400 to a colony which formed a settlement at Philadelphia. The colony governed by proprietors until the revolution of 1776, when the legislature purchased it, paying the proprietors ~130,000 in lieu of quitrents. Battles of Brandywine and Germantown, and other important actions in this State in the war of independence. See PhiladelpAia. Federal Constitution adopted in convention, Dec. 13, 1787, by 46 to 23. Continental Congress at Philadelphia. in 1774. United States Congress, 1790 to 1800, when it was removed to Washington. Population of State in 1732. 30,000; 1790, 434 373; in 1800, 602,545; in 1820, 1,049,13; in 1840, 1:724 033. PENNY-POST. First set up in London and its suburbs by a Mr. Murray, upholsterer A. D. 1681. Mr. Murray afterwards assigned his interest in the undertaking to Mr. Dockwra, a merchant, 1683; but on a trial at the King's Bench bar in the reign of Charles II., was adjudged to belong to the duke of York as a branch of the general post, and was thereupon annexed to the revenue of the crown.-Delauewae. 1690. This institution was considerably improved in and rourl London, July 1794, et seq., and was made a twopenny-post. A penny post was first set up in Dublin in 1774. See Postoffice. PENTECOST. It literally signifies the ordinal number called the fiftieth; and in the solemn festival of the Jews, so.called because it was celebrated fifty days after the feast of the Passover, Lev. xxiii. 15, It is called the feast of weeks, Exod. xxxiv. 22, because it was kept seven weeks after the Passover. PERFUMERY. Many of the wares coming under this name were known to the ancients, and the Scriptures abound with instances of the use of incenses and perfumes. No such trade as a perfumer was known in Scotland in 1763. -Creech. A stamp tax was laid.on various articles of perfumery in Enggland and the vendor was obliged to take out a license, in 1786. At the corner of Beaufort Buildings, in the Strand, resided Lilly the perfumer, mentioned in the Spectator.-LeigAh. 20* 466 THI WORLD S PROGRESS. [PEa PERIODICAL LITERATURE. See Reviews and Magaczines. PERIPATETIC PHILOSOPHY. The philosophy taught by Aristotle, about 342 B. c. Like Plato, who taught in a shady grove called Academia, Aristotle chose a spot of a similar character at Athens, adjacent to the same river, where there were trees and shades: this spot was denominated the Lyceum; and as he usually walked while he instructed his pulpils, his philosophy was called Peripatetic. PERJURY. In some countries this crime was punished with death. The early ERmans at first punished it by throwing the offender headlong from the Tarpeian precipice; but that penalty was afterwards altered, upon a supposition that the gods would vindicate their own honor by some remarkable judgment upon the offender. The Greeks set a mark of infamy upon them. After the empire became Christian, and if any one swore falsely upon the gospels, he was to have his tongue cut out. The canons of the primitive church enjoined eleven years' penance; and in some states the false-swearer became liable to the punishment he charged upon the innocent. In England, peijulry was punished with the pillory, 1563. PERONNE, TREATY OF. Louis XI. of France having placed himself in the power of the duke of B urgundy, was forced to sign a treaty at Peronne, confirming those of Ar'as and Conflains, with some other stipulations of a restlictive and humiliating character, A. D. 1468. PERSECUTIONS, GENERAL, OP THE CHRISTIANS. Histolians usually reckon ten. The first under Nero, who having set fire to Rome, threw the odium of the act upon the Christians. Multitudes of them were, in consequence, massacred. Some were wrapped up in the skins of wild beasts, and torn and devoured by dogs; others were crucified, and numbers burned alive, A. D. 64. The 2nd, under Domitian, A. D. 95. The 3rd, in the reign of Trajan, A. D. 100. The 4th, under Adrian, 118. The 5th, under the emperor Severus, 197. The 6th, under Maximinus, 235. The 7th, under Deci.s, more bloody than any preceding. They were in all places driven from their habitations, plundered and put to death by torments, the rack, and fire. The 8th. under Valerian, 2-57. The 9th, under Aurelian, 272. The 10th, under Dioclesian. In this persecution, which lasted ten years, houses filled with Christians were set on fire, and droves of them were bound together with ropes and cast into the sea. See lVMassacres. PERSECUTIONS oF THE JEWS. See articles Jews and lIacssacres. PERSECUTION or THE PROTESTANTS. In Franconia, where a multitude of Luther's followers were massacred by William de Furstemberg, 1525.D) Fresno?/. In England when Cranmler, archbishop of Canterbury, and Latimer and Ridley, prelates, and 300 Protestants. were burned alive. and great numbers perished in prison, 3 Mary, 1556.- W~arnaer's Eccles. Ilist. Of the Protestants in France, when numbers perished; their assemblies were prohibited, their places of worship pulled down, and sentence to the galleys proclaimed against all who harbored them, 1723. Executions of the Protestants at Thorn, when great numbers were put to death under pretence of' their having been concerned in a tumult occasioned by a procession, 1721. See Mcassacr es and Bartholomcw. PERSIAN EMPIRE. The country which gave name to this celebrated empire was originally called Elam, and received the appellation of Persia from Eerseus, the son of Perseus and Andromeda, who settled here, and perhaps established a petty sovereignty. But long before his time, it was subject to independent princes. Persia was at length included in the first Assyrian monarchy; and when that empire was dismembered by Arbaces, &c., it appertained to the kingdom of Media. Persia was partly conquered from the Greeks, and was tributary to the Parthians for nearly 500 years, whea .-ET I DICTIONARY OF DATES. 467 Artaxerxes, a common soldier, became the founder of the second Persian monarchy, A. D. 229. Zoroaster, king of Bactria, founder of Tile sea-fi'ht near CnidUs - - 394 the Magi. —Justin B. C. 2115 The Sidonians being besieged by the Zoroaster II., Persian philosopher, ge- Persials, set fire to their city, and pe.rish nerally confooundled with the ling of in the flames - 351 Bactrla.-Zatllnts - - -10S2 Alexander the Great enters Asia; first battle in Phrygia, near the river GraCyrus, Iing of Persia - 60 nicus -. - 334 Lydia conquered by the Persians 548 [For the exploits of Alexander in PerCyrus becomes master of all Asia - 536 sia, see the article olslcedon.] Canmbyses conquers Egypt (ethich see) 525 Murder of Darius by Bessus, who is Darius made king of Persia 522 torn in pieces - - 331 Revolt of the Babylonians - 512 Alexander bounds the third or Grecian Conquest of lonia; Miletus destroyed - 498 monarchy - - 331 Darius equips a fleet of 600 -sail, with Alexander, in a moment of intoxication, an army of 300,000 soldiers, to invade at the instance of his mistlress Thais, the Peloponnesus - - - 490 sets fire to the palace of Persepolis - 330 The troops advance towards Athens, but [The riches of this town, whose ruins, are met in the plains of iMtaratlion, by even as they exist at this day, are of Miltiades, at the head of 10,000 Athe- isndescribable magnificence, were so nians.-See Marlathon, - 490 immense that 20,00 i mules and 5000 Xerxes enters Greece in the spring of horses were laden with the spoils.] this year, at the head of an immense Persia was partly reconquered fiiom the force. The battle of Thermopyle - 480 Greeks, and remained tributary to Xerxes enters Athens, after having lost Parthia for near five hundred years, 200,000 of his troops, and is defeated till about - - - A.. 250 in a naval engagemlent off Salamis - 480 Artaxerxes I. of this new empire, a Cymon, son of Miltiades, with a fleet of common soldier, restores to Persia its 250 vessels, talkes several cities froln ancient title - - 229 the Persians, and destroys their navy, Reign of Sapor, conqueror anid tyrant - 238 consisting of 340 sail, near the island I-e is assassinated - - - 273 of Cyprus - - - 470 I-Iorlisdas reigns - - - 273 Xerxes is murdered in his bed by Mill- Reign of Sapor II. (of 70 years), a cruel ridates, the eunuch - B.C. 465 and successful tyrant - - - 310 The assassin is put to death in a horrible Persia was conquered by the Saracens 651 mannel - - 465 It fell under the dominion of TamlerReign of Artaxerxes - - 464 lane, by the defeat of Bajazet - 1402 Cyprus taken from the Persians - 449 Reiwn of Thamas Kouli Khan - - 1732 Memorable retreat of the Greeks. See lie carried the Persian arms into India, article R1etecat - - 401 which he ravaged. See India - 1738 In 1747, Ahmed Abdalla founded the kingdom of Candahar. Ill 1779, conpetitors for the throne of Persia sprung up and icaused a period of slaughter and desolation till 1794, when Mahomed Khan became sole monarch. PERU. First visited in A. D. 1513, and soon afterwards conquered by the Spaniards, whose avarice led to the most frightful crimes. The easy conquest of this country has not its parallel in history. Pizarro, in 1530, and others, with one vessel, 112 men, and four horses, set out to invade South America, which, however, not succeeding, he again in 1531, embarked with three small vessels, 140 infantry, and thirty-six horses; with these, and two reinforcements of thirty men each, hle conquered the empire of Peru, and laid the foundation of that vast power which the Spaniards enjoy in the New World. Pizarro's expedition, 1524. Peru remained in subjection to the Spaniards (who murdered the Incas and all their descendants) without any attempt being made to throw off the oppressive yoke till 1782; but the independence of the country was completely achieved in 1826. The new Peruvian constitution was signed by the president of the Republic, March 21, 1828. PETER-PENCE. Presented by Ina, king of the West Saxons, to the pope at Rome, for the endowment of an English college there, A. D. 725. So called, because agreed to be paid on the feast of St. Peter. The tax was levied on all families possessed of thirty pence yearly rent in land, out of which they paid one penny. It was confirmed by Offa, 777, and was afterwards claimed 468 TrHE WORLD7S PROGcI':SS. L PHAi by the popes, as a tribute from England, and regularly collected, till suppressed by Henry VIII. —Cnmdei,. PETER, THE WILD BOY. A savage creature found in the forest of Hertswold, electorate of Hanover, when George I. and his friends were hunting. He was found walking on his hands and feet, climbing trees like a squirrel, and feeding on grass and moss, November 1725. At this time he was supposed to be thirteen years old. The king caused him to taste of all the dishes at the royal table; but he preferred wild plants, leaves, and the bark of trees, which he had lived on from his infancy. No human efforts of the many philosophic persons about the court could entirely vary his savage habits, or cause him to utter one distinct syllable. He died in Feb. 1785. at the age of 72. Lord Monboddo presented him as an instance of the hypothesis that " man in a state of nature is a mere animal." PETER'S CHURCH, ST., AT ROME. Originally erected by Constantine. About the middle of the 15th century, Nicholas VI. commenced the present magnificent pile, which was not completed under numerous succeeding popes, until A. D. 1629. The front is 400 feet broad, rising to a height of 180 feet, and the majestic dome ascends from the centre of the church to a height of 324 feet: the length of the interior is 600 feet, forming the most spacious hall ever constructed by human hands. See Paul's, St. PETERSBURGH. The inew capital of Russia. Peter the Great first began this city, in 1703. He built a small hut for himself, and some wretched wooden hovels. In 1710, the count Golovkin built the first house of brick; and the next year, the emperor, with his own hand. laid the foundation of a( house of the same materials. From these small beginnings rose the imperial city of Petersburgh; and in less than nine years after the wooden hovels were erected, the seat of empire was transferred from Moscow to this place. Here, in 1736, a fire consumed 2000 houses; and in 1780, another fire consumed 11,000 houses; this last fire was occasioned by lightning. Again, in June 1796, a large magazine of naval stores and 100 vessels were destroyed. The winter palace was burnt to the ground, Dec. 29, 1837. See Rulssica. PETERSBURGH, PEACE oP, between Russia and Prussia, the former restoriig all her conquests to the latter, signed May 5, 1762. TaREATY OF PETERSBURGcI, for the partition of Poland, (see article Pci'titiom? Treaties,) Ang. 5, 1772. TREATY OF PETERSBURGH, for a coalition against France, Sept. 8, 1805. Treaty of alliance, signed at St. Petersburgh, between Bernadotte, prince royal of Sweden, and the emperor Alexander; the former agreeing to join in the campaign against France, in return for which Sweden was to receive Norway, MiTarch 24, 1812. PETRARCH AND LAURA. T'wo of the most eminent persons of the fourteenth century, celebrated for the exquisite and refined passion of the former for the latter, and the great genius and virtue of both. The chief subject of Petrarch's enchanting sonnets was the beautiful Laura. He was crowned with laurel, as a poet and writer', on Easter-cday, April 8, 1341; and died at Arqua, near Padua, July 18, 1374. Laura died April 6, 1348. PHALANX. A troop of men closely embodied -M3filton. The Greek phalanx consisted of 8000 men in a square battalion, with shields joined, and spears crossing each other. The battalion formed by Philip of Macedon was called the Macedonian phalanx, and was instituted by him 360 B. c. PHARISEES. They were a famous sect among the Jews; so called from a Hebrew word which signifies to separate or set apart, because they pretended to a greater degree of holiness and piety than the rest of the Jews. The admirable parable of the Pharisee and Publicanl is levelled against spiritual pride, and to recommend the virtue of humility.-Litz/e xviii. 9. 'PHI ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 469 PHAROS AT ALEXANDRIA, called the Pharos of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and esteemed as one of the wonders of the world. It was a tower built of white marble, and could be seen at the distance of 100 miles. On the top, fires were constantly kept, to direct sailors in the bay. The building of this -ower cost 800 talents, which are equivalent to above 165,1001. English, if Attic; or if Alexandrian, double that sum. There was this inscription upon it-" King Ptolemy to the gods, the saviours, for the benefit of sailors;" but Sostratus the architect, wishing to claim all the glory, engraved his own name upon the stones, and afterwards filled the hollow with mortar. and wrote the above inscription. When the mortar had decayed by time, Ptolemy's name disappeared, and the following inscription then became visible " Sostratus the Cnidian, son of Dexiphanes, to the gods, the saviours, for the benefit of sailors." About 280 B. c. PHARSALIA, BATTLE OF, between Julius Cmsar and Pompey, in which the former obtained a great and memorable victory, glorious to Cwesar in all its consequences. Casar lost about 200 men, or, according to others, 1200. Pompey's loss was 15,000, or 25.000 according to others, and 24.000 of his army were made prisoners of war by the conqueror, May 12, 48 B. c. After this defeat, Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was treacherously slain, by order of Ptolemy the younger, then a minor, and his body thrown nakied on the strand, exposed to the view of all those whose curiosity led them that way, till it was burnt by his faithful freedman Philip. PHILADELPHIA, CITY OF. First surveyed and regulated by the English colony under Penn's grant, in 1682. ['rhe Swedes had settled on Delaware bay in 1627.] Named after a city in Asia-Minor and first laid out with a view -to rival ancient Babylon in extent; but the plan w'as restricted to its present limits by the charter of J701. First or " Continental" Congress at Philadelphia, Sept. 5. 1774. The Declaration of Independence adopted, July 4, 1776, in the State House, still standing in Chesnut-street. The city taken by the British, Sept. 26, 1777; evacuated by them, June 18, 177 8. Convention met here, May 17, 1787, and on 17th of Sept. following, agreed on a constitution for the United States. Yellow feiver raged, 1793 and 1798. Congress removed to Philadelphia. 1800. United States Bank established here, 1816. United States Mint, in 1792. Girard College opened, 1846. Population in 1732, 12 000; in 17O0, 42,000; in 1810, 96,664; in 1830, 167.811; in 1840, 220,423. PHILIPPI, BATTLE OF, between Octavius Cmsar and Marc Antony on one side, and the republican forces under Brutus and Cassius, in which the former obtained the victory. Two battles were fbught: in the first, Brutus, who commanded the right wing, defeated the enemy; but Cassius, who had care of the left, was overpowered, and he ordered his freedman to run him through the body. In the second battle, the wing which Brutus commanded obtained a victory; but the other was defeated, and he found himself surrounded by the soldiers of' Antony. He however made his escape, and soon after fell on his sword. Both battles were fought in October, 42 B. c. -Bossueet. PITILIPPICS. This species of satire derives its name from the orations of Demosthenes against Philip II. of Macedon, and from Cicero's Orations (the second of which was called divine by Juvenal) against Marc Antony, which latter cost Cicero his life, 43 B. C. PHILIPPINE ISLES. Discovered by the Spaniards A. D. 1519. In this archipelago the illustrious circumnavigator Magellan, like the still more illustrious Cook in the Sandwich Islands, lost his life in a skirmish, in 1521. PHILOSOPHY. The knowledge of the reason of things, in opposition to history, which is only the Knowledge of facts; or to mathematics, which is the 470 T'-iE'\ W0ILD'S PROGRESS. [ PH': knowledge of the quantity of things; —the hypothesis or system upon which natural effects ale explained.-Loc/ie. Pythagoras first adopted the name of philosopher (such men having previously been called sages), about 528 B. c See Moral l/Philosophy. Philosophers were expelled firom Rome, and their schools suppressed, by Domitian, A.D. 83. —Univ. Hist. Philosophy has undergone four great changes:-1. A total subserviency to priestcraft and superstition, by the Chaldeans and Egyptians. 2. A commixture of reason and poetry, by the Greeks. 3. A mechanical system, introduced by Copernicus and Galileo; and, 4. A system of poetical, verbal, and imaginary callsation, taught dy Newton, Lavoisier, &c. The world, at present, are divided between the two last. PHILOSOPHER'S STONE. By this name is usually meant a powder, whicr some wise heads among the chemists imagined hald the virtue of turning all imperfect metals into silver and gold-all metals but these being so considered. Kircher observes, with truth, that the quadrature of the circle, perpetual motion, the inextinguishable lamp, and the philosopher's stone, have cracked the brains of philosophers and mathematicians for a loig time, without any useful result. For a remarkable case of folly and imposition in relation to this subject, see Alchemy. PHOSPHORUS. It was discovered in the year 1667, by Brant, who procured it from urine; and Scheele soon after found a method of preparing it fromn bones. The discovery was prosecuted by John Kunckell, a Saxon chemist, 1670, and by the hon. IMr. Boyle; about the same time.-Nonv. Dict. Ph'osphoric acid is first mentioned in 1743, but is said to have been known earlier; the distinction was first pointed out by Lavoisier, in 1777. Canton's phosphorus is so called from its discoverer, 1768. Protophosphurated hydrogen was discovered by sir Humphrey Davy in 1812. PHRENOLOGY-. The science of the mind, and of aninal propensities, a modern doctrine, started by Dr. Gall, in 1803. See Crai'1ology. Dr. Spurzheim improved the science in 1815, and it has now many professors; and a Phrenological Society has been established in London. PHYSIC. Reason and chance led early to the knowledge and virtues of' certain herbs. The sea-horse drawing blood from his body by means of a reed to relieve himself from plethora, taught men the art of artificial blood-letting.-Pli2ey. In fabulous history it is mentioned that Polydius having seen a serpent approach the wounded body of another with an herb, with which he covered it, restored the inanimate body of Glaucns in the same manner. -Iiygines. Egypt appears to have been the cradle of the healing art; " anthe priests," says Cabanus, "soon seized upon the province of medicine, and combined it with their other instruments of power." From the hands of the priests, medicine fell into those of the philosophers, who freed it from its superstitious character. Pythagoras endeavored to explain the formation of diseases, the order of their symptoms, and the action of medicine, about 529 B. c. Hippocrates, justly regarded as the father of medicine and the founder of the science, flourished about 422 B. c. Galen, born A. D. 1.1, was the oracle of medical science for nearly 1500 years. The discovery of the circulation of the blood, by Dr. Harvey, furnished an entirely neaw system of physiological and pathological speculation, 1628. PHYSICS. Well described as a science of unbounded extent, and as reaching from an atom to God himself. It is made to embrace the entire doctrine of the bodies and existences of the universe; their phenomena, causes, and effects. Mr. Locke would include God, angels, and spirits, under this term. The origin of physics is referred to the Brachlrans, magi, and Hebrew and Egyptian priests. From these it was derived to the Greek sages, particularly Thales, who first professed the study of nature in Greece, about 595. :'.IG 3 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 471 B. C. Hence, it descended to the Pythagoric, Platonic, and Peripatetic schools; and from these to Italy and the rest of Europe. PHYSIOLOGY. In connection with natural philosophy, and that part of physics which teaches the constitution of the body, so far as it is in its healthy or natural state, and to that purpose endeavors to account for the reason of the several functions and operations of the several members. Sometimes it is limited to that part of medicine which particularly considers the structure and constitution of human bodies, with regard to the cure of diseases. Its date is referred to the same time with physics, zw/tich see. PHYSIOGNOMY. This is a science by which the dispositions of mankind are discovered, chiefly from the features of the face. The origin of the term is referred to Aristotle; Cicero was attached to the science. It became a fashionable study from the beginning of the sixteenth century; and in the last century, the essays of Le Cat and Pernethy led to the modern system. Lavateli's researches in this pursuit arose fiom his having been struck with the singular countenance of a soldier who passed under a window at which he and Zimmerman were standing; published 1776. PIANO-FORTE, Invented by J. C. Schroder, of Dresden, in 1717; he presented a model of his invention to the court of Saxony; and some time after, G. Silverman, a musical-instrunment maker, began to manufacture pialo-fortes with consideralble success. The invention has also been ascribed to an instrument-maker of Florence. The square piano-forte was first made by Freiderica, an organ-builder of Saxony, about 1758. Piano-fortes were made in London by Mi1. Znmpie, a German, 1766; and have been since greatly improvel by others here. PICHEGRU'S, MOREAU'S, AND GEORGES' CONSPIRACY. The memorable conspiracy against Napoleon Bonaparte detected, and Georges and Moreau arrested at Paris, February 23, 1804. Pichegru, when captured, was confined in the Temple, where he was found strangled on the morning of the 6th April following. For the particulars relating to this conspiracy, see article Georges, &c. PICQUET, THE GAME oi', the first known game upon. the cards, invented by Joquemin, and afterwards other games, for the amusement of Charles VI. of France, who was at the time in feeble health, 1390.-M-3Jzeci. See article Cards., 2ICTS. A Scythian or German colony, who landed in Scotland much about the time that the Scots began to seize upon the Ebude, or Western Isles. They afterwards lived as two distinct nations, the Scots in the highlands and the isles, and the Picts in that now called the lowlands. About A. D. 838 to 843, the Scots under Kenneth II. totally subdued the Picts. and seized all their kingdom, and extended the limits as fiar as Newcastle-upon-Tyne. PICTURES. Bularchus was the first who introduced, at least among the Greeks, the use of many colors in one picture. One of his pictures was purchase l by the king of Lydia for its weight in gold; he flourished 740 B. C. See Pci;seting.?IGEON, TiEi CARRIER. The courier pigeons are of very ancient use. The ancients being destitute of the convenience of posts, were accustomed when they took a long journey, and were desirous of sending back any news with uncommon expedition, to take some pigeons with them. When they thought proper to urite to their friends, they let one of these birds loose, with letters fastened to its neck: the bird, once released, would never cease its flight till it arrived at its nest and young ones. Taurosthenes announced to his father his victory at the Olympic games by sending -to him at 2Egina a 472 THE WORLD S P'iOGRESS. [ P' pigeon stained with purple.-Ovid. Hirtius and Brutus corresponded by means of pigeons at the siege of Modena. In modern times, the most noted were the pigeons of' Aleppo, which servedl as couriers at Alexandretta and Bagdad. Thirty-two pigeons sent from Antwerp were liberated from London at 7 o'clock in the morning; and on the same day at noon, one of them arrived at Antwerp; a quarter of an hour afterwards a second arrived; the remainder on the following day, Nov. 23, 1819. —Ptillips. PILGRIMAGES. They began to be made about the middle ages of the church, but they were most in vogue after the close of the 11th century. Many ticenses were granted to captains of English ships to carry pilgrims abroad, 7 Henry VI., 1428. PILLORY. A scaffold for persons to stand on, in order to render them infamous, and make them a public spectacle, for every one to see and know, that they miglht avoid and refuse to have any commerce or dealings with them for the future. This punishment was awarded against persons convicted of forgery, perjury, libelling, &c. In some cases the head was put through a hole, the hands through two others, the nose slit, the face hbran ded with one or more letters, and one or both ears cut off. It was in use in England in the reign of Henry III., 1256. Many persons died in the pillory, by being struck with stones by the mob, and pelted with rotten eggs and putrid otfal. It was abolished as a punishment in all cases except perjury, in 1815-16. The pillory was totally abolished by act 1 Victoria, June 1837. PINS. As an article of foreign commerce, pins are first mentioned in the statutes A. D. 1483. Those made of brass wire were brought fiom France in 1540, and were first used in England, it is said, by Catherine Howard, queen of Henry VIII. Before the invention of pins, both sexes used ribands, loop-holes, laces with points and tags, clasps, hooks and eyes, and skewers of brass, silver, and gold. They were made in England in 1543.Stowe. PISA, LEANING TOWER OF. This celebrated tower, likewise called Ccalmpaile, on account of its having been erected for the purpose of containing bells, stands in a square close to the, cathedral of Pisa. It is built entirely of white marble, and is a beautiful cylinder of eight stories, each adorned with a round of columns, rising one above another. It inclines so far on one side from the perpendicular, that in dropping a plummet friom the top, which is 188 feet in height, it falls sixteen feet from the base. Much pains havT been taken by connoisseurs to prove that this was done purposely by the architect; but it is evident that the inclination has proceeded from another cause, namely, fromn an accidental subsidence of the foundation on that side. PISTOLS. These are the smallest sort of fire-arms, carried sometimes on the saddle-bow, sometimes in a girdle round the waist, sometimes in the pocket, &c.-Pcardon. The pistol was first used by the cavalry of England, in 1544. PITCAIRN'S ISLAND. A small solitary island in the Pacific Ocean, seen by Cook in 1773, and noted for being colonized by ten mutineers from the ship Bounty, captain Bligh, in 1789, from which time, till 1814, they (or rather their descendants) remained here unknown. See Mluitiny of tthe Bosunt y. PITT'S ADMINISTRATION. The first administration of this illustrious statesman was formed on the dismissal of the Coalition ministry (4wGhich see), Dec. 27, 1783. His second administration was formed May 12, 1804. The right honorable William Pitt was son of the great earl of Chatham. He died PLA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 473 Jan. 23, 1806. Mr. Pitt was a minister of commanding powers, and still loftier pretensions: and he departed life in possession of the esteem of a large portion of his countrymen. A public filneral was decreed to his honor by parliament, and a grant of ~40,000 to pay his debts. PIUS. This name was first given to the emperor Antoninus Titus, thence called Antoninus Pius, on account of his piety and virtue. A. a. 138. This name was also given to a son of Metellus, because he interested himself so warimly to have his father recalled fiom banishment. The name of Pius has also been taken by nine of the popes of Rome, the first of whom assumed it in A. D. 142.'IAGUE. "The offspring of inclement skies, and of legions of putrifying locusts." —Thomson. The first recorded general plague in all parts of the world occurred 767 B. c. Petcavinss, At Carthage the plague was so terrible that the people sacrificed their children to appease the gods, 534 B. c. —3a-?'oniuts. At Rome prevailed a desolating plague, carrying off a hundred thousand persons in and round the city, 461 B. c. At Athens, whence it spread into Egypt and Ethiopia, and caused an awful devastation, 430 B. c. Another which raged in the Greek islands, Egypt, and Syria, and destroyed 2000 persons every cday, 188 a. c. Pliny. At Rome, a most awful plague; 10,000 per- An awful pestilence at Oxford, 1471; and sons perish daily, A. D. 78. throughout England a plague which deThe same fatal disease again ravaged the stroyed snore people than the continual Roman emtpire, A. D. 167. wars for the fifteen preceding years, 1478. In Britain, a plague raged so formidably, — Rapin; Salmon. and swept away such multitudes, that the The awful Suedoer An.glicus, or sweating living were scarcely sufficient to bury the sickness, very fatal at Lonzdon, 1485. — dead, A. D. 430. Delaune. A dreadftll one began in Europe in 558, ex- The plague at London so dreadful that Hentended all over Asia and Afiica, and it is ry VII. and his court removed to Calais, said did not cease fornlany years. Univ. 1500.-Stowoe. [yist. Again, the sweating sickness (mortal in At Constantinople, when 200,000 of its in- three hours). In most of the capital habitants perished, A. D. 746. towns in England half the inhabitants [This plague raged for three years, and was died, and Oxfbrd was depopulated, 9 1i. equally fatal in Calabria, Sicily, and VIII., 1517.-,Slowe. Greece.] Limerick was visited by a plague, when At Chichester in England, an epidemical many thousands perished, 1522. disease carried off 34,000 persons, 772.- A pestilence throughout Ireland, 1525; and Will. Malns. the English Sweat, 1528; and a pestilence In Scotland, 40,000 persons perished of a in Dublin, 1575. pestilence, A. D. 954. 30,578 persons perished of the plague in In London, a great mortality, A. D. 1094; London alone, 1603-1604. It was also and in Ireland, 1095. fatal in Ireland. Again in London: it extended to cattle, 200,000 perished of a pestilence at Constan. fowls, and other domestic animals, 1111. tinople, inl 1611. -Lsloings. In London, a great mortality prevailed, and In Ireland: after Christmas this year, Henry 35,417 persons perished, 1625. II. was forced to quit the country, 1172. In France, a general mortality; at Lyons Again in Ireland, when a prodigious number 60,000 persons died, 1632. perished, 1204. The plague, brought from Sardinia to NaA general plague raged throughout Europe, ples (being introduced by a transport with causing a most extensive mortality. Bri- sotdiers on board), raged with such viotain and Ireland suffered grievously. In lence as to carry off 400,000 of the inhabitLontlon alone, 200 persons were buried ants in six months, 1656. daily in the Charterhouse yard. Memorable plague which carried off 68,596 In Paris and London a dreadlul mortality persons in London, 1665. prevailed in 1362 and 1367; and in Ire- IFilres were kept uap night and day to purify land, in 1370. the air for three days; and it is thought A great pestilence in Ireland, called the the infection was not totally destroyed till fJborth. destroyed a great number of the the great conflagration of 1666.1 people, 1383. 60,000 persons persons perished of the 30,1100 persons perished of a dreadful pesti- plague at Marseilles and neighlborlhod, lence in Iondon, 1407. brought in a ship from the Levant, 1720. Again in Ireland, superinduced by a fam- One of the most awful plagues that ever ine e; great numbers died, 1466; and Dub- raged, prevailed in Syria, 1760.-Abbi lin was wasted by a plague, 1470. Mariliti. 474 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [PLA PLAGUE, continuted. In Persia, a fatal pestilence, which carried bers were carried off by a pestilent dis. off 80,000 of the inhabitants of Bassorab, ease in 1804 and 1805. 1773. Again, at Gibraltar', an epidemic fever, much In Egypt, more than 800,000 persons died resembling the plague, caused great morof plague, 1792. tality, 1828. In Barbary, 3000 died daily; and at Fez The Asiatic cholera (see Cholera) 1832, 247,000 perished, 1799. 1834. 1849. In Spain, and at Gibraltar, immense numPLAGUES OF EGYPT. The refusal of the king to hearken to Moses, although he had performed many miracles to prove his divine mission, brings a display of wrath upon the land, in ten awfiul instances, which are denominated the plagues of Egypt, 1492 B. c. In this year the king, named by some Amen-' ophis, by others Cherres, is, with his whole army, overwhelmed in the Red Sea.- Usher, Blair, Leegrlet. PLANTAGENET, HousE OF. A race of fourteen English kings, from Henry II. to Richard III., killed at the battle of Bosworth (?hi/c?, see), 1485. Antiquaries are at a loss to account for the origin of' this appellation; and the best derivation they can find for it is, that Fulk, the first earl of Anjou, of that name, being stung with remorse for some wicked action, went on a pilgrimlage to Jerusalem, as a work of atonement; where being scourged with broom twigs, growing on the spot, he took the surname of Plantagenet, or Broom-stalk, which was retained by his posterity. PLASTER of PARIS, for moulds, figures, statuary, &c. The method of taking likenesses by its use was first discovered by Andrea Verrochio, about A. D. 1466. This gypsum was first found at Montmartre, a village near Paris, whence it obtained its name. PLATZEA, BATTLE OF, between Mardonius the commander of Xerxes king of Persia, and Pausanias the Lacedsemonian. and the Athenians. The Persian army consisted of 300.000 men, 3000 of whlich scarce escaped with their lives by flight. The Grecian army, which was greatly inferior, lost but few men; and among these, ninety-one Spartans, fifty-two Athenians, and sixteen Tegeans, were the only soldiers found in the number of the slain. The plunder which the Greeks obtained in the Persian camu was immense. Pausanias received a tenth of all the spoils, on account of his uncommon valor during the engagement, and the rest were rewarded each according to their respective merit. This battle was fought on the 22d September, the same day as the battle of Mycale, 479 B. c.; and by it Greece was totally delivered for ever fiom the continual alarms to which she was exposed on account of the Persian invasions, and from that time none of the princes of Persia dared to appear with a hostile force beyond the Hellespont. PLATE. The earliest use of plate as an article of luxury cannot be precisely traced. In England, plate, with the exception of spoons, was prohibited in public houses by statute 8 William III., 1696. The celebrated Plate Act passed in May 1756. This act was repealed in 1780. The act laying a duty upon plate passed in 1784. PLATINA. This is the heaviest of all the metals, and harder than silver and gold. The name which is given to it originated with the Spaniards. fromn the word Plata, signifying silver, it would seem on account of its silvery color. It was unknown in Europe until A. D. 1748, when Don Antonio Ulloa announced its existence in the narrative of his voyage to Peru.Greig. PLATTSBURGH, ON LAKE CHAMPLAIN, NEW YoRm, BATTLE OF; 14,000 British troops under sir George Prevost repulsed, Sept. 11, 1814. The British fleet on the lake captured by Macdonough, at same time. POE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 475 PLAYS. Tragedy, comedy, satire, and pantomime were performed in Greece and Romne. Plays became a general and favorite pastime about 165 n. c.; but they were performed on occasions of festivity some ages before. The Trojan plays consisted of horse-races and exercises of the youth, under a proper head or captain, wherein the utmost dexterity was practised. The plays of Ceres were instituted to please the ladies, who from the 12th to the 20th.of April were clad in white, and, in imitation of that goddess, went with a torch in their hands as if in search of her daughter Proserpine. The plays of Flora were so offensive, that they were forced to be put down. lThe funeral plays were plays in honor of the dead, and to satisfy their ghosts. There were numerous institutions under the name of plays. Plays were first acted in England at Clerkenwell, A. D. 1397. The first company of players that received the sanction of a patent was that of James Burbage, and others, the servaonts of the earl of Leicester, from queen Elizabeth, in 1574. In England plays were subjected to a censorship in 1737. See D-?Racb. PLEADINGS. In the early courts of judicature in England, pleadings were made in the Saxon language in A. D. 786. They were made in Norman-French from the period of the Conquest in 1066; and they so continued until the 36th of Edward III. 1362. Cromwell ordered all law proceedings to ne taken in English in 1650. The Latin was used in conveyancing in the courts of law till 1731. POET LAUREAT. Selden could not trace the precise origin of this office. The first record we have of poet-laureat in England is in the 35th Henry III. 1251. The laureat was then styled the king's versifier, and a hundred shillings were his annual stipend.- Waretos; Macddox, Hist. Exc/. Chaucer, on his return firom abroad, assumed the title poet-latleat; and in the twelfth year of Richard II., 1389, he obtained a grant of an annual allowance of wine. James I.. in 1615, granted to his laureat a yearly pension of 100 marks; and in 1630, this stipend was augmented by letters patent of Charles I. to 1001. per annum, with an additional grant of one tierce of Canary Spanish wine, to be taken out of the king's store of wine yearly. NAMES OF PERSONS WHO FILLED THE OFFICE FROMI THE REIGN OF QUEEN ELIZABETH. Elizabeth appointed Edmund Spenser, Nahum Tate, died - - A. D. 1716 who died - A.D. 1598 The rev. Laurence Eusden, died - 1730 Samuel Daniel, died -1619 Colley Cibber, died - - 1757 Benl Jonson, died - - 1637 William Whitehead, died - 1785 Sir William Davenant, died - - 668 Rev. Dr. Thomas Warton, died - - 1790 John Dryden; he was deposed at the Henry James Pye, died - - 1813 revoltlion - 1688 Dr. Robert Southey, died - March 21, 1843 Thomas Shadwell, died - - -1692 William Wordsworth, died - 1850 POETRY. The oldest, rarest, and most excellent of the fine arts, and highest species of' refined literature. It was the first fixed form of language, and the earliest perpetuation of thought. It existed before nmusic in melody, and before painting in description.-ilazlitt. The exact period of the invention of poetry is uncertain. In Scriptural history, the song of Moses on the signal deliverance of the Israelites, and their passage through the Red Sea, is said to be the most ancient piece of poetry in the world, and is very sublime.-E.xodus xv. Orpheus of Thlrace is the earliest author, and is deemed the inventor of poetry (at least in the western part of the world), about 1249 B. c. Homer, the oldest poet whose works have descended to ius, flourished about 907 a. c. —Pcsriaqb Mewb. Iarmbic verse (;/AicA see) was introduced by Archilochus, 700 B. c.-Dat Fresnoy. For odes, see article Odes. We are told that poetry (or more properly the rules of poetry) was first brought to England by Aldhelme, or Adelmus, abbot of Malmsbury, about the close of the seventh century. 476 TIIE WORPLD S PROGRESS. [POL POISONING. A number of Roman ladies formed a conspiracy for poisoning their husbands, which they too fatally carried into effect. A femiale slave denounced 170 of them to Fabius Maximus, who ordered them to be publicly executed, 331 B. c. It is said that this was the first public knowledge they had of poisoning at Rome. Poisoning was made petty treason in England, and was punished by boiling to death (of which there were some remarkable instances) 23 Henry VIII. 1532. See article Boiliveg to Dealft. POITIERS, BATTLE OF, in France, between Edward the Black Prince and John king of France, in which the English arms triumphed. The standard of France was overthrown, and many of her distinguished nobility were slain. The French king was taken prisoner, and brought to London, through which he was led amidst an amazing concourse of spectators. Two kings, prisoners in the same court and at the same time, were considered as glorious achievements; but all that England gained by them,was only glory, Sept. 19, 1356. —Caqrte. POLAND. Anciently, the country of the Vandals, who emigrated from it to invade the Roman empire. It became a duchy under Lechus I. A. D. 550; and a kingdom under Boleslaus A. D. 999. Poland was dismembered by the emperor of Germany, the empress of Russia, and king of Prussia, who seized the most valuable territories in 1772. It was finally partitioned, and its political existence annihilated, by the above powers, in 1795.* The king formally resigned his crown at Grodno, and was afterwards removed to Petersburgh, where he remained a kind of state prisoner till his death in 1798. With him ended the kingdom of Poland. Piastus, a peasant, is elected to the du- Abdication of John Casimir - - 1669 cal dignity - - - A. D. 842 Massacre of the Protestants at Thorn - 1724 [Piastus lived to the age of 120, and his Stanislaus' unhappy reign begins - 1763 reign was so prosperous that every He abolishes torture - - 1770 succeeding native sovereign was call- An awful pestilence sweeps away ed a Piast.] 250,000 of the people - - - 1770 Introduction of Christianity - 992 The evils of civil war so weaken the Red Russia added to Poland - - 1059 kingdom, it falls an easy prey to the Boleslaus II, murders the bishop of royal plunderers, the empress of Cracow with his own hands; his Russia, emperor of Austria, and Icing kingdom laid under an interdict by of Prussia -1772 the pope, and his subjects absolved The first partition treaty Feb. 17, 1772 of their allegiance - - - 1080 The public partition treaty Aug. 5, 1772 lie flies to HIungary for shelter; but is A new constitution is formed by the refused it by order of Gregory VII., virtuous Stanislaus - May 3, 1791 and he at length kills himself -1081 [The royal and imperial spoliators, on Uladislaus deposed - - 1102 various pretexts, pour their armies Premislaus assassinated - - -1295 into Poland, 1792, et seq.] Louis of Hungary elected king- - 1370 The brave Poles, under Poniatowski War against the Teutonic knights - 1447 and Kosciusko, several times contend The Wallachians treacherously carry successfully against superior armies, off 100,000 Poles, and sell thetm to but in the end are defeated. Koscithe Turks as slaves - - - 1498 usko, wounded and taken, is carried Splendid reign of Sigismund II. - 1548 prisoner to Russia - - 1794 Stephen forms a militia composed of Suwarrow's victories and massacres - 1794 Cossacks, a barbarous race, on whom Battle of Warsaw - Oct. 12, 1794 he bestows the Ukraine - 1575 tLIere Suwarrow subsequently butch* An act of spoliation more unprincipled never dishonored crowned heads. For a century previously, the balance of power had engaged the attention of the politicians of Europe; but in permitting this odious crime, such an object appeals to have been totally lost sight of. Austria and Prussia had long been deadly enemies, and both hated Russia; yet they now conspired against a country they were each pledged to protect, and with unexampled profligacy became leagued in a scheme of plunder consummated by the destruction of 500,000 lives! Russia seized Lithuania, and all that. part to the eastward that suited her. Austria took Gallicia, the most fertile of the provinces, lying contiguous to her own dominions; and Prussia secutred the muarilime districts. The most extraordinary circumstance attending this affatir was the total inaction of the two great powers, England and France, whose supineness in a more recent instance also is rebuked by policy as well as justice, and cdeplored by the good and brave among mnankind.-Haydan. POL J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 477 POLAND, conotiss~scd. erma 30,000 Poles of all ages and condl- Russians lose 7000 men; the Poles, tions in cold blood.] who keep the field, 2000 Feb. 20, 1831 Courland is annexed to Russia- - 1795 Battle of' Ostrolenka; signal defeat of Stanislaus resigns his crown; final par- the Russians - - May 26, 1831 ition of his klindor - Nov. 25, 1795 The Russian, Diebitsch, dies June 10, 1831 Kosciusko set at liberty Dec. 25, 1796 Grand Duke Constantine dies. June 27, 1831 Stanislaus dies at St. Petersburgh, Battle of' Winsk (sne Whisss/) July 14, 183L Febl. 12. 17983 Waraw taken (see T4?arsaev) Sept. 8, 183i Treaty of Tilsit (tohiclh see) - July 7, 1807 [Trhis last tiltal event terminated the [The central provinces form thle duchy: nemorable and glorious, but unforof Warsaw, between 1807 and 1813.] tunate struggle of the Poles.] General Diet at Warsaw - June, 1812 Ukase issued by the emperor Nicholas. New constitution - Nov. 1815 decreeing that the kingdom of Polanci Polish Diet opened - - Sept. 1820 shall henceforth fbrm an integral part Revolution commenced at Warsaw; of the Russian empire Feb. 26, 1832 the army declare in favor of the peo- A powerful insurrection; 40,000 march pie - - - Nov. 29, 1830 on Cracow, but are defeated, Feb. 23, 1846 The Diet declares the throne of Poland Cracow occupied by the Austrians, and vacant - - - Jan. 25, 1831 the treaty which had made it indeBattle of Growchow, near Praga: the pendent, declared abrogated, Nov. 16, 1846 Unsuccessful revolt at Cracow, Apr. 25, 1848 DUKES AND KINGS OF POLAND. Li.D. 550 Lechus I. His posterity held the 1295 Premislaus, great duke of Poland, asdukedom for about 150 years. sassinated. 700 Cracus I. 1296 Uladislaus IV., surnamed Loeticus; G * Cracus II., assassinated by his brother. he refused the title of king; deposed. L * l,echus II., deposed. 1300 Winceslaus. 750 Venda, drowned herself. 1306 Uladislaus IV., again. 760 Premislaus. who on being elected was 1333 Casimir the Great, killed by a fall named Lescus or Less, fiom his horse, while hunting. 804 I,escus II., killed by the French. 1370 Lewis, king of Hungary, succeeded by 810 Lescus III. his daughter 815 Popiel I. 1383 Hedwigis, who married, in 830 Popiel II. 1385 Jagellon, duke of Lithuania, who em842 Piastus, a country peasant. braced the Christian religion, and 861 Zemovitus, took the name of 892 Lescus IV. Uladislaus V.; united Lithuania to 913 Zemomislaus. Poland. 964 Miecislaus, suronamed the Blind, 1434 Uladislaus VI., killed in battle. 999 Boleslaus I., surnamed the Intrepid. 1444 Boleslaus, duke of Massovia. 1025 Miecislaus II., went mad. 1447 Casimir IV. 1041 Cssimir the Pacific. 1492 John Albert. 1058 Boleslaus II., killed himself. 1502 Alexander, prince of Livonia.'_082 Uladislaus, surnamed Hulmanus. 1507 Sigismund I. 1102 Boleslaus III., surnamed Wry-mouth. 1548 Sigismund II., Augustus, chose 1-40 Uladislaus II., fled. 1573 llenry of Valois, duke of Anjou, sue 1148 Boleslaus IV., tile Curled. ceedling to the French throne. 1173 Miecislaus III., deposed. 1576 Stephen Battory, prince of Transyl1178 Casimir II., surnamed the Just. vania. 1194 Lescus V., relinquished. 1587 Sigismund III., son to the king of 1200 Miecislaus IV., whose tyranny in a Sweden. few months restored Lescus V.; but 1632 Uladislaus VII. for bad conduct he was again forced 1648 John Casimir, abdicated, to relinquish the government. 1669 Michael Koribert Wiesnown. 1203 Uladislaus III.; he voluntarily retired. 1674 John Sobieski, died in 1697. An inter. 1206 Lescus V., a third time, being chosen regnuam for a year. by the nobles, assassinated; suc- 1698 Fre4derick Augustus II., forced to receeded by his son, an infant. sign. 1228 Boleslaus V., the Chaste. 1704 Stanislaus I., Leczinsky, forced to re1279 Lescus VI., surnamed the Blacl. son tire in 1710. of Conrad, brother of Lescus V., 1710 Frederick Augustus II., agrain. died 1289. An interregnum of five 1733 Stanislaus I., again. years, when the Poles chose 1733 Frederick Augustus III. 1764 StanislausAugustus resigns the crown. So late as the 13th century, the Poles retained the custom of killing old men when past labor, and such children as were born imperfect. POLAR REGIONS. For voyages of discovery to the, see North-west Passage 478 THE WVORLD7S PROGRiESS. [ POM POLE STAR. A star of the second magnitude, the last in the tail of the constellation called the Little Bear; its nearness to the North Pole causes it never to set to those in the northern hemisphere, and therefore it is called the seaman's guide. The discovery of the Pole Star is ascribed by the Chinese to their emperor Hong Ti, the grandson (they say) of Noah, who reigned and flourished 1970 B. c.-l-ULiv. -list. POLICE. That of London has been extended and and regulatecld at various periods. Its jurisdiction was extended 27 Elizabeth 1585, and 16 Charles I. 1640; and the system improved by various acts in subsequent reiglls. The London police grew out of the London watch, instituted about 1253. The London police was remodelled by Mr. (afterwardls sir Robert) Peel, by statute, June 19, 1829. Some advance has been made since 1840, in introducing a suitable police in New York and other large cities of the United States; but we are yet very far behind London in this matter. Probably no city in the world, large or small, is so 4ell provided as London with an efficient and useful police force; a force which not only detects and prevents crime, but preserves order, quiet, and public convenience, in an admirable manner. POLITICAL ECONOMY, or improvement of the condition of mankind. A science justly viewed as the great high-road to publicand private happiness. Its history may be dated from the publication of Dr. Adam Smith's Weallth of Nations, 1776. POLITICIANS. A politician is described as a mlan well versed in policy, or the well regulating and governing of a state or kingdom; a wise and cunning man.-Pardoa. The term was first used in France about A. D. 1569.lHenadt. POLL-TAX. The tax so called was first levied in England A. n. 1378. The rebellion of Wat Tyler sprung from this impost (see Tyler'), 1381. It. was again levied in 1513. By the 18th Charles II. every subject was assessed by the head, viz.-a duke 1001., a marquis 80/., a baronet 301., a knight 201., an esquire 101., and every single private person 12d., 1667. This grievous impost was abolished by William III. at the period of the Revolution. POLYGAMY. Most of the early nations of the world admitted polygamy. It was general among the ancient Jews, and is still so among the Turks and Persians. In Medea it was a reproach to a man to have less than seven wives. Among the Romans, Marc Antony is mentioned as the first who took two wives; and the practice became frequent until forbidden by Arcadius A. D. 393. The emperor Charles V. punished this offence with death. In England, by statute 1 James 1. 1603, it was made felony, but with benefit of clergy. This offence is now punished with transportation. See Marriages. POLYGLOT. The term is derived from two Greek words denoting " many lang-uages," and it is chiefly used for the Bible so printed. The Polyglot Bible termed the Comptutensian Polyglot, in 6 vols. folio, was printed A. D. 1514-17; the first edition at the expense of the celebrated cardinal Xinmenes. Three copies of it were printed on vellum. Count MacCarthy, of Toulouse, paid 48l1. for one of these copies at the Pinelli sale. The second Polyglot was printed at Antwerp, by Montanus, 8 vols. folio, in 1569. The third was printed at Paris, by Le Jay, in 10 vols. folio, 1628-45. The fourth in London, printed by Bryan Walton, in 6 vols. folio, 1657.-B-rnet. POMPEII, RuINs oP. This ancient city of' Campania was partly demolished by an earthquake in A. D. 63. It was afterwards rebuilt, and was swallowed up by an n awful eruption of Vesuyius, accompanied by an earthquake, on the night of the 24th of August, A. D. 79. Many of the principal citizens happenecd at the time to be assembled at a theatre where public spectacles were POP ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 479 exhibited. The ashes buried the whole city, and covered the surrounding country. After a lapse of fifteen centuries. a countryman, as he was turning up the ground, accidentally found a bronze figure; and this discovery attracting the attention of the learned, further search brought numerous productions to light, and at length the city was once more shone on by the sun. Different monarchs have contributed their aid in uncovering the buried city; the part first cleared was supposed to be the main street, A. D. 1750.'PONDICHERRY. Formerly the capital of French India, and first settled by the French in 1674. It was taken from them by the Dutch in 1693, and was beseiged by the English in 1748. It was taken by the English forces in January 1761, and was restored in 1763. Pondicherry was once more captured by the British, August 23, 1793; and finally in 1803. PONTUS. The early history of this country (which seems to have been but a portion of Cappadocia, and received its name from its vicinity tc the Pontus Euxinsus) is very obscure. Artabazes was made king of Pontus by Darius Hystaspes. His successors were little more than satraps or lieutenants of the kings ok Persia, and are scarcely known even by name. Artabazes made king of Pontus by Da- Tigranes ravages Cappaclocia B. c. 86 rius Hystaspes - - - B. C. 487 MIithridates enters Bithynia, and makes Reign of Mithridates I. - - - 383 himself master of many Roman proAriobarzanes invades Pontus - - 363 vinces, and puts 80,000 Romans to Mithridates II. recovers it - - 336 death 86 MIithridates III. reigns - - 301 Archelaus defeated by Sylla, at ChaeroAriobarzanes II. reigns - - i 266 nea; 100,000 Cappadocians slain - 86 Mithridates IV. is besieged in his capi- Victories and conquests of Mithridates tal by the Gauls, &c. - - - 252 up to this time - - - 74 Mithridates makes an unsuccessful at- The fleet of Mithridates defeats that untack upon the free city of Sinope, and der Lucullus, in two battles - 73 is obliged to raise the siege by the IAithridates defeated by Lucullus 69 Rhodians - 219 Mithridates defeats Fabius - - - 68 Reign of Pharnaces; he takes Sinope, But is defeated by Pompey - - 66 and makes it the capital of his liing- Mithridates stabs himself, and dies 63 dom 183 Reign of Pharnaces - - 63 Reign of Mithridates V. - - - 157 Battie of Zela (see Zela); Pharnaces He is murdered in the midst of his court 123 defeated by Caesar - 47 Mithridates VI., surnamed the Great, or Darius reigns - - - - 39 Eupator, receives the diadem at 12 Polemon, son of Zeno, reigns - 36 years of age - - 123 Polemon II. succeeds his father - A. D. 33 Marries Laodice, his own sister 115 Mithridates VII. reigns - - - 40 She attempts to poison him; he puts Pontus afterwards became a Roman her and her accomplices to death - 112 province, under the emperors. Mithridates makes a glorious campaign; Alexis Comnenus founded a new empire conquers Scythia, Bosphorus, Col- of the Greeks at Trebisond, in this chis, and other countries - - 111 country, A. 0. 1204, which continued He enters Cappadocia - - 97 till the Turks destroyed it in 1459. His war with Rome - 89 POOR LAWS. The poor of England till the time of Henry VIII. subsisted as the poor of Ireland do to this day, entirely upon private benevolence. By an ancient statute, 23 Edward III. 1348, it was enacted that none should give alms to a beggar able to work. By the common law. the poor were to be sustained by' parsons, rectors of the church, and parishioners, so that none should die for default of sustenance;" and by statute 15 Richard IT. impropriators were obliged to distribute a yearly sum to the poor. But no compulsory law was enacted till the 27th Henry VIII., 1535. The origin of the present system of poor laws is referred to the 43d of Elizabeth, 1600. In 1580, the Poor Rates were ~t88,811 In 1815, the Poor Rates were - ~5,418.845 1680, they amounted to 665,562 1820, they amounted to 7,329,594 1698, they amounted to - - 819,000 1830, they amounted to.8,111,422 1760, they amounted to - 1,556,804 1835, they amounted to 6,356,345 1785, they amounted to 2,184,950 1840, they amounted to 5,468.699 1802, they amounted to 4,952,421 1845, they amounted to - 5,543,650 POPE. This title was originally given to all bishops. It was first adopted by Hygenus, A. D. 138; and pope Boniface III. procured Phocas, emperor of the 480 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ POP East, to confine it to the prelates of Rome, 606. By the connivance of Phocas also, the pope's supremacy over the Christian church was established. The custom of kissing the pope's toe was introduced in 708. The first sovereign act of the popes of Rome was by Adrian I., who caused money to be coined with his name, 780. Sergius II. was the first pope who changed his name, on his election in 844. Some contend that it was Sergius I. and others John XIT. or XIII. See NVames. John XVIII., a layman, was made pope 1024. The first pope who kept an army was Leo IX. 1054. Gregory VII. obliged Henry IV., emperor of Germany, to stand three days in the depth of winter, barefooted, at his castle gate, to implore his pardon, 1077. The pope's authority was firmly fixed in England 1079. Appeals from English tribunals to the pope were introduced 19 Stephen, 1154.- Vines's Statutes. Henry II. of England held the stirrup of pope Alexander III. to mount his horse, 1161; and also for Becket, 1170.* Celestine III. kicked the emperor Henry VI.'s crown off his head while kneeling, to show his prerogative of making and unmaking kings, 1191. The pope collected the tenths of the whole kingdom of England, 1226. The papal seat was removed to Avignon, in France, in 1308, for seventy years. The Holy See's demands on England were refused by parliament, 1363. Appeals to Rome from England were abolished 1533.Vineer. The words "Lord Pope" were struck out of all English'books, 1541. The papal authority declined about 1600. Kissing the pope's toe and othelceremonies, were abolished by Clement XIV. 1773. The pope became destitute of all political influence in Europe, 1787; Pius VI. was burnt in effigy at Paris 1791. He made submission to the French republic, 1796. Was expelled from Rome, and deposed, February 22, 1798, and died at Valence, August 19, 1799. Pius VII. was elected in exile, March 13, 1800. Was dethroned May 13, 1809. Remained a prisoner at Fontainebleau till Napoleon's overthrow; and was restored May 24, 1814. Pope Pius IX. elected June 1846, decrees a senate of 100, Oct. 2, 1847. Riot at Rome, new ministry, May 1, 1848. Count Rossi, the pope's prime minister, assassinated Nov. 16, 1848. Attack of the people on the Quirinale; the pope yields and grants a liberal ministry, Nov. 16. After being a prisoner in his palace for a week, the pope escapes in disguise of a servant to Mola-di-Gaeta, Nov. 24, and thence goes to Portici, near Naples. Roman republic proclaimed. Feb. 9, 1849. See Rome. The pope returned to Rome, April 1850. See Itcaly; Rome; ReJbszmatione, icfc. POPES SINCE THE REFORMIATION. A.D. 1513 Leo X.; his grant of indulgences for 1591 Innocent IX.; died in 2 months. crime led to the reformation. 1592 Clement VIII.; learned and just. 1522 Adrian VI. 1605 Leo XI.; died same month. 1523 Clement VII.; denounced IIenry VIII. 1605 Paul V. of England. 1621 Gregory XV.; beneficent. 1534 Paul III. 1623 Urban VIII. 1550.lJulius III. 1644 Innocent X.; violent and cruel. 1555 Marcellus II.; (ldied in 21 days. 1655 Alexander VII.; liberal and learned. 1555 Paul IV.; fiery and haughty. 1667 Clement IX.; died of grief. 1559 Pins IV. 1670 Clement X. 1566 Plus V. 1676 Innocent XI.; reformed abuses. 1572 Gregory XIII.; learned canon; re- 1689 Alexander VIII. formed the Calendar, (which see). 1691 Innocent XII.; abolished nepotism. 1585 Sixtus V.; supposed poisoned. 1700 Clement XI. 1590 Urban VII.; died 12 days after. 1721 Innocent XIII.; the eighth pontiff of 1.590 Gregory XIV. his family. "' When Louis, king of France, and Henry II. of England, met pope Alexander III. at the castle of Torci, on the Loire, they both dismounted to receive him, and holding each of them one of the reins of his bridle, walled on foot by his side, and conducted him in that submissive nianner into the castle." —eunze. Pope Adrian IV. was the only Englishman that ever obtained the tiara. His arrogance was such, that he obliged Frederick I. to prostrate himself before him, kiss his foot. hold his stirrup, and lead the white palfrey on which he rode. His name was Nicholas Brekespeare. lie was elected to the popedom in 1154. OP ]O DICTIONARY OF DATES. 481 POPES, continucd. 1724 Benedict XII. 1800 Oardirial Chiaramonte, elected at Ven 1730 Clement XII.; reformed abuses. ice, as Pius VII., March 13. 1740 Benedict XIV.; wise and pious. 1823 Annibal delta Genga,Leo XII., Sept.28. 1758 Cleulent XIII. 1831 Mauro Capellari, Gregory XVY.,Feb.2. 1769 Clement XIV. Ganganelli. 1846 Mastei Ferretti, Pius IX., inaugurated 1775 Pius VI., February 14. June 21, aged 54. - - Jule 16. For Sueccessiono of Popes to the Reformation, see'cTabulau' Views, from page 50 to page 115. POPE JOAN. It is fabulously asserted that in the ninth century, a female, named Joan, conceived a violent passion for a young monk named Felda, and in order to be admitted into his monastery assumed the male habit. On the death of her lover, she entered on the duties of professor, and being very learned, was elected pope when Adrian II. died in 872. Other scandalous particulars follow; " yet until the Reformation the tale was repeated and believed without offence."- Gibboz. POPISH PLOT. This plot is said to have been contrived by the Catholics to assassinate Charles II.; concerning which, even modern historians have affirmed, that some circumstances were true, though some were added, and others much magnified. The popish plot united in one conspiracy three particular designs: to kill the king, to subvert the government, and extirpate the Protestant religion; Lord Stafford was convicted of high treason as a conspirator in the Popish plot, and was beheaded, making on the scaffold the most earnest protestations of his innocence, Dec. 29, 1680.eRapin. POPULATION. The population of the world may now, according to the best and latest authorities, Balbi, Hanneman, the Almcaacae de Gotlla, &c., be stated in round numbers at 1050 millions. Of these, Europe is supposed to contain 270 millions; Asia, 565 millions; Africa, 115 millions; America, 75 millions; and Australasia, 25 millions. The population of England in A. D. 1877 was 2,092,978 souls. In a little more than a hundred years, 1483, it had increased to 4;689,000. The following tables of the population of the United Kingdom are from official returns:POPULATION OF ENGLAND AND WALES DECENNIALLY FOR ONE HUNDRED YEARS. Year 1700 Population 5,475,000 Year 1770 Population 7,428,000 1710 - - ditto 5,240,000 1780 ditto 7,953,000 1720 -. ditto 5,565,000 1790 - - ditto 8,675,000 1730 - - ditto 5,796,000 1801 - - ditto 1.0,942,646 1740 - - ditto 6,064,000 1821 - - - ditto 14,391,631 1750 - - ditto 6,467,000 1841 - - - ditto 18,844,434 1760 ditto 6,736,000 POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES. Year 1790. Population 3,929,827 Year 1830 Population 12.866,920 1800 - - - ditto 5,305,925 1840 - - - ditto 17;063,353 1810 - ditto 7,239,814 [See the several States.] 1820 - - ditto 9,638,131 PRESENT POPULATION OF THE CHIEF KINGDOMS AND CITIES OF THIE WORLD. Chinese empire Pruss. monarchy 16,550,000 Holland - - - 5,100,000 (Balbi) - -180,000,000 United States of Dutch monarchy Russia - - 58,500,000 America* 17,063,000 (total) - 14,750,000 Russian empire- 72,000,000 Turkey - - 12,000,000 Bavaria - - - 4,600,000 France - - 36,500,000 Ottoman empire Sweden and NorAustria 34,599,000 (total) - 24,500,000 way- - 4,550,000 Great Britain and Persia - - - 11,800,000 Belgium-. - 4,500,000 Ireiand - - 27,000,000 Mexico - 9,500,000 Poland - 4,250,000 British empire -158,000,000 Kingdom of the Portuaal - 3,950,000 Japan - - 27,000,000 two Sicilies- - 8,750,000 Republic of CoSpain - - 17,500,000 Brazil - 6,250,000 lumbia - - 3,350,000 Spanish empire Sardinia - - 5,800,000 Eccles. States- - 2,970,000 (total) - - - 19,500,000 Morocco. 5,200,000 British America- 2,950,000 * In 1840. In 1850, estimated at 22,000,000. 21 482 THIIE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ Po. POPULATION, contignted. Switzerland 2,450,000 St. Petersburgh 405,0001 Hamburgh - - 172,000 DI)enark 2,400.000 Vienna - 395,000 lI,yons - - 168Y Hanover 1,780,000 New Yorlc (1845) 371.000 1 Paleirmo - - l7. u Wirtemberg - - 1,680,000 Moscow - 3551000 i arseilles - - 1L6,000 Saxony 1.650,000 Grand Cairo 335,00 I Copenhagen - - li145,OU Tuscany- I 550.000 lisbon 298.000 Turin- - - 143,000 Badcn 1,400;000 Aleppo - 280;000 Seville - - - 142,000 CITIES, Berlin - 280:000 ViWarsaw 141.00t0 Cities. nlshab. Amsterdam - - 274,000 Tunis - 13,000 London (Parlit - lIadlrid 2 - 70,000 Baltimore (184s) 134,000 sanentary Ret.) 1.776,556 Philadelphia (148) 258.000 j Prague 133,00: Jeddo (euzcted) - l,680,000 Bordeaux - - 27.000 Smyrna - - - 132, 0 Pekin (reatuted) 1,600,000 Bagdad 245,000 Brussels - - 30,0(; Paris - 1000,000 MAexico - - - 5,000 Florence - Nanlin- - - 850,000 Rome — 224,000 Stockholm - 151, l00 Constantinople S00,000 Rio Janeiro 200.000 Munich - - - 113,000 CalcLtta - - 710,000 Milan - 193,000 ])resden - 114.000 Madras - - - 435,000 Barcelona 183,000 Boston (.1841) - 114,000 Nsaples 410,000 Frankfort - - 110,000 PORCELAIN. Poecelccain7e. Said to be derived fiom Po0t' cebt Candes, it being formerly believed that the materials of porcelain were fmatured urdler ground 100 years. It is not known who first discovered the art of makin, porcelain, nor is the date recorded; but the manufacture has been carrie on in China at King-te-ching, at least since A. D. 442, ancd here still the fine porcelain is made. It is filst mentioned in Europe in 1531, shortly a'tbewhich time it was known in England. See China Porcelain, and Dresdel. Cinca. PORTLAND, the largest town in Mlaine, formerly part of Falmouth; burnt by the British, Oct. 1775. Population in 1800, 3;677; in 1820, 8,581; in 1840: 15,082. PORTO BELLO. Discovered by Columbus, November 2, 1502. It was taken from the Spaniards by the British under admiral Vernon, November 22, 1739. It was again taken by admiral Vernon, who destroyed the fortitfid tions, in 1742. Before the abolition of the trade by the galleons, in 1748, and the introduction of register ships, this place was the great mart for the rich commerce of Peru and Chili. PORTO FERRAJO. Capital of Elba; built and- fortified by Cosmo I. durke of Florence, in 1548; but the fortifications were not finished till 1628, when CosImo II. completed them with a magnificence equal to that displayed by the old Romans in their public undertakings. Here was the resicldnce of Napoleon in 1814-15. See BaLnzaparcte, Elba, and Flcnce. PORTSMOUTH. The most considerable haven for men-of-war, and the m strongly fortified place in England. The dock, arsenal, and storehouswere established in the reign of Henry VIII. PORTUGAL. The ancient Lusitania. The name is derived friom Porto Ca' the original appellation of the city of Oporto. It submitted to the Ronj.. arms about 250 a. c., and underwent the same changes as Spain on the fall of the Roman empire. Conquered by the loors. A. D. 713. They kep possession till they were conquered by Alphonsus VI. the Valiant of Castil assisted by many other princes and volunteers. Among those who shr' most in this celebrated expedition was Henry of Lorraine, grandson oc Robert, king of France. Alphonsus bestowed upon him Theresa, his natural daughter, and, as her marriage portion, the kingcldom of Portugal, which he was to hold of him, A. D. 1093. Settlement of the Alains and Visigotls Alphonsus Henriquez defeats 5 Moorish here.. D. 472 lings, and is proclaimed king by his Invasion by the Saracens 713 army -t The kings of Asturias subdue some Assisted by a fleet of Crusaders in their Saracen chiefs, and Alphonsos III. way to the Holy Land, he takes Lisestablisheb episcopal peas - 900 bon from the Moors 1-'OtR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 483 PORTUGAL, cot-;i.,L.4teld. The kinldom of Ala rve takiel lIfrom the Death of John VI. Feb. 18, 1826 Moors by Salncho I. - 1189 Don Pedro graents a charter, and conReitgn of Dionysius I. or Denis, father firms the regency - April 26, 1826 ci' his counter, who builds 44 cities Ile relinquishes the throne in favor of' or towns in Potnlu'al - - 1279 his dausllter Donnra Maria May 2, 1826 M31iliary orders ol Ch'isi. and St. James Marquess of Chaves' insurrection at instituted, - 1279 to 1325 Lisbon - - - -Oct. 6, 1826 John I., surnamed the Great, carries Don Miguel and Donna Maria betrothhis arms into Africa 1415 ed Oct. 29, 1826 Madel-a and the Canaries seized 1420 Porltutal solicits the assistance of Great Passage to the East Indies, by the Cape Britain - - - Dec. 3, 1826 of Good Hope, discovered 1- 493 Departure of the first British auxiliary Discovery of the Brazils -150U troops for Poltlgatl - Dec. 17, 1826 The Incluisition established - 1526 Don Miguel formally assumes the title The kinlgdom seized by Philip II. of of kin - - - July 4, 1828 Spain - 1580 He dissolves the three estates July 12, 1828 The Portuguese throw off the yoke, and Revolution at Brazil - April 7, 1831 place John, duke of Braganza, on the Don Pedro arrives in England June 16, 1831 throne. His posterity still possess Insurrection in favor of the queen, in the crown - -1640 which 300 lives are lost Aug. 21, 1831 The great earthquake which destroys Don Pedro's expedition sails from Lisbon. See larthlquat/ke - - 1755 Belle-isle - - - Feb. 9, 1832 Joseph I. is attacked by assassins, and At Terceira Don Pedro proclaims himnarrowly escapes death - - 1758 self regent of Portugal, on behalf of [This affair causes soume of the first his daughter - - April2, 18J2 families of the kinadom to be tortutred He taltes Oporto - - July 8, 1832 to death, their very names being for- After various conflicts, Don Miguel cabidden to be mentiotned; yet many pitulates to the Pedroites May 26, 1834 were unjustly condenmnetl, and their Don Miguel is permitted to leave the innocence was soon afterwards made country unmolested - May 31, 1834 manifest. The Jesuits were also ex- Massacres at Iisbon - June 9, 1834 pelled on this occasion.] The queen declared by the Cortes to be Joseph, having no son, obtains a dis- ofae - Sept. 15, 1834 sensation fiom the pope to enable Don Pedro dies - Sept. 21, 1834 his daughter and brother to intermar- Prince Augustus of Portugal (dulte of ry. See Incest. - - 1760 Leuchtenberg), just married to the The Spaniards and Fl ench invade Port- queen, dies - - Marc 28, 1835 ugal, which is saved by the valor of The queen marries prince Ferdinand of the English - - 1762 and 1763 Saxe ( obutg - -Jan. 1, 1836 Regency of John (afterwards lking) A sudden change of ministry leads to a owing to the queen's lunacy - - 1792 fornmidable revolution Oct. 9, 1846 The Court, on the French invasion, Action at Evora; the insurgents defeatemigrates to the Brazils Nov. 2, 1807 ed by the queen's troops Oct. 23, 1846 Marshal Junot enters Lisbon, Nov. 29, 1807 [Oporto, where a revolutionary junta Convention of Cintra (see article under I is established, atLd other large towns, that name) - Aug. 30, 1808! are seized by the insurgent army.] Portugal cedes Guiana to France - 1814 Actions are fought at Viana, Valpassos, Revolution in Portugal - Aug. 29, 1820 Braga, Torres-Vedras, &c., favorable Constitutional Junta - - Oct. 1, 1820 I to the queen. Battle of St. Ubes; the Return of' the Court J- uly 4, 1821 Insurgents defeated, losing 861 men Independence of Brazil, the prince re- in killed and wounded -May 1, 1847 gent made emperor - Oct. 12 1822 Intervention of England, France, and The kIing of Portugal suppresses the Spain, signed in London May 21, 1847 conrstitution - June 5, 1823 Claim of the United States on Portugal Disturbances at Lisbon; Don Miguel for damages in the war of 1812, redeparts, &c. - May 1-9, 1824 sisted, and U. S. minister leaves LisTreaty with Brazil Aug. 29, 1825 bon - - July, 1850 KINGS OF PORTUGAL. J.D. 1093 King of Lorraine, count or earl of Port- 1385 John I., the Bastard, natural son to ugal. Peter the Severe. 1112 Alphonso I.; proclaimed king - 1139 1433 Edward. 1185 Sancho I. 1438 Alphonsus V. 1212 Alphonso II., surnanmed Crassus, -or 1481 John 1I. the Fat. 1495 Emanuel. 1224 Sancho II., the Idle, deposed. 1521 John III. 1247 Alphonsus III. 1557 Sebastian, killed in Afifta. 1279 Dennis. 1578 Henry. the Cardinal. 1325 Alphonsus IV. 1580 Anthony, prior of Crato, son of Eman 1357 Peter the Severe. uel, deposed by Philp II. of Spain, 1367 Ferdinand I., died 1383; an interreg- who united Portugal to his other donum for 18 months. t minions, till 1640. 484 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ rS PORTUGAL, continiued. 1640 John IV., dulke of Braganza, dispos- 1!750 Joseph. sessed the Spaniards, and was pro- 1777 Mary Frances Isabella. claimed king, Dec. 1. 1799 John VI. 1656 Alphonsus VI. 1826 Don Pedro; he abdicates May 2, mn 1668 Peter II. favor of his daughter. 1707 John V. 1826 Maria de Gloria. POSTS. Posts originated in the regular couriers established by Cyrus, who erected post-houses throughout the kingdom of Persia. Augustus was the first who introduced this institution among the Romans, and who employed post-chaises. This plan was imitated by Charlemagne about A. D. 800.As/Le. Louis XI. first established post-houses in France dwing to his eager ness for news, and they were the first institution of this nature in Europ 1470.-Helnarlt. In England the plan commenced in the reign of Edwar( IV., 1481, when riders on post-horses went stages of the distance of twenty miles from each other in order to procure the king the earliest intelligence of the events that passed in the course of the war that had arisen with the Scots.-Gale. Richard III. improved the system of couriers in 1483. In 1543 similar arrangements existed in England.-Sadler's Letters. Post communications between London and most towns of England, Scotland, and Ireland, existed in 1635.- Strype. POST-OFFICE, TIE GENERAL, OF ENGLAND. See pr'eceding article. The fir chief postmaster of England was Mr. Thomas Randolph, appointed I queen Elizabeth in 1581.* THE REVENUE OF THE POST-OFFIOE OF ENGLAND AT TIHE FOLLOWING PERIODS, VIZ. I1n 643 It yielded - - - ~5,000 In 1805 Great Britain - - 1,424,994 1653 Farmed to John Manley, 1815 Ditto - - 1,755,898.Esq., for - 10,000 1820 UnIited Kingdom' - 2,402,697 1663 Farmed to Daniel O'Neale, 1825 Ditto - - 2,255,239 Esq., for - 21,500 1835 Ditto - 2,353,340 1674 Farmed for - - - 43.000 1839 Last year of the heavy 1685 It yielded - - - 65,000 postage - - - 2,522,495 1707 Ditto - - - - 111,461 1840 First year of the low rate, 1764 Ditto - 432.048 1 penny for all distances 471, - 1800 Ditto - - - 745;313 POST-OFFICE IN TaE UNITED STATES. The first post-office in the colonies was established in 1710, by act of Parliament for establishing a general post-office for all her Majesty's dominions. During the revolution this department was, of course, controlled by Congress, and the Constitution of the United States, 1789, provided for the continuance of this control-the Postmaster-General being appointed by the President and Senate, as one of the cabinet. For successive Postmaster-Generals see Administrations. The following table gives the statistics of the post-offices in the United Sta' at different times since 1790. Year. No. of Post Amount of Net Revenue..Extent in mil.. Offices. Postzg of Post Raclds 1790 - 75 $37,93 - - $5,79 - - 1,875 1800 - - 903 - - 280,804 - - 66,810 - - - 20.817 1810 - - 2,300 - 551,684 - - -55,715 - - - 36,406 1820 - - - 4,500 - - - 1,111,927 - - 72,492 1830 - 8,000 - - 1,850,583 - - -- t - - 115,000 1840 - 13.468 - -4,539,265 - - - - - - 155,739 1845 - 14,183 - - -4,289,842 - - - t - - 143,940 1846 - - 14,601 - - -3,487,1995. - - - 152,865 1847 - - 15,146 -3.9355,8935. - - 153,818 1848 - - 16,159 - 4,371,077 $ - - 44,227 - - - 163.208 The number of dead letters returned quarterly is estimated at 450 000. ~ Even so late as between 1730 and 1740, the post was only transmitted three days a weekl be. tween Edinburgh and London; and the metropolis, on one occasion, onzly sent a single letter, which was for an Edinburgh banker, named Ramsay. t In all these years the receipts fell short of the expenditures.; The returns for 1846, 7, and 8, are for the first three years of the new law passed March 3, 18& reducing the letter postage to 5 cents under 300 miles, and 10 cents for all greater distances. PltA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 485 POTATOES. The potato is a native of Chili and Peru. Potatoes were orib ginall3 carried to England from Santa Fe. ill America, by sir John Hawkills, A. D. 1563. Others ascribe this introduction to sir Francis Drake, in 1586; while their general introduction is mentioned by muany writers as occurring in 1592. Their first culture in Ireland is referred to sir Walter. Raleigh, who had large estates in that country. about Youghal. in the county of Cork. It is said that potatoes were not known in Flanders until 1620. A fine kind of potato was first brought from America, by that "patriot of every clime," the late Mr. Howard, who cultivated it at Cardinton, near Bedford, 1765; and its culture became general soon after. It is affirmed that the Neapolitans once refused to eat potatoes during a famine. -Buztler. Potatoe disease first appeared in Ireland, &c., causing great alarm and distress, Oct. 1845. POTOSI, MINEs OF. These mines were discovered by the Spaniards in 1545, and produce the best silver in America. They are in a mountain in the form of a sugar-loaf. Silver was as common in this place as iron is in Europe; but the mines are now much exhausted, or at least little is got in comparison of what was formerly obtained. )UND. From the Latin Pondies. The pound sterling was in Saxon times, about A. D. 671. a pound troy of silver, and a shilling was its twentieth part, consequently the latter was three times as lalge as it is at present.-.-Peac/ham. The value of the Roman pondo is not precisely known, though some suppose it was equivalent to an Attic minaes, or 31. 4s. 7d. Our avoirdupois weight (cvoir due poids) came fi'om the French. and contains sixteen ounces; it is in proportion to our troy weight as seventeen to fourteen.-Chambers. POWDERING THE HAIR. This custom took its rise from some of the balladsingers at the fair of' St. Germain whitening their heads to make themselves ridiculous. Unlike other habits it was adopted from the low by the high, and became very general about A. D. 1614. In England the powderedhair tax took place in May 1795, at which time the preposterous practice of using powder was at its height; this tax was one guinea for each person. The hair-powder tax is still continued, though it yields in England under 70001. per year, and in Scotland about 2501. It was abolished in Ireland. PR=ETORS. Magistrates of Rome. The office was instituted 365 a. c., when one pr,-etor only was appointed; but a second was appointed in 252 B. c. One administered justice to the citizens, and the other appointed judges in all causes which related to foreigners. In the year of Rome 520, two more prators were created to assist the consul in the government of' the provinces of Sicily and Sardinia, which had been lately conquered, and two more when Spain was reduced into the form of a Roman province, A. a. c. 551. Sylla the dictator added two more, and Julius Ciasar increased the number to 10, and afterwards to 16, and the second triumvirate to 64. After this their numbers fluctuated, being sometimes 18, 16, or 12, till, in the decline of the empire, their dignity decreased, and their numbers were reduced to three. AGA, BATTLE OF, in which 30,000 Poles were butchered by the merciless Russian general Suwarrow.' fought Oct. 10, 1794. Battle of Praga, in which the Poles commanded by Skrzneclki defeated the Russian army commanded by general Giesmar, who loses 4000 killed and wounded, 6000 prisoners. and 12 pieces of cannon; fought between Grothoff and Wawer, March 31, 1831. PRAGMATIC SANCTION. An ordinance relating to the church and sometimes state affairs; and at one time particularly the ordinances of the kings of France, wherein the rights of the Gallican church were asserted against the usurpation of the pope in the choice of bishops. Also the emperor's letter by advice of his council, in answer to high personages in particular 486 TIE WORLD'S PROG-RESS. L pI.E contingencies. The Pragmatic Sanction for settling the empire of Germany in the house of Austria, A. D. 1489. The emperor Charles VI. publisihed ti Prangmatic Sanction, whereby, in default of male issue, his daughters shouli succeed in preference to the sons of his brother Joseph I., April 17, 1713. ald he settled his dominions on his daughter -Maria Theresa in conformity thereto, 1722. She succeeded in Oct. 1740; but it gave rise to a war, in which most of the powers of Europe were engaged. PRAGUE, BATTLE OF, between the Imperialists and Bohemians. The latter, who had chosen Frederick V. of the Palatine (son-in-law to our James I.) for their king, were totally defeated. The unfortunate king was forced to fle with his queen and children into Holland, leaving all his baggage and mon behind him. He was afterwards deprived of' his hereditary dominions, ani. the Protestant interest was ruined in Bohemia; all owing to the pusills,nimity and inactivity of James, Nov. 7, 1620. Prague was taken by th, Saxons in 1631; and by the Swvedes in 1648. It was taken by storml by tlhe French, in 1741; but they were obliged to leave it in 1742. In 1744, it was taken by the king of Prussia; but he was obliged to abandon it the samen year. The great and memorable battle of Prague Sw-as fought iM\ay 6, 175" In this engagement the Austrians were defeated by prince Henry of Prussi;and their whole camp taken; their illustrious commander, general Browj was mortally wounded; and the brave Prussian, marshal Schwerin, wra killed. After this victory, Prague was besiegecd by the king of Prussia, buL he was soon afterwards obliged to raise the siege. PRAISE-GOD-BAREBONES' PARLIAMENT. A celebrated parliament, so called firom one of' the members (who had thus fantastically styled hilmself' according' to the fashion of the times), met July 4, 1653. This parliament consisted of 144 members, summoned by the protector Cromwell; they were to sit for fifteen months, and then they were to chose a fiesh parliament themselves. PRATIQUE. The writing or license of this name was originally addressed by the Southern nations to the Iports of Italy to which vessels were bound. and siginified that the ship so licensed came from a place or country in a healthy state, and no way infected with the plague or other contagious disease. The pratique is now called a bill of health, and is still of the samle intent and import.-As/re. PRAYERS FOR THE DEAD, &c. They were first introduced into the Chritian church about A. D. 190.-EtsebCzss. Prayers addressed to the V.:s-' Mary arnd to the saints were introduced by pope Gregory, A. D. 59'3. T mode of praying with the face to the east was instituted by pope BonifaII., A. D. D. 532. PRECEDENI'E. Precedence was established in very early ages; and in ml of the countries of the East and of Europe, and was amongst the laws o, Justinian. In England, owing to the disputes that prevailed among cour tiers respecting priority of rank and office, the order of precedency 1w1a regulated chiefly by two statutes, namely, one passed 31 Henry VIII., 15o3" and the other, 1 George I., 1714. TABLE OP PRECEDENCY. THE QUEEN. I Princess Alice; and other Archbishop of Canterbury. Prince of Wales. princesses. Lord Clhancellor. Prince Albert. Duchess of Kent. Archbishop of York. Queen Dowager. Queen's uncles.'Lord higih treasurer. Queen's other sons. Queen's aunts. lI,ord presiflent. Princess royal. Queen's cousins. *Lord privy seal.' If of the rank of barons. PIlE] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 487 ~RECEDDENCE, co'toeiiccd..Lord high constable. cotiTONEaIS. Knights ofth l Garter's eldest iLord great chamberlain of The $Speaker. SOlnS. Enlarnd.'iTreasurer, comptroller. ald Barneterts' eldest sons.'Earl imarshal. vice-chamberlain of" the Knighls of the bath's eldest'Lord high admiral. household. sons. Lord steward of the house- SecretariesofState, ifthey be Knitihts' eldest sons. hold. under the degree of baron. Baronets' younger sons. Lord Chamberlain. Viscounts' eldest sons. Flag and field oflicers. Dukes, according to patent. Earls' younger sons. Sergeants-at-law. i\larqluesses, according to Barons' eldest solns. Doctors, Deans, and chlan their patents. Knights ofl the Garter. cellors. Dukes' eldest sons. Privy councillors. Masters in chancery. Earls, according to their pa- Chancellor ofthe Exchequer. Conlpanions of the bath. tents. Chancellor of the duchy of Gentlemnen of the privy Marquesses' eldest sons. Lancaster. chamber. Duktes' younger sons. Lord chief justice of the Esquires of ti,e knights of the Viscounts, according to their queen's bench. Bath. patents. Master of the rolls. Esquires by creation. Earls' eldest sons. Vice-chancelior. Esquires by office or cornMarquesses' younger sons. Lord chief justice of the coilr- mission. Bishop of London. inon pleas. Younger so B of knights of Bishop of Durhanm. Lord chielf baron. the garter. Bishop of Winchester. Judges and barons, according Sons of bannerets. All other bishops, according to seniority. Younger sons of Ikliglhts of to their seniority of conse- HIereditary bannerets. tihe bathl. cration. Viscounts' younger sons. Younger sons of knights baSecretary of State, being a Barons' younger sons. chelors. baron. lBaroinets. Gentlemen entitled to bear Cotmmissioners of thle great Bannerets for life only. arms. seal. Knights of the bath. Clergymen, not dignitaries. Barons, according to their Grand Crosses. Barristers at law. patents. Knights comnlianders. Officers of the army and [All the above, except the Knilghts bachelors. navy, not esquires by comroyal fatmily, holod their Eldest sons ofc the younger mission. precedence of rank by act sons of peers. Citizens, burgesses, &c. 31 Hetnry VIII.] Baronets' eldest sons. PR.EDESTINATION. The belief that God hath from all eternity unchangeablly appointed whatever comes to pass. This doctrine is the subject of one of the msost perplexing controversies that have occurred among lmankind. It was taught by the ancient Stoics and early Chlristians; and Mahonset introduced the doctrine of an absolute predestination into his Koran in the strongest light. The controversy respecting it in the Christian church arose in the fifth century, when it was mnaintained by St. Ausgustin; and Lucidus. a priest of Gaul, taught it A. D. 470.'RESBURG, PEACE OF, between France and Austria, by which the ancient states of Venice were ceded to Italy; the principality of Eichstett, part of the bishopric of Passau, the city of' Augsburg, the Tyrol, all the possessions of Austria in Suabia, in Brisgau, and Ortenau, were transferred to the elector of Bavaria and the duke of Wirtemberg, who, as well as the duke of Baden, were then created kings by Napoleon; the independence of the Helvetic republic was also stipulated, Dec. 26, 1805. 5'RESBYTERIANS. A numerous and increasing sect of Christians, so called from their maintaining that the government of the church appointed in the New Testament was by Presbyteries, or associations of ministers and ruling elders, equal in power, office, and in order. The first Presbyteriatn meetinghouse in England was established by the Puritans at Wandsworth, Surrey, Nov. 20, 1572. Presbyteriansism is the religion of Scotland. Its distinguishing tenets seem to have been -first embodied in the formulary of faith attri* Above all of their own rank only, by 31 Henry VIII. T When in actual office only, by I George I. N. B. The; priority of signing any treaty or public instrument by ministers of state is takeon ~i _,k of office, and nert tite. 488 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.' [ PI. buted to John Knox, and compiled by that reformer in 1560. It was approved by the parliament, and ratified, 1567, and finally settled by an act of the Scottish senate, 1696, afterwards secured by the treaty of union wit-L England in 1707. PRESIDENTS or THE UNITED STATES. Washington, unanimonsly electedi president of the federal convention, which sat at Philadelphia from May 25 to Sept. 17, 1787; and was unanimously elected first president of the United States, April 6, 1789. See United States and Administration~s. PRESS, THE PRINTING. This great engine was of rude construction from the period of the discovery of the art of printing, up to the close of the eighteenth century, when many improvements were made. William Caxtor a mercer of London, had a press set up at Westminster, 1471.-Stlowe's CA'iro. The earl of Stanhope's iron presses were in general use in 1806. The printing-machine was invented by Koenig in.811. and Applegath's followed. The Columbian press of Clymer was produced in 1814 and the Albion press, an improvement on this last, came into use a few years after. Printing by means of steam machinery was first executed in Englandcl at The Times office, London, on Monday, November 28, 1814. Cow per's and Applegath's rollers for distributing the ink upon the types were brought irn o use in 1817. Vast improvements have been made in the United States withir, a few years, both in hand and steam-presses. The most celebrated mianufactnrers, probably, are R. Hoe & Co., of New-York. Their largest presses for newspapers are capable of throwing off' 10,000 sheets per hourn which is so much in advance of any presses in Europe that they have supplied orders from Paris. The presses of Seth Adamls & Co., of Boston, are perhaps thll best in the world for book printing. See article Prin;ting. PRESS, LIBERTY OF TIHE. The imprimcatr, " let it be printed," was much used on the title-pages of books printed in the 16th and 17th centuries. The liberty of the press -was restrained, and the number of master printers in London and Westminster limited, by the star-chamber, 14 Charles I., 1638. And again by act of parliament, 6 William III., 1693. The celebrated toast, "The liberty of the press-it is like the air we breathe-if we have it not we die," was first given at the Crown and Anchor tavern, London, at a Whig dinner in 1795. Presses were licensed, and the printer's name required to be placed on both the first and last pages of a book, July 1799. In France and Germany the liberty of the press has been occasionally granted, but/ again restricted by the reactionary governments. In the United States it was fully guaranteed by the constitution. PRESSING TO DEATH. A punishment in England, referred to the reign oi Henry III. or of Edward I., and on the statute book until the latter part of the last century. A remarkable instance of this death, in England, is the following: —Hugh Calverly, of Calverly in Yorkshire, esq., having murdered two of his children. and stabbed his wife in a fit of jealousy, being arraigned for his crime at York assizes, stood mute, and was thereupon pressed to death in the castle, a large iron weight being placed upon his breast, 3 James I. 1605.-S-towe's Chrn-o. PRESTONPANS, BATTLE OF, between the Young Pretender, prince Charles Stuart, heading his Scotch adherents, and the royal army under sir John Cope. The latter was defeated with the loss of 500 men, and was forced to fly at the very first onset. Sir John Cope precipitately galloped from the field of battle to Berwick-upon-Tweed, where he was the first to announce his own discomfiture. His disgrace is perpetuated in a favorite Scottish ballad, called, from the doughty hero, "Johnie Cope." Fought Sept. 21, 1745. PRETENDER. The person known in English history by the title of the Pretender' 1~ ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 489 or Chevalier de St. George, was the son of James II., born in 1688, and acknowledged by Louis XIV. as James III. of England, in 1701. He was proclaimed, and his standard set up, at Braemar and Castletown in Scotland, Sept. 6, 1715; and he landed at Peterhead, in Aberdeenshire, from France, to encourage the rebellion that the earl of Mar and his other adherents had promoted, Dec. 26, same year. This rebellion having been soon suppressed, the Pretender escaped to Montrose (from whence he arrived at Gravelines), Feb. 4, 1716; and died at Rome, Dec. 30, 1765. PRETENDER, THE YOUNG. The son of the preceding, called prince Charles, born in 1720. He landed in Scotland, and proclaimed his father king, June 1745. He gained the battle of Prestonpans, Sept. 21, 1745, and of Falkirk, January 18, 1746; but was defeated at Culloden, April 16, same year, and ought safety by flight. He continued wandering among the fiightful wilds of Scotland for nearly six rnonths, and as 30,000/. was offered for taking him, he was constantly pursued by the British troops, often hemmed round by his enemies, but still rescued by some lucky accident, and he at length escaped from the isle of Uist to Morlaix. He died March 3. 1788. His natural daughter assumed the title of Duchess of Albany; she died;n 1789. His brother, the cardinal York, calling himself Henry IX. of England, born March 1725, died at Rome in August 1807. PRIDE'S PURGE. In the civil war against Charles I. colonel Pride, at the head of'two regiments, surrounded the house of parliament, and seizing in the passage 41 members of the Presbyterian party, sent them to a low room, then called hell. Above 160 other members were excluded, and none admitted but the most furious of the independents. This atrocious invasion of parliamentary rights was called Pride's Ptrge, and the privileged members were named the Rumnp, to whom nothing remained to complete their wickedness, but to murder the king, 24 Charles I., 1648. —Goldsmnit/. PRIESTS. Anciently elders, but the name is now given to the clergy only. In the Old Testament the age of priests was fixed at thirty years. Among the Jews, the dignity of high or chief priest was annexed to Aaron's family, 1491 B. C. After the captivity of Babylon, the civil government and the crown were superadded to the high priesthood; it was the peculiar privilege of the high priest, that he could be prosecuted in no court but that of the great Sanhedrim. The heathens had their arch-flamnen or high-priest, and so have the Christians, excepting among some particular sects. PRIMER. A book so named from the Romish book of devotions, and formerly set forth or published by authority, as the first book children should publicly learn or read in schools, containing prayers and portions of the Scripture. Copies of' primers are preserved of so early a date as 1539.Ashe. PRIMOGENITURE, RIGHT O0f, an usage brought down from the earliest times. The first born in the patriarchal ages had a superiority over his brethren, and in the absence of his father was priest to the family. In England, by the ancient, custom of gavel-kind, primogeniture was of no account. It canme in with the feudal law, 3 William I., 1068. PRINTING. The greatest of all.the arts. The honor of its invention has been appropriated to Mentz, Strasburg, Haerlem, Venice, Rome, Florence, Basle and Augsburg; but the claims of the three first only are entitled to attention. Adrian Junius awards the honor of the invention to Laurenzes John Coster of Haerlem, " who printed with blocks, a book of images and lettern. Speculum IiuLmnance Salvatonis, and compounded an ink more viscous and tenacious than common ink, which blotted, about A. D. 1438." The leaves of this book being printed on one side only, were afterwards pasted to21' 490 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ P3t gether. John Faust established a printing office at Mentz, and printed the Tractatus Peteri Hispansi, in 1442. John Guttenberg invented cut meta' types, and used them in printing the earliest edition of the Bible, which wao commenced in 1444, and finished in 1460. See Book. Peter Schmffer cast the first metal types in matrices, and was therefore the inventor of COMPLETE PRINTING, 1452.-Adr'ian JuqLios; Db FresnLoy. Book of Psalns printed -? A. D. 1457 The Pentateuch, in Hebrew - A. D. 1412 The Durandi h'ationale, first work Homer, infoblio, beautifihlly done at Floprinted with cast metal types - 1459 rence, eclipsing all former printing, [Printing was introduced into Oxford, by Desnetritz s -..iss about this time.-Collier. But this Printing used in Scotland - -.- 09 statement is discredited by Dibdin.] The first edition of the whole Bible was, A Livy printed.-Dutfiesoy - - 1460 strictly speaking, the Conmplutensian The first Bible comntpeted.-Idemns -1460 Polyglot of cardinal Ximenes (see [Mentz taken and ptlundered, and the art Polyglot of printing, in the general ruin, is The Litsurgy, the first book printed in spread to other towns] - - 1462 Ireland, by Humphrey Powell - - 1550 The types were uniformly Gothic, or The ficst Newspaper printed in England old German (whence our English, or (see Newosplpers) - - - -158 Black Letter) until - 1465 First patent granted for printing - 159 Greek characters (quotations only) first First printing-press impreved by Wilused, same year - - - - 1465 liam Blaeu, at Anmsterdam - -16 Cicero de Officiis printed (Blair) - 1466 First printing in America at Cambridge, Roman characters, first at Rome - 1.467 Mass., when the Freemanols's Oath and A Chronicle, said to have been found an Almanac were printed - 163, in the archbishop of Canterbury's pa- First Bible printed in Ireland was at lace (the fact disputed), bearing the Belfast.-ardrly's Tour. - - -1704 date O.fbsrd, anno - - 1468 First types cast in England by Caslon.William Caxton, a mercer of London, Phillips. - - - - - - 1720 set up the first press at Westminster* 1471 Stereotype printing suggested by WilHe printed WTZillyam Caxton's hecuyel liam Ged, of Edinburgh.-Nichols. 1736 of the HIistolryes of Tr'i-oy, by Elaoul The present mode of stereotype invenle Fezare. —PuILLm P - - - 1471 ted by Mr. Colden, of New York - 1779 ilis first pieces were, A Treatise on the Stereotype printing was in use in HolGalze of Chess, and Tally's qtgices land in the last century.-lPhillips.] (see belzow).-DIBDN - - - 1474 See Stereotype. /Psop's F'ables, prinlted by Caxton, is The printing-machine was first suggestsupposed Io be the first book with its ed by Nicholson - - - 1790 leaves numbered - - - 1484 The Stanhope press was in general use Aldus cast the Greek alphabet, and a in -1806 Greek book printedl (op Aldi) - - 1476 Machine printing (see Press). - 1811 He introduces the Italic - 1496 Steaml machinery (see Press) - 1814 TITLES OF THE EARLIEST BOOKS OF CAXTON AND WYNKYN DE WORDE. The GarLes and Playe of the Chesse. Trans- tay, lt Wocrds which in these.Days be neylated tout of the _'reneche andl e71rystynted tiher vsycl?ze underlstanrdess. Ended the by nse Witia m Caxton F:yulysshid the last second day of Jutyll at Westtzestlre the day of larche) the pyer of' our Lord God a xxij yere of the Rea ne of Kynzge Edwlar thoisszandtarfue htondrted sand lxxiiij. thefjourlth, and oj' the Incarntacion of ou? TULLY. Lord a Thlousanzd tfor' Hotndred four The Boke of Tulle of Olde age Enimprynted Score and tweyne [1482.]1-DIBDIN's TYP. by sme sinmple persone William Caxton itn ANTIR,. to Englysshle as the: raysir solace and re- THE CHORONICLES.'cerence o'stzen growyng in to old age the The Cronicles of Esgllonsd Enpnted by me xij day of Augulst the yere of our lotrd Wyllyam Caxton thacbbey of 14Zestzynstre MI. cceC.lCXX.-EIERBERT. by London the v day of Jtuyns the yere THE POLYCItONYCON. of' thincarnacion of our lord god The Polycrosnycn cosnteyniong the Berynsges Mi ccoc.Lxxx. and Dedes of mrrany'yes ins eyglt.Bokes. POLYCRONICON. _inprinted by William Caxtosn rdfer hav- Polyceonycon. Ended the thyrtenth days ing sosezohat chaunsged the rude and of Aprytl the tenth yere oj' the regne of olde Englysshe, that is to zoete (to wit) cer- listg'e Harry the seuenth and of the Jn.'To the west of the Sanctuary, in Westminster Abbey, stood the Eleemosynary or Almonry, where the first printing-press in England was erected in 1471, by William Caxton, encouraged by the learned Thomas Mi/ilina, then abbot. lI-e prodtuced"''The Gases and Play of the Chesse," tte first bookt ever printed in these kingdoms. There is a slight difference about the place in which it was printed, but all agree that it was within the precincts of this religious house.-Leigh. -aI ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 491 PRINTING, contintecd. carnacyon of our lord MCCCCLXXXXV i plrynted at lontdoe iln Fletestrete at ye synce Elivprynied by WVynkyn Theworde at of ye Sonne by wynkyn de worde. In the T'Vesltesi're. yere of our lord M.ccccc.vIII. And ended HILL OF PERFECTION. the xi daye rf ilcaye. —AMEs..The lytlle of Peifection emlprynted at the T1I1' LORD'S PRAYER. instanice of the revereezd relygyozes fatder As printed by Caxton in 1483. Tho. Prior of the hoies of' t. An. the or- caether our thiat art inz heavens, hacllowed be de? of the charterouse Accomplyshe[Cd] thy ame: Ithy kylg-dome coeze to us; thy' anzdJynyssheLd] att Westcmynlster the uiii will be cone i earct/ as is in? heaven: oure day oJ'janeur the yere of our lord T'hou- every days br ed give aos to day; andjfrsande CCCC.LXXXXVII. And in the xczz ee give uts oeure tIesspaasses, as we jfogive of lkyoge Henry the vii by cne wynlkyn de themn that tr essass scagaist us; aned lead worde.-AMES, HERBEtrT, DIBDIN. ges not into temptation6, bhLt del2iver Usfron17 ENGLAND. all evil sin, aCeltn. —LEWIS'S LIFE OF The Descrypcyon f i'Englonde TTValys Scot- CAXTON. land and ireland sopeaking of the Noblesse A PLACARD. a.nd T47orthynesse of the scame lynlysshed As printed by William Caxton. and enprynted in lPlete strete in the synze.I it plese onry nlan spirituzel or tecmporel to of the ornne by me Wynkyn de Worde bye onzypies of twzo or thre comemoracids of the yere of oUr lotrd a M.eCcce and ij. Inenz- S'alisbturi ise* erlpryntid after thefor-Le sis AMayiis [mense Maiil.-DIBD1N's TYP. of this pr'eslt lettre whiche benz wel and ANT. truly correct, late himn come to westenonTHE FESTIVAL. ester in to the atolonestye at the reed Ipale The Festyvall or iSer'ntons on sondays and [ired pale] anctd he shalla have thenm good holidais taken out of thegollen legenZd en- the2e. —D1BDIN'S TYP. ANTIQ. Among the early printers, the only points used were the comma, parenthesis, irterrogation, and full stop. To these succeeded the colon; afterwards the semicolon; and last the note of admiration. The sentences were full of abbreviations and contractions; and there were no running-titles, numbered leaves or catch-words. Our punctuation appears to have been introduced with the art of printing. PRINTED GOODS. The art of calico-printing is of considerable antiquity, and there exist specimens of Egyptian cotton dyed by figured blocks many hundred years old. A similar process' has been resolrted to even in the Sandwich Islands, where they use a large leaf as a substitute for the block. See article Cottoen. The copyright of designs secured in England by 2 Victoria, 1839. PRIORIES. They were of early foundation, and aren mentioned in A. D. 722 in England. See Abbeys and Monasteries. The priories of aliens were first seized upon by Edward I. in 1285, on the breaking out of a war between England and France. They were seized in several succeeding reigns on the like occasions, but were usually restored on the conclusion of peace. These priories were dissolved, and their estates vested in the crown, 3 Henry V. 1414.-Rymer's Fadera. PRISONERS o' WAR. Among the ancient nations, prisoners of war when spared by the sword were usually enslaved, and this custom more or less continued until about the thirteenth century, when civilized nations, instead of enslaving, commonly exchanged their prisoners. The Spanish, French, and American prisoners of war in England were 12,000 in number, Sept. 30, 1779. The number exchanged by cartel with France from the commencement of the then war, was 44,000, June 1781.-PPhillips. The English prisoners in France estimated at 6000, and the French in England, 27,000, Sept. 1798.-Idcm. The English in France amounted to 10,300, and the French, &c., in England to 47,600, in 1811.-Ideimt. This was the greatest Romish Service books, used at Salisbury by the devout, called Pies (Pica, Latin), as is sup. posed from the different color of the text and rubric. Our Pica is called Cicero by foreign printers.-Wheatley. 492 THE WVORLD'S PROGRESS. [PPRO number, owing to the occasional exchanges made, up to the period of the last war. PRISON DISCIPLINE SOCIETY, in England, owes its existence to the philanthropic labors of Sir T. F. Buxton, M. P. Ift was instituted in 1815, and held its first public meeting in 1820. Its objects are, the amelioration of' jails, by the diffusion of information respecting their construction and management, the classification and employment of the prisoners, and the prevention of crime, by inspiring a dread of punishment, and by inducing the criminal, on his discharge from confinement, to abandon his vicious pursuits.Haydn. In the United States a Prison Discipline Society for the same object was established in Boston in 1825. The Rev. Louis Dwight was its active promoter and secretary. Great efforts have been made in several States for the amelioration and improvement of prisoners; and the various system adqpted and practised at Wethersfield, Conn., at Auburn, N. Y., Philadelphia, &c., have attracted the attention of statesmen and travellers from Europe. Among those who have labored effectively in this matter is a lady -Miss Dix, of New York-who has accomplished more than any other person, for the welfare of prisoners and of the insane, and may deserve even a higher name than the American Mrs. Fry. PRIVY COUNCIL, ENGLAND. This assembly is of great antiquity. Instituted by Alfred, A. D. 895. In ancient times the number was twelve; but it was afterwards so increased, that it was found inconvenient for secrecy and despatch, and Charles II. limited it to thirty, whereof fifteen were the principal officers of state (councillors en ojficio), and ten lords and five commoners of the king's choice, A. D. 1679. The number is now indefinite. To attempt the life of a privy-councillor in the execution of his office made capital, occasioned by Guiscard's stabbing Mr. Harley while the latter was examining him on a charge of high treason, 10 Anne, 1711. PRIZE MONEY. In the English navy the money arising from captures made upon the enemy, is divided into eight equal parts, and thus distributed by order of government:-Captain to- have three-eighths, unless under the direction of a flag-officer, who in that case is to have one of the said three-eighths; captains of marines and land forces, sea lieutenants, &c., one-eighth: lieutenants of marines, gunners, admiral's secretaries, &c. one-eighth; midshipmen, captain's clerks, &c., one-eighth; ordinary and able seamen, marines, &c., two-eighths, PROFILES. The first profile taken, as recorded, was that of Antigonus, who. having but one eye, his likeness was so taken, 330 B. c.-Ashe. " Until the end of the third century, I have not seen a Roman emperor with a full face - they were always painted or appeared in profile, which gives us the view of a head in a very majestic manner."-Addison. PROMISSORY NOTES. They were regulated and allowed to be made assignable in 1705. First taxed by a stamp in 1782; the tax was increased in 1804, and again in 1808, and subsequently. See Bills of Exchatnge. PROPAGANDA FIDE. The celebrated congregation or college in the Romish, Church, Congrergletio de Propanlganda Fide, was constituted at Rome by pope Gregory XV. in 1622. Its constitution was altered by several of the succeeding pontiffs. PROPERTY TAX IN ENGLAND. Parliament granted to Henry VIII. a subsidy of two-fifteenths from the commons and two-tenths firom the clergy to aid the king in a war with France, 1512.-Rapin. Cardinal Wolsey proposed a tenth of the property of the laity and a fourth of the clergy to the same king, 1522. The London merchants strenuously opposed this tax: they were required to declare on oath the real value of their effects but they firmly refused, alleging that it was not possible for them to give pRu DICTIONARY OF DATES. 493 an exact account of their effects, part whereof was in the hands of correspondents in foreign countries. At length, by agreement, the king was pleased to accept of a sum according to their own calculation of themselves. -Butler. This tax was levied at various periods, and was of great amount in the last years of the late war. The assessments on real property, under the property-tax of 1815, were 51,898,4231. PROPHECY. The word prophet, in proper language, means one of the sacred writers empowered by God to display futurity. We have in the Old Testament the writings of sixteen prophets; i. e. of four greater, and twelve lesser. The former are Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel; the latter are Hosea. Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Micah, Jonah, Nahulm, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. Prophecy is instanced in the earliest times. The prophetic denunciations upon Babylon were executed by Cyrus, 538 B. c. God's judgment upon Jerusalem (Isaiaeh, xxix. 1-8) executed by Titus, A. D. 70. Many other instances of prophecy occur in Scriptare. PROTESTANTS. The emperor Charles V. called a diet at Spires in 1529, to request aid from the German princes against the Turks, and to devise means for allaying the religious disputes which then raged, owing to Luther's opposition to the Roman Catholic religion. Against a decree of this diet, to support the doctrines of the church of Rome, six Lutheran princes, with the deputies of thirteen imperial towns, formally and solemnly protested, April 17, 1530. Hence the term protestants was given to the followers of' Luther, and it afterwards included Calvinists, and all other sects separated from the see of Rome. The six protesting princes were John and George, the electors of Saxony and Brandenburg; Ernest and Francis, the two dukes of Lunenburg; the landgrave of Hesse; and the prince of Anhalt these were joined by the inhabitants of Strasburg, Nuremberg, Ulm, Constance, Hailbron and seven other cities. See Letl/ieracisma, Calvinisms, 4pc. PROVISIONS-REMARIABLE FACTS CONCERNING THEM. Wheat for food for 100 men for one day worth only one shilling, and a sheep for fourpence, Henry I., about 1130. The price of wine raised to sixpence per quart for red, and eightpence for white, that the sellers might be enabled to live by-it, 2 John, 1200. —Barton's Annals. When wheat was at 6s. per quarter, the farthing loaf was to be equal in weight to twenty-four ounces (made of thle whole grain), and to sixteen the white. When wheat was at Is. 6d. per quarter, the farthing loaf white was to weigh sixty-four ounces, and the whole grain (the same as standard now) ninety-six, by the first assize, A. D. 1202.-Maet. Paris. A remarkable plenty in all Europe, 1280. —Duefresnoy. Wheat Is. per quarter, 14 Edward I. 1286.-Stoae. The price of provisions fixed by the common-council of London as follows: two pullets, three-halfpence; a partridge, or two woodcoclks, three-half-pence; a fat lamb sixpence from Christmas to Shrovetide, the rest of the year fourpence. 29 Edward T. 1299. Stlowe. Price of provisions fixed by parliament: at the rate of 21. 8s. of our money for a fat ox, if fed with corn 31. 12s.; a shorn sheep, 5s.; two dozen of' eggs, 3d.; other articles nearly the same as fixed by the commoncouncil above recited, 7 Edward II. 1313.-Rot. Parl. Wine, the best sold for 20s. per tun, 10 Richard II. 1387. Wheat being at Is. Id. the bushel in 1390. this was deemed so high a price that it is called a dearth of corn by the historians of that era. Beef and pork settled at a halfpenny the pound, and veal three farthings, by act of parliament, 24 Henry VIII. 1533.-Anderson's Orig'in of Comnmerce. Milk was sold, three pints, ale-measure, for one halfpenny, 2 Eliz. 1560. —S.owe's Chr/onicle. PRUSSIA. This country was anciently possessed by the Venedi, about 320 B. O. The Venedi were conquered by a people called the Borussi, who in 494 TVHE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ PRUThahited the Ripliean mounntains; and fitom these the country was called Burussia. Somle historians, however, derive the name fiom Po, signifying near, and Rlssia —Po-Russia, easily modified into Prussia. The Porussi afterwards intermixed with the followers of' the Teutonic knights, and latterly, with the Poles. This people and country were little known until about A. D. 1007. St. Adalbert arrives in-Prussia to preach which the Prussian monarchy is Christianity, but is murdered by the made to rank among the first powers pagans -A. D. 1010 in Europe - - A-.D. 1740 Boleslaus of Poland revenges his death Breslau ceded to Prussia - 1741 by dreadful ravages - * Silesia, Glatz, &c., ceded - 1742 Berlin built by a colony from the Nether- Frederick the Great visits England - 1744 lands, in the reign of Albert the Bear - 1163 General Lacy with 15,000 Austrians, The Teutonic knights, returning from and a Russian army, march to Berlin. the holy wars, undertake the conquest The city laid under contribution; and of Prussla, and the conversion of the pays 800,000 guilders, and 1.900,000 people - - -21225 crowns, the magazines, arsenals, and Konigsberg, lately built, made the capi- foundries destroyed - - 1760 tal of Prussia - - - 1286 Frederick the Great dies - Au. 17, 1786 The Teutonic knights, by their barba- The Prussians take possession of Hanorities, almost depopulate Prussia. It ver - - - Jan. 30, 1806 is repeopled by German colonists in Prussia ijns the allies of Eng:land the 13th century - - - against France - Oct. 6, 1806 Frederick IV. of Nuremberg obtains by Fatal battle of Jena - Oct. 14, 18o6 purchase from Sigistoond, emperor [Htere followed the loss of almost every of Germany, the margraviate of Bran- corps inl succession of the Prussian denbur - - 1415 army, tlhe loss of Berlin, and of every [This Frederick is the head of the pre- province of the monarchy except sent reigning fam ily. ] Prussia proper.] Casimir IV. of Poland assists the na- Berlin decree promulgated - Nov. 20, 1806 tives against the oppression of the Peace of Tilsit (whici see) - July 7, 1807 Teutonic knights - - - 1446 Convention of Berlin - Nov. 5, 1808 Albert of Brandenlburg, grand-master Prussia joins the allies - March 17, 1813 of the Teutonic order, renounces the Treaty of Paris - April 11, 1814 Roman Catholic religion, embraces The king promised liberty of the press Lutheranism, and is acknowledged March, 1847 dculke of East Prussia, to be held as a Outbreal at Berlin: the kintg resists fief of Poland - - 125 urgent demands folr liberal mleasures, University of Konigsberg founded by March 14, 1847 duke Albert - - - - 114 Barricades and fights between troops The dukedom ofPrussia is joined to the and students - - March 15, 1847 electorate of Brandenburg, and so The king goes to Potsdamn - March 18, 1847 continues to this day - - - 1594 -issues lecree demanding a federal John Sigismund created elector of Bran- union of Germany, and granting lidenburg and duke of Prussia - 1603 berty of the press - March 18, 1847 The principality of Halberstadt and thle Another bloody collision, 274 killed bishopric of Minden transferred to the March 18, 1847 house of Brandenbur - 1648 New ministry formed - March 18, 1917 Poland obliged to acknowledge Prussia The king grants general amnesty as an independent state, under Frede- March 20, 1847 rick William - - - - 1657 Agitations general throughout Prussia Order of Concord institutedby Christian A free constitution granted, in a solemn Ernest, duke of Prussia, to distinguish convocation, by the king - April 11, 18147 the part he had taken in restorin- The duchy of Posen reorganized by the peace to Europe - - -1660 kin - - - March 26, 1848 The foundation of the PrLussian tnonar- Prussian diet meets at Berlin - April 3, 1848 chy was established between the years Constitutional assembly of Prussia 1640 and -1680 meets - - - May 22, 184, Frederic III., in an assembly of the The arsenal at Berlin captured by the states, puts a crown upon his own mob - - - June 16, 1848 head, and upon the head of his cont- The king prorogues the assembly at sort, and is proclaimed kin of Prus- Berlin, and appoints its meeting at sia, by the title of Frederick 1. - 1701 Brandenburg - - Nov. 9, 118 Guelders taken friom the Dutch - - 1702 The Burgher Gluard refuses to obey the Frederick I. seizes Neufchatel or Neun- order of the king to disband. Berlin burgh, and Valengia, and purchases in a state of siege - Nov. 12, 1848 the principality of Teckllenburgh - 1707 The assembly dissolved, and a new conReign of Frederick the Great, during sitution promulgated - Dec. 6,1845 sIiARGRAVES AND ELECTORS OF BURANDENBURG, ETC. D. o. 923 Sifroi, margrave of Brandenburg. succession of time, passed into the G eron, margrav-e of Lusatia, which, in fanilies of Staden, Ascanis, Bellen. UIfR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 495 PRUSSIA, continued. stadt, and that of Bavaria; till the 1535 Joachim II.; he was poisoned by a Jew. emperor Sigismond, with the consent 1571 John George. of the states of the empire, gave per- 1598 Joachim Frederick. petaal investiture to 1608 John Sigismund. 1416 Frederick IV. of Nuremberg, made 1619 George William. elector of Brandenburgh, 1417. 1640 Frederick William the Great. 1440 Frederick II., surnamed Ferreus, or 1688 Fredericl, who, in 1701, was made king Ironside; resigned. of Prussia. 1470 Albert I., surnamed the German Achilles. He confirmed the deed made by KINGS OF PRUSSIA. his predecessor, of mutual succession 1701 Frederick I. with the families of Saxony and 1713 Frederick WVilliam I. Hesse; resigned. 1740 Frederick II., surnamed the Great. 1476 John, surnamed the Cicero of Germany, 1786 Frederick William II. his son. 1797 Frederick William IlI. 1499 Joachirn I., his son. 1840 Frederick William IV., June 7. PUBLICHOUSES IN ENGLAND. A power of licensing them was first granted to sir Giles Mompesson and sir Francis Mitchel for their own emolument, A. D. 1620-1. The number of public houses in England at this period was about 13 000. In 1700 the number was 32 600; and in 1790, the number in Great Britain was 76,000. It is supposed thalt there were about 50.000 public houses, and 30.000 beer-shops in England and Wales in 1830. The number on Jan. 5, 1840, was 95,820. PULLEY. The pulley, together with the vice and other mechanical instruments, are said to have been invented by Archytas of Tarentum, a disciple of Pythagoras, about 516 B. c.- U'riv. Hist. It has been ascertained that in a single movable pulley the power gained is doubled. In a continued combination the power is twice the number of pullies, less 1.-Phillips. PULTOWA, BATTLE OF. In this memorable engagement Charles XII. of Sweden was entirely defeated by Peter the Great of Russia, and obliged to take refnige at Bender, in the Tulrkish dominions. The vanquished monarch would have fallen into the hands of the czar after the engagement, had he not been saved by the personal exertions of the brave count Poniatowski, a Polish nobleman, whom Voltaire has commemorated and immortalized. This battle was lost chiefly owing to a want of concert in the generals, and to the circumstance of Charles having been dangerously wounded, just before, which obliged him to issue his commands from a litter, without being able to encourage his soldiers by his presence. Fought July 8, 1709. PUMPS. Ctesibius of Alexandria, architect and mechanic, is said to have invented the pump (with other hydraulic instruments) about 224 B. C., although the invention is ascribed to IDanaus, at Lindus, 1485 B. c. They were in general use in England, A. D. 1425. The air-pump was invented by Otto Guericke in 1654, and was improved by Boyle in 1657. An inscription on the pump in front of the Royal Exchange, London, states that the well beneath was first sunk in A. D. 1282. PUNIC WARS. The first Punic war was undertaken by the Romans against Carthage 264 B. c. The ambition of Rome was the origin of this war; it lasted twenty-three years, and ended 241 B. c. The second Punic war began 218 B. c., in which year Hannibal marched a numerous army of 90,000 foot and 12.000 horse towards Italy, resolved to carry on the war to the gates of' Rome. He crossed the Rhone, the Alps, and the Apennines, with uncommon celerity; and the Roman consuls who were stationed to stop his progress were severally defeated. The battles of Trebia, of Ticinus, and of the lake of Thrasymenus, followed. This war lasted seventeen years, and ended in 201 B. c. The third Punic war began 149 B. c., and was terminated by the fall of Carthage, 146 B. c. See Cac'thccgre. PURGATORY. The middle place between the grave, or heaven, and hell, 496 THE WORELD'S PROGRESS. PY'r where, it is believed by the Roman Catholics, the soul passes through the fire of purification before it enters the kingdom of God. The doctrine of purgatory was known about A. D. 250; and was introduced into the Roman church in 593. —Platina. It was introduced early in the sixth century. — Dupi7nb. PURIFICATION. The act of cleansing, especially considered, as relating to the religious performance among the Jewish women. It was ordained by the Jewish law that a woman should keep within her house forty days after the birth of a son, and eighty days after the birth of a daughter, when she was to go to the temple and offer a lamb, pigeon, or turtle, A. D. 214. Among the Christians, the feast of purification was instituted, A. D. 542, in honor of the Virgin Mary's going to the temple, where, according to custom, she presented her son Jesus Christ, and offered two turtles for him. Pope Sergins I. ordered the procession with wax tapers, from whence it is called Candlemas-day. PURITANS. The name given to such persons as in the reigns of queen Elizabeth, king James, and king Charles I., pretended to greater holiness of living and stricter discipline than any other people. They at first were members of the established church, but afterwards became separatists upon account of several ceremonies that were by the rigidness of those times severely insisted upon. —Bish/op Sander'son. PYRAMIDS OF EGYPT. The pyramids, according to Dr. Pococke and Sonnini, " so celebrated fiom remote antiquity, are the most illustrious monuments of art. It is singular that such superb piles are nowhere to be ~ound but in Egypt; for in every other country, pyramids are rather puerile and diminutive imitations of those in Egypt, than attempts at appropriate magnificence. The pyramids are situated on a rock at the foot of' some high mountains which bound the Nile." The first building of them commenced, it is supposed, about 1500 B. c. They were formerly accounted one of the seven wonders of the world. The largest, near Gizeh, is 461 feet in perpendicular height, with a platform on the top 32 feet square, and the length of the base is 746 feet. It occupies eleven acres of ground, and is constructed of such stupendous blocks of stone, that a more marvellous result of human labor has not been found on the earth. " Virtue alone outbuilds the pyramids, " Her monuments shall stand when Egypt's fall." —YouNG. PYRENEES, BATTLE OF THE, between the British army, commanded by lord Wellington, and the French, under the command of marshal Soult. The latter army was defeated with great slaughter, July 28, 1813. After the battle of' Vittoria (fought June 21), Napoleon sent Soult to supersede Jourdan, with instructions to drive the allies across the Ebro, a duty to which his abilities were inferior; for Soult retreated into France with a loss of more than 20,00 men, having been defeated in a series of engagements from July 25 to August 2. PYRENEES, PEACE oF THE. A peace concluded between France and Spain; by the treaty of the Pyrenees, Spain yielding Roussillon, Artois, and her rights to Alsace; and France ceding her conquests in Catalonia, Italy, &c., and engaging not to assist Portugal, Nov. 7, 1659. PYTHAGOREAN PHILOSOPHY. Founded by Pythagoras, of Samos, head of the Italic sect. He first taught the doctrine of metenmpsychosis or transmigration of the soul from one body to another. He forbade his disciples to eat flesh, as also beans, because he supposed them to have been produced from the same putrified matter from which at the creation of the world man was formed. In his theological system, Pythagoras supported that the universe was created fiom a shapeless heap of passive matter by QUA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 497 the hands of a powerful being, who himself was the mover and soul of the world. He was the inventor of the multiplication-table, and a great irmprover of geometry, while in astronomy he taught the system adopted at this day, 539 B. C. PYTHIAN GAMES. Games celebrated in honor of Apollo, near the temple of Delphi. They were first instituted, according to the more received opinion, by Apollo himself, in commemoration of the victory which he had obtained over the serpent Python, fiom which they received their name; though others maintain that they were first established by Agamemnon, or Diomedes, or by Amphictyon, or, lastly, by the council of the Amphictyons, B. C. 1263.-Amrcxdelia? iMVar'bles. Q. QUACKERY AND QUACK MEDICINES. At the first appearance that a French quack made in Paris, a boy walked before him, publishing, with a shrill voice, " My father cures all sorts of distempers;" to which the doctor added in a grave manner, " What the child says is true."-Addison. Qc.acks sprung up with the art of medicine; and several countries, particularly England and France; abound with them. In London, some of their,stablishments are called colleges. Quack medicines were taxed in England in 1783 et seq. An inquest was held on the body of a young lady, Miss Cashin, whose physician, St. John Long, was afterwards tried for manslaughter; he was found guilty, and sentenced to pay a fine of 2501., Oct. 30, 1830. QUADRANT. The mathematical instrument in the form of a quarter circle. The solar quadrant was introduced about 290 B. c. The Arabian astrononomers under the Caliphs, in A. D. 995, had a quadrant of 21 feet 8 inches radius, and a sextant 57 feet 9 inches radius. Davis's quadrant for measuring angles was produced about 1600. Hadley's quadrant, in 1731. See Navigatioib. QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE. The celebrated treaty of Alliance between Great Britain, France, and the Emperor, signed at London. This alliance, on the accession of the states of Holland, obtained the name of the Quadruple Alliance, and was for the purpose of guaranteeing the succession of the reigning families in Great Britain and France, and settling the partition of the Spanish monarchy. Aug. 2, 1718. QUEUSTOR, in Roman antiquity, was an officer who had the management of the public treasure, instituted 484 B. c. The questorship was the first office any person could bear in the commonwealth, and gave a right to sit in the senate. At first there were only two; but afterwards the number was greatly increased. QUAKERS or FRIENDS. Originally called Seekers, from their seeking the truth; and afterwards Friends-a beautiful appellation, and characteristic of the relation which man, under the Christian dispensation, ought to bear towards man.-Clearksov. Justice Bennet, of Derby, gave the society the name of Quakers in 1650, because Fox (the founder) admonished him and those present with him, to tremlble at the word of the Lord. This respectable sect, excelling in morals, prudence, and industry, was commenced in England about A. D. 1650, by George Fox, who was soon joined by a number of learned, ingenious. and pious men —among others, by George Keith, Wm. Penn, and Robert Barclay of Ury.* The thee and thoe used by the * The Quakers early suffered grievous persecutions in England and America. At Boston, where the, first Friends who arrived were females, they, even females, were cruelly scourged, and their 498 THIE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ QUl Quakers originated with their founder, who published a book of instructions for teachers and professors. The solemn affirmation of Quakers was enacted to be taken in all cases, in the courts below, wherein oaths are required from other subjects, 8 William III. 1696. QUARANTINE. The custom first observed at Venice, A. D. 1127, whereby all merchants and others coming from the Levant were obliged to remain in the house of St. Lazarus, or the Lazaretto, 40 days before they were adlmittedc into the city. Various southern cities have now lazarettos; that of Venice is built in the water. In the times of plague, England and all other nations oblige those that come fiom the infected places to perform quarantine with their ships, &c., a longer or shorter time, as may be judged most safe. QUATRE-BRAS, BATTLE OF, between the British and allied armny under the duke of Brunswick. the prince of Orange, and sir Thllomas Picton, and the French under marshal Ney, fought two days before the battle of Waterloo. In this engagemlent the gallant duke of Brunswick fell, June 16, 1815. QUEBEC. Founded by the French in 1605. It was reduced by the English, with all Canada, in 1626, but was restored in 1632. Quebec was besieged by the English, but without success, in 1711; but was conquered by them, after a battle memorable for the death of general Wolfe in the moment of victory, Sept. 13, 1759. This battle was fought on the Plains of Abraham. Quebec was besieged by the Americans under Gen. Montgomery, who was slain, December 31, 1775; and the siege was raised the next year. The public and private stores, and several wharfs, were destroyed by fire in 1815; the loss being estimated at upwards of 260,0001. Awful fire, 1650 houses, the dwellings of 12,000 persons, burnt to the ground, May 28, 1845. Another great fire, one month afterwards; 1365 houses burnt, June 28, 1845. Disastrous fire at' the theatre, 50 lives lost, Jan. 12, 1846. QUEEN. The first queen invested with authority as a ruling sovereign, was Semiramis, queen and empress of Assyria, 2017 B. c. She embellished the city of Babylon, made it her capital, and by her means it became the most magnificent and superb city in the world. The title of queen is coeval with that of king. The Hungarians had such an aversion to the name of queen, that whenever a queen ascended the throne, she reigned with the title of king. See note to article Ha-ngcary. QUEEN CAROLINE'S TRIAL. Caroline. the consort of George IV. of England, was subjected, when princess of Wales, to the ordeal of the Delicate Investigation, May 29, 1806. Her trial commenced Aug. 19, 1820. Illuminations on her acquittal, Nov. 10-12. Her death Aug. 7, 1821. Riot at her funeral, Aug. 14. QUEENS OF ENGLAND. There have been, since the conquest, besides the present sovereign, four queens of England who have reigned in their own right, not counting the empress Maude, daughter of Henry I., or the lady Jane Grey, whose quasi reign lasted only ten days. There have been thirtyfour queens, the consorts of kings, exclusively of four wives of kings who ears cut off, yet they were unshaken in their constancy. In 1659, they stated in parliament that 2,000 Friends had endured sufferings and imprisonment in Newgate; and 164 Friends offered themselves at this time, by name, to government, to be imprisoned il lieu of an equal number in dlanger (from confinement) of death. Fifty-five (out of 120 sentenced) were transported to America, by tn order of council, 1664. The masters of vessels refusing to carry them for some months, an emia bargo was laid on West India ships, when a mercenary wretch was at length found for the service. But the Friends would not walk on board, nor would the sailors hoist them into the vessel, and soldiers from the Tower were employed. In 1665, the vessel sailed; but it was immediately captured by the Dutch, who liberated 23 of the prisoners in Holland. the rest having died of the plague in that year. See Plaguee. Of the 120 few reached America. QUE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 499 died previously to their husbands ascending the throne. Of thirty-five ac. tual sovereigns of England, four died unmarried, three kings and one queen. The following list includes all these royal personages:Of WVTILLIAM I. was married September 12, 1299. Survived Matildca, daughter of Baldwin, earl of the king. Flanders; she was married in 1051; and Of EDWARD II. died 1084. Isabella, dasughter of the Iking of France; WILLIAsI II. she was nmarried in 1308. On tile death. by Thlis soverei-n died unmarried. the gibbet, of her favorite, Mortimer, she was,his sovereign die0 unmarried. conlined for the rest of her life in her own Of HENRY I. house at Risings, near London.-Iltuse. Mlatilda, daughter of Malcolm III. Icing of Of EDWARD II[. Scotland; she was married November 11, Philippa, daughter of the count of Ioliand 1100; anti died May 1, 1119. and ainault; se was married January 2, Adelais, daughter of Godfiey, earl of Iou- a nd Hainault; she was married January 24, vaine; she was married January 29, 1129. Survived the lcing. Of RIcHARD II. MAnUD or MATILnA. Anne, of Bohenmia, sister of thle emperor W'inceslaus of Germany; she was marrieo Dc nghiter of Henry I., and rightful heir to in January 1382; and died August 3, 1395. the throne; she was born I 101; was betroth- Isabella, dauighterof Charles VI.of France; ed in 1109, at eifht years of age, to Henry she was married Nov. 1, 1396. On tile msu2V., emperor of Germany, who died 1125. der of her husband she returned to her faShe married, secondly. Geoffiey Plantagoenet, ther. earl of Anjou. 1130. Was set aside ftiom the English succession by Stephen,. 1135; landed in England and claimed the crown, 1139. lIary, daughter of the earl of Hr eford; Crowned, but was soon after defeated at she died, before Henry obtained the crown, Winchester. 1141. Concluded a peace with in 1394. Stephen, which secured the succession to Joan of Navarre, widowv of the duke of her son, Henry, 1153; died 1167. Bretagne; she was married in 1403. SurOf S7TE;PHEN, vived the king, and died in 1437. Of' HENRY V. Matilida, daughter of Eustace, count of Boulogne; she was married in 1128; and Catherine, dau-hter of the king of rance; died May 3, 1151. she was married May 30, 1420. She outlived Henry, and was married to Owen Tudor, Of IIENRY II. grandiiather of tenry VII. Eleanzor, the repudiated queen of Louis Of HENRY VI. VII. Icing of France, and heiress of Guienne la1rgarret, daugihter of the dukie of Aenjou; and Poitou; she was married to Ienry 1152; she was married April 22, 1445. She survivand died 1204. ed thle unforttuate lking, her husband, and [The Fair Rosamsond was the mistress of died in 1482. this prince. See article Rosamond. Of ED'WAD IV. Of RICHARD I. Lacdy Elizabheth Grey, daughter of sir Bereng'eia, daughter of the iking of Na- Richard Woodeville, and widow of sir John varre; slte was married May 12, 1191. Sur- Grey, of Groby; she was married March 1, vived the king. 1464. Suspected of favoring thle insurrection of Lambert Simnel; and closed her life in Of JOHN. confinement. Avisa, daughter of the earl of Gloucester; EDWARD V. shle was married in 1189. Divorced. Isabella, daughter of thle ount of Anrou- This prince perished in the Tower, in lime: she was tlse youne and virsin wile of the 13th year of his age; and died unmarthe count de la Marche; narried to.Tohn in ied. 1'200. Survived the kinl, on whose death Of RIcHARD III. she was remarried to the count de la MAarche. Annze, diaughter of the earl of Warwick, and widow of Edward, prince of Wales. Of HENRY Il11 whom Richard had muLrdered, 1471. She is Eleaano?, daughter o thle count de Pro- supposed to have been poisoned by Richard vence; she was married January 14, 1236. (having died suddenly MIarch 6, 1485), to Survived the king; and died in 199~, in a mo- mnalke way for lis intended marriage with nastery, whither shie had retired. the princess Elizabeth of Yorlc. Of Edward I. Of IHENRy VII. Eleanor of Castile; she was married in Elizableth of Yorlt, princess of England 1253; died of a fever, on her journey to Scot- daughter of Edward IV.; she was iarried land, at Horneby, in Lincolnshire, 1296. January 18, 1486; and died February 11 Margaret, sister of the king of France; she 1503. 500 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ QUE QUEENS, continued. Of HENRY VIII. Of CHARLES II. Catlherine of Arragon, widow of Henry's CATHERINE, infanta of Portugal, daughter elder brother, Arthur, prince of Wales. She of John 1V. and sister of Alfonso VI.; she was married June 3, 1509; was the mother was married May 21, 1662. Survived the of queen Mary; was repudiated, and after- king, returned to Portugal, and died Dec. wards formally divorced, May 23, 1533; died 21, 1705. January 6, 1536. Anna Boleyn, daughter of sir Thomas Bo- Of JABES II. leyn, and maid of honor to Catherine. She Anne Hyde, daughter of Edward Hyde, was privately married, before Catherine was earl of Clarendon; she was married in Sepdivorced, Nov. 14, 1532; was the mother of tember 1660; and died before James ascendqueen Elizabeth; was beheaded atthe Tow- ed the throne, in 1671. er, May 19, 1536. Mary Beatrice, princess of Modena, daughJane Seymour, daughter of sir John Sey- ter of Alphonzo d'Este, duke; she was marmour, and maid of honor to Anna Boleyn. ried November 21, 1673. At the revolution She was married May 20, 1536, the day after in 1688, she retired with James to France; Anna's'execution; was the mother of Ed- and died at St. Germains in 1718, having surward VI., of whom she died in childbirth, vived her consort seventeen yea-s. Oct. 13, 1537. Anne of Cleves, sister of William, duke WIttLIAM and MARY. of Cleves. She was married January 6, MARY, the princess of Orange, daughter of 1540; was divorced July 10, 1540; and died James II.; married to William, Nov. 4,16. 7; in 1557. ascended the throne Feb. 13, 1689; died DeCatherine Howard, niece of the duke of cember 28, 1694.. Norfolk; she was married August 8, 1540; and was beheaded on Tower hill February ANNE. 12, 1542. Daughter ofJames II. She married George Catherine Parr, daughter of sir Thomas prince of Denmark, July 28, 1683; succeedParr, and widow of Nevill, lord Latimer. ed to the throne March 8, 1702; had thirteen She was married July 12, 1543. Survived children, all of whom died young; lost her the king, after whose death she married sir husband, October 28,1708; and died August Thomas Seymour, created lord Sudley; and 1, 1714. died September 5, 1548. Of G Of GEORGE I. EDWARD VI. Sophia Dorothea, daughter of the duke of This prince, who ascended the throne in his Zell. She died a few weeks previously to tenth year, reigned six years and five months, the accession of George to the crown, June and died unmarried. 8, 1714. LADY JANE GREY. Of GEORGE II. Daughter of the duke of Suffolk, and wife WZilhelnina Caroline Dorothea, of Branof lord Guildford Dudley. Proclaimed queen denburgh-Anspach; married in 1704: and on the death of Edward. In ten days after- died November 20, 1737. wards returned to private life; was tried Nov. 13, 1553; and beheaded February 12, Of GEORGE Ill. 1554, when but seventeen years of age. Cfharlotte Sophia, daughter of the duke of 0 Mecklenburgh-Strelitz; married September MARY. 8, 1761; and died November 17, 1818. Daughter of Henry VIII. She ascended the throne July 6, 1553; married Philip II. Of GEORGE IV. of Spain, July 25, 1554; and died Novern- Caroline Amelia Augetsta, daughter of the ber 17, 1558. The king her husband died in duke of Brunswick; shle was married April 1598. 8, 1795,; was mother of the lamented princess Charlotte; and died August7, 1821. See 2ELZmABETH. article Queen Carolinze. Daughter of Heiry VIII. Succeeded to the crown Nov. 17, 1558; reigned 44 years, Of WILLIAM IV. 4 months, and 7 days; and died unmarried. Adelaide Amelia Louisa Teresa Caroline, Of JAMES I. sister of the duke of Saxe-Meinengen; she was married July 11, 1818; and survived the Anne, princess of Denmark, dlaughter of king. Frederick II.; she was married August 20, 1589; and died March 1619. VICTORIA. Alexandrina Victoria, the reigning queen, Of CHARLES I. daughter of the duke of Kent; born May 24, Ilenrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV. 1819; succeeded to the crown June 20, 1837; king of France; she was married June 13, crowned June 28, 1838. Married her cousin 1625. Survived the unfortunate king; and prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Febdied in France, August 10, 1669. ruarsty 10, 1840. QUEENSTOWN, CANADA. Taken by the troops of the United States of Ameri rAc ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 501 ca, October 13, 1812; but retaken by the British forces, who defeated the Americans with considerable loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners, the same day. QUICKSILVER. In its liquid state, it is commonly called virgin mercury. It is endowed with very extraordinary properties, and used to show the weight of the atmosphere, and its continual variations, &c. Its use in refining silver was discovered A. D. 1540. There are mines of it in various parts, the chief of which are at Almeida in Spain, and at Udria in Carniola in Germany, discovered by accident in 1497. A mine was discovered at Ceylon in 1797. Quicksilver was congealed in winter at St. Petersburgh in 175o9. It was congealed in England by a chemical process, without snow or ice, by Mr. Walker, in 1787. QUIETISTS. The doctrines and religious opinions of Molinus, the Spaniard, whose work, the Spiritual Guide, was the f.undation of the sect of Quietists in France. His principal tenet was, that thc. purity of religion colsisted in an internal silent meditation and recollection of the merits of Christ, and the mercies of God. His doctrine was also called quietism friom a kind of absolute rest and inaction in which the sect supposed the soul to be, when arrived at that state of perfection called by them unitive life. They then imagined the soul to be wholly employed in contemplating its;od. Madame de la Mothe-Guyon, who was imprisoned in the Bastile for her visions and prophecies, but released through the interest of Fe6nlon, the celebrated archbishop of Cambray, between whom and Bossuet, bishop of Meaux, she occasioned the famous controversy concerning Quietism, 1697. The sect sprang up about 1678.-Noeuv. Diet. QUILLS. They are said to have been first used for pens in A. D. 553; but some say not before 635. Quills are for the most part plucked with great cruelty from living geese; and all persons, from convenience, economy, and feeling ought to prefer metallic pens, which came into use in 1830.-Phillips. QUITO. A presidency of Colombia (wohich see) celebrated as having been the scene of the measurement of a degree of the meridian, by the French and Spanish mathemnaticians, in the reign of Louis XV. Forty thousand souls were hurried into eternity by a dreadful earthquake at Quito, which almost overwhelmed the city, Feb. 4, 1797. R. RACES. One of the exercises among the ancient games of Greece (see Chariots). Horse-races were known in England in very early times. Fitz-Stephen, who wrote in the days of Henry II., mentions the delight taken by the citizens of London in the diversion. In James's reign, Croydon in the south, and Garterly in the north, were celebrated courses. Near York there were races, and the prize was a little golden bell, 1607. —Camden. In the end of Charles I.'s reign, races were performed at Hyde-park, and also Newmarket, although first used as a place for hunting. Charles II. patronized them, and instead of bells, gave a silver bowl, or cup, value 100 guineas. RACKS. This engine of death, as well as of torture, for extracting a confession from criminals, was early known in the southern countries of Europe. The early Christians suffered by the rack, which was in later times an instrument of the Inquisition. The duke of Exeter, in the reign of Henry VI., erected a rack of torture (then called the duke of Exeter's daughter), now;een in the Tower, 1423. In the case of Felton, who murdered the duke of Buckingham, the judges of England nobly protested against the punishment proposed in the privy council of putting the assassin to the rack, as being contrary to the laws, 1628. See Ravillac. 5:02 THE \WORLD7S PROGRESS. L i RADCLIFFE LIBRARY, OXFORD. Founded under the will of Dr. John Radcliffe, the most eminent physician of his time. He left 40.0001. to the University of Oxford for this purpose, dying Nov. 1. 1714. The first stone.f the library was laid May 17., 1737; the edifice was completely finished in 1749, and was opened April 13, same year. RADSTADT, PEACE OF, between France and the emperor, March 6, 1714. CONGRESS of-commenced to treat of a general peace with the Germanic power.J, Dec. 9,1797. Negotiations were carried on throughout the year 1798. Atrocious massacre of the French plenipotentiaries at Radstadt by the Austrian regiment of Szeltzler, April 28, 1798. RAFTS. The Greeks knew no other way of crossing the narrow seas but;,-: i rafts or beams tied to one another, until the use of shipping was brought among them by Danaus of Egypt, when he fled from his brother Rameses, 1485 B. c. —ieylil. RAILROADS. There were short roads called tram-ways in and about Nevwcastle so early as the middle of the 17th century; but they were made of wood, and were used for transporting coals a moderate distance fiom the pits to the place of shipping. They are thus mentioned in 1676:-" The manner of the carriage is by laying rails of timber from the colliery to the river, exactly straight and parallel.; and bulky carts are made with four rol.l ers fitting those rails, whereby the carriage is so easy that one horse will draw down four or five chaldrons of coals, and is an immense benefit to the coal-merchants,"-Li/fe of Lord-Keeper IVorth. They were made of iron, at Whitehaven, in 1738. The first considerable iron railroad was laid down at Colebrook Dale in 1786. The first iron railroad sanctioned by parliament (with the exception of a few undertaken by canal companies as' small branches to mines) was the Surrey iron railway (by horses), from the Thames at Wandsworth to Croydon, for which the act was obtained in 1801. The first great and extensive enterprise of this kind is the Liverpool and Mancheste; railway (by engines), commenced in October 1826, and opened Sept. 15, 1830. EXTENT OF RAILWAYS OPENED THROUGHOUT THE WORLD, IN 1847. Miltes. MY1~iles. Great Britain and Ireland - 3,375 Italy - - lsi United States (in 1849, 6,117) - - 3,800 Denmark - 106 Germany (in 1849, 3,100) - 1,570 Cuba 8 - 800 Holland - - 200 Russia... 52 Belgium - 1,095 British Colonies - - 1,000 France -. - 2,200 East India - - 500 Total length of railways opened throughout the world: —in 1847, 21,761 miles. In 1824, the first locomotive constructed travelled at the rate of 6 miles per hour; in 1829, the Rocket travelled at the rate of fifteen miles per hour; in 1834, the Fire Fly attained a speed of 20 miles per hour; in 1839, the North- Star moved with a velocity of 37 miles per hour; and at the present moment locomotives have attained a speed of 70 miles per hour. During the same period the quantity of fuel required for generating steam has been diminished five-sixths, that is, six tons of coal were formerly consumed for one at the present moment, and other expenses are diminished in a correvponding ratio. — T1cck's Railways, 1847. RAILROADS IN TtIE UNITED STATES. In January 1849, the lines completed reached an aggregate of In New England - -1,219 miles. In New York 840 do. In other parts of the United States- - - - 4,05 do. Total - 6,117 do. [See Anerican Almanac, 1850, page 211, for complete list.1 ,A AV DICTIONARY OF DATES. 503 A considerable number of miles have since been completed, including a portion of the New York and Erie; Hudson River Railroad &c., &-c. The first railwaty in the United States, was the Quincy and Boston. to convey granite foir Bunker Hill monument, 1827. Boston and Providence Railroatd, opened June 2, 1835. Boston and Lowell, Jnne 27, and Boston and W01orcester, July6. same year. Utica and Schenectady, opened Ang. 1, 1836. Baltimore to Wilmington, July 19, 1837. Providence and Stonington, Nov. 10, 1837. Worcester and Springfield, Mass., Oct. 1, 1839. Housatonic, Feb. 12, 1840. IIAILROADS IN FRANCE. There was a small one at mount Cenis as early as 1783; the first of any extent was the St. Etienne and Andrezieux 22 miles, con-mmenced in 1825. Paris and Versailles commenced 1827. Horrible accident on that from Paris to Versailles, 70 persons killed by collision and fire. including the celebratednavigator D'Urville, May 8, 1842. Another on the Paris and Brnssels Railway, train ran off a bridge, 14 killed and 20 wounded, July 8, 1846. RAILWAYS, BELGIUM. That between Brussels and Antwerp, the first in Belgium, opened May 3, 1836. -RA.MIJLIES, BATTLE OF, between the English under the duke of Marlborough and the allies on the one side, and the French on the other; fought on Whitsunday, May 23, 1706. The duke achieved one of' his most glorious victories, which accelerated the fall of Louvain, Brussels, and other important places, and parliament rewarded the victor by settling the honors which bacd been conferred on himself, upon the male and female issue of his daughters. RATISBON, PEACE OF, concluded between France and the emperor of Germany, and by which was terminated the war for the MIantuan succession, October 13, 1630. It was at Ratisbon, in a diet held there, that the German princes seceded from the Germanic empire, and placed themselves under the protection of the emperor Napoleon, August 1, 1806. RATS. The brown rat, very improperly called the Norway rat, the great pest of our dwellings, originally came to us firom Persia and the Southern regions of Asia. This fact is rendered evident from the testimony of Pallas and F. Cuvier. Pallas describes the migratory nature of rats, and states that in the autumn of 1729 they arrived at Astrachan in such incredible numbers, that nothing could be done to oppose them; they came from the western deserts, nor did the waves of the Volga arrest their progress. They only advanced to the vicinity of Paris in the middle of the sixteenth century, and. in some parts of France are still unknown. PAVENNA, BATTLE OF, between the French under the great Gaston de Foix (duke of Nemours and nephew of Louis XII.) and the Spanish and papal armies. De Foix gained the memorable battle, but perished in the moment of victory, and his death closed the fortunes of the French in Italy, April 11, 1512. RAVILLAC'S MURDER OF HENRY IV. OF FRANCE. The death of Ravillac is one of the most dreadful upon record. He assassinated the k]ing, May 14, 1610; and when put to the torture, he broke out into horrid execrations. He was carried to the Grbve, and tied to the rack, a wooden engine in the shape of St. Andrew's cross. His right hand, within which was fastened the knife with which he did the murder, was first burnt at a slow fire. Then the-fleshy and most delicate parts of his body were torn with red hot pincers, and into the gaping wounds melted lead, oil, pitch, and rosin were poured. His body was so robust, that he endured this exquisite pain; and his strength resisted that of the four horses by which his limbs welre to be 504 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. Il" E:l" pulled to pieces. The executioner in consequence cut him into quarters, and the spectators, who refused to pray for him, dragged them through the streets. REFORMT IN PARLIAMENT. This subject was a chief source of agitation for many years, and during several administrations. Mr. Pitt's motion for a reform in parliament was lost by a majority of 20, in 1782. The discussion on this motion was the most remarkable up to the period at which reform was conceded. The first ministerial measure of reform was in earl Grey's administration, when it was proposed in the house of commons by lord John Russell, March 1, 1831. His bill defeated in the house of lords by 41 majority, Oct. 8. The bill of 1832 defeated by 35 majority, May 7. New peers were created May 18, and the bill was finally passed by peels (106 to 22) June 4, 1832. REFORMATION, THE. The early efforts for the reformation of the church may be traced to the reign of Charlemagne, when Paulinun, bishop of Aquileia, employed his voice and pen to accomplish this object. The principal reformers were Wickliiffe, Huss, Luther, Zuinglius, Tyndal, Calvin, Petri, Melancthon, Erasmus, Jerome of Prague, Zisca, Browne, and Knox. The eras of the Refoirmation are as follows:In England (Wickliffe) - A. D. 1360 In Sweden (Peti) - - A. D5. 1530 In Bohemia (iHuss) - 1405 In England (Henry VIII.) -..1534 In Germany (Lather) - - - -1517 In Ireland (Brozwne) - - -1535 In Switzerland (Zuzinglius) - 1519 In England, completed (Cruanmer, 1, uIn Denmark - 1521 cer, Fagiaus, 4'c.) - 1547 In France (Calvin) - - - - 1529 In Scotland (Knox).... 1560 Protestants first so called - 1529 In the Netherlands - - - 1562 The reformed religion was established by queen Elizabeth on her accession to the throne, 1558. George Browne, archbishop of Dublin, was the first prelate who embraced the Protestant religion in Ireland, 1535. See Lth/eer, Protestants, 4-c. RELIGION. Properly, that awful reverence and pure worship that is due to God, the supreme Author of all beings, tlhongh it is very often abused, and applied to superstitious adorations among Christians, and to idols and false gods among the, heathens.-Pacrdobn. Religion had its origin in most tribes and nations in their ignorance of the causes of natural phenomena. benefits being ascribed to a good spirit, and evils to a bad one.-Phtillips. Religious ceremonies in the worship of the Supreme Being are said to have been introduced by Enos, 2832 a. c..-Le7kgtlet. See the different sects as described throughout the volume. The Established religion of England commenced with the Reformation (wv/hich see), 1534. The Six Articles of Religion, fOr the non-observance of which many Protestants as well as Catholics suffered death, passed 1539. The Thirty-nine Articles were established first in 1552; they were reduced from forty-two to thirty-nine in January 1563, and received the sanction of parliament in 1571. REPEAL OF TiHE UNION OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. An Irish association was formed with this object under the auspices of Mr. O'Connell, in 1829. A new and more resolved association afterwards sprung up, and in 1841, 1842, and 1843 became more violent, each successive year, in its deliberations. Assemblies of the people were held, in the last-named year, is, various parts of Ireland. some of them amounting to 150,000 persons, and called " monster meetings." A meeting to be held at Clontarf, on Oct. 8, was suppressed by government; O'Connell and his chief associates were brought to trial, Jan. 15, 1844. RETREAT OF THE GREEKS. Memorable retreat of 10,000 Greeks who had joined the army of the younger Cyrus in his revolt against his brother Artaxerxes. Xenophon was selected by his brother officers to superintend the retreat of his countrymen. He rose superior to danger, and though under ['EV j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 505 continual alarms from the sudden attacks of the Persians, he was enabled to cross rapid rivers, penetrate through vast deserts, gain the tops of mountains, till he could rest secure for awhile, and refiesh his tired companions. This celebrated retreat was at last happily effected; the Greeks returned home after a march of 1155 parasangs, or leagues, which was performed in 215 days, after an absence of fifteen months. The whole perhaps might now be forgotten, or at least but obscurely known, if the great philosopher who planned it had not employed his pen in describing the dangers which he escaped, and the difficulties which he surmounted. 401 B. c.- Vossins. REVENUE, PUBLIC, os' ENGLAND. The revenue collected for the civil list and for all the other charges of government, as well ordinary as extraordinary, ~1,200,000 per annum, in 1660, the first after the restoration of Charles II. Raised to ~6,000,000, and every branch of the revenue anticipated, which was the origin of the funds and the national debt, William and Mary, 1690.-Salmon's Ch'oeon. Hxist.. GENERAL VIEW OF THE PUBLIC REVENUE SINCE THE CONQUEST, BY SIR JOHN SINCLAIR. William the Conqueror. - ~400,000 Henry VIII. -- - 800,000 William Rufus - 350,000 Edward VI. - - - 400,000 Henry 1. - 300,000 Mary 450,000 Stephen - 250,000 Elizabeth.. * 500,000 Henry II. - 200,000 James I. 600,000 Richard I. 150,000 Charles I. 895,819 John - a 100,000 Commonwealth 1,517,247 Henry III. - - 80,000 Charles II. 1,800,000 Edward I. - - 150,900 James II. - - - 2,001,855 Edward II. - 100,000 William III. - - 3,892,205 Edward lIf. - 154,000 Anne (at the Union) - - - 5,691,803 Richard II. - - 130,000 George I. - - - 6,762,643 Henry IV. - 100,000 George II. - 8,522,540 Henry V. 76,643 George III., 1788 - - - 15,572.971 Henry VI. 64,976 Ditto, 1820, United Kingdom 65.599,570 Edward IV. George IV., 1825, ditto - 62,871,300 Edward V.. - - - 100,000 William IV., 1830, ditto - - 55,431,317 Richard III. - 130,000 Ditto, 1835, ditto - - 50,494,732 Henry VII. - 400,000 Victoria, 1845, ditto - - 51,067,856 REVENUE OF THE UNITED STATES, THE, is derived chiefly from customs and sales of public lands. The aggregate revenue was, in 1790 $4,399,473 1825 - $ 21,842,906 1840 - - $16,993,858 1795 -. - 5,926.216 1830 - - 24,280,888 1844 - 28,504.519 1800 - - 10,624,997 1835- - 34,163,635 1845 29,769.134 1805 - - 13,520.312 1836 - 48,288,219 1846 - - 29,499,247 1810 9,299,737 1837 -. 18,032,846 1847 - 26,346,790 18'15 - - - 15,411.634 1838 - 19,372,984 1848 - - 35,436,750 1820 - - 16,779,331 1839 - - 30,399,043 REVIEWS AND MAGAZINES. The first publication of the character of a r'eview was the "Jouri'al des Savants," established at Paris, in 1665, by Denis de Sallo. It was at first published weekly, and contained analyses and critiques of new works, which were so severe as to give much offence. De Sallo died in 1669. and the journal was afterwards edited by Gallois, De la Roque, and Cousin. From 1715 to 1792, it was conducted by a society of learned men, and appeared in monthly numbers; and the collection froum' 1665 to 1792 forms 111 volumes 4to. In 1792, it was discontinued; but in 1816, it was revived, and has had a number of eminent men among its contributors, as De Sacy, Langles, R6musat, Bliot, Cuvier, &c. Numerous other literary and scientific journals have been established at Paris within a few years. The Gentlenman's lfcagaczine, which first appeared in 1731, and the AiMontdly Reziew, in 1749, were the first works of the kind published in London, that obtained any great degree of permanency or celebrity. Of the journals which preceded the Gentleman's Magazine, the following are enumerated by Nichols; viz. "Weekly Memorials, or an Account of Books lately set forth," 506 THE W\ORLD'S PROGRESS. [ FI-~V 1688-9;'" fIemnoirs of Literature," 8 vols., 8vo., 1722; "New Memoirs of Literature," 6 vols., 1725 to 1727; "Present State of the Republic of Letters," 18 vols., 1728 to 1736; " Historia Literaria," 4 vols., 1730 to 1732. The Gentlenalcn's lI-cag'czit.e was established in 1731, by Edward Cave, the first editor, who died in 1754. leaving the work in the hands of' his associate, David Henry, who received as coadjutor John Nichols, in 1778, and died in 1792, having been connected with the management of the mag-azine more than fifty years. Mr. Nichols. who was an eminent antiquary, and author of " Literary Anecdotes," 9 Yols., died in 1827, having been joint or sole ediitor nearly half a century. These editors were all printers by profession: and the appellation assumed a.ad retained by the conductor of the work from its comrmencemnent to the present time, is Sylvanus Urban. This MAIagazine is celebrated for the early connection of Dr. Johnson with the first editor, and in a notice of the life of Cave, revised in 1781, Dr. Johnson says of this magazine, that its " scheme is known wherever the English language is spoken,-that it is one of the most successfull and lucrative pamphlets which literary history has upon record." A new series of this work wvas begun January, 1834; the first series having been completed in 103 volum-es The It/?dy Review, the earliest regular work of the kind in England, was established in 1749, by Ralph Gri-fiths, LL. D., who continued to onlduct it 54 years, assisted by his son in the latter years of his life. This work was continued until 1844, and had many able contributors. The first series, from 1749 to 1789 inclusive, comprises 81 volumes; Second Series, ending in 1825, 108 volumes. The Critical Reviewz [London] was established in 1756, by Archibald Hamilton, with the assistance of Dr. Simollett and other fiiends. From 1764 to 1785, the Rev. Joseph Robertson was a liberal contributor, having furnlished upwards of 2;620 articles. This work was discontinued several years since. First Series, from 1756 to 1790, inclusive, 70 volumes; 2d Series, fiom 1791 to 1803, inclusive, 39 volumes; 3d Series, from 1804 to 1811, inclusive,'4 volumes; 4th Series, from 1812 to 1814, inclusive, 6 volumes. A 5th Series was begun in 1815. The British Critic [London] was established in 1793; and its first editors were the Rev. Messrs. Robert Nares and William Beloe: the latter of whom died in 1817; and the former in 1829, having retained his connection with the work till the completion of the 42cl volume. It was at first published in monthly numbers; but from 1827, it appeared quarterly, under the title of "The British Critic and Theological Review," until 1843, when a new work, called the English? Revicw, took its place. It was conducted by the members of the ecclesiastical establishment; and maintained Tory and High Church principles. The establishment of the Edinbqturgh Review, in 1802, formed an era in periodical criticism; as this work from its commencement took a wider range and assumed a higher tone, both in literature and politics, than any preceding publication of' the kind. It has uniformly been a strenuous asserter of Whig or reformling principles. Its editors have been the Rev. Sidney Smith (the first year), Francis Jeffrey, and (now) Macvey Napier. Among its principal writers, besides Sidney Smith and Jeffrey, are the distinguished names of Playfair, Dugalcl Stewart, Mackintosh, Brown, Leslie, Brougham, and Macaulay. This work soon gained a wide cilculation; and at one time, upwards of 20,000 copies were published; but in 1832, the nurmber was somrrewhat less than 9000. The Qarteterlpy Review [London] was established in 1809, and, as early as 1812, it is said to have obtained a circulation little short of 6000 copies. It may be regarded as a rival publication to the Edinburgh Review, maintain LEV ] DICTIONARPY OF DATES. 507 ing, in a manner equally uncompromising, opposite or High Tory principles. It 7was edited fiomn it's commliencemlint till 1825 by William G iford; then by H. N. Coleridcge; and now by J. G. Lockhart. Among its writers are numbered sir Walter Scott. Southey, and Croker. It has had many able and learned contsributors, some of whomn are understood to have been connected with the government. LThe bEclc/ic Revicw [London], a monthly Journal, was commenced in 1805. It is conducted by Protestant Dissenters, and maintains evangelical principles in religion, and liberal or reforming principles in politics. It has llad mlany able contributors, among whom are numbered Adam Clarke, Robert Hall, and John Foster.-Present ed[tor, Josiah Conder.-First Series. from 1805 to 1813, inclusive, 10 volumes; 2d Series, from 1814 to 1828, inclusive, 30 volumes. The 3d Series was begun in 1829. The C~lristicab Obser'ver [London], a monthly journal,.conducted by members of the established church, was commenced. in 1802. and mlaintains what are commonly styled evangelical principles. It has had a number of able contributors. The first editor, Zachary Macaulay; the present, the Rev. Samuel Charles Wilks.-Most of the volumnes of this work have be,.L republished in this country. Blclklwoowd's Edfh'i'tn)olc-, 71C b MaoCzinle, a monthly journal, was commenced in 1817. It is edited by Professor John Wilson, and maintains High Tory politics. The number of copies published, in 1832, was stated at upwards of 9000. The Westlimster Rev;iew, established, in 1824, by the disciples of Jeremy Bentham, is a strenuous advocate for radical reform in church, state, and legislation. First editor, John Bowring, LL.D; tl;hen succeeded by Mr. Mill, and by W. E Hickson. The Foreign Quarterly was united with it in 1845. The floreigon, Qzrc?'ter'ly Review [London], established in 1827, devoted to foreign literature, and conducted iwith ability, until 1845, when it was united to the Westminster Review. —Aner. Almsnac, ec. REVOLUTION, ERA Of THE. This memorable revolution took place in England in 1688, and is styled by Voltaire as the era of English liberty. Janes II. had rendered himself hateful to his subjects by his tyranny and oppression; and soon after the landing of the prince of Orange at Torbay, Nov. 5, 1688, tihe throne was abdicated by James, who fled. The revolution was consummated by William III. and his queen (Mary, daughter of James) being proclaimed, Feb. 13, and crowned April 11, 1689. lIEVOLUTIONS, REMMARKABLE IN ANCIENT HISTORY. The Assyrian empire destroyed, and that of the Medes and Persians foulndlel by Cyrus the Great, 536 B. c. The Macedonian empire founded on the destruction of the Persian, on the defeat of Darius Codonlanus, by Alexander the Great, 331 B. c. The Roman empire established on the ruins of tile Macedonian, or Greek mlonarchy, by Julius Cresar, 47 B. c. The Eastern empire, founded by Constantine the Great, on the final overthlow of the Roman, A. D. 306. The empire of the Western Franks began under Charlemagne, A. D. 802. This empire underwent a new revolution, and became the German empire unlder Rodolph of Hapsburgbh, the head of the house of Austria, a. D. 1273, from whom it is also called the Monarchy of the Austrians. Thle Eastern empire passed into the hands of the Turks, about A. D. 1293. See also the Revolutions of particular countries under their proper heads, as Rome, Frcmce. Porbtel.at, &c. PREVOLUTTIONTS. THE MOST CELEBRATED IN MODERN IISTORY. In Portugal, A. D. 1610. In England, 1688. In Poland, I 70-1, 1795, and 1830. In Russia, 1730 and 1762. In Sweden, 1772 and 1809. Fn America, 1775. In France, 1789, 183,0, and 1848. In Holland, 1795. In Venice, 1797. In Rome, 1798. In the Netherlands, 1830. In Brunswick, 1830. In Brazil, 1831. In Bonme, 5,08 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ e Tuscany, Lombardy, Hungary, &c., 1848-9. These last were temporary only -the former governments were restored, 1849. See these countries respectively. REVIEWS AND MAGAZINES IN THE UNITED STATES. Before the American Revolution various attempts were made to establish religious and literary journals in several places in this country, particularly Boston, New York, and Philadelphia; but no one of them obtained a liberal support or had a long duration. The following are some of the leading literary and religious reviews and magazines: BOSTON. Founded. NEW YORK. PHILADELPHIA. American Monthly lVla- N. Y. Magazine and Aitkin's Pennsylvania gazine, (the first) es- Literary Rep)ository, Magazine was the tablished by Jeremy (to 1792) - 1787 most popular before Gridley, continued 3 Literary Reviesv, R. C. the Revolution; Thos. years, about - - 1745 Sands, &c. (to 1823) - 1822 Paine and Francis Massachusetts Maga- Atlantic SMag., Sands, Ilopkinson, editors zine, (lasted to 1795) 1784 afterwards New Yorlk Amnzer. Museumr, pub. by Monthlly Anthology, Prf. Monthly Revies, - 1824 Matthew Carey, (to Ticknor, A. H. Eve- Knickerbocker Mag., C. 1792) - - -1787 rett, Buckminster, &c. F. Hoffman, succeeded Literary Magazine and (to 1811) - - - 1803 by Flint, and now L. Aenericarn Register, C. General Repertory and G. Clark - 1832 Brockden Brown, (to 1Reviewz, (Ist Amer. Democratic Review (un- 1810) - - - 1805 quarterly,) edited at tilt 1841 at Washington) 1837 Portfolio, pub. monthly " Cambridge byAndrews Ameerican Monthty.Ma- from 1809 by Jos. DenNorton - - 1812-13 gazine, N. Y.,(to 1838) - nie; edited by NichoNorth Asmeerican Re- Herbert,IHoffman,B3en- las Biddle,1812-16, and viezo, commenced by jamtin - - 1835't816-21 by J. E. Hall - 1801 W. Tudor* -- 1815 N. Y. Review, (quar- Analectic Slklag., Moses Curzistiane Exaeziner, terly) J. G. Cogswell, Thomas, (to 1820) - i813 (quarterly) Channing, (to 1842) - - 1837 Anmer. QuaLr. Review, Dewey, Ware, &c. - 1818 Amnerican Revieze, G. Robt. Walsh, (to 1837) 1827 Asneerican Biblic. Repo- 11. Colton - - 1844 Grahae7's Magazine - sitory, founded by E. Iuent's AMerchant's lIa- Ladlys Book, Mrs. Hale Robinson, D.D., at An- gazine - - - 1839 S'tryker's Asmerican Redover - - -1831 gister, (quarterly) - i847 Christian Reviewo,(Bap- NEW HAVEN. tist) quarterly - - 1835 Christian Observer - 182- Soutthesrn QuarleslyReBoston Quearterly Re- Aszerican Journal of viesw, at Charleston, view, (Brownson) - 1837 Science Ar'ts, (Silli- (to 1833, recommenced NVew EEngland fMaga- man's) quarterly - 1818 1842) - - 1828 zine, Buctkinghlam - I833 New Esglander, Theol. Soutllern Lit. MessensAseeri can CQeaerlely Re- (qeu arlerly) - -1843 ger, at Richmond, by gister, Eclwards - 18-is ~ -chls Reviess (qual. We - T. -ite 1834 The Dial, (quarterly) ) tIey) eve 1848 Biblical Repertory and Emerson, to 1843 - 1841 e Teological Review, Massachusetts Quarter- Princeton N. J. -8ly, Theo. Parker, &c. 1846 R.HEIMS. The principal church here was built before A. D. 406; it was rebuilt in the twelfth century, and is now very beautiful. The corpse of St. Remy the archbishop, is preserved behind the high altar, in a magnificent shrine The kings of France have been successively crowned at Rheimns; probably, becouse Clovis, the founder of the French monarchy, when converted from paganism, was baptized in the cathedral here, in the year 496. This city was taken and retaken several times in the last months of the wTr of 1814. RHETORIC. Rhetorical points and accents were invented by Aristophlane- of Byzantium, 200 B. c.-AbbE Lenglet. Rhetoric was first taught in Latin at Rome by Photius Gallus, 87 B. c.-Idem. " We are first to consider what is to be said; secondly, how: thirdly, in whlat words; and lastly, how it is to be ornamented."- Cicero. A regius professor of rhetoric was appointed ill Edinburgh, April 20, 1762, when Dr. Blair became first professor. * Subsequent editors:-V. Phillips, 1817; E. T. Channing, Dana, and Sparcs, 1817; Edward Everett, 1819; Jared Sparks, 1823; A. H1. Everett, 1830; J. G. Palfrey, 1835; F. Bowen, 1842. ROM ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 505 RHINE, CONFEDERATION o' THE. See article Cosfedera-tiont of ite Reioee. RETODE ISLAND, one of the United States; first settled by Roger Williams and his associates, who left Massachusetts to escape religious persecution, and founllded the town of Providence, in 1686. Williams obtained a patent firom Plymouth Co. in 1644, including Providence Plantations and Rhode Island. which had been settled 1638. New charter by Charles II., in 1663, which has continued in force till recently, unchanged by the Revolution. I)orr's attempt to change or overturn this constitution by armed force, in June, 1842, defeated by the military force of the government. New constitution adopted in convention, September 1842. Constitution of the United States adopted May 29, 1790; this State being the last to accede to it. Population in 1790, 58,825; in 1810,,76,931; in 1830, 97,212; in 1840, 108,130. RHODES. This city was peopled from Crete, as early as 916 a. c. The Rhoclians were famous navigators, masters of the sea, and institutors of a maritime code, which was afterwards adopted by the Romlans. The republic not completed till 480 B. c. The city built 432 a.c. Its famous Colossus (which see) thrown down by an earthquake, 224 a. c., and finally destroyed by the Saracen admiral Moavia, A. D. 672 —Priestley. RiTALTO, AT VENICE. This renowned bridge is mentioned by Shakspeare in his " Merchant of Venice." It was built in 1570, and consists of a single arch, but a very noble one, of marble, built across the Grand Canal, near the middle, where it is the narrowest: this celebrated arch is ninety feet wide on the level of the canal, and twenty-four feet high. RIGHTS, BILL of. The declaration made by the lords and commons of England to the prince and princess of Orange, Feb. 13, 1689. See Bill of Rigtts, RIOTS. Some of the most noted in the United States: At Baltilnore, office of a Newspaper oppos- At Cincinnati, chiefly of Irishmen against ed to the war, demolished, July, 1812. abolitionists and negroes, Sept. 4,1841. At Providence, 4 persons killed by the mili- Disgracelul affray in Pennsylvania legislatary, Sept. 24, 1831. ture; a member stabbed by another, April At Baltimore, about the bank of Md., several 8, 1843. killed and wounded. Aug. 8, 1335. Another in House of Representatives of U. At New York,' abolition riots," caused by S.; rencontre between Weller and Shriver, discussions on slavery, and supposed in- Jan. 25, 1844. tentions of abolitionists to promote " amal- Riot at Philadelphia, between "' native Amegamation" between whites and blacks, ricans" antd the Irish, 30 houses and 3 July 10-12, 1834. churches burned, fourteen persons killed, At Charlestown, Mass., a Catholic seminary forty wounded; finally put down by the or nunnery burnt, Aug. 11, 1834. military, May 6-8, 1844. At Philadelphia, further "L abolition" riots, The same renewed, and 40 to 50 killed and 40 houses destroyed. Aug. 12, 1834. wounded by the nilitary: 5000 troops callAt Utica, Boston, &c., same cause. 1835-6. ed out, July 7,1844. At Cincinnati, printing-press of Mr. Bur- Outrages of "Anti-Renters," in Rensselaer ney's "abolition" paper destroyed, July County. N. Y. Commenced August 21, 30.1836. 1844: renewed in December. At New York, caused by the high price ot Delaware Co., N. Y., declared by governor flour; several hundred barrels of flour des- Wright to be in a state of insurrection. troyed, Feb. 13, 1837. Col lection of rents being resisted by rioters At Alton, Ill., Rev. E. P. Lovejoy's anti-sla- disguised as Indians, and an under sheriff very newspaper destroyed, and he was murdered, Aug. 27, 1845. killed, Nov. 7. 1837. Anti-Rent riot in Columbia Co. N. Y. March At Philadelphia, mob opposed to the anti- 25,1847. slavery discussions, destroyed Pennsylva- Riots at the Astor Place Opera House, N. Y, nia Hall, &c., May 17, 1838. against Mr. Macready, the English actor Int the Pennsylvania legislature, two,Jifferent 21 klilled; May t0, 1849. legislatures organized, the Senate expel led Disgraceful rencontre between Foote of Mis from their Chamber by a mob. Militia sissippi and Benton of Missouri, in the called out and the contest settled after 4 Senate of the U. S., the first gross insult to days, Dec. 8,1838. that assembly, May, 1850. RIVER AND HARBOR CONVENTION, for promoting improvements, &c.; as 510 TIHE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ ROM senrbled at Chicago, Ill., July 5, 1847. House of Representatives votes (112 to 53) that it is expedient and constitutional for the general governmnent to promote such improvements, July 1848. ROB tSPIERRE'S REIGN oF TERROR. Maximilian Robespierre headed the populace in the Champ de Mars, in Paris, demanding' the dethronement of the king, July 17, 1791. He was triumphant in 1793, and great numbers of eminent men and citizens were sacrificed during his sanguinary admlinist ation. Billand Varennes denounced the tyranny of Robespierre in the tribune, July 28, 1794. Cries of " Down with the tyrant!" resounded through the hall; and so great was the abhorrence of the Convention of this wicked minister, that he was immediately ordered to the place of execution and suffered death, no man deeming himself safe while Robespierre lived. ROBIN HOOD. The celebrated captain of a notorious band of robbers, who infested the forest of' Sherwood in Nottinghamshire, and from thence made excursions to many parts of England, in search of booty. Some historians assert ti.at this was only a name assumed by'the then earl of Huntingdon, who was disgraced and banished the court by Richard I. at his accession. Robin Hood, Little John his friend and second in command, with their lnamerous followers, continued their depredations fiom about 1189 to 1247, when he died. —Stowe's Ch/ron. ROCKETS, CONGREVE'S. War implements of very destructive power, were invented by sir William Congreve. about 1803. The carcase rockets wvere first u-id at Boulogne, their powers having been previously demonstrated in the presence of Mr. Pitt and several of the cabinet ministers, 1806. See article Boesldoo',e Flotila/. ROMAN CATHOLICS. The progress of Christianity during the life-time of its divine founder was confined within narrow bounds: the Holy Land was alone the scene of his labors, and of his life and death. The period of the rise of the Roman Catholic religion may be dated from the establishment of Christianity by Constantine, A. n. 323. See Roabe. The foundation of the papal power dates from A. D. 606, when Boniface III. assumed the title of Universal Bishop. See Pope. Pepin, king of France, invested pope Stephen II. with the temporal dominions of' Iome and its territories, A. D. 706. The tremendous power of the Roman pontiffs was weakened by the Reformation. and has since been gradually yielding to the influence of the reformed doctrines. and the general diff'Lsion of knowledge among the nations of the earth. Of 225 millions of Christians, about 160 millions are, or pass unler the denomination of, Roman Catholics. —Al. b'lbi. ROMAN CATHOLICS IN ENGLAND. Laws were enacted against them in 1539. They were forbidden the Britishli court in 1673; but restored to favor there in 1685. Disabled -from holding offices of trust 1689; and excluded from the British throne same year. Obliged to register their names and estates 1717. Indulgences were granted to Roman Catholics by parliament in 1778. They were permitted to purchase landc, and take it by dlescent, 1780. The "no-popery" riots (Gordon's) 1780. Catholic Elmancipation Bill passed:April 13, 1829, D. O'Connell being the first M. P. who took iis seat under the act. ROMANCES. " Stories of love and arms, wherein abundance of enthusiastic flights of the imagination are introduced, giving false imnages of life."Pcardonm. As Heliodorus, a bishop of Tricea, in Thessaly, was the author of Elh.io/ics, in Greek. the first work in this species of writing. he is hence styled the: Father of Romances." His work lhas a moral tendency, and particularly inculcates the virtue of chastity. He flourished A. D. 398.Hl-et de Origine F'abzd. RomEa. EOS ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 511 ROME. Once the Ilistress of the world, and subsequently the seat of the most extensive ecclesiastical jurisdiction ever acknowledged by mankind. Romulus is universally supposed to have laid the foundations of this celebratecd city, on the 20th of April, according to Varro, in the year 8961 of the Julian period, 3251 years after the creation of the world, 753 before the birth of Christ, 481 years after the Trojan war, ancd in tle fourth year of the sixth Olympiad. In its ori'inal state. Rome was but a small castle on the summit of Mount Palaftine;, and the founder, to give his followers the appearance of a nation or a barbarian horde, was obliged to erect a standa'rd a. a common asylum for every criminal, debtor, or murderer, who lec ftiom their native country to avoid the punishment which attended thenm. From such an assemblage a numerous body was soon collected, and before the death of the founder, the Ronmans had covered with their habitations, the Palatine, Capitoline, Aventine, Esquiline hills, with Mount Ccelius, and Quirinalis. Their numerous and successful wars led, in the course of' ages, to their mastery over all mankind, and to their conquest of neanri tle whole of the then known world. The Romlans and the Albans, contesting for superiority, agreed to choose three champions on each part to decide it. The three Ior'atlii, Roman knights, and the three CLcriaceii, Albans, having been elected by their respective countries, engaged in the celebrated combat, which by the victory of the l0oratii, united Alba to Rome, 667 c. c.Livy. See Tcbularc- Vziews, p. 15 to p. 63. Foundation of the city commenced by I &c. The pope refuses; the people Romulus - -. c. 753 attack the palace, and at 7 P. M. the Odoacer, chief of the IHeruli, enters pope yields, and grants a liberal miItaly, takes Rome, and assumes the nistry - - - Nov. 16, 1848 title of king of Italy, which ends the The pope, after being a prisoner in his Western empire - A. D. 476 palace for seven days, escapes from Rome is recovered for Justinian, by Romne to Mola di Gaeta, in the disBelisarius - 537 guise of a servant - Nov. 24, 1848 Retaken by the Goths - - 5.17 Roman chambers dissolved, and a conNarses, Justinian's general, again re- stituent assembly convened - Dec. 29, 1848 conquers Rome - 553 The Roman republic proclaimed; MazPapal power established - 606 zini and two others triulllvirs Feb. 9, 1849 Rome revolts fiom the Greek emperors, French armament against the republic and becomes free - - 726 reaches Civita Vecchia - April 25, 1819 Pope Stelphen II. invested with the tem- French repulsed under the walls of poral dominion of Rome - 756 Rome, with the loss of 600 - April 29, 1849 Charlemagne acknowledged as etnperor Rome surrenders after an attack of 29 of the West 800 days, and false promises on the part s* * e *_ * of the French - - July 2, 1849 Rienzi, the last of the tribunes, rules at Rome entered by the French under OnuRome -1347 dinot. and evacuated by Garibaldi [The popes continued in possession of and li-is force of 3,000 men - July 3, 1849 the city and territories. See article Garibaldi escapes to the Adriatic, Aug.2, 1849 Pogpes and Italy.] Ouadinot surrenders the government The recent struggles of Rome for free- inlto the hands of three coml missioners dom commenced in - - -1848 of the pope, who begin the worl of Mazzini's first proclamation - Oct. 29, 1848 reaction- - - - Au. 3, 318-19 Letter of the Frerich president, dictatCount Rossi, the pope's prime minis- ing the basis of the restoration of the 1er, assassinated at the senate-house. pope's tempo-ral power, viz.: general The populace march to the Quirinal, amnesty, secularization of the admiiand present their demands to the nistration, code Napoleon, and a libepope, viz.: Italian nationality, con- ral covernment - Aug. 18, 1849 stituent assembly, a new ministry, Pope Pius IX. returned to Rome - Apr. 1850 ROSARY. " We owe to Dominic de Guzman, a canon of the order of St. Augustin, two most important blessings," says a Spanish writer, the Rosary and the Holy Office," A. D. 1202. Other authors mnention the Rosary as being said in 1093. ROSES, THIE WHITE AND RsED. The intestine wars which so long devastated England, were carriecd on under the symbols of the TW/cIite and the Red Rose, and were called the wars of' the Roses. The partisans of the house of Lan 512 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. L R-'M caster chose the red roses as their mark of distinction, and those of York were denominated from the whit-e. These wars originated with the descendants of Edward III. That monarch was succeeded by his grandson, Rlchard II., who being deposed, the duke of Lancaster was proclaimed king, by the title of Henry IV. in prejudice to the duke of York, the right heir to the crown; he being descended from Lionel, the second son of Edward III., whereas the duke of Lancaster was the son of John of Gaunt, the ttiu'rd son of king Edward. The accession of Henry occasioned several conspiracies during his reign; and the animosities which subsisted between his descendants and those of the duke of York afterwards filled the kingdom with civil commotions, and deluged its plains with blood, parTcularly in the reigns of Henry VI. and Edward IV. First battle fought, May 22, 1455. See Albans, St. Union of the Roses in the marriage of Henry VII. with the princess Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., 1486 ROSICRUSIANS. A sect of hermetical philosophers, first alpeared in Germany in 1802, and again early in the 17th century, They swore fidelity, promised secrecy, and wrote hieroglyphically; and affirmed that the ancient philosophers of Egypt, the Chaldeans, Magi of Persia, and Gy-mnosophists of the Inclies, taught the same doctrine with themselves. ROUND-HEADS. During the unhappy war which brought Charles I. of England to the scaffold, the adherents of that monarch were first called Cavalikrs, and the friends of the parliament were called Round-heads. This latter term arose from those persons who thus distinguished themselves putting a round bowl or wooden dish upon their heads, and cutting their hair by the edges or brims of the bowl. See Cacvaliers. ROYAL ACADEMY or ARTS IN ENGLAND. Instituted 1768, under the patronage of George III.; and sir Joshua Reynolds, knighted on the occasion, was appointed its first president. —eigh. ROYAL HUMANE SOCIETY, LONDON. This institution, for the recovery of persons apparently drowned, was founded in 1774, by Drs. Goldsmith, Heberden, Towers, Lettsom, Hawes and Cogan, but principally by the exertions of the last three gentlemen. The society has eighteen receiving-houses in the metropolis, all of which are supplied with perfect and excellent apparatus, and designated by conspicuous boards, announcing their object. ROYAL INSTITUTION, LONDON. This institution was formed in 1800, under the patronage of George III., and incorporated by royal charter as " The Royal Institution of Great Britain," for diffusing the knowledge, and facilitating the general introduction, of useful mechanical inventions and improvements, and for teaching, by courses of philosophical lectures and experiments, the application of science to the common purposes of life. The investigations and the important discoveries of sir H. Davy, who lectured on chemistry here, conferred no small degree of celebrity on this establishment. A new professorship was created in 1833. ROYAL SOCIETY. The origin of this learned body is ascribed to the hon. Robert Boyle and sir Win. Petty, who, together with the several doctors of divinity and physic, Matthew Wren and Mr. Rook, frequently met in the apartments of Dr. Wilkins, in Wadham College, Oxford; where the society continued till 1658. Charles II., April 22, 1663, constituted them a body politic and corporate, by the appellation of the "President, Council and Fellows of the Royal Society of London, for improving Natural Knowledge." RUMP PARLIAMENT. The parliament so designated at the period of the civil war in England. Colonel Pride at the head of two regiments blockaded the house of commons, and seized in the passage 41 members of the Presbyterian party, whom he confined; above 160 more were excluded; and none but the most determined of the Independents, about 60, were LdS ] ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 513 perimitted to enter the house. This invasion of parliamentary rights was called Pride's Purge, and the admitted members were called the Rump, 1649.-Goldsmnit/h. RUSSIA. Anciently Sarmatia. It is conjectured that the aborigines of this vast tract of country were the immediate progeny of Magog, second son of Japhet; and that they settled here very shortly after the dispersion from Babel, where they were gradually divided into tribes, each distinguished by a particular name, but still retaining their ancient general appellation, until it was changed by the Romans into that of Scythians. Rurick was grand-duke of Novogorod, A. D. 882, which is the earliest authentic account of this country. In 981, Wolacdiiler was the first CLristian king. Audrey I. began his reign in 1156, and laid the foundation of Moscow. About 1200, the Mongol Tartars conquered Russia, and held it in subjection till 1540, when John Basilowitz restored it to independence. In tile middle of the sixteenth century the Russians discovered and conquered Siberia. The foundation of the present monarchy The young prince, the rightful heir, till laid A. D. 1474 now immured, put to death A. n. 1763 Basil IV. carries his victorious arms in- The dismemberment of Poland comto the East, 1509 to - - - -1534 renced by Catherine. (See Poland) 177'Ivan Basitowitz takes the title of czar, This perfidious robbery completed - 1795 signifying great king, and drives the Catherine gives her subjects a new code Tartars clear out of his dominions, of laws; abolishes torture in punish1534 to - - - - - -1550 inl crim-ninals; and dies - 1796 The navigation from England first dis- Murder of the emperor Paul, who is covered by Robert Chancellor - 1554 found dead in his chamber, March 23, 1801 The Tartars surprise Moscow, and slay Great defeat of Alexander, at Austerlitz, 30,000 of the people - - - - 1571 by Napoleo - - DIec. 2, 105 The Novogorodians having intrigued Alexander visits England - June 6, 1814 with the Poles, Ivan orders the chief The grand-duke Constantine renounces inhabitants to be hewn into small pie- the right of succession - Jan. 26, 1822 ces before his eyes - - - 1581 The emperor Nicholas is crowned at The race of Rurick, who had governed Mos-cow - - - Sept. 3, 1826 Russia for 700 years, becomes extinct 159S Russian war against Persia - Sept. 28, 1826 The imposition practised by Demetrius Nicholas invested with the order of the See Izmpostors. - - 1606 Garter - - - July 9, 1827 The Poles place Ladislaus, son of their Peace concluded between Russia and own king, Sigismund II., upon the the Persians - - Feb- 22, 1828 throne of Russia - 1610 War between Russia and the Ottoman Michael Fedorowitz, of the house of Porte declared - - April 26, 1828 Romanzov, ascends the throne - - 1613 [For the disastrous consequences to Revolt from Polish tyranny - - 1613 Turkey of this war, see Turkey and Finland ceded to Sweden - - 1617 Battles.] Reign of Peter I. or the Great - -1682 The war for the independence of Poland, He visited En-land, and worked in the against Russia - - Nov. 28), 1830 dock-yard at Deptford - - - 1697 This war closed with the capture of Orders of St. Andrew, and of St. Alex- Warsaw, and the total overthrow of ander iNevskoi, instituted about - 1698 the Poles. See 1C4carsaw - Sept. 8,1831 The Russians begin their new year [For the events of this last war, see arfrom January I - - -1700 tide Polandl.] Peter builds St. Petersburg - - 1703 Cracow, which had been erected into a Peter II. deposed, aad the crown given republic, and its independence guato Anne of Courland - - 1730 ranteed by the Congress of Vienna, in Elizabeth, daughter of Peter I. reigns, 1815, is occupied by a Russian and in prejudice of Ivan VI., anll infant, Austrian army - Feb. 13, 1836 who is imprisoned for life - - 1741 Failure of the Russian expedition aPeter III. dethroned andl murdered; suc- gainst Khiva - - Jan. 3, 1840 ceeded by Catherine his wife, - 1762 Treaty of London. See Syria - July 15,1840 THE CZARS, OR EMIPERORS OP RUSSIA. i.D. 1161 John III. 1606 Chousky. 1504 Demetrius; murdered. 1616 Michael Fedorowitz. 1504- Basil V. 1645 Alexis. 1534 John IV. 1676 Theodore III. 1584 Theodore 1. 1682 Peter I.. the Great. 1593 Bovise Godounove.' 1725 Catherine I. 1605 Theodore II. 1727 Peter ]I. 1605 Demetrius 1I., assassinated. 1730 Anne, a nun. 22* 514 THEI r WORPLD'S PROGRESS. L. RUSSIA, oLtilLed. 1740 John V.; murdered, July 17, 1762. 1762 Catherine II. 1741 Elizabeth. 1796 Paul I.; murdered, Feb. 25, 1801. 1762 Peter III.; deposed, and died soon af- 1S01 Alexander. terwards. 1825 Nicholas, December 1. RYE-HOUSE PLOT. The real, or more probably pretended, conspiracy to assassinate Charles II. and his brother the duke of York (afterwards James II.) at a place called Rye-house, on the way to London from Newmarkct. This design was said to have been frustrated by the king's house at Newmarket accidentally taking fire, which hastened the royal party away eight days before the plot was to take place, March 22, 1683. The plot was cliscovered June 12, following. The patriot Algernon Sidney, suffered death on false charge of being concerned in this conspiracy, Dec. 7, 1683. RYSWICK, PEACE OF, concluded between England, France, Sp~in, and Holland, signed Sept. 20, and by the emperor of Germany, Oct. 30, 1697. S. SABBATH, THE. Ordained by the Almighty. The Jews observed the seventh day in commemoration of the creation and their redemption from the bondage of the Egyptians; the Christians observe the first day of the week I commemoration of the resurrection of Christ fiom the dead, and the universalredemption of mankind. The sabbath-day, or Sunday, ordained to be kept holy in England, from Saturday at three in the afternoon to Monday at break-of-day, 4 Canon, Edgar, A. D. 960. Act of parliament levying one shilling on every person absent from church on Sundays, 3 James I. 1606. Act restraining amusements, Charles I., 1626. Act restraining the performance of servile works, and the sale of goods, except milk at certain hours, meat in public houses, and works of necessity and charity, on forfeiture of five shillings, 29 Charles II. 1677. SABBAT1ANS. Christians, who, professing to follow the example and precepts of Christ, keep the ancient divine Sabbath of Saturday, instead of the modern Romish festival of Sunday, for which this sect allege that there is not a tittle of Scriptural authority. They maintain that the Jewish Sabbath was never abrogated, nor any other appointed or instituted, and consequently that it ought to be as religiously observed by the Christians as by the Jews, 1549. SABBATICAL YEAR. A Jewish institution, 1444 B. c. Every seventh year, during which time the very ground had rest, and was not tilled, and every fbrty-ninth year all debts were forgiven, slaves set at liberty, and estates, &c., that were before sold or mortgaged, returned to their original families, &c. —Josephus. SABINES. The people from whom the Romans, under Romulus, took away their daughters by force for wives, having made and invited them to some public sports or shows on purpose; when the Sabines were determined to revenge this affront, the women became mediators to their fathers in behalf of their husbands the Romans, and settled a regular and lasting peace bec; tween them, 750 B. c. SACRED WAR. The first, concerning the temple at Delphi, took place 448 B. C. The second Sacred War occurred on Delphi being attacked by the Phocoans, 356 a. c. This latter war was terminated by Philip. of Macedon taking all the cities of the Phoceans, 348 a. c.-Plldtc&'ch. SACRIFICE. The first religious sacrifice was offered to God by Abel; it consisted of milk and the firstlings of his flock, 3875 a. c.-Josep/bcs; UshAer. Sacrifices to the gods were first introduced into Greece by Phoroneus, king of ST. v ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 515 Argos, 1773 a. c. The offering of human sacrifices seems to have originated with the Chaldeans, from whom the custom passed into Greece, Persia, and other eastern nations. All sacrifices to the true God ceased with the sacrifice of the Redeemer, A. n. 33. SADDLES. In the earlier ages the Romans used neither saddles nor stirrups, which led to several maladies of the hips and legs. Saddles were in use in the third century, and are mentioned as made of leather in A D. 304. They were known in England about the year 600. Side-saddles for ladies were in use in 1388.- Anne, the queen of Richard II., introduced them to the English ladies.-Stowe. SADDUCEES. A sect among the Jews, said to have been founded by one Sadoc, a scholar of Antigonuns, who, misinterpreting his manter's doctrine, taught there was neither heaven nor hell, angel nor spirit; that the soul was mortal, and that there was no resurrection of the body fromn the dead. As for their other opinions, the Saciducees agreed in general with the Samaritans, excepting that they were partakers of all the Jewish sacrifices. This sect began about 200 a. c.-Pardon. SAFETY-LAMP. That of the illustrious sir Humphrey Davy, to prevent accidents which happen in coal and other imines, introduced in 1815; and improved in 1817. The safety-lamp is founded on the principle that flame, in passing through iron-wire imeshes, loses so much of its heat as not to be capable of igniting inflammable substances around, while flame alone ignites gas. It should be mentioned, that the father of all safety-lamps is Dr. Reid Clanny, of Sunderland, whose invention and improvements are authenticated in the Tranlsactions of the Society of Arts, for 1817, and in Thomqnson's Annals of PLdlosopYy, same year. SAGUNTUM, SIEGE oe. The famous and dreadful siege of Saguntuml (now Morviedro in Valencia) was sustained 219 a. c. The heroic citizens, after exerting incredible acts of' valor for eight months, chose to be buried in the ruins of their city rather than surrender to Hannibal. They burnt themselves, with their houses and all their effects, and the conqueror became master of a pile of ashes and of dead. ST. SALVADOR. The first point of land discovered in the West Indies or America by the illustrious Christopher Columbus. It was previously called Guanahami, or Cat's Isle, and Columbus (in acknowledgment to God for his delivermince from the dangers to which he was exposed in his voyage of discovery) named it St. Salvador, October 11, 1492. ST. SEBASTIAN'S, SIEGE OF, by the British and allied army under lord Wellington. St. Sebastian, after a short siege, during which it sustained a most heavy bombardment, and by which the whole town was laid nearly in ruins, was stormed by general (afterwards lord) Graham, and taken, August 31, 1813. ST. SOPHIA, CHURCaE OF. In Constantinople, a short distance from the Sublime Porte, stands the ancient Christian church of St. Sophia, built by Justinian; and since the Mahometan conquest, in 1453, used as an imperial mosque. It abounds in curiosities. Its length is 269 feet, and its breadth 243 feet. Six of its pillars are of green jasper, firom the Temple of Diana, at Ephesus; and eight of porphyry, from the Temple of the Sun, at Ronme. ST. VINCENT, BATTLE OF, between the Spanish and British fleets off the Cape. The latter was commanded by sir John Jervis (afterwards earl St. Vincent), who took four line-of-battle ships, and considerably damaged the rest of the Spanish fleet, February 14, 1797. 516 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ SAN SALAMANCA, BATTLE OF, between the British and allies commanded by lord Wellington, and the French army under Marshal Marmont, fought July 22, 1812. In this great and memorable battle the illustrious Wellington was victorious, though the loss of the allies was most severe, amounting in killed, wounded, and missing, to nearly 6000 men; but that of the enemy was much greater. Marmont left in the victor's hands 7141 prisoners, 11 pieces of cannon, 6 stand of colors, and two eagles: 8000 men are believed to have been killed and wounded. Marmont was the seventh French Marshal whom lord Wellington had defeated in the course of four years. An immediate consequence of this victory was the capture of Madrid with 2500 more prisoners, and an immense quantity of stores. SALAMIS, BATTLE OF. The Persians defeated by the Greeks in this great seafight, October 20, 480 B. c. Themistocles, the Greek commander, with only 380 sail, defeated the fleet of Xerxes, which consisted of 2000 sail. After this battle, Xerxes retired from Greece, leaving behind him Mardonius, with 300,000 men, to carry on the war, and suffer more disasters. In his retreat, he found the bridge of boats he had crossed over at the Hellespont, now the Dardanelles, destroyed by a tempest. SALIQUE, OR SALIC, LAW. By this law females are excluded from inheriting the crown of France. It was instituted by Pharamond, A. D. 424. Ratified in a council of state by Clovis I., the real founder of the French monarchy, in 511.-Hevnctult's France. In order to give more authority to the maxim that " the crown should never descend to a female," it was usual to derive it from a clause of the Salian code of the ancient Franks; but this clause, if strictly examined, carries only the appearance of favoring the principle, and does not in reality bear the sense imposed upon it. SALT AND SALT-MINES. Salt is either procured from rocks in the earth, from salt-springs, or from sea-water. The famous salt-mines of Wielitska, near Cracow, in Poland, have been worked 600 years, and yet present, it has been lately said, no appearance of being exhausted. Rock-salt was discovered about A. D. 950. Saltpetre was first made in England about 1625. The fine salt-mines of Staffordshire were discovered about 1670. SAMARITANS. The Samaritans are often mentioned in the Scriptures. They were the inhabitants of a province of which Samaria was the capital, and were composed of heathens and rebellious Jews; and on having a temple built there after the form of that of Jerusalem, a lasting enmity arose between the people of Judea and Samnaria, so that no intercourse took place between the two countries, and the name of Samaritan became a word of reproach, and as if it were a curse.-Lenpriere. SANCTUARIES. They had their origin in the early ages. Rome was one entire sanctuary from 751 B. C. In England, privileged places for the safety of offenders were granted by king Lucius to our churches and their precincts. St. John's of Beverley was thus privileged in the time of the Saxons. St. Burein's, in Cornwall, was privileged by Athelstan, A. D. 935; Westminster, by Edward the Confessor; St. Martin's-le-Grand, 1529. Sanctuaries were abolished at the Reformation. Several places in London were privileged against the arrest of persons for debt. These last were suppressed in 1696. SANDALS. The shoe or slipper worn especially by the eastern nations. At first it was only a piece of leather like the sole of a shoe, to keep the foot from the ground, but was in the course of time improved to a covering of cloth, ornamented with all the delicacies of art. and made of the richest materials, and worn by the high priests at great solemnities, and by kings, princes, and great llen, as a mark of distinction. Sandals were also worn by women, as appears from the story of Judith and Holofernes, where, SAR ] DICTIONAIRY OF DATES. 51i among other decorations, she is said to have put on sandals, at the sight of which he was ravished. It was usual for ladies to have slaves to carry their sandals in cases, ready to adorn their feet on occasions of state. See Shoes. SANDWICH ISLANDS. A group of eleven islands in the Pacific Ocean. They were discovered by captain Cook in 1778. Many voyagers report that the natural capacity of the natives seems in no respect below the common standard of mankind. It was in one of these islands that this illustrious circullnavigator fell a victim to the sudden resentment of the natives, Feb. 14, 1779. Extraordinary progress in the civilization and improvement of the natives, cfftcted chiefly by the American missionaries. Tamehamneha, chief of Hawaii, becomes king of the group, 18. Rihoriho, his 4on, succeeds him, 1819. Idolatry abolished, 1819. Rihoriho and his queen died in England. 1824. Kanikeaouli, 20 years of age, king, 1824. Mission established by the American Board, 1820. In 1832 there were 900 schools and 50,000 pupils in the Islands. Treaty with the French, made with admiral DupetitThouars, 1837. Another, enforcing the introduction of Catholic missionaries, &c., 1839. Tamehameha III. becomes king, Dr. G. P. Jt dd, an American, prime-minister, 18. In 1831 there were 14 ships. 2630 tons, belonging to the Islands-which are important to the United States as a whaling station. See OwAulyhee. SANHEDRIM. An ancient Jewish council of the highest jurisdiction, of seventy, or as some say, seventy-three members. They date this senate from uvnlmbers xi. 16. It was yet in being at the time of Jesus CIRIrST, Jo/In xviii. 31. A Jewish Sanledrim was summloned by the emperor Napoleon at Paris, July 23, 1806; and it assembled Jan. 20, 1807. SAPPHIC VERSE. The verse invented by Sappho, the lyric poetess of Mitylene. Sappho was equally celebrated for her poetry, her beauty, and her amorous disposition. She conceived a hopeless passion for Phaonl, a youth of her native country, on which account she threw herself into the sea from Mount Leucas, and was drowned. The Lesbians, after her death, paid her divine honors, and called her the tenth muse, 594 B. c. SARACENS. A celebrated people from the deserts of Arabia, Sanra in their language signifying a desert. They were the first disciples of Mahomet; and within 40 years after his death, in A. D. 631, they conquered a great part of Asia, Aflica. and Europe. They conquered Spain in 713 et seq.; the empire of the Saracens closed by Bagdad being taken by the Tartars, 1258. -Blair. There are now no people known by this name; the descendants of those who subdued Spain are called Moors. SARAGOSSA. Anciently Cmesarea Augusta; whence, by corruption, its name. Its church has been a place of great devotion. They tell us that the Virgin, while yet living, appeared to St. James, who was preaching the gospel, and left him her image, which was afterwards placed in the church, with a little Jesus in its arms, ornamented with a profusion of gold and jewels, and illuminated by a multitude of lamps. In December 1778, four hundred of the inhabitants perished in a fire at the theatre. Saragossa taken by the French, after a most heroic defence by general Palafox, during as renowned a siege as is on record, February 13, 1809. SARATOGA, BURGOYNE'S SURRENDER AT. Here general Burgoyne, commander of the British army, after a severe engagement with the Americans in the war of independence (Oct. 7), being surrounded, surrendered to the American general Gates, when 5791 men laid down their arms, October 17, 1777. SARDANAPALUS. The last king of Assyria. See Assyr'ia. One of the most 518 TrHE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [SAA infamous and sensual monarchs that ever lived. Having grown odious to his subjects, and being surrounded by hostile armies, dreading to fall into their hands, he shut himself up in his capital at Nineveh. Here he caused a vast pile of wood to be raised in a court of his palace, and heaping upon it all his gold, silver, jewels, precious and rare articles, the royal apparel, and other treasures, and inclosing his concubines and eunuchs in an apartment within the pile, he set all on fire, perishing himself in the flames. This is the mightiest conflagration of wealth on record. The riches thus destroyed were worth a thosanld mnyriads of talents of gold, and TEN TIMES as many talents of silive?!!! about 1,400,000,0001. sterling.-Alhesll.cs. SARDINIA. The first inhabitants of Piedmont, Savoy, &c., are supposed to have been the Umbrians, Etrurians, Ligurians, and afterwards the Gauls (when they established themselves in Italy, under Brennus, &c.,) friom whom this country was called Cisalpine Gaul (or Gaul on this side of the Alps, with respect to Rome): it afterwards became a part of Lombardy, from whom it was taken by the Burgundians. The island of Sardinia hae been successively possessed by the Phoenicians and Greeks, the Carthaginians, Romans, Saracens, and Spaniards. From settlers belonging to -,hich various nations the present inhabitants derive their origin. Subjugated by the Romans B- B. 231 Declares war against Austria, enters * * Milan with ti a army, to assist the poTaken by the Moors, about - A.D. 728 pular cause, and drives the Austrians Reduced by the Genoese - - - 1115 towards Mantua - March 23, 1848 The pope grants Sarlinia to thePisanese, Takes Lodi- April 1, **** who are, however, too weak to expel Forces the Austrian line near Verona, the Saracens -1132 April 17, *** Alphonsus IV. of Arragon, becomles Takes Peschiara - M -Iay 30, *.. master of Sardinia - - 324 Defeats the Austriana under Radetsky, Taken from the Spaniards by the Eng- at Goito *s* lish naval forces - - - - 708 Sardian army driven from Vicenza, Recovered by the Spaniards - - - 1717 Verona, the Adige, &c., June-July - 1848 They again lose possession - - - 1719 Retreats to Ticino after capitulation of Ceded to the duke of Savoy, as an equi- Milan - - -Aug. 4. valent for Sicily - - - - 1720 Followed by an armistice - * Victor Amadeus, having the title of king Rupture of the armistice - March 1849 abdicates in favor of his son - A.D. 1730 Battle of'Novara; the Sardinians under Attempting to recover Sardinia, he is Charles Albert, totally defeated by taken, and dies in prison - - 1732 Radetslky -**. [The courlt kept at Turin till 170G, when The king abdicates in fa-vor of his son, these dominions were overrun by the Victor Emanuel, count of Savoy, and French arms, and shortly afterwards leaves the kingdom - March 23, *.. annexed to the French empire.] Insurection at Genoa against the new The king resigns his crown to his bro- king - April 1,... thlel, duke of' Aoust -. June 4,1802 Genoa invested by Marmora, April 5, Sardinia annexed to Italy, and Bona- and fully reduced - - April 11, parte crowned king of the whole. Charles Albert late king, dies at LisDecember 26. 1805 bon - July 28,... Restored to its rightful sovereign, witli Victor Emanuel opens the legislative Genoa added to it December 1814 chamber with a moderate speech, and King Charles Albert, having proteststed is warmly greeted Aug. 1. *** against Austrian encroachments in Treaty with Austria - - Aug. 6, ***. Italy, calls out an additional force of The chamber votes 100,000 livres to re25,000 men - - - Jan.'10, 1848 lieve the refugfees fobm various parts Proclaims the basis of a Constitution of Italy Aug. 30, - Feb. 8, 1848 KINGS OF SARDINIA. A., D. 1720. Victor Amadeus, son of Charles Ema- 1802. Victor Emanuel. nuel duke of Savoy. 1821. Charles Felix. 1730. Charles Emanuel 1831. Charles Albert, April 27. 1773. Victor Amadeus Maria II. 1848. Victor Emanuel 1796. Charles Emanuel. SATIRE. About a century after the introduction of comedy, satire made its appeoarance at Rome in the writings of Lucilius, who was so celebrated in this species of composition that he has been called the inventor of it, 116 SAW ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 519 B. c.-Livy. Lucilius obtained praise lavished with too liberal a hand: we may comlpare hinm to a river which rolls upon its waters precious sand, accompanied with mire and dirt. —foreace. SATURDAY. With us this is the last or seventh day of the week; but with the Jews it is the Sabbath. See Sabbatlh. It was so called fiom an idol worshipped on this day by the old Saxons, and according to Vertigern was named by them Saterne's-day.-Parcdoe. It is more probably from Saturn, dies Saturn-i.-Addison. SATURN. Ascertained to be about 900 millions of miles distant from the sun, and its diameter to be 89.170 miles. His satellites were discovered by Galileo and Simon Meyer, 1608-9-10; his belt, &c., by Huygens in 1634; his fifth satellite by the same in 1655; and his sixth and seventh by Herschel in 1789. Cassini was also a discoverer of the satellites of the planets. SATURNALIA. Festivals in honor of Saturn. They were instituted long before the foundation of Rome, in conmmemoration of the freedom and equality which prevailed on earth in the golden reign of Saturn. Some, however, suppose that the Saturnalia were first observed at Rome in,he reign of Tullus Hostilius, after a victory obtained over the Sabines; while others support that Janus first instituted them in gratitude to Saturn, from whom he had learned agriculture. Others suppose that they were first celebrated after a victory obtained over the Latins by the dictator Posthlumius. During these festivals no business was allowed, amusements were encouragecl, distinctions ceased, and even slaves could say what they pleased to their masters with impunity.-Lengolet. SAVINGS BANKS, ENGLAND. The benefit clubs among artisans, having accumulated stocks of mloney for their progressive purposes, a plan was adopted to identify these funds with the public debt of the country, and an extra rate of interest was held out as an inducement; hence, savings banks to receive small sums, returnable with interest, on demand, were formed. Brought under parliamentary regulation in 1816. The number of savings banks considerably increased up to 1846; and the number of depositors in that year was, for the United Kingdom, 1,063,418; and the whole aimount; deposited, 32 661,9241. In the United States the first savings bank in Philadelphia, 1816; the next in Boston, 1817. They are now very numerous throughout the United States. SAVOY. It became a Roman province 1158 B. c. The Alemans seized it in A. D. 395, and the Franks in 496. It shared the revolutions of Switzerland till 1040, when Conrad, emperor of Germany, gave it to Hubert, with the title of earl. Amladeus, earl of Savoy, solicited Sigismund to erect his dominions into a duchy, which he did at Cambray, February 19, 1417. Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy, obtained the kingdom of Sicily, by treaty, fiom Spain, which he' afterwards exchanged with the emperor for the island of Sardinia, with the title of king, 1713-20. The French subdued this country in 1792, and made it a department of France, under the name of Mont Blanc, in 1800. SAW. Invented by Dnedalus.-Plisny. Invented by Talus.-ApollodorLs. Talus, it is said, having found the jaw-bone of a snake, he employed it to cut through a piece of wood, and then formed an instrument of iron like it. Beecher says saw-mills were invented in the seventeenth century; but he errs. Saw-mills were erected in Madeira in 1420; at Breslau, in 1427. Norway had the first saw-mill in 1530. The bishop of Ely, ambassador from M nry of' England to the court of Rome, describes a saw-mill there, 1555. IL England saw-mills had at first the same fate with printing in Turkey, the crane in Strasburg, &c. The attempts to introduce them were 520 THE WORLD7S P:ROGRESS. 1 SCH violently opposed; and one erected by a Dutchman in 1663 was forced to be abandoned. SAXONY. The royal family of Saxony is of very ancient origin, and is allied to all the royal houses in Europe. The sovereignty still continues in the same family, notwithstanding it encountered an interruption of more than two hundred years, from 1180 to 1423. Saxony, which had been for many centuries an electorate, was formed into a kingdom in 1806, when Frederick Augustus became the first king. That sovereign was succeeded by his brother, Anthony, May 5, 1827. The present sovereign is Frederick Augustus II., who ascended the throne, 6th of June, 1836. Saxony became the scene of the great struggle against Napoleon in 1813. Insurrection at Dresden; the king retires to Konigstern, May 3, 1849. Insurgents put down by the Prussian troops, May 7, 1849. SCANDALUM MAGNATUM. The name given to a special statute relating to any wrong, by words or in writing, done to high personages of the land, such as peers, judges, ministers of the crown, officers in the state, and other great public functionaries, by the circulation of scandalous statements, false news, or horrible messages. This law was enacted 2 Richard II,. 1378. SCEPTIC. The ancient sect of philosophers founded by Pyrrho. 334 B. c. Pyvrrho was in continual suspense of judgiment; he doubted of every thing, never made any conclusions, and when he had carefully examined a subject, and investigated all its parts, he concluded by still doubting of its evidence. As he showed so much indifference in every thing, and declared that life and death were the same thing, some of his disciples asked him, why he did not hurry himself out of the world? "Because," says he, "there is no difference between life and death." Timon was one of the chief followers of this sect, which was almost extinct in the time of Cicero.-,Strabo. SCEPTRE. This is a more ancient emblem of royalty than the crown. In the earlier ages of the world, the sceptres of kings were long walking-staves; they afterwards were carved, and made shorter. Tarquin the Elder was the first who assumed the sceptre among the Romans, about 468 B. c. The French sceptre of the first race of kings was a golden rod, A. D. 481.-Le Genedi'e. SCHOOLS. Charity schools were instituted in London to prevent the seduction of the infant poor into Roman Catholic seminaries, 3 James II. 1687.Ratpi. Charter schools were instituted in Ireland 1733.-Scully. In England there are now 13,642 schools (exclusively of Sunday schools) for the education of the poor; and the number of children is 998,431. The parochial and endowed schools of Scotland are in number (exclusively of Sunday schools) 4.836; and the number of children, 181,467. The number of schools in Wales is 841. and the number of children 38,164: in Ireland. 13.327 schools. and 774,000 children. In the United States the system of public schools is very generally and effectively supported. The school-fund in Maine amounts to $350;000,; in Massachusetts, $850,000; in Connecticut, $2 077.641; New York, $6,491,803; New Jersey, $369,278; Delaware, $225,000; Virginia, $1,448,261; Georgia, $262.300; Alabama, $1.215,381; Tennessee, $1.346,068; Kentucky, $1,221,819; Ohio, $1,566,931; Michigan, $500.000; Indiana, $2,195.149; Missouri, $575.668; Iowa, $132,909. Total in 1849, $21,420.275. In the State of New York the number of District School Libraries is about 11,000. See Education, Libra'cries, &c. SCIENCE IN THE UNITED STATES. Franklin's discoveries in electricity, 1752. American Philosophical Society established, 1769. American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1780. First course of Chemical Lectures in the United States, by Dr. S. L. Mitchill, N. Y., 1792. Botanic garden and Professor of SCY ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 521 Natural History established at Harvard College, 1805. American Association for the Advancement of Science, formed, 1845. SCILLY ISLES. They held commerce with the Plhenicians. They are mentioned by Strabo as being ten in number. The memorable shipwreck of the British squadron under sir Clouclesley Shovel occurred here. This brave admiral returning from an expedition against Toulon, mistook these rocks for land, and struck upon them.'His ship, the Association, in which were his lady, two sons, many persons of rank, and 800 brave men, went instantly to the bottom. The Eag-le, Captain Hancock, and the Romney and FiPrebrand, were also lost. The rest of the fleet escaped., Oct. 22, 1707. Sir Cloudesley's body, being found, was conveyed to London, and buried in Westminster Abbey, where a monument was erected to his memory. SCOTLAND. See Caledonia. This important member of the British empire was governed by a king before the Romans visited England, and continued an independent kingdom till the death of the English queen Elizabeth, when James VI. of Scotland, the most immediate heir, was called to the throne of England, amnd constantly resided in the latter hle and his successors calling themselves kings of England and Scotland, and each country having a separate parliament, till the year 1707, in the reign of queen Anne, when both kingdoms were united under the general name cf Great Britain. See England and Scotland, Tabulasr Views, p. 75., et seq. SCREW. This instrument was known early to the Greeks. The pumpingscrew of Archimedes, or screw-cylinder for raising water, invented 236 a. c., is still in use, and still bears that philosopher's name. The power of the screw is astonishing; it being calculated that if the distance between the two spirals or threads of the screw be half an inch, and the length of each handle twelve inches, the circle that they describe in going round will be seventy-five inches, and consequently 150 times greater than half an inch, the distance between the two spirals. Therefore one man can, with the assistance of this screw, press dow.n or raise up as much as 150 men could do without it. This power increases in proportion to the closeness of the spirals and the length of the handles. —Greig. SCULPTURE. The origin of this art cannot be traced with any certainty. The invention is given by some ancient writers to the Egyptians, and by others to the Greeks. It is referred by some historians to 1020 B. c., and sculpture in marble to 872 B. c. Pausanias refers the nearest approach to perfection in the art to 560 B. c. According to sacred history, Bezaleel and Aholiab, who built the tabernacle in the wilderness, and made all the vessels and ornaments, were the first architects and sculptors of repute, and their excellence is recorded as the gift of God, E.xodts xxxi. Dipcenus and Scyllis, statuaries at Crete, established a school at Sicyon. Pliny speaks of them as being the first who sculptured marble and polished it; all statues before their time being of wood, 568 B. c. This, however, can only be fact so far as it relates to the western world; for in the eastern countries the art was known long before. Alexander gave Lysippus the sole right of making his statues, 326 B. c. He left no less than 600 pieces, some of which were so highly valued in the age of Augustus, that they sold for their weight in gold. Sculpture never found any very distinguished followers among the Romans, and in the middle ages it fell into disuse. With the revival of the sister art, painting, it revived also; and Donato di Bardi, born at Florence, A. D. 1383, was the earliest professor among the moderns. Sculpture was revived, under the auspices of the Medici family, about 1460.Abbe Lenglet. SCYTHIA. The country situate on the most northern parts of Europe and Asia, from which circumstance it is generally denominated European and 522 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. SEMI Asiatic. The most northern parts of Scythia were uninhabited, on account of the extreme coldness of the climate. The boundaries of Scythia were unknown to the ancients, as no traveller had penetrated beyond the vast tracts of lands which lay at the north, east, and wvest. The Scythians made several irruptions upon the more southern provinces of Asia, especially B. c. 624, when they remained in possession of Asia Minor for twenty-eight years; and we find them at different periods extending their conquests in Europe, and penetrating as far as Egypt. In the first centuries after Christ thev ini-aded the Roman empire. SEAS, SOVLEREIGNTY OF.THE. The claim of England is of very ancient date. Arthur was the first who assumed the sovereignty of the seas for Britain. and Alfred afterwards supported this right. The sdvereignty of England over the British seas was maintained by Selden, and measures were taken by government in consequence, 8 Charles i. 1633. The Dutch, after the death of Charles I., made some attempts to. obtain it, but were roughly treated by Blake and other admirals. Russia and other parts of the North, armed, to avoid search, 1780; again 1800. See Armed Neutrality and Flcag. SECRETARY or STATE. The first in England was lord Cromwell, A. D. 1529. Towards the close of Henry VIII.'s reign two secretaries were appointed; and upon the union with Scotland, Anne added a third, as secretary for Scotch affairs: this appointment was afterwards laid aside: but in the reign of George III. the number was again increased to three, one for the American department. In 1782 this last was abolished by act of parliament; and the appointments as at present subsequently took place, the secretaries being now home, foreign, and colonies. The first Secretary of State of the United States was Thomas Jefferson, appointed by Washington, Sept. 26, 1789. For his successors see Admiinistrations. There is a Secretary of State in each of the States, appointed by the executive or elected by the people. SECTS. See them severally through the volume. The great vicissitude of things is the vicissitude of sects. True religion is built upon a rock; all others are tossed upon the waves of time. —Bacon. Assuming the population of the globe to be one thousand and fifty millions, the following division, with reference to their religious worship, will appear.-.. Balbi. Jews. - - 4,500.000 Idolaters, &c., not professing the Christians - -. 225,000,000 Jewish, Christian, or MIahoMahometans - 155,000,000 metan worship - - 665,500,000 SEDAN CHAIRS. So called from Sedan, on the Meuse, in France. The first seen in England was in 1581. One was used in the reign of James I. by the dluke of Buckingham, to the great indignation of the people, who exclaimed that he was employing his fellow-creatures to do the service of beasts. Sedan chairs came into fashion in London in 1634, when sir Francis Duncomb obtained the sole privilege to use, let, and hire a number of such covered chairs for fourteen years. They became in very general use in 1649. SEDUCTION. For this offence the laws of England have provided no other punishment than a pecuniary satisfaction to the injured family. And even this satisfaction is only obtained by one of the quaintest fictions in the world; the father bringing his action against the seducer for the loss of his daughter's services during her pregnancy and nurturing.-Paley's 1foral P/ilosophl/. A law for the punishment of seduction was passed by the legislature of New York in 184. SEMPACH, BATTLE OF, between the Swiss and Leopold, duke of Austria. The heroic Swiss, after prodigies of valor, gained a great and memorable victory over the duke, who was slain, July 9, 1386. By this battle they es SEX ]. DICTIONARY OF DATES. 523 tablished the liberty of their country; and it is still annually commemorated with great solemnity at Sempach. SEPTEMBER. The ninth month of the year, reckoner from January, and the seventh from March, whence its name, from scptiuints, seventh. It became the ninth mlonth when January and February were added to the year by Numa, 713 B. c. The Roman senate would have given this month the name of Ti berius, but that emperor opposed it; the emperor Domitian gave it his own name, Germanicus; the senate under Antoninus Pius gave it that of Antoninus; Conmmodus gave it his surname, Herculeus; and the emperor Tacitus his own name, Tacitus. But these appellations are all gone into disuse. SEPTUAGINT VERSION ol THE BIBLE, made 277 n. c. Seventy-two translators were shut up in thirty-six cells; each pair translated the whole; and on subsequent comparison the thirty-six copies did not vary by a word or letter. —-Jistin Mcartyr. St. Jerome affirms they translated only the Pentateuch; but St. Justin and others say they translated the whole. Ptolemy gave the Jews about a lmillion sterling for a copy of the Testat Aent, and seventy translators half a million miore for the translation.-Josep/nls. Finished in seventy-two days. —Hewlett. SERINGAPATAM, BATTLES OF, called also the battle of Arikera, in which the British defeated Tippoo Saib, May 15, 1791. Battle, in which the redoubts were stormed, and Tippoo was reduced by lord Cornwallis, Feb. 6, 1792. After this capture, preliminaries of peace were signed, and Tippoo agreed to cede one-half of Mlysore, and to pay 83,000,000 of rupees (about 3,300,0001. sterling) to England, and to give up to lord Cornwallis his two eldest sons as hostages. In a new war the Madras army arrived before Seringapatam, April 5, 1799; it was joined by the Bombay army, April 14; and the place was stormed and carried by major-general Baird, May 4, same year. In this engagement Tippoo was killed. See lldia. SERPENTS. The largest, the record of which is in some degree satisfactorily attested, was that which disputed the passage of the army led by Regulus along the banks of the Bagrada. It was 120 feet long, and had killed many of his soldiers. It was destroyed by a battering-ram; and its skin was afterwards seen by Pliny inthe capitol at Rome. —Pli-ny. The American papers have frequently chronicled the appearance of a sea-serpent on the coast, but its existence has been generally doubted. Haydn quotes fiom Phillips that a sea-serpent was cast on shore on the Orkney Islands, which was fifty-five feet long, and the circumference equal to the girth of an Orkney pony, 1808. SERVANTS. In England, an act laying a duty on male servants was passed in 1775. This tax was augmented in 1781, etseq. A tax on female servants was imposed in 1785; but this latter act was repealed in 1792. The tax on servants yielded in 1830 about 250,0001. per annum, but in 1840 the revenue from it had fallen to 201,4821. SEVILLE. The capital of Spain until Philip II. finally established his court at Madrid, A. D. 1563. This city is the Hispalis of the Phoenicians, and the J.LliC6 of the Romans. The peace of Seville, between England, France, and Spain, and also a defensive alliance to which Holland acceded, signed Nov. 9, 1729. Seville surrendered to the French, Feb. 1, 1810; and was taken by assault by the British and Spaniards, after the battle of Salamanca, Aug. 27, 1812. SEXTANT. This instrument is used in the manner of a quadrant. and contains sixty degrees, or the sixth part of a circle. It is for taking the altitude of the planets, &c. Invented by the celebrated Tycho Brahe, at Augsburgh, 524 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [sli in 1550.- ilzce's Astroml. The Arabian astronomers under the Caliphs are said to have had a sextant of fifty-nine feet nine inches radius, about A., 995. —Ashe. SHEEP. They were impoliticly exported from England to Spain, and, the breed being thereby improved, produced the fine Spanish wool, which proved detrimental to our woollen manufacture, 8 Edward IV. 1467.-Anderson. Their exportation prohibited on pain of fine and imprisonment, 1522. The number of sheep in the United Kingdom has been variously stated-by some at 43,000,000, by others at 49,000,000, and by more at 60,000,000, in 1840. SHERIFF. The office of sheriff is from shli're-reve, governor of a shire or county. London had its sheriffs prior to William I.'s reign; but some say that sheriffs were first nominated for every county in England by William in 1079. SHERIFFMUIR, BATTLE OF, between the royal army under the duke of Argyle, and the Scotch rebel forces who favored the Pretender (the chevalier de St. George, son of James II.), commanded by the earl of Mar; the insurgents were defeated, and several persons of rank were taken prisoners. The battle was fought on the very day on which the rebel forces in the same cause were defeated at Preston, Nov. 12, 1715. SHIP-BUILDING. The art is attributed to the Egyptians, as the first inventors; the first ship (probably a galley) being brought from Egypt to Greece by Danaus, 1485 B. c.-Blair. The first double-decked ship was built by the Tyrians, 786 B. c.-Lezeglet. The first double-decked one built in England was of 1000 tons burthen, by order of Henry VII. 1509; it was called the Great Harry, and cost 14,000l.-Stowe. Before this time 24-gun ships were the largest in the navy, and these had no port-holes, the guns being on the upper decks only. Port-holes and other improvements were invented by Descharges, a French builder at Brest, in the reign of Louis XII., about 1500. Ship-building was first treated as a science by Hoste, 1696. A 74gun ship was put upon the stocks at Van Diemen's Land, to be sheathed with India-rubber, 1829. For beautiful models and fast sailing, the shipping of the United States-especially the packet ships and steamers sailing from New York-are not surpassed, and probably not equalled, by any in the world. See Navy and Stean Vessels. SHIPPING OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. Shipping was first registered in the river Thames in 1786; and throughout the empire in 1787. In the middle of the 18th century, the shipping of England was but half a million of tons -less than London now. In 1840, the number of ships in the British empire was 29,174; tonnage, 3,277,338; seamen, 205,904. These returns were exclusive of ships and boats propelled by steam. See Sleamne Vessels. SHIPPING oF THE UNITED STATES. Tonnage at different periods. Years. Tonnage. Years. Tonnage. Years. Tonnage. Years. Tonnage. 1791 - 502,146 1806. 1,208,735 1821 1,298,958 1835 - 1,824,940 1792 - 564,437 1807 - 1.2681548 1822 - 1,324,699 1836 - 1,892,102 1793 - 491,780 1808 - 1,242'595 1823 - 1,336,565 1837 - 1,896,685 1794. 628.817 1809 1,350,281 1824 ~ 1;389,163 1838 1,995,839 1795 747,964 1810 - 1424,783 1825 - 1,423,112 1839 - 2.096,478 1796 - 831,900 1811 1'232;502 1826 - 1,534,190 1840 2;180,764 1797 - 876.913 1812 1,269 997 1827 - 1,620,608 1841 2,130,744 1798 - 898,328 1813 1,666.628 1828 -,41,392 18 12 2,092,390 1799 - 946,408 1814 1,159 209 1829 1,260,978 1843 2,158,602 1800 - 972,492 1815 - 1,368,127 1830 - 1,191,776 1814. 2,280,095 1801 - 1,033,219 1816 - 1,372,218 1831 - 1,267,846 1845 - 2,417,002 1802 - 892,101 1817 - 1,399,911 1832 - 1,439,450 1846. 2,562.084 1803 - 949,147 1818 - 1,225,184 18:33 - 1,601,150 1847. 2,839(M46 1804 - 1,042,404 1819 1,260,751 1834 - 1,758,907 1848 - 3,150,502 1805 1,140,369 1820 - 1,280,166 SHR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 525 SHIP-MONEY. It was first levied A. D. 1007, and caused great commotions. This impost being illegally levied by Charles I. in 1634, led to the revolution. He assessed London in seven ships, of 4000 tons, and 1560 men; Yorkshire in two ships, of 600 tons, or 12,0001.; Bristol in one ship of 100 tons; Lancashire in one ship of 400 tons. The trial of the patriot Hampden for refusing to pay the tax, which he at first solely opposed, took place in 1638. Ship-money was included in a redress of grievances in 1641. Hampden received a wound in a skirmish with prince Rupert, and died June 24, 1643. SHIPWRECKS, AND DISASTERS AT SEA. See WTiecks of Sltippixg. SHIRTS. This now almost universal garment is said to have been first gener.ally worn in the west of Europe early in the eighth century.-Du Presnoy. Woollen shirts were commonly worn in England until about the 38th of Henry III., 1253, when linen, but of a coarse kind (fine coming at this period from abroad), was first manufactured in England by Flemish artisans.Stowe. SHOES. Among the Jews they were made of leather, linen, rush, or wood. Moons were worn as ornaments in their shoes by the Jewish women.-Isaicah iii. 18.'Among the Greeks shoes were of various kinds. Pythagoras would have his disciples wear shoes made of the bark of trees; probably, that they might not wear what were made of the skins of animals, as they refrained from the use of every thing that had life. Sandals were worn by women of distinction. The Romans wore an ivory crescent on their shoes; and Caligula wore his enriched with precious stones. The Indians, like the Egyptians, wore shoes made of the bark of the papyrus. In England the people had an extravagant way of adorning their feet; they wore the beaks or points of their shoes so long, that they encumbered themselves in walking, and were forced to tie them up to their knees; the fine gentlemen fastened theirs with chains of silver, or silver gilt, and others with laces. This custom was in vogue from A. D. 1462, but was prohibited, on the forfeiture of 20s. and on pain of being cursed by the clergy, 7:Edward IV. 1467. See Dress. Shoes as at present worn were introduced about 1633. The buckle was not used till 1668. —Stowe; Zlortimer. SHOP-TAX, IN ENGLAND. The act by which a tax was levied upon retail shops was passed in 1785; but it caused so great a commotion, particularly in London, that it was deemed expedient to repeal it in 1789. The statute whereby shop-lifting' was made a felony, without benefit of clergy, was passed 10 and 11 William III. 1699. This statute has been repealed. See Acts. SHREWSBURY, BATTLE OF, between the royal army of Henry IV. and the army of the nobles, led by Percy (surnamed Hotspur), son of the duke of Northumberland, who had conspired to dethrone Henry. Each army consisted of about 12.000 men, and the engagement:was most bloody. Henry was seen every where in the thickest of the fight; while his valliant son, who was afterwards the renowned conqueror of France, fought by his side, and though wounded in the face by an arrow, still kept the field, and performed astonishing acts of valor. On the other side, the daring Hotspur supported the renown he had acquired in many bloody engagements, and every where sought out the king as a noble object of his vengeance. 2300 gentlemen were slain, and about 6000 private men. The death of Hotspurt by an unknown hand decided the fortune of the day, and gave the victory to the king, July 21, 1403.-Humae. [See Slalckspeare's Henqy IV.] SHROPSHIRE, BATTLE oP, in which the Britons were completely subjugated, and Caractacnus, the renowned king of the Silures, became, through the treachery of the queen of the Briganti, a prisoner of the Romans, A. D. 51. 526 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ si While Caractacus was being led through Rome, his eyes were dazzled by the splendors that surrounded him. " Alas!" le cried, " how is it possible that a people possessed of such magnificence at home could envy me xia humble cottage in Britainl' The emperor was affectecd with the British hero's misfortunes, and won by his address. He ordered him to be unchained upon the spot, and set at liberty with the rest of the captives.- Goldstit/t. SHROVE TUESDAY. In the season of Lent, after the people had made confession, according to the discipline of the ancient church, they were permiittedl to indulge in festive amusements, although not allowed to, partake of any repast beyond the usual substitutes for flesh; and hence arose the custom yet preserved of eating pancakes and fritters at Shrovetide, the Greelr Christians eating eggs, milk, &c. during the first week in Lent. Oni these days of authorized.indulgence the most wanton recreations were tolerated, provided a due regard was paid to the abstinence commanded by the church; and from this origin sprang the Carnival. On Shrove Tuesday the people in every parish throughout England formerly confessed their sins; and the parish bell for the purpose was rung at ten o'clock. In several ancient parishes the custom yet prevails of ringing the bell, and obtains in London the name of pancake-bell. Observed as a festival before 1430. SIBYLS. The Sibyllte were certain women inspired by hea+ien, who flourished in different paits of the world. Their number is unknown. Plato speaks of' one, others of two, Pliny of three, _/lian of four, and Varro of ten, an opinion which is universally adopted by the learned. An Erythrean sibyl is said to have offered to Tarquin II. nine books containing the Roman destinies, demlanding for them 300 pieces of gold. He denied her, whereupon the sibyl threw three of them into the fire, and asked the sale price for the other six, which being still denied, she burned three nore, and again clemanded the same sum for those that remained; when Tarquin, conferring with the pontiffs, was advised to buy them. Two magistrates were creat ed to consult them on all occasions, 531 B. C. SICILY. See Naples. The ancient inhabitants of this island were the Sicani, a people of Spain, and Etruscans, who came hither from Italy, 1294 B. c. A second colony, under Siculus, arrived 80 years before the destruction of Troy, 1264 B. c.-Lenglcet. The Phoenicians and Greeks settled some colonies here, and at last the Carthaginians becalme masters of the whole island, till they were dispossessed of it by the Roumans in the Punic wars. Some authors suppose that Sicily was originally joined to the continent, and that it was separated from Italy by an earthquake, and that the straits of the Charybdis were fornied.-Jsclis; Livy. Arrival of Ulysses.-F/oezer - - B.c. 1186 The Ronmans arrive in Sicily -. c. 264 lie puts out the eye of Polyphemus - 1186 Agrigentum taken by the Romans - 212 Syracuse founded. —Eisebiz s 732 Palermo besieged by the Romans - - 251 Gela Iounded.-Thcydclides - 713 Archimedes flourishes - 236 Arrival of the Messenians - - - 668 The Romans take Syracuse, and make all Phalaris, tyrant of Agrigentum, put to Sicily a province - - - - 212 death. —See Brazenz Bs el - 552 The servile war began.-Livy - - 135 Hippocrates becomes tyrant of Gela 496 Iaw ol Petalisnl instituted - 466 Conquered by the Saracens - A.D. 82' Itsign ol Dionysius - - 405 [They made Palermo the capital, and the it tinded with the freedom of the philo- standard of Mahomet triumpheed for 200 solpher Plato, the tyrant sells him lor a years.] slave.-Stanley -- 386 They are driven out by a Norman prince, Plato ransomed by his friends - - - 386 Rger I., son of' Tancred, who takes the Daimon and Pythias flourish.-See Daztot title of cotnt of Sicily - - - 10 cdrct Pythiats - - 3S6 Roer II., son of the above-named, unites The sway of Timoleon - - 346 Sicily with Naples, and is crowned king tUsurpation of A-athocles - - 317 of the Two Sicilies - - - 1130 Defeat of I-amilcar 309 Charles of Anjou, brotller to St. Louis, kilni Pillage of the temples of Lepari 304 of France, conquers Naples and Sicily, 311E ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 527 SICILY, conetiled. deposes the Norman princes, and makes Ceded to Victor, duke of Slavoy, by the hinmself king - - A. D. 1266 treaty of Utrecht - - A. D. 1713 aile French becoming hated by the Sici- Ceded by him to the emperor Charles VI:. ]ians, a general massacre of the invaders Sardinia being given to him as an equitalkes place, one Frenchman only escap- valent 1720 ing.-See,S'icilianz Vesp)ers - -1288 Thle Spaniards havinlg made themselves I.n itle same year Sicily is seized by a fleet masters of both kingdoms, Charles. son sent by the lincgs of Arragon, in Spain; of the k]ing of Spain, ascends the thfone,:lut Naples remains to the house of An- with the ancient title renewed, of king jou, which expires - - - 1382 of the Two Sicilies - 1734 Jane, the late sovereign, having left her Order of St. Januarius instituted by Iting crown to Louis. duke of Anjou, his pre- Charles - 1738 tensions are resisted by Charles Du- The throne of Spain becoming vacant, razzo, cousin of Jane, who ascends the Charles, who is heir, vacates the throne throne -1386 of the two Sicilies in favor of his brother Alplhonsus, king of Arragon, takes posses- Ferdinand, agreeably to treaty - - 1759 sion of Naples - 1458 Dreadful earthquake at Messina, in Sicily, Th? kingdom of Naples and Sicily united which destroys 40,000 persons - - 1783 to the Spanish monarchy - - -1504 Naples preserved from the power of the The tyrantny of the Spaniards causes an French by the British forces under admiinsurrection, excited by Masaniello, a ral Nelson - - - - 1799 fisherman, wiho, in fifteen days, raises Violent earthqcualke in the neighborhood two hundred thousand men - - 1647 of Naples - - - - 1.805 Henry dutke of Guise, talking advantage of The Frenc.h invade Naples, depose I'ng these commotions, procures himself to Ferdinand IV., and give the crown of tne be proclaimed king; but is, in a few Two Sicilies to Joseph Bonaparte, brodays. delivered up to the Spaniards by ther to the emperor of the French - 1806 his adherents - 1647 For subsequent events, see 2Vaples. K: INGS OF THE TVO SICILIES. A.D. 1713. Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy; fie 1806. Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte. resigned it to the emperor Charles 1808. Joachim Murat; he was shot, Octoeber 13, VI., in 1718, and got Sardinia in 1815. lieu of' it. 1815. Ferdinand I.; formerly Ferdinand IV. of 1718. Charles VI. emperor. Naples, and intermediately Ferdinand 1734. Charles, second son to the king of III. of Sicily; now of the United KingSpain, resigned in 1759. dom of the Two Sicilies. 1759. Ferdinand IV., third son of the former 1826. Francis I. king. 1830. Ferdinand II., Nov. 8. SICILIAN VESPERS. The memorable massacre of the French in Sicily, known by this name, commenced at Palermo, March 30, 1282. The French had become hateful to the Sicilians, and a conspiracy against Charles of Anjou was already ripe, when the following occurrence led to develop and accomplish it. On Easter Monday, the chief conspirators had assemnbled at Palermo; and while the French were engaged in festivities, a Sicilian bride happened to pass by with her train. She was observed by one Drochet, a Frenchman, who, advancing towards her, began to use her rudely, under pretence of searching for arms. A young Sicilian, exasperated at this affiont, stabbed him with his own sword; and a tumult ensuing, 200 French were instantly murdered. The enraged populace now ran through the city, crying out " Let the French die!" and, without distinction of rank, age, or sex, they slaughtered all of that nation they could find, to the number of 8000. Even such as had fled to the churches found no sanctuary there-the massacre became general throughout the island. SJEGES. Azoth, which was besieged by Psammetichus the Powerfufl, held out for nineteen years.- Usher', It held out for twenty-nine years.-Hes-odotss. This was the longest siege recorded in the annals of antiquity. The siege of Troy was the most celebrated, occupied ten years, 1184 B. c. The following are the principal anld most memorable sieges since the twelfth century:Acre, 1192, 1799, by Bona- Algiers, 1681; Bonb-vessels Almeida, August 27, 1810. parte; siege raised ajter fi.rst used by a Fsenclh en- Amiens, 1597. 60 days, open tr'enches. ginzeer nased Renaue, 1816 Ancona, 1798. Algesiras, 1341. Alklmaer, 1573. Angouleme, 1345. 528 THE WORLDIS PROGRESS. [,S& SIEGES, contintued. Antwerp, 1576. Use of in- Compi2gne (Joan of Arc), ban first camne into notice, fernal eachines, 1583,1585 1430. 1676, 1743, 1794. 1706, 1792,1814. Cond6, 1676, 1792, 1794. Magdebourg, 1631, 1806. Arras, 1414. Coni, 1691, 1744.' Malaga, 1487. Ath, 1745. Constantinople, 1453. Malta, 1565, 1798, 1800. Avignon, 1226. Copenhagen, 1700,1801,1807. Mantua, 1734, 1797, 1799. Azoff, 1736. Corfu, 1715. Marseilles, 1544. Badajos, March 11, 1811. Ta- Courtray, 1302, et seg. 1794. Mentz, by Charles V, 1517, ken? by escalade on tI.7e Cracow, 1772. 1689, 1792 et seq., 1797. ni'ght of Ap ril 6, 1812. Cremona, 1702. Melun, 1420, 1559. Bagdad, 1248. Dantzic, 13734, 1793,1807,1813 Menin, 1706, 1744. Bangalore, March 6, 1791. to Jan. 12, 1814. Mequinenza, June 8, 1810. Barcelona, 1697, 1714. Dendermonde, 1667. Messina, 1282, 1719. Bayonne, 1451. Dole, 1668, 1674. Metz, 1552. Beauvais, 1472. Douay, 1710, Mezidres, 1521. Belgrade, 1439, 1455, 1521, Dover, 1216. Middleburgh, 1572. 1688, 1717, 1739, 1789,' )Dresden, 1745, 1813. Mons, 1572, 1691, 1709, 1746, Bellegarde, 1793, 1794. Drogheda, 1649. 1792, 1794. Belle-Isle, April 7, 1761. Dublin, 1500. Mcntargis, 1427. Bergen-op-Zoom, 1588, 1622, Dunkirk, 16-146,1793. Montauban, 1621. 1747, 1814. Edinburgh, 1093. Montevideo, Jan. iS08. Berwick, 1293. Figueras, Aug. 19, 1811. Mothe: theFrench, tauzght by Besancon, 1668, 1674. Flushing, Aug. 15, 1809. a 1dir. ~iuller, an English Bethule, 1710. Fontenoy, 1242. engineer,firstpractised the Bois-le-Duc, 1603, 1794. Frederickshal; Charles XII. art of tehrowingl shells, 1634. Bologna, 1512, 1796. killed, 1718. Murviedro, Oct. 25. 1811. Bommel; the invention of Fredericlkstein, August 13, Namur, 1692, 1746, 1792. the covert- way, 1794. 1814. Naples, 1381,1435,1504,1557, Bonifacio, 1553. Furnes, 1675, 1744, 1793. 1792, 1799, 1806. Bonn, 1587, 1689, 1703 Gaeta, 1433, 1707, 1734, 1799, Nice, 1705. Bordeaux, 1451, 1653. July, 1806, 1815. Nieuport, 1745, 1794. Bouchain, 1676, 1711. Genoa 1747, 1800. Olivenza, Jan. 22, 1811. Boulogne, 1545. Gerona, Dec. 10, 1809. Olmutz, 1758. Brannau, 1744, 1805. Ghent, 1576, 1708. Orleans, 1428, 1563. Breda, 1590, 1625, 1793. Gibraltar, 1704, 1779. (See Ostend, 1701, 1706, 1745. Brescia, 1512, 1796, 1799. Gibraltar), 1782. Oudenarde, 1708, 1745. Breslau, Jan. 8, 1807. Glatz, 1742, 1807. Padua, 1509. Brisac, 1638, 1703. Gottingen, 1760. Pampeluna, Oct 31, 1813. Brussels, 1695, 1746. Graves, 1602, 1674, 1794. Paris, 1429, 1485, 159-4. Buda, 1526, 1541, 1686. Gravelines, 1644 Parma 1248. Burgos, Sept. 19 to Oct. 22, Grenada. 1491, 1492. Pavia, 1525, 1655, 1796. 1812; raised. T'he French Grofingfen, 1580, 1672, 1795. Perpignan, 1542, 1642. in their retreat blew up the Guastalla, 1702. Philipville, 1578. lworks, June 13, 1813. Gueldres, 1637, 1640) 1703. Philipsburg, 1644, 1675,1688, Cadiz, 1812. Haerlem, 1572, 1573. fist experisent of firing Caen, 13,46, 1450. Ham, 1411. artillery h-ricochet, 1734, Calais, 1347, (British histo- H-Iarfleur. 1415, 1450. 1795. rians af.irsm that cannon Heidelberg, 1688. Ptattsburg, Sept. 11, 1814. were used at Cressy, 1346, Ilerat, June 28, 1838. Pondicherry, 1748, 1792., and here in 1347. First H-Iuningen, 1815. Prague, 1741, 1743, 1744. eused here ins 1388. —RY- Ismael: the serciless Sewar- Puebla, (col. Child) 1847. mERs s FrD. ) 1558, 1596. ro butchered 30,000 rezesn, Quesnoy, 1794. Calvi, 1794. the brave garrison, andCl lennes, 1357. Campo-Mayor, Mar. 23, 1811. 6000 ewosiez,s ice cold blood, Rheims, 1359. Candia; the largest cannon I Dec. 22, 1790. Rhodes, 1522. then known inEerope used Kehl, 1733, /1796. Riga, 1700, 1710. here by the Tureks, 1667. Landlau, 1702, et seq., 1713, Rochelle, 1573, 1627. Capua, 1501. 1792, and 1793. Rome, 1527, 1798. Carthagena, 1706. Landrecis, 1543, 1712. Romorentin; artillery firsi Castillon, 1452, 1586. Laon, 991, 1594. tssed inlsieges.-VOLTAIRE Ceuta, 1790. L,eipsic, 1637, et seq., 1813. 1256. Chalons, 1199. Leroberg, 1704. Rosas, 1645, 1795, 1809. Charleroi, 1672, 1677, 1693, Lerida, 1647, 1707, 1807. Rouen, 1449, 1562, 1591. 1736, 1794. Leyden, 1574. Roxburgh, 1460. Chartres, 1568, 1591. Liege, 1468, 1702. St. Sebastian, Sept. 8, 1813. Chaves, March 25, 1809. Iille, 1667, 1708, 1792. Saflamanca,.unee 27, 1812. CherbouIrg 1450. Lilo, 1747. Salisbury, 1349. Chincilla, Oct. 30, 1812. Limerick, 1651, 1691. Saragossa, 1710, 1809. Ciudad Rodrigo, 1706; July I,ondonderry, 1689.'S[velne, 1675. 10, 1810; Jan. 19, 1812. Louisbourg, 1758. Schweidnitz; first e.xperi. Colberg, 1760, 1807. Lyons, 1793. oent to reduce afortress Colchlester, 1645. Maestricht. 1576, 1673. Vau AIL ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 529 SIEGES, contictaed. by springing globes of conz- Thorn, 1703. V Valencia, Dec. 25, 1811. pressiosn, 1762, 1807. Thouars, 1372, 1793. Valencienes, 1677, 1794. Scio (see Greece), 1822. Tortosa, Jan. 2, 1811. Vannes, 1343. Seringapatam. 1799. Toulon, 1707, 1793. Venloo, 1702, 1794. Seville 1096, 1248. Toulouse, 1217. Verdun, 1792. Smolensko, 1611. Tournay, 1340, 1352, 1581, Vera Cruz, (gen. Scott) 1847. Snissons, 1414. 1667, 1709, (this was the Vienna, 1529,1683. Stralsund; the method of best defence ever drawn Wakefield, 1460. throwing red hot ballsfirst from countermines), 1745, Warsaw, Sept, 8, 1831. practised with cer-tainty 1794. Xativa, 1707. 1675,.1713, 1807. Treves, 1675. Xeres, 1262. Tarifa, D"ec. 20, 1811. Tunis, 1270, 1535 Ypres, 1648, 1744, 1794. Tarragona, May 1813. Turin, 1640, 1706, 1799. Zurich, 1544. Temeswar, 1716. Urbino, 1799. Zutphen, 1572, 1586. Thionville, 1643, 1792. SIERRA LEONE. Discovered in A. D. 1460. In 1786, London swarmed with free negroes living in idleness and want; and 400 of them, with 60 whites, mostly women of bad character and in ill health, were sent out to Sierra Leone, at the charge of government, to form a settlement, December 9, 1786. The settlement attacked by the French, September 1794: by the natives, February 1802. Sir Charles Macarthy, the governor of the colony, murdered by the Ashantee chief, Jan. 21, 1824. SILK. Wrought silk was brought from Persia to Greece, 325 B. c. Known at Rome in Tiberius's time, when a law passed in the senate, prohibiting the use of plate of massy gold, and also forbidding men to debase themselves by wearing silk, fit only for women. Heliogabalus first wore a garment of silk, A.D. 220. Silk was at first of the same value with gold, weight for weight, and was thought to grow in the same manner as cotton on trees. Silk-worms were brought from India to Europe in the sixth century. Charlemagne sent Offa, king of Mercia, a present of two silken vests, A. D. 780. The manufacture was encouraged by Roger, king of Sicily, at Palermo, 1130, when the Sicilians not. only bred the silk-worms, but spun and weaved the silk. The manufacture spread into Italy and Spain, and also into the south of France, a little before the reign of Francis I., about 1510; and Henry IV. propagated mulberry-trees and silk-worms throughout the kingdom, 1589. In England, silk mantles were worn by some noblemen's ladies at a ball at Kenilworth Castle, 1286. Silk was worn by the English clergy in 1534. Manufactured in England in 1604; and broad silk wove from raw silk in 1620. Brought to perfection by the Freneh refugees in London, at Spitalfields, 1688. A silk-throwing mill was made in England, and fixed up at Derby, by sir Thomas Lombe, merchant of London, modelled from the original mill then in the king of Sardinia's dominions, about 1714. TLVER. It exists in most parts of the world, and is found mixed with other ores in various mines in Great Britain. The silver mines of South America re far the richest. A mine was discovered in the district of La Paz in 30, which was so rich that the silver of it was often cut with a chisel. 1749, one mass of silver, weighing 370 lbs. was sent to Spain. From a.niLl e in Norway, a piece of silver was dug, and sent to the Royal Museum at C(openhagen, weighing 560 lbs.. and worth 16801. In England silver-plate and vessels were first used by Wilfrid, a Northumberland bishop, a lofty and ambitious man, A. D. 709. —Tyrell's Hist. of Elngland. Silver knives, spoons. and cups, were great luxuries in 1300. SILVER COIN. Silver was first coined by the Lydians, some say; others, by Phidon of Argos, 869 B. c. At Rome it was first coined by Fabius Pictor, 269 B. G. Used in Britain 25 B. c. The Saxons coined silver pennies, which were 22~ grains weight. In 1302, the penny was yet the largest silver coin in England. See Shillings, &c., and Coin. From 1816 to 1840 inclusive, 23 530 THE WORLD7S PROGRESS. LSLA were coined at the Mint in London, 11,108,2651. 15s. in silver, being a yearly average of 444,3301. —Pal-. Ret. SIMONIANS. An ancient sect of Christians, so called from their founder Simon Magus, or the Magician. He was the first heretic, and went to Rome about A. D. 41. His heresies were extravagant and presumptuous, yet he had many followers, A. D. 57. A sect called St. Simonians sprung up in France; and lately attracted considerable attention in that country; and the doctrine of Simonianism has been advocated in England, and particularly by Dr. Prati, who lectured upon it at a meeting in London, held Jan. 24, 1834. SINGING. See Mulsic. The singing of psalms was a very ancien, custom both among the Jews and Christians. St. Paul mentions this practice, which was continued in all succeeding ages, with some variations as to the mode and circumstance. During the persecution of the Orthodox Christians by the empress Justina, mother of the then young Valentinian II. A. D. 386, ecclesiastical music was introduced in favor of' the Arians. "At this timie it was first ordered that hymns should be sung after the manner of Eastern nations, that the devout might not languish and pine away with a tedious sorrow." The practice was imitated by almost all other congriegations of the world.-St. Aqgusti?. Pope Gregory the Great refined upon the church music, and made it more exact and harmonious; and that it might be general, he set up singing-schools in Rome, A. D. 602. SIRNAMES, first canme up in Greece and Egypt, and arose in great acts and distinctions; as S'oter, from Saviour; Nicaetor, conqueror; lEue?.etes, or Benefactor; P,7bilopcter, lover of his father; P/eilomaeter, lover of his mother. &c. Strato was surnameCd PhLysicls, fioom his deep study of nature; Aristides was called the Jast; Phocion the Good; Plato, the Atheitic Bee; Xenophon, the Attic Micse; Aristotle, the Stangyrite; Pythagoras, the Scamiza ~Sage; Menedmmus, the Eret~rian Bulll; Demlocritus, the LaUq,g'limg Philosopher'; Virgil, the Mlilatean Swaicn, &c. Sirnames were introduced into England by the Normllans, and were adopted by the nobility, A. D. 1100. The old Normans used Fitz, which signifies son, as Fitzherbert. The Irish used 0, for grandson, as O'Neal, O'Donnel. The Scottish Highlanders employed Mac, as Macdonald. son of Donald. The Saxons added the word son to the father's name, as Williamson. Many of the most common sirnames, such as Johnson, Wilson, Dyson, Nicholson, &c., were taken by Brabanters and other Flemings, who were naturalized in the reign of Henry VI. 1435.Rymer's Fcedelra, vol. x. SLAVERY. Slavery has existed from the earliest ages. With other abominable customs, the traffic in mnen spread froml Chaldea into Egypt, Arabia, and all over the East, and at length into every known region under heaven. In Greece, in the time of Homer, all prisoners of' war were treated as slaves The Lacedermonian youth, trained up in the practice of deceiving al butchering slaves, were from time to time let loose upon them to show theii proficiency in stratagem and massacre; and once, for their amusement only, they murdered 3000 in one night. Alexander, when he razed Thebes, solt, the whole people, men, women, and children, for slaves, 335 a. c. le Helots. SLAVERY IN ROME. In Rome slaves were often chained to the gate of a great man's house, to give admittance to the guests invited to the feast. By one of the laws of the XII. Tables, creditors could seize their insolvant debtors, and keep them in their houses till, by their services or labor, they had discharged the suni they owed. C. Pollio threw such slaves as gave him the slightest offence into his fish-ponds, to fatten his lampreys, 42 a. c. Caecilius Isidorus left to his heir 4116 slaves, 12 a. c. SLA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 531 SLAVERY IN ENGLAND.' Slavery was very early known; and laws respecting the sale of slaves was made by Alfred. The English peasantry were so commonly sold for slaves in Saxon and Norman tiines, that children were sold in Bristol market like cattle for exportation. Many were sent to Ireland, and others to Scotland. A statpte was enacted by Edward VI. that a runaway, or any one who lived idly for three days, should b'e brought before two justices of the peace, and marked V with a hot iron onthe breast, and adjudged the slave of him who brought him for two years. He was to take the slave, and give him bread, water, or small drink, and refuse meat, and cause him to work by beating, chaining, or otherwise; and if, within that space,.he absented himself fourteen days, was to be marked on the forehead or cheek, by-a hot iron, with an S, and be his master's slave for ever-second desertion was made felony. Lawful to put a ring of iron round his neck, arm, or leg. A beggar's child might be put apprentice, cnd, on running away, become a slave to his master, 1547. SLAVE TRADE. The slave trade from Congo and Angola was begun by the Portuguese in 1481. Volumes have been written, confined to facts alone, describing the horrors of this traffic. The commerce in man has brutalized a tract 15 degrees on each side the equator, and 40 degrees wide, or of four millions of square'miles; and men and women have been bred for sale to the Christian nations during the last 250 years, and wars carried on to make prisoners for the Christian marketi The Abbe Raynal computes that; at the time of his writing, 9,000,000 of slaves had been consumed by the Europeans, "Add 1,000,000 at least more, for it is about ten years since," says Mr. Cooper, who published letters on this subject in 1787. In the, year 1768. the slaves taken from their own continent amounted to 104,100. In 1786, the annual number was about 100,000'; and in 1807 (the last year of the English slave trade), it was shown by authentic documents, produced by government, that from 1792 upwards of 3,500,000 Africans had been torn from their country, and had either miserably perished on the passage, or been sold in the West Indies.* —Butler. Bull of pope Gregory against the slave trade, Dec. 1830. Quintuple-treaty for the suppression of the slave trade, allowing mutual right of search, signed at London, by the representatives of Great Britain, France, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, December 20, 1841. King of Sweden abolishes slavery in the island of St. Bartholomew, Oct. 9, -1847. SI-AVE TRADE op ENGLAND. Captain, afterwards sir John Hawkins, was the first Englishman, after the discovery of America, who made a traffic of the human species. His first expedition with the object of procuring negroes on the coast of Africa, and conveying them for sale to the West Indies, took place in October, 1563. See Guinea. Queen Anne directed the colonial government of New York to take care " that the Almighty should European avarice has been glutted with the murder of 180,000,000 of our fellow-creatures, e~bllecting that for every one slave procured, ten are slaughtered in their own land ip War, and that a fifth* die on the passage, and a third in the seasoning.-(.-ooooPE's,.TTERS 94i THE SLAV4 TRADE. " But," says BUTLER, " this mronstrous colossal crime hlis not been perpetrated with im. punlry. Not only its prosecution; but its effects have in some measure called down upon us the frowns and the judgments of heaven.'By foreign wealth alre British morals changed, And Afric's sons, and India's, smile avenged." T'he trade was abolished in Austria in 1782. By the French convention in 1794. By the United Statesin,1807. By England (see above) in 1807. The Allies, at YVienfia, declared against it, February 1815. Napoleon, in the hundred days, abolished -the trade, March 29, 1815. Treaty with Spain, 1,l7; with the Netherlands, May, 1818; with Brazil,.Noy. 826,. But this horrid traffic contlqlueq poT,- encouraged in several states.-Haydn. 532 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ SIlfU be devoutly and duly served, according to the rites of the Church of England, and also that the Royal African Company should.be encouraged, and that the colony should have a constant and sufficient supply of 7Les'cr/altal-' nbegr-oes at moderate rates." In the year 1786, England employed 130 ships, and carried off42 000 slaves; Bristol and Liverpool were chiefly engaged in it; and such was the extent of' British commerce in human flesh, that at the period of slave emancipation in the British plantations in 1833, the number of slaves, which had previously been considerably more, yet then amounted to 770,280. The slave-trade question was debated in the British parliament in 1787. The debate for its abolition lasted two days in April 1791. The motion of Mr. Wilberforce was lost by a majority of 88 to 83, April 3, 1798. After several other efforts of humane and just mul, the question was introduced under the auspices of lord Grenville and Mr. Fox, then ministers, March 31, 1806; and the trade was finally abolished by parliament, March 25, 1807. SLAVERY OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS IN EUROPE, Many of the early navigators to Arne- -but the next gear the slavery of.nrica, including Columbus himself, dians was recognized as lawful; and carried considerable numbers of the the practice.of selling the natives of aborigines to Europe, where they North America into obreign bondage were sold into slavery. Queen Isa- continued for nearly two centuries. bella commanded the liberation of The excellent Winthrop enumerates Indians held in bondage in her pos- Indians among his bequests.-Baro sessions, in - 1501 cr oft. SLAVERY IN THE UNITED STATES. See Slave Trade. The first negro slaves in the English [Slavery had been already prohibited colonies of North Amnerica were in most of the northern States in their brought to Virginia in a Dutch vessel constitutions.l of war - - - 1620 Act of congress against fittin!~ out vesNegroes " who had been fraudulently sels for slave trade - - - l79/ brought from Guinea'l to Massachu- Act forbidding any citizen of the Uni-. setts (the first in New England), were ted States fiomn lholding property in sent home at the public expense by foreign slave vessels. United States the general court of that colony - 1646 vessels authorized to seize slavers - 1800 Gorton and Rozer Williams made a de- Act forbidding, under heavy penalties, cree against slavery in Rhode Island 1652 the introduction of slaves into the White slaves were sold in England, to United States.. - 1807 be transported to Virginia: average Act declaring the slave trade piracy, price for 5 years' service, ~5-while punishable with death - - 1820 a negro was worth ~25.-Banciref't - 1672 [Slavery has, however, been continued Virginia had one slave to 50 whites - 1650 in thirteen of the States. See M1isThe Quakers abolished slavery among souri.] themselves - - - - 1754 The number of slaves in the United Resolutions against the slave trade States in 1790 was - 697,697 passed by the first congress of the In 1800 - - - 896,849 colonies - - - 1774 In 1810 -1, 191,364 Act against the external slave trade In 1820 - - 1,538,05 passed by congress of the United In 1830 - -2,010,43: States -. - -.1789 In 1840 2,487,355 SLAVES, EMANCIPATION OF. Act for the abolition of slavery throughout the British colonies, and for the promotion of industry among the manumitted slaves, and for the compensation to the persons hitherto entitled to the ser-i vices of such slaves, by the grant from parliament of 20,000j0001. sterling, passed 3 and 4 William IV., Aug. 28, 1833. By the operation of this act,, slavery terminated in the British possessions on Aug. 1, 1834, and 770,2801 slaves became free. SLEEP. We are told that while Epimenides was at Athens, and was one day attending his flocks, he entered a cave, and there fell asleep. His sleep continued, according to some writers, forty or forty-seven years; Pliny says he slept fifty-seven years; and when he awoke, lihe found eveiy object so altered hRe knew not where he was. It is supposed that he lived 289 yeqar SOD J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 533 596 a. c. We have many, and even very late, instances of persons in these countries sleeping continuously, for weeks and months. SifALL-POX. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu introduced inoculation for the small-pox fiom Turkey, her own son having been inoculated with perfect success at Adrianople, A. D. 1718. She was allowed, by way of experiment. to inoculate seven capital convicts, who, on their recovery, were pardoned. Inoculation for the small-pox was encouraged under the auspices of' Dr. Mead. A small-pox hospital was instituted in London, 1746, but the piesent building was not opened till 1756. See ILocLZatio~e and VaccixLation. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. Founded by will of James Smithson, - na..tural son of the duke of Northumberland, who died 1835, and left ~100,000 "to the United States of America, to found at Washington an institution for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men." Act of Congress accepting the bequest, and providing for the fulilment of the trust, 1846. Corner stone of the building laid, May 1, 1847. SMOLENSKO, BATTLE OF. One of the most memorable of the celebrated Russian campaign of 1812, between the French and Russian armies. The French in this most sanguinary engagement were three times repulsed, but they ultimately succeeded, and, on entering Smolensko, found the city, which had been bombarded, burning and partly in ruins. Barclay de Tolli, the Russian commander-in-chief, incurred the displeasure of the emperor Alexander, because he retreated after the battle, and Kutusoff succeeded to the command, Aug. 17, 1812. SMUGGLERS IN ENGLAND. The customs duties were instituted originally to enable the king to afford protection to trade against pirates; and they afterwards became a branch of the public revenue. A severe penalty against smuggling was enacted in 1736.'NUFF-TAKING. This practice took its rise in England from the captures made of vast quantities of snuff by sir George Rooke's expedition to Vigo in 1702. The prize of the forces having been sent home and sold, the vice soon obtained from which the revenue now draws, with tobacco, considerably more than 3,000,0001. per annum. In the year ending Jan. 5, 1840, there were imported 1;622,493 lbs. of snuff, of which 196,305 lbs. were entered for home consumption; the duty was 88,2631. See Tobacco. SOAP. This article was imperfectly known to the ancients. The first express mention of it occurs in Pliny and Galen; and the former declares it to be an invention of the Gauls, though he prefers the German to the Gallic soap. In remote periods clothes -were cleansed by being rubbed or stamped upon in water. Nausicaa and her attendants, Homler tells us, washed theirs by treading upon them with their feet in pits of water.-Odyssey, book vi. The manufacture of soap began in London in 1524, before which time it was supplied by Bristol at one penny per pound. SOBRAON, BATTLE OF; INDIA. The British army, 35,000 strong, under Sir Hugh (now lord) Gough, attacked the Sikh force on the Sutlej. The enemy was dislodged after a dreadfill contest, and all their batteries taken; and in attempting the passagie of a river by a floating bridge in their rear, the weight of the masses the ti, crowded upon it caused it to break down, and more than 10,000 Sikhs were killed, wounded, or drowned. The British loss was 2383 men; fought Feb. 10, 1846. SOCIETY ISLANDS seized by tlie French admiral, Dupetit Thouars, and queen Pomlare deposed, Nov. 9, 1843, but the transaction was dis'avowed by the French government. SOCIALISM. This is the name given to the doctrine which teaches that all m!n have common interests, and that society ought to be, accordingly, or 534 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. L SOit ganized on that principle. It has been taught, more or less distinctly, in all ages and nations: by Pythagoras B. c. 466, and Plato B. c. 422, among the Greeks; by tile sect of Essenes, in the time of our Saviour, among thie Jews; by the first Christians a. D. 34; by several of the flathers of the Church; by sir Thomas More, in his Utopia, A. D. 1515; by Camlpunella, A. D. 1623; and by Babeau, in France, A. D.; but the principal modern teachers of it have been Charles Fourier, who was born at Besanqon in 1772; and who published a variety of able works on the subject; by Claude Henri St. Simon, born also in France, at Paris. in A.D. 1760; and by Robert Owen, of England, who first taught it publicly in London in 1834. Through the instrumentality of their writings it has been been spread over Germany, France, England, and the United States, where socialism, in difflerent forms, hat a considerable number of disciples. In February, 1848, an attempt was made by Louis Blanc, one of the Provisional Government of Paris, to organize labor on socialist principles, but without success. A great many religious sects, such as the Moravians, the Rappites, the Zoarites, and the Shakers, adopt the doctrine of common property in their social arrangements. SOCINIANS. So called from their founders, Faustus and Lwlius;ocinus. They taught that Jesus was a mere man, who had no existence before ho was conceived by the Virgin; that the Holy Ghost was not a distinct person; and that the Father only is truly God. They maintained that Christ died only to give mankind a pattern of heroic virtue, and to seal his doctrines with his death. Orignal sin, grace, and predestination they treated as mere chimeras. Socinianism was propagated about A. D. 1560. —Pardos. SODOM AND GOMORRAH. These cities, with all their inhabitants, destroyed by fire from heaven. 1897 B. c. —Bible, Blair, Usher'. The offence of sodomy was first sown in Englandcl by the Lombards. By an old English law, the criminal was burnt to death, though Fleta says he should be buried alive. The crime was subject to ecclesiastical censure only at the time of Hen.:., VIII., who made it felony without benefit of clergy, 1533. Confirmed by statute 5 Elizabeth, 1562. SOLAR SYSTEM. The system near.ly as now accepted, after the investigations and discoveries of many enlightened centuries and ages, was taut-ht by Pythagoras of Samos, about 529 B. c. In his system of the universe he placed the sun in the centre, and all the planets moving in elliptical orbits round it-a doctrine deemed chimerical and improbable, till the deep inquiries of the philosophy of the sixteenth century proved it, by the most accurate calculations, to be true and incontestable. The system of PytLagoras was revived by Copernicus, and it is hence called the Copernican system. Its truth was fully demonstrated by sir Isaac Newton, in 1695. How truly the poet says"He who through vast immensity can pierce, See worlds on worlds compose one universe, Observe how system into system runs, What other planets circle other suns, What varied beings people every star, MIay tell why Heaven has made us what we are."-Pospe. SOLOMON'S TEMPLE. The foundation laid, 480 years after the deliverai(, e from Egypt, 1012 B.c. The temple solemnly dedicated, Friday, Octobe..r 30, 1004 B. c., being 1000 years before the birth of the Redeemer.- Us/crl., Lealet. SORCERERS AND MAGICIANS. A law was enacted against thei'c sedluctions, 33 Henry VIII. ]541; and another statute equally severe was passed 5 Elizabeth, 1563. The pretension to sorcery and witchcraft and the conversing with evil spirits was made capital, 1 James I., 1603. For shocking instances of the punishment of sorcerers, see WitClClc'aft. SPA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 535 SOUDAN on SOUJAHI. The title of the lieutenant-generals of the caliphs, which they went by in their provinces or armies. These officers afterwards made themselves sovereigns. Saladin, general of the forces of the Noradine, king of -Damascus, was the first that took upon him this title in Egypt, A. D. 1165, after having killed the caliph Caym. SOUND. Fewer than thirty vibrations in a second give no sound; and when the vibrations exceed 7520 in a second, the tones cease to be discriminated. Robesval states the velocity of sound at the rate of 560 feet in a second; Gassendus, at 1473; Derham, at 1142 feet. At Paris, where cannon were fired under many varieties of weather in 1738, it was found to be 1107 feet. The fire of the British on landing in Egypt was distinctly heard 130 miles on the sea. See Acoustics. SOUNDINGS AT SEA. Captain Ross, of H. M. S. CEdipsts, took extraordinary soundings at sea. One of them was taken 900 miles west of St. Helena, where it extended to the depth of' 5000 fathoms. Another sounding was made in latitude of 33 degrees S. and longitude 9 degrees W., about 300 mile froin the Cape of Good Hope, when 2266 fathoms were sounded; the weight employed amounted to 450 lbs., 1840. SOUTH CAROLINA. One of the United States; first settlement was made under Governor Sayle, 5at Port Royal, in 1670, and at Charleston 1671; received a colony of French refugees, exiled by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, 1690; church of England established by law, 1703; proprietary government in th'e two Carolinas superseded by one established by the people in 1719; the country purchased of the proprietors by the English parliament in 1729, when the country was divided into North and South Carolina; received colonies of Swiss, Germans, and Irish at various times. This State early resisted the claims of the mother country, and was active in the revolutionary war. Charleston and a large part of the State taken by the British in 1780; battle of Eutaw Springs, 1781; Federal Constitution adopted May 23, 1788, by 149 to 73; "nullification ordinance" passed Nov. 1832. Population in 1790 was 249,000; in 1810, 415,115; in 1830, 581,458; in 1840, 594,398, including 327,538 slaves. SOUTH SEA BUBBLE. This destructive speculation was commenced in 1710; and the company incorporated by statute, 1716. The bubble, which ruined thousands of families, exploded in 1720, and the directors' estates, to the value of 2.014,0001. were seized in 1721. Mr. Knight, the cashier, absconded with 100,0001.; but he compounded the fraud for 10,0001., and returned to England in 1743. Almost all the wealthy persons in the kingdom had become stock-jobbers and speculators in this fatal scheme. The artifices of the directors had raised the shares, originally of 1001., to the enormous price of 10001. See Law's Bubble. SOUTHCOTT, JOANNA. See Impostors, &c. SPAIN. The first settlers are supposed to have been the progeny of Tubal, fifth son of Japheth. The Phoenicians and Carthaginians successively planted colonies on the coasts; and the Romans possessed the whole country. In the decline of the Roman empire, Spain was seized by the Vandals, Alans, and Suevi; afterwards subdued by the Visigoths, who laid the foundation of the present monarchy. See Tcabllar Views, p. 65, et seq. The Vandals and Suevi wrest Spain Alphonsns II. refusing to pay the Sarafiom the Romans A. D. 412 cens the annual tribute of 100 virgins, The Visigoths enter Spain under their war is declared; Alphonsus is victoleader, Euric - 472 rious, and obtains the appellation of The Saracens from Arabia invade the " the chaste" - - A. D, 791 st seq. country - - - 713 et seq. Inigo, first king of Navarre, &c.. 830 Pelagius, a royal Visigoth, proclaimed Ferdinand I., count of Castile, takes the king of Asturias - 718 title of king -. I 20 536 THE WORLD7S PROGRESS. | PA SPAIN, continued. Union of Navarre and Castile - A. D. 1031 The French take Madrid - A. D. nMarch, 1808 The kingdom of Arragon commenced The prince of Peace dismissed by the under Ramirez I. - - - 1035 king of Spain - March 18, 18(0S Leon and Asturias united to Castile -1037 Abdication of Charles IV. in favor of Portugal taken from the Saracens by Ferdinand - - March 19, 1803 Henry of Bourbon - 1087 And at Blayonne, in favor of his "friend The Saracens, beset on all sides by the and ally,:' Napoleon, when FerdiChristians, call in the aid of the Moors nand relinquished the crown, May 1, 1808 from Africa, who seize the dominions The French are massacred at Madrid, they camne to protect, and subdue the May 2, 1808 Saracens - - - 1091 et seq Napoleon assembles the notables at The Moors defeated in several battles Bayonne - - May 25, 1808 by Alphonsus I. of Navarre - - 1118 Joseph Bonaparte enters Madrid, as Twelve Moorish kings overcome in one king of Spain - - July 12, 18(j3 great pitched battle - - 1135 He retires itom the capital - July 29, 1808 University of Salamanca founded - 1200 Supreme Junta installed - Sept. 1808 Leon and Castile re-united - - 1226 Madrid retaken by the Frenchs and JoCordova, the residence of the first Moor- seph restored - - Dec. 2, 1808 sish kings, taken by Ferdinand of Cas- The royal family of Spain inmpisoned tile and Leon -1236 in the palace of Chambery, in Savoy, The kingdom of Granada begun by the )ec.,c, 1808 Moors, their last refuge ifrom the [Spain now becomes the scene of the power of the Christians - 1238 struggle called the Peninsular W~ar, Reign of Alphonsus the Wise - 1252 l or the events of which see thle artiThe crown of Navarre passes to the cles severally.] royal family of France - - 1276 Constitution of the Cortes - lay 8, 1Si'82 200,000 Moors invade Spain - 1327 Ferdinand VII. restored - ay 14, 1814 They are defeated by Alphonsus XI., Spanish revolution began Jan. 1, 1820 with great slaughter - - - 1340 Ferdinand swears to the constitution of The infant Don tlenriquez, son of John the Cortes - March 8, 1820 the First of Castile, first hadl the title Removal of the kine to Seville, and of prince of Asturias - - 1388 thence to Cadiz M- tarchl 20, 1823 Ferdinand II. of Arragon marries Isa- Tile French enter Spain - April 7, 1823 bella of Castile; and nlearly the whole They invest Cadiz - Jlune 25, 1823 Christian dominions of Spain are uni- Battle of the Trocadero - - Aug. 31, 18 3 ted in one monarchy - - - 1474 Despotism resumed; the Cortes disGranada taken after a two years' siege solved; executions Oct. 182.., and the power of the Moors finally Riego put to death Nov. 27, 182:3 extirpated by the valor of Ferdinand - 1492 inhe French evacuate Cadiz - Sept. 21, 1828 Columbus issent from Spain to explore Cadiz made a free port - eb. 24, 1829 the western world - - 1492 Saliqcue law abolished - MIarch 25, 1830 Ferdinand conquers the greater part of Queen of Spain appointed regent durthe kingdom of Navarre - -1512 ing the kings indisposition, and a Accession of the house of Austria to the complete change msade in the ministhrone of Spain - - 1516 try - - - Oct. 25, 1832 Charles V. of Spain and Germany re- Don Carlos declares himself legitimate tires from the world - 1556 successor to his brother's throne, Philip I. commences his bloody perse- should the king die - April 29,1833 cution of the Protestants - 1561 Death of Charles IV., and his queen The Escurial began building - - 1562 assumes the title of governing queen, Portugal united to Spain - - - 1580 until Isabella II., her infant daughter, The invincible Spanish Armada de- attains her majority - Sept. 29, 1833 stroyed. See Awmtada, and Naval The royalist volunteers disarmed, with Battles - - - - 1588 some bloodshed, at Madrid - Oct. 27, 1833 Philip III. banishes the Moors and their Don Carlos lands at Portsmouth with descendants, to the number of 900,000, his family - - June 18, 1834 from Spain - - - - 1610 He suddenly appears among his adPhilip IV. loses Portugal - - 1640 herents in Spain - July 10, 1834 Gibraltar taken by the English - 1704 The peers vote the perpetual exclusion Philip V. invades Naples - - 1714 ofDon Carlos fron the throne, Aug. 30,1831 Charles III., king of the Two Sicilies, [Hlere commences the desolating civil succeeds to the crown - - 759 war, in which British auxiliaries take Battle of Cape St. Vincent - Feb. 14, 1797 the side of the queen.] Spanish treasure-ships, valued at3,000,- Espartero gains the battle of Bilboa, 000 dollars, seized by the English and is ennobled - - Dec. 25, 1836 Oct. 29, 1804 General Evans retires from the comBattle of Trafalgar. See Tsmnfalgar, mand of the auxiliary legion, and arBattle of - - Oct. 31, 1505 rives in London, after having achieved Sway of the prince of Peace - - 1806 various successes in Spain - June 20, 1837 Conspiracy of the prince of Asturias Madrid is declared in a state of siege. against his father - July 25, 1807 Aug. 11, 18 37 Treaty of Fontainebleau - Oct. 27, 1807 [Espartero and other Christine generals SEPA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES, 537 SPAIN, cotistbseed. engage with the Carlists, and nume- I The troops evacuate the citadel, and rous conflicts take place with various retire to Montjuich - Nov. 17, 1842 success.] The regent Espartero arrives before Madrid is again declared in a state of Barcelona, and demands its utncondisiege - - A. D. Oct. 30, 1838 tional surrender - - Nov. 29,1842 The Spanish Cortes dissolved - June 1, 1839 Bombardment of Barcelona - Dec. 2, 1842 The Carlists under Marota desert Don It capitulates - - Dec. 4, 1842 Carlos - - - Aug. 25. 1839 The disturbances of Malaga - May 25, 1843 Marota and Espartero conclude a treaty The revolutionary junta is re-establishof' peace - - Aug. 29, 1839 ed xt Barcelona - - June 11, 1843 Don Carlos seeks refuge in France [Corui na, Seville, Burgos, Santiago, Sept. 13, 1839 and numerous other towns, shortly Cabrera, the Carlist general, unable to afterwards "pronounce" against the maintain the war, enters France with regent Espartero.] a body of his troops - July 1, 1840 Arrival of Gen. Narvaez at Madrid, The British auxiliaries evacuate St. Se- which surrenders - - July 15, 1843 bastian and Passages - Aug. 25, 1840 Espartero bombards Seville - July 21, 1843 Espartero makes his triumphal entry The siege is raised July 27, 1843 into Madrid - - - Oct. 5, 1840 [The revolution is completely successThe queen regent appoints a new min- ful, and Espartero flies to Cadiz, and istry, who are nominated by Espar- embarks on board her Majesty's ship tero - - - Oct. 5. 1840 M.lalbar. ] The abdication of the queen regent of The new government deprive Espartero Spain - - - Oct. 12, 1840 of his titles and rankl Aug. 16, 1843 [Sihe subsequently leaves the kingdom; Espartero and his suite and friends arvisits France; next settles in Sicily; rive in London - - Aug. 23, 1843 but returns to France.] Reaction against the new government Espartero, dule of Victoiy, expels the breaks out at Madrid - Aug. 29, 1843 papal nuncio - - Dec. 29, 1840 The young queen Isabella II., 13 years The Spanish cortes declare Espartero old, is declared by the cortes to be of regent durinlg the minority of' the are Nov. 8, 1843 young queen - - Apr. 12, 1841 The queen-mother, Christina, returns to Insurrection in favor of Christina is Spain - - - March 23, 18-14 commenced at Pampeluna by Gen. Don Carlos, from Bourges, formally reO'Donnell's army - - Oct. 2, 1841 linquishes his right to the crown, in It spreads to Vittoria and otherp.arts of favor of his son - - May 18, 1845 the kingdom - - Oct. 18-11 Narvaez and his ministry resign, Feb. Don Diego Leon attacks the palace at 12- they return to power, March 17; Madrid, and his followers are repuls- and again resign - - March 28, 1846 ed, and numbers of them slain by the TIhe queen is publicly affianced to her queen's guard - - Oct. 7, 1841 cousin, don Francisco d'Assiz, dulce Don Diego Leon. having been seized, is of Cadiz - - - Au. 27, 1846 shot at Madrid - - Oct. 15, 1841 Escape of Don Carlos and others friom Zurbano captures Bilboa - Oct. 21. 1841 France - - - Sept. 14, 1846 Rotlil, the constitutional general, enters Marriage of the queen; and marriage Vittoria - - Oct. 21, 1841 also of the infinta Louisa to the duiie Espartero decrees the suspension of de Montpensier - - Oct. 10, 1846 queen Christina's pension - Oct. 26, 1841 [The Montpensier marriage occasions Esi)artero malces his triumphal entry the displeasure of' England, andt disinto Madrid - - Nov. 23, 1841 tuirbs the friendly relations of the An insurrection breaks out at Barce- French and Eng-lish governments.] lona; the national guard joins the Amnesty grlanted by the queen to ponpopulace - - Nov. 13, 1812 litical offenders - - Oct. 18, 1846 Battle in the streets between the national The queen has a son born, who dies the guard and the troops; the latter lose samle day - July 1, 1850 100 in killed and wounded, and retreat to the citadel - - Nov. 15, 1842 KINGS OF SPAIN. A.D. 406. Alaric I., king of the Goths; murdered. 548. Theodisele; murdered for female vio411. Athalsus; murdered by his soldiers. lation. 415. Wallia. 549. Agila; taken prisoner and put to death. 420. Theodoric I.; killed in battle. 554. Athanagild. 450. Torrismuns, assassinated by his fa- 567. From this year to the year 687, sixteen vorite. kings reigned. 452. T!leodoric II. 687. Egica or Egiza. 466. Euric. 697. Vitizza. 484. Alaric II.; killed in battle. 741, Roderick; killed in battle in 507. Gesalric; killed in battle. An interregnum till 511. Alllalaric; killed in battle. 718. Pelagius. 531. Theodat; assassinated by a madman. 736. Favila; killed by a boar in hunting. 23* 5338 TiHE WORLD7S PROGRESS. [ SPA SPAIN, conztintued, 738. Alphonsus I.; Catholic. 1350. Peter the Cruel; deposed.. Reinstated 757. Frola I.; killed by his brother Aure- by Edward the Black Prince of Et - lius. land; afterwards beheaded by his 768. Aurelius. subjects. 774. Silo. 1368. Henry II.,,the Gracious; poisoned by 783. Mauregat. a monk. 789. Veremond. 1379. John I.; he united Biscay to Castile. 791. Alphonsus II.; the chaste. 1390. Henry III., the Sickly. 82,. Ramiro I.; he put 70,000 Saracens to 1406. John II. the sword in one battle. 1454. Henry IV, the Imlpotent. 860. Ordogno I. 1474. Ferdinand V., the Catholic, in whom, 862. Alphonsus III.; surnamed the great; by his marriage with Isabella, the deposed by his son. kingdoms of Castile and Arraoon 910. Garcias. were united. 914. Ordogno II. 1504. Philip I. of Austria, and his queen 923. Froila II. Joan. 924. Alphonsus IV.; abdicated. 1506. Joan alone over both kingdoms. 931. Ramniro II., killed in battle. 1516. Charles I., and emperor of Germany, 950. Ordogno III. resigned both crowns, and retired to 955. Ordogno IV. a monastery. 956. Sancho I., the Fat; poisqoned with an 1555. Philip II., married Miary, queen-regapple nant of England. 967. Ramiro III. 1598. Philip II., son of the preceding; he 982. Veremund II.; the Gouty. drove the Moors from Grenada and 999. Alphonsus V.; killed at the siege of the adjacent provinces. Viscu. 1621. Philip IV., his son; a reign of nearly 1028. Veremund III.; killed in battle. continuous and unfortunate wars with 1035). Ferdinand the Great, king of Leon and the Dutch and France. Castile. 1665. Charles II. 1065. Sancho II., the Strong, king of Castile; 1700. Philip V., duke of Anjou, grandson to Alphonsus in Leon and Asturias; and Louis XIV. of France; resigned. Garcias in Galicia. 1724. Lewis I.; who reigned only a few 1072. Alphonsus VI., the Valiant; in Castile months. and Leon. 1724. Philip V.; again. 1109. Alphonsus VII. 1745. Ferdinand VI., surnamed the Wise; he 1122. Alphonsus VIII. distinguished his reign by acts of 1157. Sancho III., the Beloved, in Castile; liberality and beneficence. Ferdinand in Leon. 1759. Charles III., king of the Two Sicilies. 1158. Alphonsus IX., in Castile. 1788. Charles IV.; abdicated in favor of his 1214. Henry I. son and successor. -1236. Ferdinand III. the Holy; in him Cas- 1808. Ferdinand VII., whom Napoleon, of tile and Leon were reunited, and per- of France, also forced to resign. petually annexed. 1808. Joseph Bonaparte, brother of Naro1252. Alphonsus the Wise; deposed. leon; deposed. 1284. Sancho IV., the Brave; Peter III. in 1814. Ferdinand VII.; restored; succeeded Arragon. by his daughter. 1295. Ferdinand IV. 1833. Isabella II., Sept. 29; who came to the 1312. Alphonsus X.; John in Arragon. throne when three years of age. While nearly all the other nations of the world have been at peace, this country, for the last quarter of a century, has been a prey to the most deplorable commotions, and almost continuous and destructive civil war. From the death -of Ferdinand, the intrigues of Christina, the queen-mother, and the parties in her interest, have led to successive revolutions in the state, and caused, in 1840, her own abdication of the regency, and expulsion from the kingdom. SPANISH ARMADA AGAINST ENGLAND. See article Armada. SPARTA. The capital of Laconia, one of the most considerable republics o. the Peloponnesus, and the formidable rival of Athens. Though without walls, it resisted the attacks of its enemies by the valor of its citizens, for eight centuries. The epoch of its foundation is much disputed. Lelex is supposed to have been the first king, 1516 a. c. From Lacedcemon the fourth king, and his wife Sparta, who are also spoken of as the founders of the city, it obtained the naules by which it was most known. The history of Lacedramon may be divided into five eras, viz., 1st. Under the ancient kings, from Lelex to the settlement of the Heraclidm, comprising about four hu-5 aPI] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 539 dred and twelve years. 2d. Under the Heraclidm as absolute monarchs, till Lycurgus instituted a senate, by which the people obtained a share in the government, including about two hundred and twenty years. 3d. From the establishment of the senate, to the introduction of ephori, or five inspectors by Theopompus, about one hundred and twenty-four years. 4th. From the appointment of the ephori, to the total abolition of royalty, about five hundred and forty years. 5th. From the abolition of the monarchy, to the subjugation of the country to the Roman power, a period of about seventytwo years, 147 B. c.-Abb6 Lenglet. See Tabular Views: Greece, page 7, et seq. See also Greece. The Lacedamonians were a nation of soldiers. They cultivated neither the arts, sciences, commerce, nor agriculture. All their laws, all their institutions, all their education, in a word, the very constitution of their republic, were calculated to make them warriors. And never were men brought into the field more capable of enduring fatigue. They hardened their bodies by stripes, and by manly exercises, accustoming themselves to undergo hardships, and even to die without fear or regret. The women were as courageous as the men, and celebrated with festivals the fall of their sons, when killed in battle, or coolly put them to death with their own hands, if by a shameful flight, or the loss of their arms, they brought disgrace upon their country.-Abbe Lenglet. SPECTACLES AND READING-GLASSES. See Optics. Spectacles were unknown to the ancients. They are generally supposed to have been invented in the 13th century, by Alexander de Spina, a monk of Florence, in Italy, about A. D. 1285.-Gen. Hist. They were invented by Roger Bacon, our own illustrious countryman, according to Dr. Plott. The hint was certainly given by Bacon.about 1280. Some affirm that the real inventor was Salvino; and Mr. IManni gives proofs in favor of Salvino in his Treatise on Spectacles. SPHERES. The celestial and terrestrial globes, and also sun-dials, were invented by Anaximander, 552 B. c. The armillary sphere is said to have been invented by Eratosthenes about 255 B. c. The planetarium was constructed by Archimedes before 212 B. c. It was maintained by Pythagoras that the motions of the twelve spheres must produce delightful sounds, inaudible to the ears of mortals, which he called the music of the spheres. SPINNING. The art of spinning was ascribed by the ancients to Minerva, the goddess of wisdom, such was their veneration for it. Areas, king of Arcadia, taught his subjects the art of spinning about 1500 B. c. Lucretia with her maids was found spinning, when her husband Collatinus paid a visit to her from the camp. The wife of Tarquin was an excellent spinner; and a garment made-by her, worn by Servius Tullius, was preserved in the tesple of Fortune. Augustus Cxsar usually wore no garments but such as were made by his wife, sister, or daughter. The spinning-wheel was invented at Brunswick, about A. D. 1530. Till 1767, the spinning of cotton was performed by the hand-spinning-wheel, when Hargrave, an ingenious mechanic, near Blackburn, made a spinning-jenny, with eight spindles. Hargrave also erected the first carding-machine, with cylinders. Arkwright's machine for spinning by water was an extension of the principle of Hargrave's; but he also applied a large and small roller to expand the thread, and, for this ingenious contrivance, took out a patent in 1769. At first, he worked his machinery by horses; but in 1771 he built a mill on the stream of the Derwent, at Cromford. In 1779, Crompton invented the mule, which is a further and wonderful improvement of this art.-P dillips. SPIRES. In ancient times the emperors held many diets at Spires, and it was the seat of the imperial chamber till 1689, when the city was burnt by the French, and not rebuilt till after the peace of Ryswick in 1697. The diet to 540 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [STA,. condemn the reformers was held at Spires, called there by the emperor Charles V., 1529. This was the era of Protestantism. See Protestants. SPIRITS. See Distillation. No human invention has ever tended more to cor rupt the morals, and ruin the character, constitution, and circumstances ou numbers of mankind, than distillation. In all nations spirituous l411uors have been considered as a proper subject of heavy taxation for the support of the state. In 1840, England made about ten millions of gallons of spirits, Scotland made about seven millions of gallons, and Ireland about nine millions of gallons. In England, Ireland, and Scotland, duty was paid, in 1840, on the following quantities of spirits. viz.-Rum, 2,830,263 gallons; brandy, 1,167,756 gallons; Geneva, 18,640 gallons; on other foreign spirits,.8,758 gallons; and on British, Irish, and Scotch spirits, 25,190,843 gallons; mak ing in the whole nearly thirty millions of gallons, upon which the duty amounted to about eight millions of pounds sterling!-Parl. Retnlm's. SPITZBERGEN. Discovered in 1533, by sir Hugh Willoughby, who called it Greenland, supposing it to be a part of the western continent. In 1595, it was visited by Barentz and Cornelius, two Dutchmen, who pretended to be the original discoverers, and called it Spitzbergen, or sharp mountains, from the many sharp-pointed and rocky mountains with which it abounds. STAMP-DUTIES IN ENGLAND. The first institution of stamp-duties was by statute 5 and 6 William and Mary, June 23, 1694, when a duty was imposed upon paper, vellum, and parchment. The stamp-duty on newspapers was commenced in 1713, and every year added to the list of articles upon which stamp-duty was made payable. The American Stamp Act, a memorable statute, one of those imposts levied by the parliament of Great Britain which produced the American war,:-nd led to the independence of the United States, was passed March 22; 1765. Stamp-duties in Ireland commenced 1774. Stamps on notes and bills of exchange in 1782. The stamp — duties produced in England, in 1800, the revenue of 3,126,5351.; and in 1840, for the United Kingdom, 6,726,8171. See Newspapers, &c. STANDARDS. See Banners, Flags, &c. The practice in the army of using the cross on standards and shields arose in the miraculous appearance of a cross to Constantine, previously to his battle with Maxentius: this fact rests on the authority of Eusebius, who states that he had received it from the emperor himself, A.. 312. For the celebrated French standard, see Lily. STANDARD OF MAHOMIET; on this ensign no infidel dare look. It was carried in procession about 1768, when several hundred Christians who ign: - rantly looked upon it, were massacred by the Turkish populace The IMPERIAL STANDARD was first hoisted on the- Tower of London, and on Bedford Tower, Dublin, and displayed by the Foot Guards, on the union of the kingdoms, Jan. 1, 1801. STAR-CHAMBER, COURT OF. So called haply from its roof being garnished with stars.-Coke. This court of justice, so tremendous in the Tudor and part of the Stuart reigns, was called Star-chamber, not from the stars on its roof (which were obliterated even before the reign of queen Elizabeth' but from the Starra, or Jewish covenants, deposited there by order of Richard I. No Star was allowed to be valid except found in those repositories, and here they remained till the banishment of the Jews by Edward I. The court was instituted 2 Henry VII. 1487, for trials by a committee of the privy council. In Charles I.'s reign, it exercised its power, independent of any law, upon several bold innovators in liberty, who only gloried in their sufferings, and contributed to render government- odious and contemptible.-Goldsmnitl/. It was abolished 16 Charles I., 1641. There were ,STE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 541 firom 26 to 42 judges, the lord-chancellor having the casting voice.Gibbons. STARS. They were classed into constellations, it is supposed, about 1200 E. c. Hicetas, of Syracuse, taught that the sun and the stars were motionless, and that the earth moved round them (this is mentioned by Cicero, and probably gave the first hint of this system to Copernicus), about 344 a. c. Job, Hesiod, and Homer, mention several of the constellations. The Royal Library at Paris contains a Chinese chart of the heavens, made about 600 B. c., in which 1460 stars are correctly inserted. The aberration of the stars discovered bly Dr. Bradley, 1727. See Astronewmy and Solar System. STATES-GENERAL op FRANCE. An ancient assembly of France. Previously to the Revolution it had not met since A. D. 1614. The states consisted of three orders, the nobility, clergy, and commons. They were convened by Louis XVI., and assembled at Versailles, May 5, 1789. Here a a contest arose, whether the three orders should make three distinct houses, or but one assembly. The commons insisted upon the latter, and, assuming the title of the National Assembly, declared that they were competent to proceed to business, without the concurrence of the two other orders, if they refused to join them. The nobility and clergy found it expedient to concede the point, and they all met in one hall. See LNtional Assembly. STATIONERS. Books and paper were formerly sold only at stalls, hence the dealers were called stationers. The company of stationers of London is of great antiquity, and existed long before printing was invented; yet it was not incorporated until 3 Philip and Mary, 1555. Their old dwelling was in Paternoster-row. —ilio'timer. STATUES. See Moulds, SculptrLe, &c. Phidias, whose statue of Jupiter passed for one of the wonders of the world, was the greatest statuary among the ancients, 440 B. c. He had previously made a statue of Minerva at the request of Pericles, which was placed in the Parthenon. It was made with ivory and gold, and measured 39 feet in height. Acilius raised a golden statue to his lather, the first that appeared in Italy. Lysippus invented the art of taking likenesses in plaster moulds, from which he afterwards cast models in wax, 326 B. c. Michael Angelo was the greatest artist among the moderns. The first equestrian statute erected in Great Britain was that of Charles I. in 1678. STEASM ENGINE. This is the most important prime mover that the ingenuity of man has yet devised. The first idea of it was suggested by the marquis of Worcester in his Century of Iventionvs, as' a way to drive up water by fire," A. D. 1663. It does not, however, appear that the noble inventor could ever interest the public in favor of this great discovery. Papin's digester invented - A. D. 1681 Watt's expansion engine - - - -1778 Captain Savery's engine constructed Double acting engines proposed by Dr. ior raising water - 1698 Flcl on Newcornen's principle - 1779 Papin's engine, exhibited to the Royal Vatt's double engine, and his first paSociety, about - - 1699 tent for it granted -. 1781 Atmospheric engine by Savery and The marquess Jouffroy constructed an Newcomen - 1713 engine on the Saone - - - 1781 First idea of steam navigation set forth Fitchs' experiments in steam naviga. in a patent obtained by Hulls - 1736 tion on the Delaware, (See Smith's Watt's invemion of performing conden- Ans. Curios.) - - 1783-4 sation in a separate vessel from the Oliver Evans' experiments in the cylinder - - -1765 same -1785-6 His first patent - 1769 Rumsey's experiments in the same in His engines upon a large scale erected Virginia -1787 in manufactories, and his patent re- W. Syrnington made a passage on the newed by act of parliament - - 1775 Forth atid Clyde canal - 1789 Thomas Paine proposed the application First steam-engine erected in Dublin by of stea in America - - - 1778 Henry Jackson -1791 Engine made to give a rotary motion - 1778 Jouffroy's experiments in France - -1792 542 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ STE STEAM ENGINE, continued. Chancellor Livingston builds a steamer Steam applied to printing in the Tzunes on the Hudson - 1797 office. See Press - 1814 First experiment on the Thames - - 1801 There were five steam vessels in ScotThe experiment of Mr. Symington re- land (Parl. Returnss) in - - - 1813 peated with success - - - - 1802 First steam vessel on the Thames Trevethick's high-pressure engine - 1802 brought by Mr. Dodd, from Glasgow 1815 Oliver Evans' experiments in locomo- The first steamer built in England(Pal-l. tive enaines in Penn. - - - 1804 Returns) -1815 Woolf's aouble cylinder expansion en- The Savannaoh steamer, of 350 tons, gine constructed - -1804 went fiom New York to Liverpool Manulactories warmed by steam - 1806 in 26 days - - - July 15, 1819 Fulton started a steam-boat on the river First steamer in Ireland - - 1820 Hudson, built by himself, and named Captain Johnson obtained 10,0001. fior " The North River;" engine by Boul- making the first steam voyage to Inton and Watt; passage to Albany in 33 dia, in the Enter-rise, which sailed hours: FIRs STEA S NAVIGATION on from Falmouth - - Aug. 16, 1825 record - - - 1807 Locomotive steam carriages on railThe next three steam-boats in the world ways, at Liverpool - - Oct. 1829. were the Car ojf Neptzune, - 1808 The Railway opened (see Livesjpool) - 1830 The Paragose - - 1811 The Great TWestern arrives from BrisThe RiZcAlzond -1812 tol at New York, and the Si?'ius friom all in New York. Cork, same day, being their first voySteam power to convey coals on a rail- age, in 18 days - - June 17, 1838 way, employed by Blenlinsop - - 1811 War steamers built in England - - 1838 Steam vessels first comumenced plying First steamer of the Cunard line was on the Clyde (FIRST in EUROPE) - 1812 the Britannia to Boston; after a passage of 14 ds. 8 hrs., arrived July 18, 1840 STEAMfi BOATS IN THEI UNITED) STATES. In 1838 returns from 23 States gave an aggregate of 700 vessels-whole tonnage, 153,660 tons; beut these returns were not complete. The increase from 1838 to 1850 was very great: probably there are, in 1850, at least 1500 vessels, with an aggregate of 300,000 tons. The first American ocean steamer of any note was the Washington, which made her tfirst passage to Southamnpton in June 1847. The whole number of steam-boats, locomotive and stationary engines, in the United States, in 1838, was 8,010. STEAM VESSELS ofv THE BRITISH EMPIRE. STEAM VESSELS BELONGING TO THE BRITISH EMPIRE AT THE FOLLOWING PERIODS; Year. rEnglazd. EScolland. Iroelan-cl. eependencies. Total. 1814 - 0 0 1 6 1815 - 3 5 0 2 10 1820 - 17 14 3 9 43 1825 - 112 36 3 17 168 1830 - 203 61 31 20 315 1835 - 344 85 68 48 5145 1845 - 694 139 79 89 1001 STEEL-YARD. A most ancient instrument, the same that is translated balance in the Pentateucd The Statesa Romansa, or Roman steel-yard, is mentioned in 315 a. c. STENOGRAPHY. The art of-writing in short-llhand is said to have been practised by most of the ancient nations. It is said to have followed from the hieroglyphics of the Egyptians. It is also attributed to the poet Ennius, improved upon by Tyro, Cicero's freed-man, and still more by Seneca. The As ScribenLdi Characteris, printed about A. D. 1412, is the oldest system extant. Peter Bales, the famous penman, published on stenography in 1590. There are now numerous systems of it, many of them of easy acquirement and great simplicity. STEREOMETRY. The instrument by which is compassed the art of taking the contents of vessels of liquids by gauging, invented about A. D. 1350.Ande?-sonr. STEREOTYPE. See Prisrlitbg. It is said that stereotyping was known in 1711; but this is dloubted. It is said to have been suggested by Wm. Ged LY -N UWIIIC~ VV ~~-YrV nlVY —NI~h~VNVV~* UJ ~1 I~~~~ ~1v-3 STO ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 543 of Edinburgh, 1735.-Nichols. This species of printing is ascribed by others to Mr. Tilloch, 1779. The invention of it is also attributed to Francis Ambrose Diclot, of Paris, about that year. —Feso gson. But stereotype printing was in use in Holland, in the last century; and a quarto Bible and Dutch folio Bible were printed there.-Phillips. Stereotyping was introduced into London, by Wilson, in 1804.-Ideam. STEREOTYPING. The foregoing is from Haydn. But this art is said to have been invented by Cadwallader Colden of New York, who sent the details of his plan in 1779 to Dr. Franklin, then in Paris. Franklin communicated the plan to Didot, the famous printer, and Herbau, a German, who had been an assistant of Didot, took it up in opposition to Didot. It is affirmed, on good authority, that Herbau's method of stereotyping is precisely similar to that which Colden invented. Stereotyping was first actually practised in New York in 1813; when John Watts stereotyped the Larger Catechism. In June 1815 the Bruces of New York stereotyped a duodeciimo Bible.-Dr. J. WV. Frlancis. STOCKINGS. Those of silk were first worn by Henry II. of France, 1547. In 1560, queen Elizabeth was presented with a pair of black knit silk stockings, by her silk-woman, Mrs. Montague, and she never wore cloth ones any more.-tiHowell. He adds, "Henry VIII. wore ordinarily cloth hose, except there came fiom Spain, by great chance, a pair of silk stockings; for Spain very early abounded with silk." Eclvarcl VI. was presented with a pair of Spanish silk stockings by his merchant, sir Thomas Gresham; and the present was then much taken notice of. —Idem. Others relate that William Rider, a London apprentice, seeing at the house of an Italian merchant, a pair of knit worsted stockings from Mantua, ingeniously made a pair like them, which he presented to the earl of Pemlbroke, the first of the kind made in England, 1564.-Sltowe. STOCKS. The public funding system originated in Venice, and was introduced into Florence in 1340. The English funding system may be said to have had its rise in 1694. The number of stockholders in 1840 amounted to 337,481. By a return of the average price of the public funds by the coimmissioners for the reduction of the national debt, it appears that Consols averaged in the year1780 - 6313 6 179a -7486 1810 -.i716 3 1825.;90 0 8 1785 - -68 6 6 1800 - - 66 3 1815 - -58 13 9 1830 - 89 15 7 1790 - 7t 2 6 180.5 58 14 0 1820 6 12 0 1840 - 89 17 6 See Public Debt. STOICS. Disciples of Zeno, the cynic philosopher; they obtained the name of stoics because they listened to his instructions and harangues in a porch or portico at Athens, called in Greek Stoe. Zeno taught that man's supreme happiness consisted in living according and agreeable to nature and reason, and that God was the soul of the world. The Pharisees affected the same stiffness, patience, apathy, austerity, and insensibility, which this sect is famous for.-Stanley. STONE. Stone buildings were introduced into England, A. D. 670. A stone bridge was built at Bow in 1087, and is accounted the first; but a bridge exists at Crowland, which is said to have been built in 860. See B)ridg-es. The first stone building in Ireland was a castle, 1161. See Btildingi. Stone china-ware was made by Wedgwood in 1762. Artificial stone for statues was manufactured by a Neapolitan, and introduced into England, 1776. Stone paper was made in 1796. STONEHENGE. Among the most celebrated monuments of British antiquity. Said to have been erected on the counsel of Merlin by Aurelius Ambrosius, in memory of 460 Britons who were murdered by Hengist., the Saxon, A. D, 544 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ STO 475. —Geoffrey oj MormorthA. Erected as a sepulchral monument of Anmbrosius, A. D. 500.-Polsydo'e Ve'gil. An ancient temple of' the Britons, in which the Druids officiated.-Dr. Stulkeley. The Britons had annual meetings at Abury and Stonehenge, where laws were made, and justice administered, and heinous crimes punished, by burning alive in wicker-baskets. STORMS. The following are among the best authenticated and most memorable. In London a storm raged which destroyed 1500 houses, A. D. 944. One in several parts of England, the sky being very dark, the wind coming from the S.W.; many churches were destroyed; and in London 500 houses fell, October 5, 1091. One on the coast of Calais, when Hugh de Beauvais, and several thousand foreigners, on their voyage to assist king John against the barons, perished, 1215.-Holbib7s/eed. It thundered 15 days successively, with ter- greatly damnaged, and some ships lost, and pests of rain and wind, A.D. 1233. 30,000 persons perished, Oct. 11, 1737. A storm with violent lightnings; one flash A dreadful hurricane at the 11avana; many passed through a chamber where Edward public edifices and 4048 houses were deI. and his queen were conversing, did them stroyed, and 1000 inhabitants perished, no damage, but killed two of their attend- Oct. 25, 1768.-Anneua l Register. ants: 1285.-flovedlen. An awful storm in the north of lngland, in A violent storm of hail near Chartres, in which many vessels were destroyed. and France, which fell on the army of Edward 4 Dublin packets foundered. Oct. 29, 1775. III., then on its march. The hail was so At Surat, in the East Indies; destroyed 7000 large that the artny and horses suffered of the inhabitants, April 22, 17S2. very much, and Edward was obliged to One hundred and thirty-one villages and conclude a peace, 1339. —Matt. PcLazis. farms laid waste in France, 1785. XWhen Richard Il.'s queen came from Bohe- A dreadful hurricane, which ravaged the mia, on setting fbot on shore an awful Leeward Islands, from 20th to 22d Sept. storm arose, and her ship and a number 1819. At the Island of St. Thomas alone, of others were dashed to pieces in the har. 104 vessels were lost. bor, Jan. 1382.-Hsolinshed. At Gibraltar, where more than a hundred Richard's second queen also brought a storm vessels were destroyed, Feb. 18, 1828. with her to the English coasts, in which Awful hurricane on the western coast of the lking's baggage was lost, and many England, and in Ireland. The storm raged ships cast away, 1389. —Ides?. through Cheshire, Staffordshire, and WarA hurricane throughout Europe, which did wickshire; 20 persons were killed in Livery considerable damage; more remark- verpool, by the falling of buildings, and ed in England, happening Sept. 3, 1658, the 100 were drowned in the neighborhood; day that Cromwell died. —lMortimzer. the coast and harbors were covered with A storm on the eastern coasts of England; wrecks; the value of two of the vessels 200 colliers and coasters lost, with most of lost being nearly halfa million sterling. In their crews, 1696. Limerick, Galway, Athlone, and other The storm called the " Gr-eat Storm,"' one of. places, more than 200 houses were blown the most terrible that ever raged in Eng- clown, and as many more were burnt, the land. The devastation on land was im- wind spreading the fires. Dublin suffermense; and in the harbors, and on the ed dreadfully; London and its neighborcoasts, the loss in shipping and in lives hood scarcely sustained any damage, Jan. was still greater, Nov. 26, 1703.* 6-7, 1839. A snow storm in Sweden, when 7000 Swedes, Iturricane at Havana, 92 vessels sunk, 1275 it is said, perished upon the mountains, in houses destroyed, and 1038 injured, Oct. their march to attack Drontheim, A. D. 10-11, 1846. 1719. Hurricane at Antigua, St. Thomas, &c. Aug. One in India, when many hundreds of ves- 21, 1848. sels were cast away, a fleet of Indiamen, STOVES. The ancients used stoves which concealed the fire, as the German stoves yet do. They lighted the fire also in a large tube in the middle of' * The loss sustained in London alone was calculated at 2,000.0001. sterling. The number of persons drowned in the floods of the Severn and Thames, and lost on the coast of Holland, and in ships blown from their anchors and never heard of afterwards, is thought to have been 8000. Twelve men-of-war, with more than 1800 men on board, were lost within sight of their own shore. Trees were torn up by the roots, 17,000 of them in Kent alone. The Eddystone light-house was destroyed, and in it the ingenious contriver of it, Winstanley. and the persons who were with him. The bishop of Bath and Wells and his lady were killed in bed in their palace, in Somersetshire. Multitudes of cattle were also lost; in one level 15,000 sheep were drowned. sVG J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 545 the room, the roof being open. Apartments were warmed too by portable braziers. See Chimneys. STRASBURG. The attempt at.nsurrection in the city of Strasburg, by LouisNapoleon Bonaparte, a nephew of the deceased emperor, aided by two officers and some privates, which was instantly suppressed by the arrest of the parties. The prince was afterwards shipped off' to America by the French government, Oct. 29, 1836. This enthusiast made another attempt, by a descent at Boulogne, Aug. 6, 1840. See Prance. STRATTON-HILL, BATTLE OF, in Devonshire, between the royal army and the forces of the parliament, headed by the poet Waller; in this battle the victory was gained over the parliamentarians, who lost numbers in killed and wounded, and Waller was obliged to fly to Bristol; fought May 16, 1643. STUCCO-WORK. The art was known to the ancients, and was much prized by them, particularly by the Romans, who excelled in it. —Abbv Lenglet. It was revived by D'Udine about A. D. 1550; and is now exquisitely performled in Italy and France, and is advancing rapidly to perfection in England. STYLE. The style was altered by Augustus Cmsar's ordering leap-year to be but once in four years, and the month Sextillis to be called Augustus, 8 B.c. Again at Rome, by taking twelve days off the calendar, A. D. 1582. See Calendar. Introduced into most of the other states of Europe, 1710. Act passed to change the style in England from the Julian to the Gregorian, 1751. It took effect Sept. 3, 1752. See New Style and Year. STYLE, ROYAL, OF THnE KINGS OF ENGLAND. See articles Majesty and'litles. SUBSIDIES. Subsidies to the kings of England formerly granted in kind, particularly in wool; 30,000 sacks were voted to Edward II. on account of the war with France, 1340. —AnLdersoen. Subsidies raised upon the subjects of England for the last time by James I., 1624, but they were contained in a bill for the redress of grievances, 1639. England granted subsidies to foreign powers in several wars, particularly in the war against the revolutionists of France, and the war against Bonaparte. One of the most remarkable of these latter was June 20, 1800, when a treaty of subsidies was ratified at Vienna, between Austria and England, stipulating that the war should be vigorously prosecuted against France, and that neither of the contracting powers should enter into a separate peace. Subsidies to Austria, Prussia, Russia, the Porte, and other powers, were afterwards given by England, to the amount of many tens of millions sterling.-Phillips. SUB-TREASURY. Bill providing for the safe keeping of the moneys belonging to the United States, passed the Senate by 24 to 18, Jan. 23, 1840; repealed Aug. 9, 1841. Re-enacted in a new form, 184-. SUCCESSION, ACT of. The memorable act to exclude Roman Catholics from ascending the throne of Great Britain was passed in 1689; and the crown of England was settled upon the present royal family by the act cf June 12, 1701. SUCCESSION, THE WAR oF. This celebrated war, alike distinguished by the glorious achievements of the duke of Marlborough and its barren and unprofitable results, arose in the question whether an Austrian or a French prince, grandson of Louis XIV.. should succeed to the throne of Spain. Our court opposed Louis, and Marlborough was victorious; but the allies withdrew, one after another, and the French prince succeeded; 1702 to 1713. See Utrecltt, Peace of. SUGAR, Sacchlarm officinarn'm. Sugar is supposed to have been known to the THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ SuL ancient Jews. Found in the East Indies by Nearchus, admiral of Alexander, 325 B. c. —Strabo. An oriental nation in alliance with Pompey used the juice of the cane as a common beverage.-Lucae. The best sugar was produced in India.-Pliany. It was prescribed as a medicine by Galen.Ewscyclop. Brought into Europe fiom Asia, A. D. 625. In large quantities,'1150. It was attempted to be cultivated in Italy; but not succeeding, the Portuguese and Spaniards carried it to America about 1510.-RobertsoJ1's Histoy ofv Charles V.* SUGAR-REFINING. The art of refining sugar was made known to the Europeans by a Venetian, A. D. 1503. It was first practised in England in 1659, though some authorities say that we had the art among us a few years sooner. Sugar was first taxed by name, 1 James II., 1685. —lAderson; 1Mortizmer. See Beet Root. SUICIDE. The first instance of it (passing that of Samson) recorded in Jewish history is that of Saul, 1055 B. c. —Apollodorz's. The Greek and Roman philosophers deemed it a crime, and burned the offending hand apart from the rest of the body. In the early part of the Roman history, the only instance recorded occurs in the reign of Tarquin I., when the soldiers, thinking themselves disgraced by being ordered to make common sewers, destroyed themselves, 606 B. c. Instances afterwards occurred, however, of illustrious men committing suicide, as Cato, 45 B. c. In the Catholic church, in the sixth century, it was ordained that no commemoration should be made in the Eucharist for such as committed self-murder. This. ecclesiastical law continued till the Reformation, when it was admitted into the statute law of England by the authority of parliament, with the confiscation of land and goods. A FEW OF THE MOST MEMORABLE RECENT CASES OF SUICIDE IN ENGLAND, &C. Suicide of gen. Pichegru April 7, 1804 Of Mr. Simpson, the traveller July 24, 1840 Of marshal Berthier - - June 1, 18115 Oflord James Beresford - April 27, 1841 Of Samuel Whitbred, esq. - Sept. 6, 1515 Of the earl of Mlunster March 20. 1842 Of sir Samuel Romilly - Nov. 2, 1818 Of Laman Blanchard Feb. 25, 1845 Of Christophe, king of Hayti Oct. 8, 1820 Of col. Gurwood - - Dec. 29, 1845 Of marquess ofLondonderry Aug. 12,1822 Of Haydon, the eminent painter Of hon. colonel Stanhope - Jan. 26, 1825 June 22, 1845 There have been only three instances of self-destruction by fire; that of the philosopher Empedocles, who threw himself into the crater of Mount Etna; of a Frenchman, who, in imitation of him, threow himself, in 1820, into the crater of Vesuvius; and of an Englishman, who jumped into the furnace of a forge about the year 1811. Plutarch relates that an unaccountable passion for suqcide seized the Milesian virgins, from which they could not be prevented by the tears and prayers of their friends; but a decree being issued that the body of every young maid who did self-murder should be drawn naked through the streets, a stop was soon put to the extraordinary frenzy. In England, the body was buried in cross-roads, a stake being' previously driven through it, until the statute 4 George IV., 1823. SULTAN. A Turkish title, from the Arabic, signifying king of kiings, and given to the grand signior or emperor of Turkey. It was first given to the Turkish princes Angrolipex and Musgad, about A.. 1055. —Vcattier. It * About the year 1138 the sugar-cane was transported from Tripoli and Syria to Sicily, thence to Madeira, and finally to the West Indies and America. It is not known at what date sugar was introduced into England, but it seems to have been prior to the reign of Henry VIII. Mr. Whittaker, in the History of Whalley, p. 1.09, quotes an earlier instance, in 1497. A manuscript letter, from sir Edward Wotton to lord Cobham, dated Calais, 6th March, 1546, advertises him that sir Edward had taken up for his lordship, 25 sugar-loaves at six shillings a loaf, "' whiche is eithte penco a pounde." In 1840, the imports of sugar into the United Kingdom were nearly 5,000,000 cwts., qf which nearly four millions were for home consumption; and the duty amounted to about five millions and a half sterling, SUP DICTIONARY OP DATES. 547 was first given, according to others, to the emperor Mlahbmoud, in the fourth century of the Hegira. SUMMATRA, ISLAND or. The Malays at Qualla Battoo having committed piracies on American vessels, the-town was destroyed by the United States frigate Potomac, and 150 Malays killed, Feb. 6, 1832. SUMPTUARY LAWS. Laws to restrain excess in dress, furniture, eating, &c. Those of Zaleucus ordained that no woman should go attended by more than one maid in the street, unless she were drunk; and that she should not wear gold or embroidered apparel, unless she designed to act unchastely, 450 B. c. —Diog. Laert. This law checked luxury. The Lex Orchiia among the Romans limited the guests at feasts, and the number and quality of the dishes at an entertainment; and it also enforced that during supper, which was the chief meal among the Romans, the doors of every house should be left open. The English sumptuary laws were chiefly in the reigns of Edward III. and Henry VIII. See Dress, LuxzuJry, &c. SUN. Pythagoras taught that the sun was one of the twelve spheres, about 529 a. c. The relative distances of the sun and moon were first calculated geometrically by Aristarchus, who also maintained the stability of the sun, about 280 B. c. Numerous theories were ventured during fifteen centuries, and astronomy lay neglected until about A. D. 1200, when it was brought into Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain. The Copernican system was made known in 1530. See Coperzican S'ystem and Solar S~ystem. Galileo and Newton maintained that the sun was an igneous globe. Maculm were first discovered by Chr. Scheiner, 1611. Transit of Mercury observed. by Gassendi. By the observations of Dr. Halley on a spot which darkened the sun's disk in July and August, 1676, he established the certainty of its motion round its own axis. Parallax of the sun, Dr. Halley, 1702. A macula, three times the size of the earth, passed the sun's centre, April 21, 1766, and frequently since. Herschel measured two spots whose lengtl taken together exceeded 50,000 miles, April 19, 1779. SUN-DIALS. Invented by Anaximander, 550 B. c. —Ptity, 1, 2. The first, erected at Rome was that by Papirius Cursor, when the time was divided into hours. 293 B. c. Sun-dials were first set up in churches.,, D. 613.Abbe Lelnglet. SUNDAY, oR LORD'S DAY. Sunday was the clay on which, anciently, divine adoration cwas paid to the Sun. Among Christi.ans it is called the Lord's day, on account of. our Saviour's rising from the dead on that day, which, according to the Jewish account, was the next day after the sabbath. The apostles transferred that religious rest observed by the Jews on the sabbath to this day. The first civil- law for its proper observance was made by Constantine, A...321.-Eusebius. The council of Orleans prohibited country labor, 338. The Book of Ilmeoce~t Szxelnd/y Sports, authorizing certain sports and pastimes after divine service on Sundays, published in England 14 James I. in 16.17, was violently opposed by the clergy and puritans. Its sanction by the unfortunate Charles 1. was a primary cause of the civil war which ended in his death. Thlis book was burn't by the hangman, and the sports suppressed by order of parliament.-Rapis'a Sunday schools were established in England flrst by Mr. Raikes. in 1780. Act of parliament closing all the post-offices on Sunday passed May 1850. SUPREMACY oven T-HE CH-URCH. The s-premacy of the kling over the church as well as sovereignty over the state, whereby the'king was made head of the church of England. was established in 1534i, when Henry VrII. shook off the yoke of Rome, and settled the supremacy in hiumself Our kings have from that time had the title of supreme head of the church conferred upon them by parliament. The bishop of Rochester (Fisher) and 548 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. r SWE the es-lord chancellor (sir Thomas More) were, among numerous others, beheaded for denying the king's supremacy, 1535. —aIcydn. SURGERY. It was not until the age of Hippocrates that diseases were made a separate study from philosophy, &c., about 410 a. c. Hippocrates mentions the ambe, the ancient instrument with which they reduced dislocated bones. Celsus flourished about A. D. 17; Galen, 170; JEtius, 500; Paulus 2Egineta in 640. The Arabians revived surgery about 900; and in the 16th century sprung up a new era in the science; between these periods surgery was confined to ignorant priests or barbers. Anatomy was cultivated under the illustrious Vesalius, the father of modern surgery, in 1538. In England surgeons and doctors were exempted from bearing arms or serving on juries, 1513, at which period there were only thirteen in London. SURGEONS, COLLEGE OF. The first charter for surgeons was granted by HIenry VIII., 1540. Formerly barbers and surgeons were united, until it was enacted that "no person using any shaving or barbery in London shall occupy any surgery, letting of blood, or other matter, excepting only the drawing of teeth." TIle surgeons obtained another charter in 1745; and a new charter in 1800. SURPLICES. First worn by the Pagan priests. First used in churches, A. D. 316, and generally introduced by pope Adrian, 786. Every minister saying public prayers shall wear a comely surplice with sleeves, CLan. 58. The garb prescribed by Stat. 2 Edward VI., 1547; and again 1 Elizabeth, 1558; and 13 and 14 Charles II., 1662. SUSPENSION BRIDGES. The greatest and oldest in the world is in China, near King-tung; it is formed of chains. Rope suspension bridges, from rocks to rocks, are also of Chinese origin. In these realms chain suspension bridges are of recent construction. The bridge over the M'enai Strait is the most surprising work, every way considered, of modern times. SUTTEES, OR THE BURNING oF WIDOWS. This custom began in India from one of the wives of " Bramah, the son of God," sacrificing herself at his death, that she might attend him in heaven. So many as seventeen widows have burned themselves on the funeral pile of a rajah; and in Bengal alone, 700 have thus perished, until lately, in each year. Mr. Holwell was present at many of these sacrifices. On February 4, 1743, he saw a young and beautiful creature, only seventeen years of age, the mother of two children, thus sacrifice herself, with a fortitude and courage that astonished every witness of the scene. —Holwell. The English government in India have discouraged these s l1f-immolations,,while yet avoiding any undue interference with the religion and prejudices of the natives. Suttees were abolished by English colonial law, Dec. 7, 1829; but they have since occasionally, though rarely, taken place. SWEARING ON THE GOSPEL. First used A. D. 528. Introduced in judicial proceedings about 600.-Rapin. FROFANE SWEARING made punishable by fine; a laborer or servant forfeiting ls., others 2s. for the first offence;- for the second offence, 4s.; the third offence, 6s.; 6 William III., 1695. See Oat/ls. SWEDEN. The ancient inhabitants were the Fins, now the modern inhabitants of Finland, a diminutive race, who retired to their present territory on the appearance of the Scandinavians or Goths, who have ever since been masters of the country. Gylf reigns in Sweden - - -B.c. 57I barbarians, falls upon the North of During this reign, Odin, surnamed the Europe, making vasts conquests *" Divine, at the head of a swarm olf SWE 3 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 549 SWEDEN, conetieaed. Ynge, founder of the family of the Yn- Battle of Pultowa, whiere Charles is lingars, reigns - - - B.C. 32 defeated by the czar of Russia. See [The early history of the Ikingdom is Putltocs - - - A.D. 1709 altogether involved in fables and ob- lIe escapes to Bender, where after three scurity.] years' protection, he is made prison-......* * s er by the Turlks - - - 1713 Olif the Infant is baptized, and intro- le is restored; and after ruinous wars, duces Christianity among his people, and fighting numerous battles, he is about - - - A.D. 1000 at len-th killed at the siege of FredeGothland, so celebrated for its warlike rickshall - - - Dec. 11, 1718 people and invasions of other coun- Queen Ulrica Eleanor abolishes despottries, is annexed to Sweden - - 1132 i. government - - - - 1719 Waldemar I. of Denmark subdues Ru- Royal Academy founded by Linn6, afgen, and destroys the Pagan temples 1168 terwards called Linnaeus -..1741 Stockholm founded - - - 1260 Conspiracy of counts Brahe and Horne, Magnus Ladelus establishes a regular who are beheaded - - 1756 form of government - - 1279 Despotism re-established - 1772 The crown of Sweden, which had been Order of the Sword instituted - 1772 hereditary, is made elective; and Assassination of Gustavus III. by ount Steenchel Magnus, surnamed Smeek, Ankerstrom, at a ball, March 16: he or the Foolish, king of Norway, is expired the 29th - - 1792 elected - - 1318 The regicide was dreadfully scourged Waldemar lays Gothland waste- - 1361 with whips of iron thongs three sucThe crown made elective -- 1320 cessive days; his right hand was cut Albert of Mecklenburg reigns - - 1365 off, then his head, and his body imSweden united to the crown of Denmark paled - - - May 18. 1792 and Norway, under Margaret - 1394 Gustavus IV. dethroned, and the goUniversity of Upsal fobunded - 1476 vernment assumned by his uncle, the Christian II., "the Nero of the North," duke of Sudermania - March 13, 1809 massacres all the Swedish nobility, to Sweden cedes Finland to the czar of fix his despotism - - 1520 Russia - - Sept. 17, 1809 The Swedes delivered from the Danish Marshal Bernadotte, the prince of Ponte yoke by the valor of Gtustavus Vasa 1523 Corvo, is chosen the crown prince of IHe makes the crown hereditary, and Sweden - - Aug. 11, 1810 introduces the refobrined religion - 1544 Gustavus IV. arrived in London, The titles of count and baron introduced Nov. 12, 1810 by Eric XIV. - -61 Swedish Pomerania seized by NapoThe conquests of Gustavus Adolphus, leon Bonaparte - Jan. 9, 1812 between 1612 and - 1617 Alliance with England - July 12, 1812 He is slain at Lutzen - 1633 Sweden joins the grand alliance against Rugen ceded to Sweden by Denmark - 1648 Napoleon - - March 13, 1813 Abdication of Christina - - 1654 Norway is ceded to Sweden by the treaCharles X. overruns Poland - - 1657 ty of K iel - - Jan. 14, 1814 Arts and sciences begin to flourish - 1660 Bernadotte ascends the throne of SweCharles XII., "the madnman of the den as Charles John XIV. - Feb. 5, 18SIS North," begins his reign - 1699 Treaty of navigation between Great Ile makes himself absolute, abolishes Britain and Sweden - May 19, 1826 the senate - ** KINGS OF SWEDEN. A D 825 1Regnard Lobrock. 1223 Eric XII. * * ieigns uncertain.] 1250 Waldemnar. 966 Eric, the Victor. 1276 Magnus II. 994 Olaf, or Olif Sckotkong. 1290 Birger II. 1026 Edmund Jacobson. 1318 Magnus III.; dethroned by his subjects 1035 Edmund, or Amand III. 1365 Albert. 1041 Haquin. 1397 Margaret. 1056 Stenkell, or Steenchel. 1411 Eric XIII.; abdicated. 1060 Ingo I.; assassinated by his brother. 1441 Christopher. 1064 Halstan. 1448 Charles VIII. 1080 Philip. 1458 Christian I. 1100 Ingo II.; died in a monastery. 1497 John II. 1130 Rafgwald; murdered by the Visigoths. 1520 Christian II. 1133 Magnus I.; assassinated in Scania. 1528 Gustavus I., Vasa. 1144 Suercher II. 1556 Eric XIV.; died in prison. 1150 Eric X.; beheaded by rebels. 1569 John III. 1162 Charles VII.; made prisoner by Ca- 1592 Sigismond I., king of Poland. nute, who reigns. 1606 Charles IX.. 1168 Canute, son of Eric X. 1611 Gustavus Adolphus II. 1192 Suercher III., son of Charles; killed in 1632 Christina; resigned her crown to battle. 1654 Charles X., Gustavus duke of Deux. 1211 Eric XI. Ponts. 1220 John 1. 1660 Charles XI. 550 TIIE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ swot SWEDEN, chttltlnued. 1699 Charles XII.; killed at the siege of 1771 Gustavus IIT., Adolphus, Frederickshall. 1792 Gustavus Ado]lphus IV. 1718 Ulrica Eleanora; resigned when her 1809 Charles XIII. husband was elected. 1818 Charles John XTV., Bernadotte, Feb. 5, 1720 Frederick, landgrave of Hesse-Cassel. 1844 Oscar, his son, March 8. 1751 Adolphus Frederick, duke of Holstein. SWEDENBORGIANS. A sect of mystics, so called from the learned but eccentric Emanuel Swedenborg, a Swedish nobleman. He considered the New Jerusalem, foretold in the Apocalypse, to be a church now about to be established, in which will be known the true nature of God and of man, of the Word, of heaven and of hell-concerning all which subjects error and. ignorance now prevail, and in which church this knowledge will bear its proper fruits-love to the Lord and to one's neighbor, and purity of life. His first work on theology was published in 1743; his sect rose about 1760, but it did not spread in England until 1782. His doctrines have a considerable number of respectable advocates in the United States. SWITZERLAND. The ancient Helvetians were a Gaulish people, conquered by Julius Cesar, and afterwards subject to the Burguncldians and Germans. Many Franks also settled here in the early ages. The canton of Schweitz was -peopled by the Cimbrians, who, leaving their original habiteation it, Scandinavia, invaded Italy, and were defeated by the Roman general Marius; after which they fled into Helvetia, about 100 B. c. This canton has given name to the whole confederacy. The Itelvetians; converted to Christian- Independence of Svitzerland recognized ity by Irish missionaries - A.D. 612 by the treaty of' Westphalia (see HIelvetia ravaged by the Hluns - 909 lVestphalia, Peace of) - D. 1648 Becoines subject to Germany - 1032 [From this period until the French ReFribourg built by Berthold IV. - - 1179 volution the canton enjoyed tranquilTyranny of' Geszler, which occasions lity, disturbed only by the changes the memorable revolt under the pa- arising out of their various constitutriot William Tell. - 1306 tions.) Swiss independence - Nov. 7, 1307 Alliance with France - May 25, 1777 A malignant fever carries off, in the can- Domestic strife in Geneva, between the ton of Basle, 11000 souls - -1314 aristocratic and democratic parties; Form of government. made perpetual - 1315 France interferes - -1781 Lucerne joins the confederacy - 1335 1000 fugitive Genevans seek an asylum The canton of Zurich joins, and be- in Ireland (see Geneva) - 1782 comes head of'the league - - 1350 Swiss guards ordered to quit France - 1792 Berne, Glaris, and Zug join - 1351 llelvetic confederation dissolved; its The Grisons league (see Caddee) - 1400 subjugation by France - 1798 Second league of'the Grisons - 1424 Thle numsber ofcantons increased to19; The third league of the Grisons -1436 the federal government restored; and Swiss soldiers first enter into the pay a landtlamnan appointed by France, of France, under Louis XI. 1480 May 12, 1802 Union of Fribourg and Soleure - 1481 Uri, Schweitz, ansd Underwald separate Maximilian I. emperor, acnowledges from the republic - July 13, 1802 Swiss independence - 1499 Switzerland joins France with 6,000 Schaffhlausen joins the union - 1501 men - - Aug. 24, 1811 The Swiss confederacy acknowledged The Allies entered Switzerland in the by France and other powers - 1516 spring of 1814. The numbser of can The Reformation begins at Basle; the tons increased to 22, and the indepenbishop compelled to retire - - 1519 deunce of Switzerland secured by the The Grison leagues join the Swiss con- treaty of Vienna - 1815 fecleracy as allies - - - 1544 Federal diet opened - Oct. 16, 1847 Appenzel joins the other cantons -1597 -passes resolves against the SonderCharles Emanuel of Savoy attempts bund, and troops of Uri attack canton Geneva by surprise, scales the walls, Tessino - - Nov. 4, 1847 and penetrates the town; but in the Forces of the diet attack Friburg, Nov. end is defeated - - 1602 10, and tale Lucerne - Nov. 24, 1847 [This circumstance gives rise to an an- Neufclhatel declares independence, nual festival commemorative of their Feb. 29, 18-148 escape from tyranny.] SiWORDS. They were formed of iron taken from a mountain by the Chinese, 1879 n, c, —Utiv. Hist. The sword is one of the earliest implenent, ,rYRj DICTIONARY OF DATES. 551 of war. The Roman swords were from 20 to 30 inches long. The broadsword and scimitar are of modern adoption. The sword of state carried at an English king's coronation by a king of Scotland, 1194. Damascus steel swords are the most prized; and next, the sword of' Ferrara steel. The Scotch Highlanders were accustomed to procure the latter fiom a celebrated artificer, named Andrea di Ferrara, and used to call them their AblrCew Fecrrabras. The broad-sword was forbidden to be worn in Edinburgh in 1724. SYCAMlORE-TREE. This tree is called by some the Egyptian Fig-tree. The date of its being planted in England is not known, but it was very early. In Nirs. Jamieson's Memoirs of Female Sovereigns, we are told that Mary queen of Scots brought over from France a little sycamore-tree, which she planted in the gardens of Holyrood, and that from this little tree have sprung all the beautiful groves of sycamore now to be seen in Scotland. SYDNEY, NEW SOUTH WALES. Founded by governor Philip, on a cove of Port Jackson, in 1788, as a British settlement for the colony of convicts originally intended for Botany Bay; but now the principal seat of the government of the colony. It was denominated Sydney in complimlent to lord Sydney. The town is now becoming considerable in extent and population; and it has a legislative council, which was first held July 13, 1829. See New Soentl Wales; Convicts, 4-c. SYNAGOGUE. Authors are not agreed as to the time when the Jews first had synagogues. Some refer it to the time of the ceremonial law, and others to the times after the Babylonish captivity. In Jerusalem were 480 synagogues. There are in London six synagogues. SYNOD. The first general synods were called by emperors, and afterwards by Christian princes; but the pope ultimately usurped this power, one of his legates usually presiding (see Councils). National, were those of one nation only. The first of this kind held in England was at Hertford, A. D. 673: the last was held by cardinal Pole in 1555. Made unlawful to hold synods but by royal authority, 25 Henry VIII., 1533. SYNOD oF DORT. The famous, or general assembly of Dort in Holland, to which deputies were sent from England and all the reformed churches in Europe, to settle the difference between the doctrines of Luther, Calvin, and Arminius, principally upon the points of justification and grace, 1618. -Aitzema. SYRACUSE. Founded by Archias, 732 B. c. —Etsebius. 749 R. c. — Univ. Hist. Taken by Marcellus, when Archimedes, the illustrious mathematician, was slain, 212 B. C. (see Sicily). Syracuse was destroyed by an earthquake, with many thousands of its inhabitants, January 1693. Again nearly destroyed, Aug. 6, 1757. SYRIA. Of the early history of ancient Syria, a few particulars are gleaned from Scripture; and it otherwise affords nothing peculiar, being involved in the histories of the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian empires (whici see). The capital of Syria was originally Damascus; but after the battle of Ipsus, Seleucus (the chief of the Seleucidwt) founded the celebrated city of Antioch. Seleucus, surnamed Nicator, i. e. Con- Antiochus, son of Seleucus. falling in queror, enters Babylon - - R.. 312 love with his fatheves' queen, StratonAEra of the Seleucidce (lwhichs see) - 312 ice, he pines away nearly to death; Great Battle of Ipsus, defeat and death but the secret being discovered, she of Antigonus 301 is divorced by the atlther and married City of' Antioch founded. 299 by the son..' - Boc. 297 * This is related as one of the most strange events connected with the early history of physic. 7rasistratus, the ill ustrious father of anato-ny (jointly with lerophilus), had albseryed, than wlien 552 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ SYR SYRIA, continned. Battle of Cyropmedion - s.c. 281 Noureddin conquers Syria - A.D. 116CSeleucus is foully assassinated by Ce- Saladin puts an end to the power of the raunus.-Lensglet. - - - 280 Fatimite dynasty - - - 1171 Antiochus defeats the Gauls, and takes The Tartars overrun all Syria - -1259 the name of Soter, or Saviour - 275 Recovered by the sultans of Egypt, who Reign of Antiochus It., surnamed by the expel the Crusaders - - - 1291 Milesians Theos, or God! - - 261 Syria overrun by Tamerlane - - 140 Seleucus II. makes a treaty of alliance Conquered by the Turks under Selim - 15.7 with Smyrna and Magnesia' - - 243 Reign of Seleucus III., surnamed Ce- After the conquest by Selim, Syria conrsaunus. or Thunder - - 226 tinued in possession of the Turks till Battle of Raphia, in which Antiochus the invasion of Egypt by the Frelch, III. is signally defeated - - 217 July 1, 1797 Antiochus' conquest of Judea - - 204 Bonaparte defeats the Mamelukes with War with the Romans begins - - 192 great loss - - - Aug. 6, 1798 Reign of Antiochus IV., who assumes He overruns the country, and takes Gathe title of Theos-Epiphanes, or the za and Jafla - - - -1798 Illustrious God! - - - 175 Siege of Acre - March 6 to May 27, 1799 He sends Appolonius into Judea; Jeru- Bonaparte returns to France from Esalem is taken; the temple pillaged; gypt - - - - Aug. 23, 1799 40,000 inhabitants destroyed, and Egypt is evacuated by the French army 40.000 more sold as slaves - 170 Sept. 10, 1801 Cleopatra, the queen, murders her son Mehemet Ali attacks and captures A -re, Seleucus with her own hand - 124 and overruns the whole of Syria, 1831-32 Reign of her son Antiochus Grypus, Ibraham Pacha, his son, defeats the arwhom she attempts to poison; but he my of the grand signior - July 30, 1832 compels his mother to swallow the [Numerous battles and conflicts follow deadly draught herself - - 123 with various success.] Reign of Cyzicenus at Damascus, and Ibrahim Pacha defeats the Turkish arof Grypus at Antioch - - 111 my, making 10,000 prisoners, June 25, 1839 Defeat of Tigranes by Pompey, who en- The Turkish fleet arrives at Alexandria ters Syria, and dethrones Antiochus and places itself at the disposal of Asiatichus, about - - - 65 MehemetAli - - - July 14, 1839.... "I' * * * The Five Powers propose to the Porte Conquest ol'Syria - - A.. 970 to negotiate with Mehemet All, July [This conquest is made by the Fatimite 16, 1839 caliphs who rule in Egypt.] Death of the celebrated lady Hester Revolt of the emirs of Damascus - 1067 Stanhope - - - June 23, 1840 The emirs of Aleppo revolt - - 1068 Treaty of London (not signed by offendThe Crusades fiom Europe commence ed France) - - - July 15, 1840 (see article Crusades) - - 1095 Capture of Sidon Sept. 27, 1840 [The Christians ultimately conquer that Fall of' Beyrout (see Beyrout) Oct. 10 1840 part of Syria called the Holy Land.- Fall of Acre (see Acre) - Nov. 3, 184U See Jerusalem.] After much expostulation with the sultan, the four powers, England, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, prevail upon him to make the pachalic of Egypt hereditary:n the family of Mehemet All, who surrenders to the Tulrkis' fleet, and whose troops evacuate Syria. A treaty to that effect signed at London, between the representatives of those powers, July 13, 1841. This result conciliates France, and promises peace in the East, and its continuance among the great powers of Europe. ever the queen appeared, the young prince her step-son blushed. a tremor overspread his frame his pulse quickened, and his voice grew weak. She was of his own age, and of exceeding beauty. On discovering the true cause of his patient's disorder, Erasistratus adopted an expedient whic,' was the foundation of his great fame. He informed the king that his heir must die, as he languished under a hopeless passion.' Who," asked Seleucus, "is the object of his love? " y "'YI ife," answered the physician. "'Then resign her to him," said the ki'lng.' But if," said Erasistratus' it were the queen he loved, would you, Seleucus, yield up the idol of your affections to another' "Yes," replied Seleucrus,' I would readily relinquish both my queen and liingdom to save my son's life."'"Then be at ease," Erasistratus rejoined, " for the object of his love is Stra tollice!"-Biog. Dict. * This treaty was engraved on a marble column, now in the court of the Theatre of Oxford. I was presented to Oxford by the earl of Arundel in the reign of Charles II. TlHR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 553 T. T iHITI. The French, or abbreviated name for Otaheite. See Otaheite. TALAVERA, BATTLE 01, between the united British and Spanish armies under sir Arthur Weilesley (19,000 British and 30,000 Spaniards), and the French army, amounting to 47,000, commanded by marshals Victor and Sebastiani, July 27 and 28, 1809. TALMUD. There are two books of the doctrine of the religion and morality of the Jews,-the Talmud of Jerusalem, and the Taniuclud of Babylon. The one composed by the Rabbi Juda Hakkadosh, about the close of the second century; the second, being commentaries, &c., by sncceeding rabbis, were collected by Ben Eliezer, about the sixth century. Abridged by Maimonides in the twelfth century. TAMERLANE. The conqueror of Persia, India and Egypt, and plunderer of Bagdad, Delhi, and Cairo; He subdued the renowned warrior Bajazet, sultan of the Turks, whom he exposed in a large iron cage, the fate the latter had destined for his adversary if he had been the victor. Bajazet dashed his head against the bars of this prison, and killed himself, 1403.-ChtaCcondila's Hist. Tzl'k. TANNING. Was early practised by various nations. The use of tan was introduced into these countries from Holland by William III. for raising orange-trees, It was discontinued until about 1719, when ananas were first brought into England. Since then, tan has been in general use in gardening. Great improvements were made in tanning in 1795, et seq. TAPESTRY. An art of weaving borrowed from the Saracens, and hence its original workers in France were called Sarazinois. The invention of tapestry hangings belongs [the date is not mentioned] to the Netherlands. -Gsuicciac'dini. Manufactured in France under Henry IV., by artists invited fiom Flanders, 1606. The art was brought into England by William Sheldon; and the first manufactory of it was established at Mortlake by sir Francis Crane, 17 James I., 1619.-Salmons. Under Louis XIV. the art of tapestry was much improved in France. See Gobelin Tapestry. Very early instances of making tapestry are mentioned by the ancient poets, and also in Scripture; so that the Saracens' mnanufkcture is a revival of the art. For the tapestry wrought by Matilda of England, see Bayeex Tcapestry.TARENTUM, WAR oF. The war which the people of Tarentum supported. against the Romans, assisted by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, and which is greatly celebrated in history. This war, which had been undertaken B. c. 281, by the Romans, to avenge the insults the Tarentines had offered to their ships when near their harbors, was terminated after ten years; 300,000 prisoners were taken, and Tarentum became subject to Rome. _ARTARY. This name is given to several nations of the East. The Tartar race was known and celebrated in antiquity under the name of Scythians. It was during the decline of the Roman empire that these tribes began permanently to forsake their own plains, in search of more fertile regions; and the first of these ravagers whose terror and fame reached the frontier of Italy were the Huns, the ancestors of the modern race of Mongols. The first acknowledged sovereign of this vast country was the famous Jenghis Klhan, A. ). 1206. His empire, by the conquest of China, Persia, and all Central Asia, became one of the most formidable ever established; but it was split into parts in a few reigns. Timur, or Tamerlane, again conquered Persia, again broke the power of the Turks in Asia Minor, 1402, and founded a dynasty in India, which formed the most splendid court in Asia, till the close of the eighteenth century. TAVERNS. In England, were places of entertainment, under various names, 24 554 THE WVORLD'S PROGRESS. [ TEA in ancient times. Taverns, as so called, may be traced to the 13th century. "In the raigne of king Edward the Third ontly th'ee tlaverns were allowed in London: one in Chepe, one in Walbroke. and the other in Loinbardstreet.-"-Sbi J'/~n?/ X,lSelpleban. The Boair's lead, in Eastcheap, existedci in the reign of Henry IV., and was the rendezvous of prince Henry and his dissolute companions. Shakspeare mlentions it as the residence of Mrs. Quickly, and the scene of sir Johnl Falstaff-'s meimer lt.-m, S'/n at Sesperc, tHecny IV. Of little less antiquity is the V/ate rie I-t, Bishopsgate, estlhblished in 1480: this house was rebuilt in 1829. Taverns were restrained by an act of Edward VI., 1552, to 40 in London, 8 in York, 4 in Norwich, S in Westminster, 6 in Bristol, 3 in Lincoln, 4 in Hull, 3 in Shrlewsbhnly, 4 in Exeter, 3 in Salisbury, 4 in Gloucester, 4 in Chester, 3 in Hereford,' in WTorcester, 3 in Southampton, 4 in Canterbury, 3 in Ips'wich, 3 in Winchester, 3 in Oxford, 4 in Cambridge, 3 in Colchester, 4 in Newcastle-upon-TIyne. Taverns were licensed in 1752. TAXES. The first levied on the people was by Solon, the first Athenian legislator, 540 Bs.. iThe first class of citizens paid an Attic talent of silver, about 551. English money. The next wvas by Darius, the son of' Hystaspes, whicIh was a land-tax by assessment, and deermed so odious that his subjects styled hi, by way of cl derision, Darius the Trader, 480 B. e. —D'Po's Histoiee des Iinzccences.'axes in sp)ecie were first introduced into Englancldby William I., 1067, and he raised them arbitrarily; yet subsidies in kindcl as in wvool, corn, leather, and other products of the country, continued till the accession of Richard II., 1377. —Csadea. First taxation of the British colonies in America, 1764' produced active resistance, 1705; stamp -act repealed, 1766: re-enacted 1767. See iucogLe,!ievcurte, Cost of.Govern? wment, &c. TE DEUliJ. A kind of hymn or song of thanlksgiivig used in the church, beginning with the words'le DeLtu lCeudlemns-We praise thee. O God. It is generally supposed to be the composition of Augustin ard Ambrose, about A. D. 390; and is sung in the Romish church with extraorlinary pomp and solemnity on some happy event, such as a national thanksgivingl for a great victory or for a bounteous harvest. TE.A. First known in Europe; being brought from India by the Dutch, 1610. Brought into England in 1666, by lord Ossory and lord Arlington, from Holland and being admclired by persons of rank, it was imported from thence, and generally sold for 60 shillings per pound, till our East India Company took up the tradce.-Anderson. Green tea began to be used in 171-5. The duty imposed on tea in America, 1767. This tax occasioned the destruction of 17 chests at New York, and 340 at Boston, November 1773, and was one of the causes of the Revolutionary war. TEAS IMPORTED INTO ENGLAND OR CHARGED WVITH DUTY IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS. 1726. l- bs. 700,000 1805. - bs. 24,133,000 1 i825. lbs. 27,803,66r 1766. - - 7,000,000 1810. - 250,414000 1830. - 30,544,40! 1792. - - 13,185,000 1815. - 26u368,000 1835. 44,360,55, 1800. 23,723,000 1820. - 25,662,474 1840. - - 38,068,55 In England, the duty derived on tea is now about 4,000,0001. annually. Millions of pounds weight of sloe, liquorice. and ash-tree leaves, are every year mixed with Chinese teas in Englandcl. —Repot of the Itouse of Commons, 1818. The consumption of the whole civilized world, exclusively of England, is about 22 000,000 of pounds, while the annual consumption in Great Britain is 30.000.000.-Evi'del.ce inb the Sobse o/ Couno.ess 1830. Tile first tea-sale in London on the abolition of -the exclusive privileg of the'East India Company, Aug. 19, 1834. The value of teas- imported into the United States for one year, ending July 1, 1847, was $4;278,463; while that of coffee was,9,102,872. retE ] DICTIONARY OF:DATES. 555 TEA-TREE. T7ea Bogecc.. Bronght to England friom China, about 1768. The finest tea-plant known in England was raised in Kew Gardens; but the first that ever flourished in Europe was one belonging to the duke of' Northumiberland at Sion. TELEGRAPHS. They were early in use. Polybius calls the different instruments -usel by the ancients for communicating information py-,'si2e, because the signals were always made by fire. The most ingenious of the moderns had not thonglht of such a machine as a telegraph until 1663, when the plan was suggested by the marquis of Worcester. The first idea of a telegraph on the modern construction was suggested by Dr. Hooke, 1684. M. Amontons is also said to have been the inventor of telegraphs about this period. It was not till 1793 that the instrument was applied to useful purposes: M. Chappe then invented the telegraph first used by the French. Two erected over the admiralty-office, London, 1796. The Semaphore was erected there 1816. The naval signals, by telegraph, enable 400 previouslyconcerted sentences to be transmitted from ship to ship, tv varying the combinations of two revolving crosses; and also to spell any particular words, letter by letter. See Electric Telegrapb. TELESCOPES. This invention is noticed by Leonard Digges, about 1571. Roger Bacon, about A. D. 1250, described telescopes and microscopes exactly, and yet neither were macle till one Metius, at Alkanmaer, and Jansen, of Middleburgh, made themn about the same time; the latter from an accidental discovery made by his children, 1590-1609. Galileo imitated their invention by its description, and made three in succession, one of which magnified a thousand times. With these he discovered Jupiter's moons and the phases of Venus. Telescopes became very popular. and were improved by Zucchi, Huygens, Gregory, and Newton; and finally by Martin, Hall, Dolland, andcl H-erschel. Achromatic telescopes were made by More Hall, about 1723. A telescope was made in London for the observatory of Madrid, which cost 11.0001. in 1802; but the Herschel telescope, made 1789-1795, is superior: it has the great speculum 48 inches in diameter, 3, inches thick, weighs 2118 lbs., and magnifies 6400 times. See Iler'sclhel Telescope. TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES, It is to the credit of the American people that the first great public movement in behalf of temperance was made in this country. Temperance societies began to be formed in 1825-6. One of the most prominent of the first promoters of the reform was the Rev. Dr. Hewitt of Connecticut, who was worthily styled the Apostle of Temperance. The exertions of this and other energetic advocates of temnperance and total abstinence have effected a wonderful change for the better in the general habits of the people. Several thousand temperance societies. under various names, have been formed, andl a large number of vessels now sail from various ports of the United States, the crews of which are unsupplied with spirituous liquors of any kind. The movement has spread to some extent in Europe, but by far the most successful of its promoters has been the Rev. Theobald Mathew, a Roman Catholic clergyman in Ireland, who has administered the "total abstinence" pledge to about two millions of his countrymen. He commenced his ministry in this cause in 1830. In Germany there were 300 temperance societies in 1846. TEMIPLARS. The first military order of Knights Templars was founded in A. D. 1118 by Baldwin II., iking of Jerusalem. The templars were numerous in several countries, and camine to England in 1185. The order was suppressed by the council of Vienna, and its revenues were bestowed upon other orderls. in 1312. Numbers of the order were burnt alive and hanged, and it suffered great persecutions throughout Europe, particularly in France 556 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ TEW in the reign of Philip of Valois, 1342. They were several times suppressed in England, and finally in 1340. TEMPLE, LONDON. Thus called, because it was anciently the dwelling house of the Knights Templars. At the suppression of that order, it was purchased by the professors of the common law, and converted into inns. They are called the Inner and Middle Temple. TEMPLES. They originated in the sepulchres built for the dead.-BElsebies. The Egyptians were the first who erected temples to the gods.-Herodotus. The first erected in Greece is ascribed to Deucalion.-Apolloniuls. For temple of Belus, see Babel. The temple of Jerusalem, built by Solomon, 1012 B. c. Fired by Nebuchadnezzar, 587 B. c. Rebuilt, 536 B. c. Pillaged by Antiochus, 170 B. c. Rebuilt by Herod, 18 B. c. Destroyed by Titus, A. D. 70.-The temple of Apollo, at DELPHOS, first a-cottage with boughs, built of stone by Trophorius, about 1200 B. d. Burnt by the Pisistratidme, 548 B.c. A new temple raised by the family of the AlcmTeonidse, about 513 B. C.Temple of Diana at Ephesus, built seven times; planned by Ctesiphon, 544 B. c. Fired by Erostratus, to perpetuate his name, 356 B. c. To rebuild it, employed 220 years. Destroyed by the Goths, A. D. 260.-The Temple of Piety was built by Acilius, on the spot where once a woman had fed w. rh her milk her aged father, whom the senate had imprisoned, and exclude t from all aliments.-Val. Max. Temple of Theseus, built 480 years B. c., is at this day the most perfect ancient edifice in the world.-The heathen temples were destroyed throughout the Roman empire by Constantine the Great, A. D. 331. See IHeathen Temples. TENNESSEE. One of the United States; was originally included in the charter of North Carolina by Charles II. in 1664; first settlement on Wetanga river, 1757; attacked, and 200 men, women, and children massacred by the Indians in 1760; the Indians chastised next year, but continued frequent contests with the colonists for several years. The territory ceded by North Carolina to the United States in 1790; admitted into the Union'as a State, 1796. Population in 1790, 35:691; in 1810, 261,727; in 1830, 681,904; in 1840, 829,210, including 183,059 slaves. TEST ACT. The statute of Charles II., directing all officers, civil and military. under government, to receive the sacrament according to the forms of the Church of England, and to take the oaths against transubstantiation, &c., was enacted March 1673; repealed, 1828. TEUTONI, OR TEUTONES. A people of Germany, who with the Cimb'i: made incursions upon Gaul, and cut to pieces two Roman armies. They were at last defeated by the consul Marius, and an infinite number made prisoners, 101 B. C. See Cimbri. TEUTONIC ORDER. The order of military knights established in the Holy Land towards the close of the twelfth century. The institution arose in the humanity of the Teutones to the sick and wounded of the Christian army under the celebrated Guy of Lusignan when before Acre. The order was confirmed by a bull of pope Caelestine III., A. D. 1191. See Prussia, &c. TEWKSBURY, BATTLE OF, in which Edward IV. gained a decisive victory over the Lancastrians. Queen Margaret, the consort of Henry VI., and her son, were taken prisoners. The queen was conveyed to the Tower of London, where king Henry expired a few days after this fatal engagement; being, as is generally supposed, murdered by the duke of Gloucester, afterwards Richard III. The queen was ransomed in 1475, by the French king, Lewis XI., for 50,000 crowns. This was the last battle between the houses of' ork and Lancaster, May 4, 1471. See Roses. THE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 557 TEXAS. One of the United States; first settled by the Spaniards at San Francisco in 1690; made one of the federal States of Mexico, in conjunction with the adjacent State of Coahuila, on the formation of the Mexican republic-an unpopular Union to the Texans, and productive of the first disagreement with the central government; colonization of Texas by'emigrants from the United States, commenced 1821; war with Mexico for independence commenced 1833, and ended by the defeat and capture of the Mexican president, Santa Anna, at San Jacinto, 21st April, 1836, which secured the independence of Texas; admitted into the Union as a State (the 28th), after active opposition with reference to...qgclusion of slavery, Feb. 20, 1845. Population at that time about:,-;U&3. [The first treaty for its annexation was rejected by the United States Senate, 35 to 16, June 8, 1844.] THAMES TUNNEL. Projected by Mr. Brunel, to form a communication between the two sides of the river, at Rotherhithe and Wapping, the most extraordinary construction of ancient or modern times. The shaft was begun in 1825. At a distance of 544 feet friom the shaft the -first irruption took place, May 18, 1827. The second irruption, by which six workmen perished, Jan. 12, 1828. The length of the tunnel is 1300 feet; its width is 35 feet; height, 20 feet; clear width of each archway, including footpath, about 14 feet; thickness of earth beneath the crown of the tunnel and the bed of the river, about 15 feet. The tunnel was opened throughout for foot passengers, March 25, 1843. THANE. A title much in use anciently, and which sometimes signified a nobleman, sometimes a freeman, and sometimes a magistrate; but most properly, an officeci under the king. The Saxons had a nobility called thanes, and the Scots also. The title was abolished in England at the Conquest, upon the introduction of the feudal system. Abolished in Scotland by king Malcolm III., when the title of earl was adopted, 1057. THEATRES. That of Bacchus, at Athens, built by Philos, 420 B. c., was the first erected. Marcellus' theatre at Rome was built about 80 B.c. Theatres were afterwards numerous, and were erected in most cities of Italy. There was a theatre at Pompeii where most of the inhabitants of the town were assembled on the night of August 24, A. D. 79, when an eruption of Vesuvius covered Pompeii. Scenes were introduced into theatres, painted by Baithazar Sienna, A. D. 1533. The first royal license for a theatre in England was in 1574, to master Burlbge and four others, servants of the earl of Leicester, to act plays at the Globe, Bankside. See Globe. But long before that time, miracle plays were represented in the fields. The prices of admission in the reign of queen Elizabeth were, gallery, 2d.; lords' room, Is. — Dick-ens. The first play-bill was dated April 8, 1663, and issued frc:.& Drury-lane; it runs thus: " By his Majestie, his company of Comedians at the New Theatre in Drury Lane, will be acted a comedy called the Ulemomv-'ovs Lievtern7at." After detailing the characters, it concludes thus: "The play will begin at three o'clock exactly." Lincoln's-inn theatre was opened in 1695. The first attempt at theatrical performances in the United States was the acting of Otway's Orp/lam, in Boston, in 1750; but all such exhibitions were immediately afterwards prohibited there. A strolling company acted in a sail-loft in New York in 1758. The first regular theatre was in New York in 1793; the second il: Boston; and the third in Philadelphia soon after. Dunlap's History of the American Tleatre was published in New York, 1832. See DranmZa, PlcyaS, &c. rHEBES. The ancient celebrated city of Thebais in Egypt, called also Hecatomnpylos, on account of its hundred gates, and Diospolis, as being sacred to Jupiter. In the time of its splendor, it extended above twenty-three miles, and upon any emergency could send into the field, by each of its hundred 558 TIE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ THR gates, 20,000 fighting men and 200 chariots. Thebes was ruined by Cambyses. king of' Persia, and few traces of it were seen in the age of Juvena.l. -Piutarc/z. Also Thebes. the capital of the country successively called Aonia_ Messapia Ogygia, Hyantis, and Bceotia. See Brzotia. Thebes was called Cadcmeis, fron Cadlmus, the founder of the city. It rose to a celebrated repulblic. stylcd-the Theban, about 820 n. c. It was dismantled by the Romans, 145 B. c.-Liry; I'tlaucydidcs. THEFT. This offence was punished by heavy fines among the Jews. By dealth at Athens, by the laws of Draco. See Dr'aco. The Anglo-Saxons nominally punished theft with death, if above 12d. value; but the criminal could redeem his life by a ransom. In the 9th of Henry I. this power of redemation was taken away, 1108. The laws against theft, until lately, were very severe in England; they were revised by Mr. (afterwards Sir Robert) I'eel's acts, 9 and 10 George IV. THEISTS. The sect so called came in with the Restoration, about 1660. ansd they taught a union with all men who believed in one God, but who rejected public worship and exterior forms of religion. They mlaintained that their religion was better because older and more simple than that which was given by God to the Hebrews. THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. The first in the United States was that at Andover, founded 1808. THERMOMETER. The invention of this instrument is ascribed to several scientific person all about the same time. Invented by Drebbel of Alemaer, A. D. 1609.-Boerlta avc. Invented by Paulo Sarpi, 1609.-Fl-/aoee7Lho. Invented by Sanctorio in 1610.-Bo'elali. Fahrenheit's thermometer was invented about 1726; and the scale called Reaumur's soon afterl, 1730. The mode of construction by substituting quicksilver for spirits was invented some years subsequently. THERMOPYLIAE, BATTL, Or. Leonidas at the head of 300 Spartans, at the defile of' Thelrmoplyl, withstands the whole force of the Persians during three days, when Ephialtes, a Trachinian, perfidiously leading the enemy by a secret path up the mountains, brings them to the rear of the Greeks, vwho, thus placed between two assailants, devote themselves to the good of their country, and perish gloriously on heaps of their slaughtered foes. Of' 300 heroes who engaged in this conflict with hundreds of thousands of the Persians, one man only returned home. and he was received with reeproaches and insults for having fled from a battle in which his brave companions, wSithl. their royal leader; had fallen. Twenty thousand Persians perished by the hands of the Spartans, Aug. 7, 480 B. c.- - rossins de G~'ccc. Jist. THESSALY. This country is much celebrated in classical history, as'being the seat of many of the adventures clescribed by the poets. The filst knlig of whom we have any certain knowledge was Hellen, son of Deucalion. firom whom his subjects were.alled Hellenists, a name afterwards extendled to ad Greece. From Thessaly the nlost powerful tribes of Greece derived their origin, as the Achmans, the AEltolians. the Dorians, the Hellenists, &c. The two most relnmarkable events in the early history of this country, are tlhe deluge of Deucalion, 1503 n. c., and the expedition of the Argonauts, 1263. See them severally. THEIRACE. So called from Thrax, the son of NMars. Coiiquered by Philip and Alexander. and annexed to the Macedonian empire about 335 a. c.; and It so remained till the conqiuest of Macedonia by the Romans. 168 a. c. Byzantium was the capital of Thrace, on the ruins of which C:nstantinople was built. The Turks took the country under Mahomet I1[., A. D. 1453. — Priestley. TIM ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 559 TIHRASHING-MACHINES. The flail was the only instrument formerly in use. The Romans used a machine called the tribl'h,m, a sledge loaded with stones or iron, drawn over th-e corn-sheaves by horses. The first machine attemlltec in modern times was invented by IBichl'el hMenzies, at Edinburgh, about 1732; M-iekles, in 1776. THRASYMENUS, BAtrTLEr or'. A most bloody enuagement between the Carthaginians under Hannibal and the Rolnmans under Fianminius. 217 1. c. No less than 15,000 Romuans were left dead on the field of' battle. and 10 000 taken prisoners; or, according to Livy, 6000 or Polybius, 15.000. The loss of Hannibal was about 1500 men. And about 10 000 Romans made their escape, all covered with wounds.-Livy; Polybitus. THUMB-SCREW. An inhuman instrument which was commonly used in the first stages of torture by the Spanish inquisition. It was in use in England also. The Rev. Wmi. Carstairs was the last who suffered by it before the privy council, to make him divulge secrets entrusted to him, which he firmly resisted. After the revolution in 1688. the thumb-screw was given him as a present by the council. King William expressed a desire to see it, and tried it on. bidding the doctor to turn the screw; but at the third turn he cried out, "Hold! hold! doctor; another turn would mlake mee confess any thing." 2rHURSDAY. The fifth day of the week, derived fronm Thor, a deified hero worshipped by the ancient inhabitants of the northern nations, particularly by the Scandinavians and Celts. The authority of this deity extended over the winds and seasons, and especially over thunder and lightning. He is said to have been the most valiant of the sons of Odin. This day, whichl was consecrated to Thor, still retains his name in the Danish, Sivedish, and Low-Dutch languages, as well as in the English. Thursday, or Thors-day, has been rendered into Latin by dies Jovis, or Jupiter's day. TiD)ES. Homer is the earliest profane author who speaks of the tides. Posidonius of Apa-mea accounted for the tides from the motion of the moon, about 79 B. C.; and Cs sar speaks of them in his fourth book of the Gallic War. The theory of the tides was first satisfactorily explained by Kepler, A. D. 1598; but the honor of a complete explanation of them was reserved for sir Isaac Newton, who laid hold of this class of phenomena to prove universal gravitation, about 1683. TILSIT, PEACE Os. The memorable treaty concluded between France and Russia, when-Napoleon restored to the Prussian monarch one-half of his territories, and Russia recognized the Confederation of the Rhine, and the elevation of Napoleon's three brothers, Joseph, Louis, and Jerome, to the thrones of Naples, Holland, and Westphalia. Signed July 7, 1807, and ratified July 19 following. 2TILTS AND TOURNAMENTS. Were greatly in vogue in England in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Notwithstanding many edicts against them, and anathemas from Rome, they were not abolished till the reign of Henry IV., about A. D. 1400.-Rapin. They first took their rise in Italy upon the suppression of the gladiators in the fifth century. They were supipressed in France in 1560.- Voltaire's Geen. Hist. TIMBER. The annual demand of timber for the British navy, in war, is 60 000 loads, or 40,000 full-grown trees, a ton each. of whicll. thirty-five will stand on an acre; in peace, 32,000 tons, or 48.000 loads. A seventy-four gun ship consumes 3000 loads, or 2000 tons of trees, the prodluce of fifcy-seven acres in a century. Hence the whole navy consumes 102 600 acres. and 1026 per annum.-Allltet. England imports about 800.000 loads of timiler annually, exclusively of masts, yards, staves, lathwood, &c., together with'about 8,000,000 of deals and deal-ends. —Pcarl. Ret. 560 THE WORLD'S PROGIRESS. [ TOB TIME-MEASURE. That of Scipio Nasica was invented 159 B. c. Early authors inform us that Alfred's time-keeper was six large wax tapers, each twelve inches long; but as they burnt unequally, owing to the wind, he invented a lantern made of wood, and thin plates of ox-horns, glass being a great rarity, A. D. 887. The ancients had three time-measures: hour-glasses, sun-dials, and a vessel full of water with a hole in its bottom. See Clocks, 1Watches, &c. TIN. The Phoenicians traded with England for this article for more than 1100 years before the Christian era. It is said that this trade first gave them commercial importance in the ancient world. Under the Saxons, our tinmines appear to have been neglected; but after the coming in of the Normans, they produced considerable revenues to the earls of Cornwall, particularly to Richard, brother of Henry III.; a charter and various immunities were granted by Edmund, earl Richard's brother, who also framned the stannary laws, laying a duty on the tin, payable to the earls of Cornwall. Edward III. confirmed the tinners in their privileges, and erected Cornwall into a dukedom, with which he invested his son, Edward the Black Prince. 1535. Since that time, the heirs-apparent to the crown of England. if eldest sons, have enjoyed it successively. Tin-mines were discovered in Germany, which lessened the value of those in England, till then the only tin-mines in Europe, A. D. 1240.-Anderson. Discovered in Barbary 1640; in India, 1740; in New Spain, 1782. England exports at present, on an average, 1500 tons of unwrought tin, besides manufactured tin and tin-plates, of the value of 400,0001. TITHES AND TENTHS. Were first given by Moses to the tribe of Levi, 1490 B. c.-Josephuns. For the first 800 years of the Christian church they were given purely as alms, and were voluntary.- Wicllifge. "I will not put the title of the clergy to tithes upon any divine right, though such a right certainly commenced and I believe as certainly ceased, with the Jewish theocracy."-Blackstone. The first mention of them in any English written law, is a constitutional decree made in a synod strongly enjoining tithes, A.D. 786. Offa, king of Mercia, gave unto the church the tithes of all his kingdom, to expiate for the death of Ethelbert, king of the East Angles, whom he had caused to be basely murdered, A. D. 794.-Burn's Eccles. Law. Tithes were first granted to the English clergy in a general assembly held by Ethelwold, A. D. 844.-Henry's Hist. of Eng. They were established in France by Charlemagne, about 800.-Henangt. Tenths were confirmed in the Lateran councils, 1215.-Rainaldi. TITLES, ROYAL. The following is the succession in which the royal titles swelled in England. Henry IV. had the title of " Grace" and " My liege" conferred upon him, 1399. The title of "Excellent Grace" was conferred upon Henry VI., 1422. Edward IV. had that of " Most High and Mighty Prince," 1461. Henry VII. had the title " Highness," 1485; and Henry VIII. had the same title, and sometimes " Grace," 1509, et seq. But these two last were absorbed in the title of " Majesty," being that with which Francis I. of France addressed Henry at their memorable interview in 1520.-See Field of the Cloth of Gold. Henry VIII. was the first and last king who was styled " Dread Sovereign." James I. coupled to " Majesty" the present " Sacred?" or " Most Excellent Majesty." "Majesty" was the style of the emperors of Germany; the first king to whom it was given was Louis XI. of France, about 1463. TOBACCO, Nicotiana Tabacsnam. This plant received its name from Tabacco, a province of Yucatan, New Spain. Some say from the island of Tobago, one of the Caribees; others, from Tabasco, in the gulf of Florida. It was first observed at St. Domingo, A. D. 1496; and was used freely by the Span TOP ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 561 iards in Yucatan in 1520. Tobacco was first carried to England, 7 Elizabeth, 1565, by sir John Hawkins; but sir Walter Raleigh and sir Francis Drake are also mentioned as having first introduced it there. It was manufactured only for exportation for some years.-Stowe's Ch-on. In 1584 a proclamation was issued against it. King James I. issued his famous Counter-Blast against Tobacco in 16. The star-chamber ordered the duties to be 6s. 10d. per pound, 1614. Its cultivation was prohibited in England by Charles II. An act laying a duty on the importation was passed, 1684. The cultivation was allowed in Ireland 1779. The tax was increased, and put under the excise, 1789.-Anderson; Ashe. Various statutes have passed relative to tobacco. Act to revive the act prohibiting the culture of tobacco in Ireland passed 1831. Act directing that tobacco grown in Ireland be purchased in order to its being destroyed, 1832. The quantity consumed in England;n 1791 was nine. millions and a half of pounds, and in 1829 about fifteen millions of pounds.-Chaan. of the Ex. In 1840, the quantity had reached to forty millions of pounds.-Parl. Ret. In the United States, tobacco is grown chiefly in Maryland and Virginia; but to some extent in all i'se southern states. The value of the crop exported in 1848 was $7,551,122. Tobacco is produced also in France, in India, &c.; that of the United States is considered the best in flavor, but that of Cuba is preferred for smoking. Several works have been published on the evil effects and bad taste of this weed. TOBAGO. Settled by the Dutch, A. D. i642. Taken by the English, 1672; retaken, 1674. In 1748 it was declared a neutral island; but in 1763 it was ceded to the English. Tobago was taken by the French under De Grasse in 1781. and confirmed to them in 1783. Again taken by the English, April 14, 1793, but restored at the peace of Amiens, Oct. 6, 1802. The island was once more taken by the British under general Grinfield, July 1, 1803, and was confirmed to them by the peace of Paris in 1814. TOLERATION ACT. To William III. is due the honor and wisdom of the first toleration act known in the history of this country, passed in 1689. The dissenters have ever since enjoyed the benefits of this act without interruption, though their liberties were greatly endangered in the latter end of queen Anne's reign. TOLLS. They were first paid by vessels passing the Stade on the Elbe, A. D. 1109. They were first demanded by the Danes of vessels passing the Sound, 1341. Toll-bars in England originated in 1267, on the grant of a penny for every wagon that passed through a certain manor. Toll-gates or turnpikes were used in 1663. TONNAGE AND POUNDAGE. An ancient duty levied on wine and other goods, commenced in England about 21 Edward III.. 1346. The first granted to the kings of England for life, 5 Edward IV., 1465. Ceun'ngham's Hist. Taxes. TONTINES. Loans given for life annuities with benefit of survivorship, so called from the inventor Laurence Tonti, a Neapolitan. They were first set on foot at Paris to reconcile the people to cardinal Mazarin's government. by amusing them with the hope of becoming suddenly rich, A. D. 1653. —Voltaire. The late celebrated Mr. Jennings was an original subscriber for a 1001. share in a tontine company; and being the last survivor of the shareholders. his share produced him 30001. per annum. He died worth 2,115,2441., aged 103 years, June 19, 1798. —Haydn. TOPLITZ. BATTLE OF. A battle was fought at Toplitz between the Austrians and Prussians, in which the latter were defeated, 1762. Battle of Toplitz, August 30, 1813. Here the allied sovereigns had their head-qfuarters a considerable time in this latter year. Treaty' of Toplitz, being a triple 24* 562 THIE WORLD S PROGRESS. L TOI alliance between Russia, Austria, and Prussia; Sept. 9, 1813. Treaty of Toplitz, between Austria and Great Britain, Oct. 3, same year. TORTURE. It has disgraced humianity in the earliest ages in every country. It was only permitted by the Romans in the examination of' slaves. It was used early in the Catholic church against heretics. Occasionally used in England so late as the 1st Elizabeth, 1558; and in Scotland until 1690. The trial by torture was abolished in Portugal, 1776; in France, by order of Louis XVI., in 1780, although it had not been practised there some time before. Ordered to be discontinued in Sweden by Gusta:::s III., 1786. it yet continues in other countries. TORY. Various authors have differently described this term. It is said to bh derived fiom an Irish word, originally signifying a savage, or rather a col. lector of tithes and taxes.-Enclyclop. The names of Cavaliers and Roundheads, which existed in the time of Charles I. were changed, some tell us, into those of Tories and Whigs. The Tories were those who vindicated the divine right of kings, and held high notions of their prerogatives; while "the Whigs "denoted a friend to civil and religious liberty.-Ashte. The name of Tory was given by the country party to the court party, comparing them to Popish robbers; and arose out of the Meal-tub plot (whic/h see), in 1679. The terms are defined by extreme politicians, as of two parties in the aristocracy: the Whigs, who would curb the power of the crown; and the Tories, who would curb the power of the people. —Plhillips. In our revolutionary war the term was applied to the royalists; bhut, oddly enough, at the time of president Jackson, it was given to the ultra democratic party, while the other great party called themselves Wl/igs. See Whigs. TOULON, FRANCE. In 1706 this town was bombarded by the allies, both by land and sea, by which almost the whole town was reduced to a heap of ruins, and several ships burned; but they were at last obliged to raise the siege. It surrendered, August 23, 1793, to the British admiral, lord Hood, who took possession both of the town and shipping in the name of Louis XVII., under a stipulation to assist in restoring the French constitution of 1789. A conflict took place between the English and French forces, when the latter were repulsed, Nov. 15, 1793. Toulon was evacuated by the British, Dec. 19, same year, when great cruelties were exercised towards inhabitants as were supposed to be favorable to the British. TOULOUSE, FRANCE. Founded about 615 B. c. A dreadful tribunal was established here to extirpate heretics, A. D. 1229. The troubadours, or rhetoricians of Toulouse, had their origin about A. D. 850, and consisted of a fraternity of poets, whose art was extended throughout Europe, and gave rise to the Italian and French poetry. See 7Tro6badoes.s. TOULOUSE, BATTLE OF. The final battle between the British PeninsUlar army under lord Wellington and the French-one of the most bloody that had been fought fiom the time lord Wellington had received the command of the troops in Portugal. The French were commanded by marshal Soult, whom the victorious British hero forced to retreat, after twelve hours fighting, from seven o'clock in the morning until seven at night, the British forcing the French intrenched position before Toulouse. The loss of the allies in killed and wounded was between four and five thousand men; that of the French exceeded 10,000. At the period of this battle Bonaparte had abdicated the throne of France; but neither of the commanders was aware of that fact, or the close of tile war at Pariis. Fought April 10, 1814. TOURNAMENTS on JOUSTS. Some authors refer them to Trojan origin, such as Ascanius instituted among the Romans. The tournament is a martial sport or exercise which the ancient cavaliers used to perform, to show sow J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 563 their bravery and address. It is derived from the French word tosurser, " to turn round," because, to be expert in these exercises, much agility, both of horse and man, was necessary. They were much practised A. D. 890; and were regulated and countenanced by Henry I., emperor, about 919. The Lateran council published an article against their continuance in 1136. One was held in Smithfield so late as the 12th century, when the taste for them declined in England. Henry II. of France, in a tilt with the count de Montgomery, had his eye struck out, an accident which caused the kirg's death in a few days, June 29, 1559. Tournaments were fiom this event abolished in France, and with them " the age of chivalry is fled." A mlagnificent and costly feast and splendid tournament took place at Eglinton castle, August 29, 1839, and the following week: many of the visitors assumed the characters of ancient knights, lady Seymour being the " Queen of Beauty," as fairest of the female throng. But this festivity is not likely to lead to a revival of the old tournament. TOURNAY. Taken by the allies in 1709, and ceded to the house of Austria by the treaty of Utrecht; but the Dutch were allowed to place a garrison in it, as one of the barrier towns. It was taken by the French under general Laboucrdonnaye, Nov. 11, 1792. Battle near Tournay, by the Austrians and British on one side, and the French on the other, the former victorious, May 8, 1793. Another battle was fought between the British and French, when the latter were repulsed, at Rousalaer, losing 200 men and three fieldpieces, May 6, 1794. TOURS, BATTLE O'. One of the glorious victories of Charles Martel, and that which most established his fame, gained over the Saracens near Tours, and firom which he acquired the name of MaIrtel, signifying ba7mnzer'. We are told that but for this timely victory of Charles Martel, all Europe, as well as Asia and Africa, must have become Mahomedan; October 10, A. D. 732. TOWERS. That of Babel, the first of which we read, built in the plains of Shinar (Genesis xi.), 2247 A. c. See Label. The Tower of the Winds at Athens, built 550 a. c. The Tower of Pharos (see Phasos), 280 B. c. Towers were built early. in England; and the round towers in Ireland may be reckoned among the most ancient curiosities. They were the only structures of stone found in Ireland before the first arrival of the English, except some buildings in the maritime towns founded by the Danes. These towers were tall, hollow pillars, nearly cylindrical, but narrowing towards the top, pierced with lateral holes to admit the light, high above the ground, and covered with conical roofs of the same materials. Of these productions of old Irish masonry, fifty-six still remain, from 50 to 130 feet high. TOWER or LONDON. Anciently a royal palace, and consisted of no more than what is now called the White Tower, which appears to have been first marked out by William the Conqueror, A. D. 1076, commenced in 1078, and completed by his son William Rufus, who, in 1098, surrounded it with walls, and a broad, deep ditch. Several succeeding princes made additions to it, and king Edward III. built the church. In 1638 the White Tower was rebuilt; and since the restoration of king Charles II. it has been thoroughly repaired, and a great number of additional buildings made to it. Here are the Armory, Jewel-office, and various other divisions and buildings of peculiar interest; and here were many executions of illustrious persons, and many murders See.Engliand. TOWTON, BATTLE OF. This great battle is supposed to be the most fierce and bloody that ever happened in any domestic war. It was fought between the houses of York (Edward IV.) and Lancaster (Henry VI.), to the latter 564 THE WORLD'S PROGRPESS. [ TRa of whom it was fatal, and on whose side more than 37,000 of his subjects fell. Edward issued orders to give no quarter, and the most merciless slaughter ensued. Henry was made prisoner and confined in the Tower his queen, Margaret, fled to Flanders: fought March 29, 1461. TRAFALGAR, BATTLE OF, the greatest naval victory ever obtained by England, fought by the British, under command of' the immortal Nelson, against the combined fleets of France and Spain, commanded by admiral Villeneuve and two Spanish admirals. The enemy's force was eighteen French and fifteen Spanish vessels, all of the line;. that of the British twenty-seven ships. After a bloody and protracted fight, admiral Villeneuve and the other admirals were taken, and nineteen of their ships captured, sunk, or destroyed. But the hero of England lost his life in this memorable battle; and admiral Collingwood succeeded to the command. Nelson's ship was the Victory; and his last signal on going into the engagement, was " England expects every man to do his duty." Oct. 21, 1805. TRAGEDY. That of Alcestis was the first represented by Thespis, the first tragic poet at Athens, 536 B. c. —Ar'lend. Ml~arbles. Prizes instituted, and the first gained by zEschylus, 486 B. c.-Ibid. Another prize carried by Sophocles, 470 B. c.-Ibid. Another by Euripides, 442 a. c.-Ibid. Another by Astydamus, 377 B. c.-Ibid. See DcramaC; Plays; Theatres. TRAJAN'S PILLAR. Erected A. nD. 114, by the directions of the emperor Trajan, and executed by Apollodorus. This column, which still exists at Rome, was built in the large square called the FeoreLm RomaLnem; it is 140 feet high, of the Tuscan order, and commemorates the victories of the emperor. TRANSFUSION OF THE BLOOD. It began to be practised in the fifteenth century, and was successful in France, where Louis XI., when dying, went farther still, and drank the warm blood of infants, in the vain hope of prolonging life, A. D. 1483.-Henauelt. After trials of the efficacy of' transfusion upon animals, M. Denis revived the practice in Paris, where, out of five persons upon whom he operated, two died, and the magistracy prohibited the experiment upon human bodies afterwards, 1668.- Lower, an English physician, who died in 1691, practised in this way.-Friend's Hist. of Phys. Transfusion again attempted in France, in 1797; and recently in Great Britain, but seldom with success. See article Blood. TRANSPORTATION oF FELONS IN ENGLAND. The first criminals were ordered for transportation instead of execution, A. D. 1590; but banishment for lighter offences than those adjudged death was much earlier. Englandis reproached abroad for transporting persons whose offences are comparatively venial. John Eyre, esq., a man of fortune, was sentenced to transportation for stealing a few quires of paper, Nov. 1, 1771.-Phillips. More recently, the reverend Dr. Halloran, tutor to the earl of Chesterfield, was transported for forging a frank, (10d. postage) Sept. 9, 1818. The first transportation of felons to Botany Bay was in May 1787; they arrived at the settlement in January 1788. Returning from transportation was punished with death until 1834, when an act passed lmaking the offence punishable by transportation for life. TRANSUBSTANTIATION. This doctrine was first introduced by a friar, about A. D. 840. It became a confirmed article of Christian faith about 1000. It was opposed in England about 1019; but the English church admitted the doctrine before 1066. Belief in it as necessary to salvation was finally established by the council of Placentia, 1095. The word " transubstantiation" was first used by Peter of Blois about 1165. John Huss, in subsequent times, was the first opposer of this doctrine; he was burnt by order of the council of Constance, A. D, 1415.-Cave's Hist. Lit. TRE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 565 TRAPPISTS, OR MONKS oF LA TRAPPE. A French order in the department of Orne, famed in the days of superstition for their austerity of discipline, and for keeping a perpetual silence. This order was charged with rebellion and conspiracy in France, and 64 English and Irish Trappists were shipped by the French government at Painbheuf, Nov. 19, and were landed from the H/b6 French frigate at Cork, Nov. 30, 1831. They have established themselves at Mount Melleray, county of Waterford; but do'not maintain there the extreme rigor of their order. TR' AVELLING ABROAD. See article Absentees. In order to discourage English subjects from travelling to foreign countries and spending money there, a tax was levied (but of very inadequate amount) by way of license for going abroad, and paid to the crown, 10 Charles I., 1635.-Rapiny. TREAD-MILL. An invention of the Chinese, and used in China to raise water for the irrtigation of the fields. The'read-mill lately introduced into the prisons of Great Britain is of a more complicated construction. It is the invention of Mr. Cubitt of Ipswich. The first was erected at Brixton jail, 1817. This punishment has not been introduced in the United States. TREASON. See Hio'h Treason. It was punished in England only by banishment till after Henry I.-Balcer's Ch'ronicle. Ascertained by law. Edward III., 1349. Trials regulated, and two witnesses required to convict. 1695. The laws relating to treason are numerous, and formerly the punishment was dreadful-hanging, quartering, beheading, &c., and even burning alive. Mr. Martin brought in a bill for the abolition of burning alive for treason, which passed both houses in 1788. PETTY TREASON may happen three ways: a wife's murder of her husband; a servant;s murder of his master; and an ecclesiastical person's murder of his prelate or other superior-so declared by statute 25 Edward III., 1350. rREATIES. The first formal and written treaty made by England with any foreign nation was entered into A. D. 1217. The first commercial treaty was with the Flemings, 1 Edward, 1272; the second with Portugal and Spain, 1308.-Angderson. The chief treaties of the principal civilized nations of Europe will be found described in their respective places: the following forms an index to them. See Conventions; Cocalitions; Leagues, &c. Abo, peace of - 1743 Carlsbad, congress of - -1819 Aix-la-Chapelle - - 1668 Cateau-Cambresis, peace of - - 1559 Aix-la-Chapelle, peace of - 1748 Chauniont, treaty of -. 1814 Akermann, peace of - - 1826 Chunar, India - - - 1781 Alt Radstadt.- 1706 Cintra, convention of - - - 808 America, peace with - 1- 783 Closterseven, convention of - - 1757 Aeniens, peace of -. 1802 Coalition, first, against France - 1792 Armed Neutrality - - 1800 Coalition, second, ditto - - -1799 Arras, treaty of - - 1435 Coalition, third, ditto - -1805 Arras, ditto - - ]482 Coalition, fourth, ditto - 1806 Augsburgh, league of - - 1686 Coalition, fifth, ditto -- -1809 Baden, peace of - - 1714 Coalition, sixth, ditto - - 1813 Barrier treaty - ~ - 1715 Concordat - - 1801 Basle, peace of - -1795 Conflans. treaty of - - 1465 Bassein, India.-1802 Constantinople, peace of -1712 Bayonne, treaty of - - 1808 Constantinople, treaty of - - - 1833 Belgium, treaty of London - 1839 Copenhagen, peace of - - 1660 Belgrade. peace of.1739 Cressy - - - 1544 Berlin, peace of - - 1742 Dresden - - -1745 Berlin decree - - 1806 Family compact -1761 Berlin convention - 1808 Fontainebleau, peace of. 1679 Breda, peace of - - - 1667 Fontainebleau, treaty of - - 1785 Bretigny, peace of - - - 1360 Fontainebleau, concordat at - 1813 Bucharest, treaty of - -1812 Friedwald, treaty of - 1551 Cambray, league of - - 1508 Fuessen, peace of - - 1745 Cambray, peace of - - 1529 Ghent, pacification of - - - 576 Campo-Formio, treaty of - 1797 Ghent, peace of America) -1814 Carlowitz, peace of - - 1699 Golden Bull - - - 1356 566 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ TRB TREATIES, continued. Grand Alliance - -1689 Pyrenees, treaty of the - - 1659 Greece, treaty of London. - 1829 Quadruple Alliance - 1718 Hague, treaty of the - - - 1659 Radstadt, peace of - - - - 1714 Hague, treaty of the - 1669 Radstadt, congress of - - 1797 IHalle, treaty of - -1610 Ratisbon, peace of - - -1630 Hamburgh, peace of - 1762 Ratisbon, treaty of - - -1806 Hanover treaty - - - 1725 Religion, peace of - -.1555 Holland, peace with - 1784 Rhine, Con'ederation of the. 1806 Holy Alliance - - - -815 Ryswick, peace of - - -1697 Hubertsberg, peace of - 1763 St. Germain's, peace of -1570 Interim - - - - -1548 St. Germain-en-Iaye - - - 1679 Kiel, treaty of - 1814 St. Ildefonso, alliance of Spain with Laybach, congress of - - 1721 France - — 1795 Ieague - 1576 Seville, peace of - - 1792 Leipsic, alliance of - 1631 SiSrod, peace of - - 1613 Leoben, peace of - - 1797 Smalcald, league of- - 1529 Lisbon, peace of - 1668 Spain, pacification of (London) - 1834 London, treaty of(Greece) - 1829 S.ettin, peace of - 1570 London, convention of (Turkey) - 1840 Stockholm - - 16:30 Lubeck, peace of - 1629 Stockholm, peace of - 1719 Luneville, peace of - 1801 Stockholm, treaty of - 1724 Madrid, treaty of - - 1526 Stockholm, treaty of - 1813 Methuen treaty - - 1703 Temeswar, truce of - 1664 Milan decree - - 1807 Teschen, peace of - -1779 Munster, peace of - - 1648 Teusin, peace of - 1595 Nantes, edict of - - 1598 Tilsit, peace of - 1807 Naumberg, treaty of - 1554 Tolentino, treaty of - 1793 Nice, treaty of -1518 Toplitz, treaty of - - 1813 Nimegruen, peace of - 1678 Triple Alliance - - 1717 Noyon, treaty of - 1516 Triple Alliance of the Hague - 1668 Nuremberg, treaty of - 1532 Troppau, congress of - 1820 Olivia, peace of - - 1660 Troyes, treaty of - - - 1420 Paris, peace of (see PIaris) - 1763 Turkmauchay, peace of - 1828 Paris, treaty of - 1796 Ulm, peace of - - 1620 Paris, peace of (Sweden) - 1810 Utretht, union of - 1579 Paris, capitulation of - 1814 Utrecht, peace of - - 1713 Paris, treaty of - 1814 Valeneay, treaty of - 1813 Paris, peace of - - 181.5 Verona, congress of - 1822 Paris, treaty of - - 1817 Versailles, peace of - 1783 Partition, first treaty - 169t Vienna, treaty of - - 1725 Partition, second treaty - 1700 Vienna, treaty of alliance - 1731 Passarowitz, peace of - 1718 Vienna, definitive peace - 1737 Passau, treaty of - 1552 I Vienna, peace of - - 1809 Petersburgh, peace of - 1762 Vienna, treaty of; March 23 - 1815 Petersburgh, treaty of - 1772 Vienna, treaty of, May 31 -1815 Petersburgh, treaty of - - 1805 Vienna, treaty of, June 4 - 1815 Petersburgh, treaty of - 1810 i Vossem, peace of - 1673 Peterswalden, convention of - 1813 Warsaw, treaty of - 1768 Pilnitz, convention.f - 1791 Warsaw, alliance of - 1683 Poland, partition of - - 1795 Westminster, peace of - 1674 Pragmatic Sanction - 1439 I Westminster (with Holland) - 1716 Pragmatic Sanction - 1713 W estphalia, peace of - 1648 Prague, peace of - 1653 Wilna, treaty of - - - 1561 Presburg, peace of - - 1805 Worms, edict of - - 1521 Public good, league for the - 1464 Wurtzburg, treaty of - 1610 TREATIES OF THE UNITED STATES. —Some of the most important: Alliance with France - Feb. 6, 1779 Treaty with Great Britain, by Monroe Treaty of Paris (independence secured) and Pinckney-rejected by the AmeSept. 3, 1783 rican government - - -18606 Treaty of commerce with Pruslza - 3783 Treaty of Ghent, with Great Britain, Treaty with Morocco - - - 1787 signed by J. Q. Adams, Gallatin, and Treaty of commerce with Great Britain HI. Clay, for the United States, clos(Jay's) - - - - 1794 in% the " war of 1812," but leaving Treaty with the Six Nations andc.other the original dispute much as before - 1314 Indian tribes - - - 1794 Ratified by the United States, Feb. 17, 1:15 T'reaty with Spain. by Pinckney; and Treaty with the Choctaws and CheroAlgiers, by Humphries - - 1795 kees -1816'reaty with Tunis; with Prussia (by Treaty with the republic of Colombia - 1S25 J. Q. Adams) - -17'99 Treaty with the Creeks, Osages, &c. - 1821 Treaty with France, by Ellsworth, Pa- Treaty with Great Britain, indemnifytrick Henry, &s. Sept. 30, 1800. ing American citizens for spollations RI ] mDICTIONARY OP DATES. 567 TREATIES, continued. during the war with Napoleon Cushing;- ratified by the senate Nov. 13, 1826 Jan. 16, 1845 Treaty with Brazil - March 18, 18329 Treaty of peace with Mexico. signed at Treaty with Turkley May 7, 1830 Guadaloupe Hidalgo, Feb. 2 i848; Treaty with Mexico (commercial) Ap.5, 1831 ratified by the senate (with modificaTreaty with do. April 5, 1832 tions); ratified at Queretaro by AmeTreaty with Naples - Oct. 14, 1832 rican commissioners Sevier and ClifTreaty with Russia (commercial) ford, and Mexican minister Rosas Dec. 18, 1832 May 30, 1848 Treaty with Great Britain, respecting Treaty with Great Britain, respecting thle N. E. boundary, si-ged at Wash- Nicaraguta, on the Isthmus between ington by Lord Ashburton and Mr. North and South America; signed Webster; ratified by the senate (39 at WVashington by Sir IH. L. Bulwer to 9) - - - Aug. 20, 1842 and J. M. Clayton - June, 1850 Treaty with China, negotiated by C. TREES, AGE oi'. Among others mentioned in an article in the American Almanac for 1838, p. 102, are, The Wallace oak at Ellerslie, Scotland, Elms, in Switzerland, 335 years. 700 years. Cedars on Lebanon, 800 years. (Some oaks are supposd to hlave lived 1,500 Olives, in thle Garden of Olives, Jerusalem, years.) 800 years. Oak on estate of JamesWadswo rth, Gene- Bcaniae, in Hindostan, 3,000 years. seo, New Yorlc, 500 years. CQyp3esses, at Grenada, 800 years. Yew trees at Fountain's Abbey, England, [For proofs and details see. the article re1,200 years; and in Scotland, said to be | lerred to.] 2:500 years. TRENT, COUNCr, on.. This celebratecl council is reckoned in the Catholic churce as the eighteenth or last general council. Its decisions are inlplicitly received as the standarrd of faith, morals, and discipline in that church. The first council assembled A. D. 1545, and continued (but with interrup-'tions) under pope Paul III., Julius III., and Pils IV., to 1563, when the last council was held. TRIALS. Alfired is said to harve been the cont river of trial by july; but there is good evidence of such trials long) before his time.- In a cause tried at -Iawarden, nearly a hundred years before the reign of Alfied, we have a list of the twelve jurors; confirmed, too, by the fact that the descendants of one of them, of the name of Corbyn, of the Gate, still preserve their name and residence at a spot in the parish yet called the Gate. —P Iilips. TRIBUNES o,- TIHE PEOPLE. T1ibtujni Plebis. Magistrates of Rome, first chosen from among the commlnons to represent the people, 492 B. c., at the time the people, after a quarrel with the senators, had retired to MLons Sacer. The first two were C. Licinius, aned L. Albinus; but their neumber was soon after raised to five, and 37 years a:fter to ten, which remainled fixed. Their office was annual, and as the first hlad been created on the 4th of the ides of December, that day was ever after cllosen for the election. TRINIDAD. This island was discovered by Columbus in 1498, and was taken from the Spaniards by sir Walter Raleigh in 1595; but the French took it from the English in 1676. Taken by the British, with four ships of the line. and a military force under command of sir Ralph Abercrombie, to wholl the island capitulated, Feb. 21, 1797; they captured two, and burnt three Spanish ships of wvar in the harbor. This possession was confirmecl to England by the peace of Amiens in 1802. The insurrection of the negroes occurred Jan. 4, 1832. See Coloasies. TRINITY AND TRINITARIANS. The doctrine of the Trinity is received by all Citristian sects excelt those called Unitarians (.whicA scC). Theophilus, bishop of Antidch, who flourishei d in the second century, the first who used the term Trinity, to expiess the three sacred persons in the Godhead. His Defen~ce of Ch/'istia.nity was edited by Gesner, at Zurich, in 1546.- Watkins. 568 THE IWORLD S PROGRESS. [ TRO' An order of the Trinity was founded, A. D. 1198, by John de Matha and Felix de Valois. The Trinity fraternity, originally of fifteen persons, was instituted at Rome by St. Philip Neri, in 1548. An act to exempt friom penal. ties persons denying the doctrine of the Trinity was passed in England in 1813. TRIPLE ALLIANCE. This celebrated treaty of alliance was ratified between the States-General and England, against France, for the protection of the Spanish Netherlands; Sweden afterwards joining the league, it was known as the Triple Alliance, Jan. 28, 1668. TRIUMPHS. The triumph was a solemn honor done generals of armies after they had won great victories, by receiving them into the town with gred magnificence and public acclamations. Among the Romans there were two sorts-the great, that was called simply the triumph; and the little, styled the ovation. They also distinguish triumphs into land and sea triumphs, accordingly as the battles were fought. See Ovation. TRIUMVIRI. Three magistrates appointed equally to govern the Roman state with absolute power. These officers gave a fatal blow to the expiring independence of the Roman people, and became celebrated for their diffelrent pursuits, their ambition, and their various fortunes. The first triumvirate, B. c. 60, was in the hands of Julius Cmesar, Pompey, and Crassus, who at the expiration of their office kindled a civil war. The second and last triumvirate, B. c. 43, was under Augustus, Mark Antony, and Lepidus, through whom the Romans totally lost their liberty. Augustus disagreed with his colleagues, and after he had defeated them, he made himself absolute in Rome. The triulvirate was in full force at Rome for about 12 years. See Rome. TROUBADOURS oR JONGLEURS. They first appeared in the ninth century, and were so encouraged by the patronage of the court of Poitou, and byseveral powerful princes, that they spread in process of time throughout Europe. They cultivated poetry and music, and refinement followed in their steps, greatly improving the taste and temper of the times. To the troubadours we owe Latin and French poetry. TROY. The history of Troas, or Phrygia Minor. is at best but obscure, and more particularly so in times prior to the reign of Dardanus, who came hither from Italy (or Crete) about the year 1506 B. c., and married the daughter of Teucer, prince of the country, whom he succeeded. Dardanir built a city, and named it, after himself, Dardania: Troas, the second in succession from Dardanus, changed the name to Troy; and Ilus, his successor, converted it into Ilium. Arrival of Scamander in Phrygia Mi- War.of IIercules and Laodemon B.c. 1224 nor.-Blair - - B. c. 1546 Reign of Priam or Podarces - 1224 Teucer succeeds his father - 1502 Rape of Helen. by Alexander Paris, Dardanus succeeds Teucer. and builds son of Priam, 20 years before the the city of Dardania - - 1480 sacking of Troy.-lonzer's Iliad, Reign of Ericthonius - - -1449 booak xxiv., line 964, Pope's edit. - 1204 Reign of Troas, from whom the peo- Commrencement of the invasion of the pie are called Trojans - - 1374 Greeks to recover Helen - - 119d The rape of Ganymede - 1341 Troy taken and burned in the night of Ilus, son of Troas, reigns - -1314 the I th of June, i. e. 23d of the Reign of Laomedon - - - 1260 month Thalrgelion.-Parian Mar.Arrival of Hercules in Phrygia; He- bles. 408 years before the first sione delivered from the sea-monster. Olympiad.-Apollodorus - - 118 -Blair, Usher - - 1225 Eneas arrives in Italy.-Lenglet - 1183 Some time after the destruction of old Troy, a new city was built, about thirty stadia distant from the old site; but though it bore the same name, and received ample donations from Alexander the Great in his Asiatic expe TUN J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 569 dition, it'never rose to much importance, and in the age of Strabo was nearly in ruins.-Priestley. TROY WEIGHT. The Romans left their ounce, now our avoirdupois ounce, in Britain.-Arltbutlaot. The present ounce of this weight was brought from Grand Cairo into Europe, about the time of the Crusades, A. D. 1095, It was first adopted at Troyes, a city of France, whence the name; and is used to weigh gold, silver and precious stones. The troy weight, Scots, was established by James VI. (our James I.) in 1618. TROYES, TREATY OF, between England, France, and Burgundy, whereby it was stipulated that Henry V. should marry Catherine, daughter of Charles VI., be appointed regent of France, and after the death of Charles should inherit the crown, May 24, 1420. The French were driven from Troyes by the allied armies, Feb. 7; it was retaken by Napoleon, Feb. 23; and was finally reoccupied by the allies, March 4, 1814. TRUMPET. Some of the Greek historians ascribe the invention of the trumpet to the Tyrrhenians, and others to the Egyptians. It was in use in the time of Homer, but not at the time of the Trojan war. First torches, then shells of fish, sounded like trumpets, were the signals of primitive wars.Potter. The speaking-trumpet is said to have been used by Alexander the Great in 335 B. c. Trumpets were first sounded before the king in the time of Offa, king of Mercia, A. D. 790. Speaking-trumpets were improved by Kircher in 1652. Made by Salland, 1654. Philosophically explained by Moreland, 1671. TUESDAY. The third day of the week, so called, as it is supposed, from Tztisco, or Tiw, a Saxon deity, that was particularly worshipped on this day. Tuesday, in Latin Dies Martis, was called the third day among the Jews. See Week Days. CUILERIES, PARIs. One of the royal palaces of that city, commenced by Catharine de Medici, after the plans of Philibert de Lorme, A. D. 1564; continued by Henry IV.; and finished by Louis XIV. This palace was the scene of great events during the three memorable revolutions, particularly those of 1789 and 1848. TULIPS. They came to England from Vienna, A. D. 1578, and have always been among our most esteemed flowers. They became an object of commerce in the 16th century; and it is recorded in the register of the city of Alcmaer. in Holland, that in the year 1639, 120 tulips, with the offsets, sold for 90,000 florins; and in particular, that one of them, called the viceroy, sold for 4203 guilders l The States at last put a stop to this extravagant and ruinous passion for flowers. The tulip-tree, Liriodesedon tqulipifera, was carried to England from America, about 1663. TUNBRIDGE-WELLS. The celebrated springs here were first discovered by Dudley lord North, who had retired into the neighborhood in the last stage of consumption, and became perfectly restored to health by the use of its waters, A. D. 1606. TUNIS AND TRIPOLI. The former stands near where Carthage was built. The territories of both formed part of the celebrated Carthaginian state, and were entirely destroyed by the Romans after the third Punic war, 148 a. c. Besieged by Louis IX. of France., 1270. It remained under African kings till taken by Barbarossa, under Solyman the Magnificent. Barbarossa was expelled by Charles V.; but the country was recovered bly the Turks, under Selim II. Taken, with great slaughter, by the emperor Charles V., when 10,000 Christian slaves were set at liberty, 1535. The bey of Tunis was first appointed in 1570. Tunis was reduced by admiral Blake, on the bey refusing to deliver up the British captives, 1656. 57C THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [.TUr TURBAN. The head-dress of many of the Eastern nations, consisting of two parts. a cap and a sash, the latter artfully wreathed about the head. The sash of the Turk's turban is white linen; that of the Persians, red woollen. These are the dclistinguishing marks of their different religions. Sophi, king of Persia, being of the sect of Ali, was the first who assumed the red color, to distinguish himself from the Turks, who are of the sect of Omar. TURIN. The French besieged this city in 1706; but prince Eugene defeated their army, and compelled them to raise the siege. In 1798, the French republican army took possession of Turin, seized all the strong places and arsenals of Piedmont, and obliged the king and his family to remove to the island of Sardinia. In 1799, the French were driven out by the Austrians and Russians; but shortly afterwards the city and all Piedmont surrendered to the French. In 1814, it was delivered up to the allies, when they restored it to the king of Sardinia. TURKEY. The Turks themselves were originally a tribe of Tartars; but by reason of the number of people whom they conquered, and with whom they became incorporated, the modern Turks must be regarded as a mixture of many races of men. Birth of Mahomet the prophet, at Mecca [Dreadful persecutions of the Christians (see Mecca) - - - A.D. 571 during this reign] His imposture commenced (see tlalho- The Turks driven out of Persia by the metanisn) -- 604 famous Schah Abbas - - A. D. 1585 The Koran written (see Koran) - 610 Bloody reign of Mahomet 1II. - 1595 Flight to Medina (see Medinr) - 622 Great fire in Constantinople - -1606 iEra of the Hegira (see Hegira) 622 Reign of Amurath IV., who strangles Death of Mahomet - - 631 hlis father and four brothers - - 1624 Holy wars begtn (see Cruzsades) - 1095 The Turkls defeat the Persians, and take The Turkish empire first formed under the city of'Bagdad - - - 1639 Othman at Bythinia - 1298 The island of Candia, or Crete, taken The Turks penetrate into Thrace, and after a 25 years' siege - 1669 take Adrianople - - 1360 Vienna besieged by Mitahomet IV., but Amurath I. institutes the Janizaries, a relieved by.Tohn of Poland - - 1683 guard composed of Christian slaves Mahomet IV. deposed by Solyman - 1687 bred Mahometans - 1362 Peace of Carlovitz - - 1699 Bajazet I. overruns the provinces of the Mustapha 1II. deposed - - 1703 Eastern empire - - 1389, et seq. The Morea retaken by the Turks - 1715 Hie lays siege to Constantinople; but is Belgrade taken fiom Austria; andRusat length taken by Tamerlane (see sia relinquishes Azoff - -1739 Tamerlane) - - - -1403 Great sea-fight in the channel of Scio; The Turks invading Hungary, are re- the English and Russian fleets defeat pelled by Huniades - - - 1450 the Turlkish - - - - 1770 Constantinople taken by the Turks un- The Crimea falls to Russia Jan. 1783 der Mahomet II., which ends the [This ends the disastrous war with RusEastern Roman empire - - 1453 sia and Austria (begun in 1787), the Greece made subject to the Mahome- Turks having lost more than 200,000 tans (see Greece) - - -1458 men.-Ashe.] The Turks penetrate into Italy, and War against Russia - Dec. 30, 1806 take Otranto, which diffuses terror Passage and repassage of the Dardathroughout Europe - - -1480 nelles effected by the British fleet, but Selim I. raised to the throne by the Ja- with great loss (see Dardanelles) nizaries; he murders his father, bro- Feb. 19, 1807 thers, and their sons - - 1512 The sultan Selim is deposed and rourHe takes the islands of the Archipelago dered, and Mustapha IV. called to from the Christians - - -1514 the throne - - May 29, 1807 He overruns Syria - - 1515 Treaty of Bucharest (chich see) May Adds Egypt to his empire - -1516 28, 1812 Solyman II. takes Belgrade - 1521 A caravan consisting of 2000 souls, reRhodes talken from the knights of St. turning lionm Mecca, destroyed by a John, who go to Malta - -1522 pestilential wind in the deserts of Solymtan II., with 250,000 men, is repuls- Arabia; 20 only were saved Aug. 9, 1812 ed before Vienna - - - 1529 Subjection of the Wachabees - 1819 Cyprus taken fromn the Venetians - 1571 Ali Pacha of Janina, in Greece. declares Great battle of Lepanto, which puts an himself independent - - - 1820 end to the fears of Europe from Turk- Insurrection of Moldavia and Wallachia ish power (see Lepanto) - - 1571 March 6, 1821 Amurath IT. ascends the throne; stran- The Greek Patriarch put to death at gles his five brothers - - 1574 Constantinople April 23, 1821 TUt J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 571 TURKEY, contisnoe i, Ilorrible massa ire at Scio; the most Russians retreat from before Schumla, dreadful in min dern history (see note October 16, 1828 to Gr-eece) - - April 23, 1822 Surrender of the castle of the Morea to Sea-fil ht near MItfylene - (Oct. 6, 1124 the Flench - - - Oct. 310, 1828 New'fIahomletan army announced to be Siege of Silistria raised by the Russians orlanized - - - MIay 29, 1826 Nov. 10, 1828 Insurrection of the Janizaries at Con- Victory of the Russians at Kulertsaa stanticlople - - June 14, 1826 near Sichumnla - - June 11, 1829 Fircman of the s.ttan abolishing the Ja- Adrianople is entered by the Russian nizaries - - S2 troops - - - Aug. 20. 1829 Fire at Consta cilople; 6000 houses re- Arnmistice between the Russianl and duced to ashes - August 30, 1826 Turk lish armies - Aug. 29, 1849 Battle of Navarino; the Turkish fleet Treaty of peace - Sept. 14, 18:29 destroyed by the fleets of England, Treaty with the U. States M- ay 7,1830 France, and Russia (see Ncuvarino) St. Jean d'Acre taken by Ibrahin PaOct. 20, 1827 cha son of Mehemet Ali - July 2, 1832 Banishmnent of 132 French, 120 English; Ile defeats the army of ti. e sultart in Syand 85 Russian settlers, from the ria, with great loss - Jc ly30, 1832 Turtlish empire - January 5, 1828 A series of successes brings the ar. ny of War with Russia - April 26, 1828 Ibrahim Pacha within eighty leagues The emperor Nicholas tales the field of Constantinople, and the sultan has against the Turlts - May 20, 1828 recourse to the aid of tussia - Jan. 1833 The Russian emperor arrives before A Russian force enters the Turkish caVarna - - Au8. 5, 1828 pital - - - April 3, 1833 Battle of Aklhalzic - - Aug. 24, 18'28 Treaty with Russia, offensive'.nd deFortress of Bajazet talcen - Sept. 9, 1828 fensive - - July 1833 The sultan leaves his capital for the Office of grand vizier abolished by the camp, bearing with him the sacred sultan - - - March 30, 1838 standlard - - - Sept. 211, 1828 Insurrection in Wallachia June 18, 1848 Dardanelles blockaded - Oct. 1, 1828 Mehemet Ali dies at Alexandria Aug. 2 1849 Surrender of' Varna - Oct. 15, 1828 TURKIISII EM PER OR S. 1296 Ossmtan, or Ottoman I. and his uncle restor ed. 1325 Orchamm, his youngest son. 1622 Mustapha I. again deposed and suc1359 Amurath I., his son; assassinated. ceeded by his grandson. 1388 Bajazet I., his son; diedl in prison. 1623 Amurath IV., succeeded by his brother. 1397 Isa Belis; killed by his brother. 16t40 Ibrahim, strangled by the Janizaries, 1403 Solyman; killed by his brother. succeeded by his son. 1410 Musa; strangled by his brother. 1655 Mahomet IV., deposed; succeeded by 1413 Malhomet I.; succeeded by his son. his brother. 1.421 Amurath II.; succeeded by his son. 16S7 Solyman III.; succeeded by his bin. 1451 Mahomet 11.; left the empire to his tler. two sons. 1691 Achmet II.; succeeded by his nephew. 1481 Co tacus, his grandson; succeeded by 1695 Mustapha II., eldest son of Mahomet his fat.her. IV., deposed arld succeeded by his 1481 Xencin; obligedto abdicate in favor of brother. his brother. 1703 Aclsmet III.; deposed. 1481 Bajazet II.; deposed by his son. 1730 Mahomtet V.; succeeded by his brother. 1520 Solyman, the Magnificent. 1754 Oscman II.; succeeded by his brother. 15G6 Selim II.; succeeded by his son. 1757 Mutstapha III.; succeeded by his bro1512 Selin; succeeded by his son. ther. 1574 Anlurath III.; succeeded by his son. 1774 Abelhamet, or Achmet IV. 1595 Mallomet III.. succeeded by his son. 1789 Selim III. 1601 Achmet; succeeded by his brother. 1807 Mustapha IV. 1617 Miustapha I.; succeeded by his nephew, 1803 Maih. Khan II. 1617 Osman I.; strangled by the Janizaries, 1839 Abdul-Metdjid, June 27. TURKEYS AND GUINEA FOWLS. First brought to England A. D. 1524, and to France in 1570. Turkeys are natives of America, and were, consequently, -unknown to the ancients. Mr. Pennant has established this fact by various particulars in'he history of these birds; evincing that they are natives neither of Europe; Asia, nor Africa; a circumstance since placed beyond controversy, by thlle researchles of Mr. Beckmann. Wild turkeys are met with in flocks of' soime thoussands in parts of the new world, and except being larger do not differ fiom ours.-S-tcyt/. TURNING. According to Pliny this art was known to the ancients, by whom articles of wood, ivory, iron, and gold were formed, The precious vases, 572 THIE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ TYR enriched with figures in half relief, which at this day adorn the cabinets of the antiquary and curious, were producecl by turning. The lathes made for turnery in England are, many of them, wonderful in their machinery; and in some of our dock-yards, blocks and other materials for our ships of war are now produced by almost instantaneous processes, from rough pieces of oak, by the machinery of Mr. Brunel. TURNPIKES. See Tolls. Turnpike-gates for exacting tolls, which were otherwise previously collected, were set up in the reign of Charles II., 1663.Clhalmers. The statutes relating to turnpike-roads are very numerous. TUSCANY. This country was created into a dukedom, A. D. 1530. It came into the Austrian family in 1737. It was seized by the French in March 1799. Ferdinand IV., the grand duke, was dispossessed by France, and his dominions given to Louis, son of the king of Spain, with tLe title of king of Etruria, February 26, 1801. He*died June 30, 1803; and soon afterwards this state was transformed into an ppendage to the crown of Italy; but was restored to Austria in 1814. The present granu..luKe Leopold II. (cousin to the emperor), ascended June 18, 1824. Disturbances and revolutions of 1847-8 The chambers meet. began at Leghorn - - Sept. 2, 1847 Provisional government proclaimed, Grand-duke grants a national militia. Feb. 9, 1849 The grand-duke granted a liberal con- Leghorn attacked and carried by Tusstitution. - Feb. 1848 can troops - - May 10, 1849 Insurrection at Leghorn - Sept. 5, 1848 The arand-duke re-enters Florence and The grand-duke flees from Florence resumes his authority - July 27, 1849 TWELFTH-DAY. The church-festival called the Epiphany, or manifestationof Christ to the Gentiles. See Epiphany. The custom of drawing king and queen on this day was borrowed from the Greeks and Romans, who, on the tabernacle, or Christmas festivals, drew lots for kings, by putting a piece of money in the middle of a cake, which whoever found, was saluted as king. TYLER, WAT, HIS INSURRECTION. It arose in the opposition of the people to the poll-tax, which was levied in 1378. Owing to the indecent rudeness of one of the collectors to Tyler's daughter, with a view to prove her of sufficient age (fifteen) to pay the tax (Tyler striking him dead for the offence), the provoked populace gathered upon Blackheath to the number of 100,000 men. The king, Richard II., invited Tyler to a parley at Smithfield, where the latter addressed the king in a somewhat menacing manner, now and again lifting up his sword. His insolence raised the indignation of the mayor, Walworth, who stunned Tyler with a blow of his mace, and one of the knights attending the king dispatched him. The death of their leader awed the multitude, to whom Richard promised a charter, and they dispersed, 1381. TYRE. This great city was first built by Agenor. Another city was built 1257 B. c. It was besieged by the Assyrians, 719 B. c., and they retired from before it, after a siege of upwards of five years, 713 B. c. Taken by Nebuchadnezzar, 572 B. c., and the city demolished, when the Tyreans removed to an opposite island, and built a new and magnificent city. It was taken by Alexander with much difficulty, and only after he had joined the island to the continent by a mole, after a siege of seven months, Aug. 20, 332 B. c. -Strabo. Two of the most atrocious acts in the history of human crimes were the itege and destruction of Tyre by Alexander, and of Jerusalem by Titus. Histories which laud such monsters ought to be consigned to the flames. —Plhillips. TYRE, ERA or. Began on the 19th of October, 125 B. c., with the month Hyperberetoeus. The month was the same as those used in the Grecian era and the year is similar to the Julian year. To reduce this era to ours, sub UNI ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 573 tract 124; and if the given year be less than 125, deduct it from 125, and the remainder will be the year before Christ. U. UBIQUARIANS. A sect of Lutherans which arose and spread through Germany and other countries, and who believed the natural body of Christ to be every where present. This sect arose under Brentius, about A. D. 1540. UKRAINE. The name signifies a frontier. By a treaty between Russia and Poland, these states divided the Ukraine in 1693. Poland having the west side of the Dnieper, and Russia the east. But the whole country (the borders of Poland, Russia, and Little Tartary) was assigned t? Russia by the treaty of Partition in 1795. ULM, PEACE OF, by which Fredrick V. lost Bohemia (having been driven from it previously), July 3, 1620. Ulm was taken by the French in 1776. Great battle between the French and Austrians, in which the latter, under general Mack, were defeated with dreadful loss, by marshal Ney, whose victory was consummated by the surrender of Ulm, and 36,000 men, the flower of the Austrian army, Oct. 17, 19, 1805. From this time the ruin of the confederates, and grandeur and power of Napoleon, had their date. UMBRELLA. Described in early dictionaries as "a portable pent-house to carry in a person's hand to screen him from violent rain or heat." Umbrellas are very ancient: it appears, by the carvings at Persepolis, that umbrellas were used at very remote periods by the Eastern princes. Niebuhr, who visited the southern parts of Arabia, informs us that he saw a great prince of that country returning from a mosque, preceded by some hundreds of soldiers, and that he and each of the princes of his numerous family caused a large umbrella to be carried by his side. The old china-ware in our pantries and cupboards show the Chinese shaded by an umbrella. It is said that the first person who used an umbrella in the streets of London was the benevolent Jonas Hanway, who died in 1786.* UNCTION, EXTREME. Unction was frequent among the Jews. At their feasts, and other times of rejoicing, they anointed sometimes their whole body, and at other times their head or feet only: their kings and high priests were anointed at their inauguration; they also anointed the vessels of the temple to consecrate them. None of the emperors, it is said, were anointed before Justinian, Aug. 1, A. D. 527. As a religious rite, extreme unction was in common use, A. D. 550. St. Asaph was the first who received aunction from the pope, 590. —Bayle. It is administered in dying cases as extreme unction. See Aseointing. UNIFORMS. Militar3 uniforms were first used in France, " in a regular man* For a long while it was not usual for men to carry them without incurring the brand of effeminacy. At first, a single umbrella seems to have been kept at a coffee-house for extraordinary occasions-lent as a coach or chair in a heavy showerbut not commonly carried by the walkers. The Fesmale Tattler advertises " The young gentleman belonging to the Custom-house who, in iear of rain, borrowed the umblrellafrom. Wil/cs's Coffee-hotse, shall the next time be welcome to the maid's pattens." As late as 1778, one John Macdonald, a footman, who wrote his own life informs us, that he had " a fine silk umbrella, which he brought from Spain; but he could not with any comnfort to himself use it, the people calling out'Frenchman! why don't you get a coach?"' The fact was, the haclkney-coachmen and chairmen, joining with the true esprit de corps, were clamorous against this portentous rival. The footman in 1778, gives us some farther information. "At this time, there were no umbrellas worn in London, except in noblemen's and gentlemen's houses, where there was a large one hung in the hall to hold over a lady if it rained, between the door and her carriage." This man's sister was compelled to quit his arm one day from the abuse he drew down on himself and his umbrella. But he adds, that "he persisted for three months, till they took notice of this novelty. Foreigners began to use theirs, and then' ihe English. Now it is become a great tlade in L~ondon." —NewMonthly 1aogoazine. '574 ThE WOPRLD'S PROGRESS. [ J1l1 ner," by Louis XIV., 1668. In England the uniform was soon afterwards adopted. For an account of naval uniforms, see Naval Unifor'ms. UNIFORMITY, AcT OF. An Act of Uniformity passed 1 Elizabeth, 1559. But the statute known as tile Act of Uniformlity was passed 13 and 14 Charles [T., 1661, 2. It enjoined uniformity in matters of religion, and obliged all clergy to subscribe to the thirty-nine articles, andl use the same form of worship, and same book of common prayer. This act caused upwards of 2000 conscientious ministers to quit the Church of England, and take their lot among the dissenters, who thereby received so large an addition to their numbers that they may be considered as the fathers of the dissenting interest. UiNION OF THE CROWNS. The crowns of England and Scotland were united by the accession of James VI. of Scotland as James I. of England, March 24, 1603. The legislative union of the two kingdoms was attempted in 1604, but the project failed. It was again attempted, but again failed, in 1670. In the reign of Anne it was once more tried, and in the end with better success. Comnmissioners were appointed, the articles discussed, and, notwithstanding great opposition made by the Tories, every article in the union was approved by a great majority, first in the House of Commons. and afterwards by the peers, July 22, 1706, and ratified by the Scottish parliamlent, Jan. 16, 1707. It became a law, May 1, same year. UNION WITE IRELAND. The UNION of GREAT BRITAIN and IRELAND, proposed in the Irish parliament, Jan. 22, 1799. The act passed in the British parliament, July 2, 1800. UNITARIANS. This sect began A. D. 1550. Tile Unitarians believe in and worship only one self-existent God, in opposition to those who, besides the Father, worship his Son Jesus. They arose under Servetus. This learnedc man, excited by the discussions of the reformers, began to read the Scriptures, and conducted his researches with so free a spirit, that he. printedl,tract in disparagement of the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity. In 1533, proceeding to Naples through Geneva, Calvin induced the magistrates to arrest him on a charge of blasphemy and heresy: and refusing to retract his opinions, he was condemned to the flames, which sentence was carried into execution, October 27, 1553. Servetus is numbered among those anatomists who made the nearest approach to the doctrine of the circulation of the blood, before Harvey established that doctrine. In the United States, especially in New England, the Unitarians form a large, intelligent, and influential portion of the community. The celebrated philanthropist andl eloquent writer, Dr. W. E. Channing, was a Unitarian. UNITED KINGDOM or GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. The British realm was so named, on the union with Ireland, Jan. 1, 1801, when a new imperial standard was hoisted on the Tower of London and Castle of Dublin. See Ueiion. UINITED PROVINCES, THF, SEVEN. Established by throwing off the Spanishi yoke, A. n. 1579. The revolted states, with William, prince of Orange, at their head, after long deliberations at the Hague, published an edict excluding king Philip from any sovereignty, right, or authority over the I - therlands. The deputies from the provinces of Holland, Zealand, Utrecllt, Friesland, Groningen, Overyssell, and Guelderland, met at Utrecht, Jan. 23, 1579; signed a treaty for their mutual defence; appointed the prince of Orange as their stadtholder; and formed the alliance ever since klnown. as the "Union of Utrecht," the basis of the commonwealth so renoowned by -the appellation of the " Seven United Provinces." Their independence was acknowledged in 1607. United to France in 1796. Louis Bonaparte was crowned king bythe authority of Napoleon, June 5, 1806. Louis abdicated. 'TJI ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 575 July 1, 1810. Restored to the house of Orange, and Belgium annexed Nov. 18, 1813. Belgium separated from Holland, and Leopold of SaxeCoburg elected king, July 12, 1831. See Holland and Belgi,-nm. UNITED STATES oF AMER CA. See Amer'icca; and the separate States, l3Jitai.e, &c. The first colonial Congress, for the redress of r;nievances. con. siSting of' delegates fiom the several colonies, met at New York, June 7, 1 65. The Continental Congress at Philadelphia adopts Declaration of RPigllts, 1774; revolutiomary war commenced at Lexington, April 19, 1775. See iar. Declaration of Independence adopted by the Congress, July 4, 1776. The title of " United Sacetes " adopted by Congress, Sept. 9, 1776. Incldependence acknowledged by Great Britain in the Treaty of Paris Sept. 23, 1783. Constitution adopted Sept. 17, 1787. War against Great Britain declared by Congress, June 19, 1812. Treaty of peace signed at Ghent, Dec. 3, 1814. War with Mexico commenced April, 1846. Treaty of peace signed May 30, 1848. See WaC-s of the Unlilted States, &c.; also _.TNaval Battles; also Admiinistrations, Expots, National Debt, Treaties, Populalion, &c. [The various occurrences in the history of the United States are given more at large under that head in the Tatbnlar Views in this vol., page 122, et. seq.] UNIVERSALISTS. Those who believe in the final salvation of all men. Sects of' Universalists existed in various countries and ages. The learned and celebrated Dr. Tillotson appears from some of his sermnons to have adopted the opinion of this universal salvation.-Jleknsob. Certain it is. about 1691, hlie entertained a design for forming' a new book of homilies; and a sermlon which he preached before the queen (Mary) against the absolute eternity of hell tormlents, involved this doctrine. UNIVERSITIES. They sprang from the donvents of regular clergy, and from the chapters of cathedrals in the church of Rome. The most ancient universities in Europe are those of Oxford, Cambridge, Paris, Salamuanca, and Bologna. The British universities were vested with the lands of ex-Catholies, and permitted to send members to Parliament by James I. The following are the principal universities in Europe: Aberdeen founded - 1494 I Dublin -1591 Abo, Finland - -1640 Edinburgh, founded by. ames VI. -1582 Aix, 1409; re-established - - 1603 Erfurt, Thuringia; enlarged - -1390 Alba Julia, Transylvania - - 1629 Florence, Italy; enlarged - -1438 Altorf, Franconia - 1581 Frankfort-ol-the-Oder - - 1506 Andrew's, St., Scotland.- 1411 Fribourg, Germany - 1460 Angers, chiefly law - 1393 Geneva - - 1365 Anjou, 1349; enlarged - - 1364 Glasgow... 1450 Avignon. France - 1388 Gottingen -... 1734 Bamberg.... 1585 Granada, Spain - - 1537 Baale, Switzerland - -1458 Gripswald -... 1547 Berlin - 1812 Groningen, Friesland - 1614 Besancon, Burgundy - - 1540 Halle, Saxony - 1694 Bologna, Italy - - 423 Heidelberg - -1346 Bruges, French Flanders - 1665 Ingoldstadt, Bavaria.. 1573 Caen, Normandy 4....1 17 Jena, or Sala, Thuringia -1548 Cambridge, began, 626-according to Kiel, Holstein. - 1665 others, 900. See Cambridcge. King's College, London -1829 Cambridge, New England, projected - 1630 Konigsberg, Prussia - 1544 Cologne, in Germany, re-founded -1389 Leipsic, Saxony - - 1409 Compostella, Spain - - 1517 Leyden, Holland.-.1575 Coimbra, Portugal - - -1391 Lim"a, in Peru - - 1614 Copenhagen. 1497; enlarged - 1539 Lisbon, 1290; removed to Coimbra 1391 Cordova, Spain.. 968 London University - 1826 Cracow, Poland, 700; enlarged -1402 i ouvaine, Flanders, 926; cnlalrged -1427 Dijon, France - - 172'2 Lyons, France - - 830 Dillingin, Swabia - 1565 Mechlin, Flanders -. - 1440 Dole, Burgundy - - - 1426 Mentz - - - 1482 Douay, French Flanders - 1562 Montpelier -. 119G Dresden, S axony - - 1694 Moscow -1754 576 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ UTi UNIVERSITIES, continued. Munster -1491 Saltzburg.. - 1623 Naples — 1216 Saragossa, Arragon - - 147' Orleans, France - 1312 Seviile - 1531 Oxford (see Oxford) - - 886 Sienna - 1387 Paderborn - - 1592 Siguenza, Spain -1517 Padua, Italy - -1179 Sorbonne, Paris - ~ 1253 Palenza, 1209; removed to Salamanca 1249 Strasburg - -1'33 Paris, 792; renovated - 1100 Toledo, Spain -. -1518 Parma - -1599 Treves, Germany - - -1473 Pavia, 791; enlarged - 1361 Tubingen, Wirtemberg - - - 1477 Perpignan - 1349 Turin -1405 Perugia, Italy - 1307 Upsal, Sweden - -1477 Petersburgh- -1747 Utrecht, Holland - - - -1636 Pisa, 1339; enlarged.. 1552 Valence, Dauphine - - -1475 Poictiers — 1430 Valencia in the thirteenth century. Prague - - - - - - -1348 Valladolid. -1346 Rheims, 1145; enlarged - - - 1560 Venice.- -1592 Rome Sapienza - - - 1303 Vienna.12.36 Rostock, Mecklenburgh - - - 1419 Wirtemberg. - - -10 Salamanca - - - 1240 Wittenberg - - - 02 Salerno - o - -1233 Wurtzburg - - - -1403 UNIVERSITIES IN UNITED STATES. See Colleges. UNKNOWN TONGUE. A disturbance in the Rev. Mr. Irving's chapel, irv London, occasioned by a Miss Hall interrupting a discourse on prophecy, by holding forth in what was denominated the " Unknozonw Tonzgue." She was removed to the vestry. On the same evening, a Mr. Taplin rose, and commenced, with the permission of Mr. Irving, a violent harangue in the same unknown language. A scene of most alarming confusion ensued, the whole congregation rising from their seats in affright, and the females screaming, while Mr. Irving listened with the most profound attention to the ravings of' the i7nspired teacher', October 16, 1831. From this period, much of the same mummery, followed by a translation into English rhapsody, was played off; and large crowds assembled, not on Sundays only, but as early as six o'clock on the mornings of week-days also, some to be edified by prophetic spirits, and some to laugh at the ravings of fanatics.A -n. Register. URANUS. This planet, with its satellites, was discovered by Herschel, by whom it was called the Georgian planet, in honor of his majesty George IIl, The name of Herschel is also given to it, in compliment to its illustrious discoverer, by the astronomers of Great Britain; but by foreigners it is asually called Uranus. It is about twice as distant fiom the sun as thb planet Saturn; and was discovered on the 13th March, 1781. USURY. Forbidden by parliament, 1341. Two shillings per week were given for the loan of twenty, in 1260. This was at the rate of 431. 6s. 8d. per annum for 1001., which was restrained by an act, 1275, against the Jew%. Until the fifteenth century no Christians were allowed to receive interest of money, and Jews were the only usurers, and, therefore, often banished and persecuted (see Jews). By the 37th of Henry VIII.. the rate of interest was fixed at 10 per cent., 1545. This statute conlfirmed by the 13th Elizabeth, 1570. Reduced to 8 per cent., 21 James I., 1623, when the word inc ten'est was first used for the word ussury. Reduced to 5 per cent., 13 Anne, 1714. See Ittetrest. UiTRECHT, TrREATY OF, &C. The Union of the Seven United Provinces began here (see United Provinzces), A. n. 15 9. The celebrated Treaty of' Utrecht, which terminated the vwars of queen Anne, was signed by the ministers of Great Britain and France, as well as of' all the other allies, except the ministers of the empire. The most important stipulations of this treaty were the security of the Protestant succession in England, the disuniting tl2. VAL] DICTIoNARxY OF DATES. 577 French and Spanish crowns, the destruction of Dunkirk, the enlargement of the British colonies and plantations in America, and a full satisfaction for the clains of the allies, April 11, 1713. Utrecht surrendered to the Prussians, May 9, 1787; and was possessed by the French, Jan. 18, 1795. V. VACCINE INOCULATION. Variola vaccinla, discovere-d by Dr. Jenner. lHe made the first experiment in vaccination, by transferring the pus from the pustule of a milk-maid, who had caught the cow-pox from the cows, to a healthy child, in May 1796. Dr. Jenner subsequently published the result to the world, and the cure became general in 1799. The cure was introduced Jan. 21, in that year. The genuine cow-pox appears, in the form of vesicles, on the teats of the cow. Dr. Jenner received 10,0001. for the discovery from parliament in 1802; and the first national institution for the promotion of the cure, called the Royal Jennerian Institution was founded Jan. 19, 1803. Vaccination was practised throughout all Europe previously to 1816. VAGRANTS. After being whipped, a vagrant was to take an oath to return to the place where he was born, or had last dwelt for three years, 22 Henry VIII., 1530. A vagrant a second time convicted, to lose the upper part of the gristle of his right ear, 27 Henry VIII., 1535; and a third time convicted, death. By 1 Edward III., a vagabond to be marked with a V. and be a slave for two years. Vagrants were punished by whipping, jailing, boring the ears, and death for a second offence, 14 Elizabeth, 1571. The milder statutes were those of 17 George II.; 32, 35, and 59 George III. The laws against vagrancy are still very severe in England, and operate unequally as respects the character of the offender. VALENCIA. Its university was founded, it is said, in the 13th century, and was revived in 1470. Valencia was taken by the earl of Peterborough in 1705, but was soon lost again. It was taken from the Spaniards by the French, under Suchet, with a garrison of more than 16,000 men, and immense stores, Jan. 9, 1812. VALENCIENNES, SIEGE OF. This citY was besieged from May 23 to July 14, when the French garrison surrendered to the allies under the duke of York, 1793. It was retaken, together with Conde, by the French, on capitulation, the garrison and 1100 emigrants made prisoners, with immense stores, viz. -300 pieces of cannon, one million pounds of gunpowder, eight millions of florins in specie, six millions of livres, 1000 head of cattle, and vast quantities of other provisions, Aug. 30, 1794. VPALENCAY, TREATY O'P, between Napoleon of France and Ferdinand VII. of Spain, whereby the latter was put in full possession of that kingdom, on agreeing to maintain its integrity. This celebrated treaty was signed December 8, 1813. VALENTINE'S DAY. The practice of " choosing a Valentine," as it is called, on this day, is too well known to need explanation, The origin of the custom has been much controverted; it is indisputably of very ancient date. Valentine was a presbyter of the church, who suffered martyrdom under Claudius II. at Rome, A.D. 271. It is said that on this day the birds choose their mates; whence, probably, came the custom of' young people choosing Valentines or particular friends on the feast of Valentine. VA-_ENTINIANS. This sect of enthusiastics were followers of the opinions of one Valentine, a priest, who, upon being disappointed of a bishopric. 25 578. rTLE WORLD OS PROGRESS. L [vil forsook the Christian fiith, and published that thlere were thirty gods and goddesses, fifteen of each sex, which he called Zlones, or Ages. He taug'ht in the second century, and published a gospel and psalms: to these his followers added several other errors, cleclarinlg there Awas no obligation to suffr mlartyrdom; some declared against baptism, and others practised it in a peculiar manner, and all indulged themselves in licentiousness. VANCOUVER'S VOYAGE. Captain Vancouver served as a midshipman under captain Cook; and a voyage of discovery, to ascertain the existence of any navigable communication between the North Pacific and North Atlantic oceans being determined on, he was appointed to collmmiand it. He sailed in 1790, and returned September 24, 1795. He compiled elr account of this voyage of survey of the Northwest coast of America, and died in 1798. VANDALS. The Vandal nations began their ravages in Gerin iny and Gaul, A. D. 406-414. Their kingdom in Spain was founded in 411. They invaded and conquered the Roman territories in Africa, under Genseric, who took Carthage, Oct. 24, 439. They were driven out, and attacked in turn by the Saracen Moors. The Vandalii overran a vast portion of Europe and spread devastation wherever they appeared. VAN DIEMEN'S LAND. This country was discovered by Tasman in 1633. It was visited by Furneaux in 1773; by captain Cook in 1777; and was deemed the south extremity of New Holland until 1799. A British settlement was established on the south-east part, within the mouth of the Derwent, and named HIobart Town, wahichi is the seat of government, 1804. VASSALAGE. See Feuldal Lavws and Villanage. Vassalage was introduced by the Saxons, and its slavery increased under William I. Under the Norman princes there were vassal boors and fiee boors; those who were sold with the land, and those who were free to choose an employer. To this day the distinction prevails in some countries, and particularly in Russia, where the vassal boors are divided into classes; as boors belonging to the sovereign; mining boors, who are sold with the property; and private boors, who belong to the nobility, and perform the labor on their estates. In England, a vassal did homage to a lord on account of land, &c., held of him in fee. Vassalage was abolished in Hungary in October 1785; in Holstein, in May 1797; and Courland, in Sept. 1818. VATIC AN. The magnificent palace of the pope at Rome, adjoining St. Petera' said to contain 7000 rooms. In this palace, the library, founded A. D. 1448, is noted for its collection of MSS., but the number of books is comparatively moderate. See Libraries. The phrase " thunders of the Yaticar" was first. used by Voltaire, 1748. VENEZUELA. When the Spaniards landed here in 1499, they observed some huts built upon piles, in an Indian village named Cora, in order to raise thes. above the stagnated water that covered the plain; and this induced them t give it the name of Venezuela, or Little Venice. This state declared in congressional assembly the sovereignty of its people, in July 1814. It-3. C arated from the federal union and declared itself sole and independent 1830. See Colombia. VE NI-, VIDI, 1VICI.-" I came, I saw, I conquered." This well-known sentence formed the whole of Caesar's dispa tch to the Roman senate wher he vanquished Pharnaces, king of ChintLerian Bosphorus, 47 B. c. See Zela, Battle oJf:'VENICE. So called friom the Venetii who inhabited its site, when it was made a kingdom by the Gauls, who conquered it about 356 B. C. Marcellus c-,v DICTIONARY OF DATES. 579 qfered it for the Roman republic, and slew the Gaulish king, 221 a. c. The tis aMds on which the city is built began to be inhabited. A. a. 421, by Italiams, who fled here as a p)lace of safety friom the Goths, and other barbarous nations. when they ravaged Italy. The first house was erected on the mor-ass by Enltinopus. by whom the people of Padua were assisted in building the cig'hty houses wich first frlled the city.-P)riesiey/. Ve.nice was first governecl by a doge (Anllaftsto Palulio), A. D. 697. The republic was not completiely ioundeld until 80ri. The city rclduced to ashes, 1101. The celremlolny of the doges of Venice alnrying the Adriatic was instituted by Iope Alexander II. in 1173. Venice carried on a vast commierce until the discovery of America, and a passage to the East Indies by the Cape, gave it another direction, about 1500. By the treaty of Campo Fornmio, the territory to the north and west of the Adige wtere ceded to Austria. and the rest was annexed to what the French then styled the Cisalpine Republic, 1797. This disposition was altered by the treaty of Presburg, and the whole country annexed to the kingdom of Italy, 1805. Venice returned under the power of Austria in 1814. The city declared a free port, Jan. 24, 1880. Venice declares herself an independent Venice, after a gallant resistance, capirepublic - Aug. 18, 1848 tulates to Marshal Radetzky, and is Provisional government decrees an as- again in the power of Austria, senibly with fetll powers to be elected Aug. 22, 1849 by universal suffrage, 1 to every 1,500 inhabitants - ec. 29, 1848 VENTRILOQUISMI[. Persons who had this art were by the Latins called Ventriloquli, and by the Greeks, Engastrim)ythoi, i. e. people that speak out of their bellies. or who have the art of throwing out the voice in an extraordinary manner. Exhibitors of this kind have appeared in England in various ages, but some of extraordinary capabilities in their art exhibited in. the last century. Mr. Thomas King is said to have been the first malan whose experimental philosophy, shown in this line, excited great wonder, about 1716. One of the most accomplished professors of' ventriloquism that ever appeared in France or England, was M. Alexandre, about 1822. VENUS. This planet's transit over the sun, it was ascertained by Horrox, in 1633, would take place Nov. 24, 1639. He was the first who predicted, or rather calculated this passage, firom which lie deduced many useful observations. Maskelyne was sent to St. Helena to observe her transit, in Jan. 1761. Captain Cook made his first voyage, in the Endeavor, to Otaheita, to observe a transit of Venus, in 1769. See NOTE to article Cook's Voyages. The diurnal rotation of Venus was discovered by Cassini in 1712. This planet will not be again so brilliant as in 1769 to our globe until 1874. VERMONT, one of the JUnited States, first settled by colonists from Massachusetts, 1723. The territory was claimed by New Hampshlire, firom 1741 to 1764: claimed also by New-York, and granted to that colony by parliament in 1664 Owing to these conflicting claims, the state was not admitted into the confederacy during the Revolution, but it still performed its part in that struggle. The British defeated at Bennington by gen. Stark, in 1777. Claims of New-York withdrawn on payment of $30,000, in 1790. The state admitted into the Union, 1791. Population in 1790, was 85,589; in 1810, 217,895; in 1830, 280,679; in 1840, 291,948. VERSAILLES, PALACE O'. In the reign of Louis XIII., Versailles was only a small village, in a forest thirty miles in circuit; and here this prince built a hunting-seat in 1630. Louis XIV., in 1687, enlarged it into a magnificent palace, which was finished in 1708, and was the usual residence of the kings of France till 1789, when Louis XVI. and his family were removed from it to Paris. Louis Philippe appropriated the whole of the immense building 580 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ rEto a grand national museum of paintings and statues, dedicated a tolts les gloires de Freavnce; and freely opened to the public. V,'RSAILLES, PYE'ACE OF. The definitive treaty of peace between Great Britain and the United States, signed at Paris; when the latter power was admitted to be sovereign and independent. On the same day. the definitive treaty was signed at Versailles between Great Britain, France, and Spain, Sept. 3, 1783. In pursuance of the treaty of Versailles, Pondicherry alld Carical, with the former possessions in Bengal, were restored to France. Trincomalle at the same time restored to the Dutch. VERSE, BLANK. Blank verse and the heroic couplet, now in general use for grave or elevated themes, are both of comparatively modern date. Surrly translated part of Visril's JEneid into blank verse, which is the first composition of the kind, omitting tragedy, extant in the English language; and the other measure was but little affected till the reign of Charles II. The verse previously used in our grave compositions was the stanza of eight lines, the otta.cva risema, as adopted with the addition of one line by Spenser (in his Fae'ry QuLeen). who probably borrowed it from Ariosto and Tasso. the Italian language being at that time in high repute. Boccaccio first introduced it into Italy in his heroic poem La Teseide, having copied it from the old French chalsonbs. —iliet'opgolitax. Trissino is said to have been the first introducer cf blank verse among the moderns, about 1508.- Vossies. See Poetry. VESTA. The planet Vesta (the ninth) was discovered by Dr. Olbers, of Bremen, on March 28, 1807. She appears like a star of the sixth magnitude.Aa2ntal Re]gister. VESTALS. Priestesses of the goddess Vesta, who took care of the perpetual fire. consecrated to her worship. This office was very ancient, as the mother of Romulus was one of the vestals.?lneas is supposed to have first chosen the Vestals. Nul-a, in 710 B. c., first appointed four, to which number Tarquin added two. They were always chosen by the monarchs; but after the expulsion of the Tarquins, the high-priest was intrusted with the care of them. As they were to be virgins, they were chosen young, from the age of six to ten; and if there was not a sufficient number that presented themselves as candidates for the office, twenty virgins were selected, and they upon whom the lot fell were obliged to become priestesses. The vestal Minutia was buried alive for violating her virgin vow, 337 B. c. The vestal Sextilia was buried alive for incontinence, 274 B. C.; and the vestal Cornelia Maximiliana on the same charge, A. D. 92.-Biblioteqsue Uni-. verselle. VESUVIUS, MOUNT. The dreadful eruption of Mount Vesuvius, when it emitted such a quantity of flame and smoke that the air was darkened, and the cities of Pomvpeii and Herecslceseelt were overwhelmed by the burning lava, A. D. 79. More than 250,000 persons perished by the destruction of those cities; the sun's light was totally obscured for two days throughout Naples; great quantities of ashes and sulphureous smoke were carried not only to Rome, but also beyond the Mediterranean into Africa; birds were suffocated in the air and fell dead upon the ground, and the fishes perishe(' in the neighboring waters, which were made hot and infected by it: tmiis eruption proved fatal to Pliny the naturalist. IHerculaneum was discovered in 1737, and many curious articles have been.dug fiom the ruins since that time; but every thing combustible had the marks of having been burned by fire. Numerous eruptions have occurred, causing great devastation and loss of lives. In 1631 the town of Torre del Greco, with 4000 persons, and a great part of the surrounding country. were destroyed. One of the most dreadful eruptions ever known took place suddenly. Nov. 24, 1759. The violent burst in 1767 was the thirty-fourth from the the time of Titus, when VIE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 581 Pompeii was buried. One in 1794 was most destructive: the lava flowed over 5000 acres of rich vineyards and cultivated lands, and the town of Torre del Greco was a second time burned; the top of the mountain fell in, and the crater is now nearly two miles in circumference. There have been several eruptions since. VETOES oc THE PRESIDENTS of TIIE UNITED STATES. The power of cancelling acts of Congress by executive veto, was exercised as follows:-by Washington, twice; Madison,, four times; Monlroe, once; Jackson, five tinmes; Tyler, three times; Polk, twice. Bill relating to steam-vessels in the navy vetoed by president Tyler, and afterwards passed by vote of two thirds of both houses, and became a law: the first instance of the kind, February 20, 1845. River and Harbor bill, vetoed by president Polk, August 3, 1846. French Spoliation Indemnity bill, by the same, Aug. 8, 1846. VIENNA. The former capital of the German empire, and fiom 1806 the capital of the Austrian dominions only. Vienna was made an imperial city in 1136; and was walled and enlarged with the ransom paid for Richard I. of Englandc. 40,0001., in 1194. Besieged by the Turks under Solyman the MIag'nilicent, with an army of 300 000 men: but he was forced to raise the siege with the loss of 70.000 of his best troops, 1529. Again besieged in 1683, when the siege was raised by John Sobieski, king of Poland, who totally defeated the Turkish army of 100,000, which had cannonaded the city from July 24 to the beginning of November. Vienna was taken by the French, under prince Murat, Nov. 14, 1805; and evacuated January 12, following. They again captured it, May 13, 1809; but restored it once more on the conclusion of peace between the two countries, Oct. 14, same year. Conference of the ministels of the allies and France, September 28, 1814. Congress of sovereigns, Oct. 2, 1814. See Azustria and HltaxgCer. See next articles. VIENNA, TREATY OF, WtITH SPAIN. The celebrated treaty signed between the emperor of Germany and the king' of Spain, by which they confirmed to each other such parts of the Spanish clominions as they were respectively possessed of, and by a private treaty the emperor engaged to employ a force to procure the restoration of Gibraltar to Spain, and to use means for placing the Pretender on the throne of Great Britain. Spain guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction, April 30, 172-5. VIENNA, TREATY OF ALLIANCE, between the emperor of Germany, the king of Great Britain, and Holland, by which the Pragmatic Sanction was guaranteed, and the disputes as to the Spanish succession terminated (Spain acceded to the treaty on the 22d of July); signed March 16, 1731. VIENNA, TREATY OF WITHI FRANCE. A definitive treaty of peace between the emlperor of Germany and king of France, by which the latter power agreed to guarantee the Pragmatic Sanction, and Lorraine was ceded to France; signed Nov. 18, 1738. VIENNA, PEACE OP, between Napoleon of France and Francis (II. of Germany) I. of Austria. By this tre.: y Austria ceded to France the Tyr1ol, Dalmatia, and other territories, which were shortly afterwards declared to be united to France under the title of,the Illyrian Provinces, and engaging to adhere to the prohibitory system adopted towards England by France and Russia, October 1I, 1809. VIENNA. TRFEATI S oF. The trealy of Vienna between Great Britain. Austria, Riussia, and Prussia, confirming the principles on which they hal acted. by the treaty of Chaumont, M3umarch 1, 1814; signed March 2'3, 1815. The treaty of Vienna between the kino' of the Low Countries on the one part, an.d Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, on the other, agreeing to 582 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ vI. the enlargement of the Dutch territories, and vesting the sovereignty in the house of Orange, May 81, 1815. The treaty of Vienna: Denmark ced-ei Swedish Pomerania and Rungen to Prussia, in exchange for Lauenbnrg, June 4, 1815. The federative constitution of Germlany sig'ned at Vienna, June 8, 1815. V'ILAIN, The name of a vassal under the Norman princes, his hard labor: being the tenure by which he lived upon the land. Of and pertaiini.g to the vill or lordship; was a servant during- life, and was devisable as chalttels in the feudal times. Queen Elizabeth gave the principal blow to tihis kind of severe service, by ordering her bondsmen of the western counties to be made free at easy rates, A. D. 1574.-Stowe's CGrot. VIMEIRA, BATTLE OF,, between the British, under sir Arthltr WVellesley, and the whole of the French and Spanish forces in Portugal, under marshal Junot, duke of AbranLtes, whom the British signally defeated, August 21, 1808. For this victory the British hero and the officers and soldiers under his command were voted the thanlks of parliament, the first of many sireilar honors that marked sir Arthur's (now duke of Wellington's) triumphant career. VINCENT'S, Sv. This was long a neutral island; but at the peace of 1768, the French agreed that the right to it should be vested in the English. The latter, soon after, engaged in a war against the Caribs. on the windward side of the island, who were obliged to consent to a peace, by which they ceded a large tract of land to the British crown. The consequence of this was, that in 1.779 they greatly contributed to the reduction of' this island by the French, who, however, restored it in 1783. In 1795 the French landed some troops, and again instigated the Caribs to an insurrection, which was not subdued for several months. The great eruption of the Scouffrier mountain, after the lapse of nearly a century, occurred in 1812. VINE. The vine was known to Noah. A colony of vine-dressers from Phocca, in Ionia, settled at Marseilles, and instructed the South Gauls in tillage, vine-dressing, and commerce, about 600 B. c. Some think the vines are aborigines of Languedoc, Provence, and Sicily, and that they grew spontaneously on the Mediterranean shores of Italy, France, and Spain. The vine was carried into Champagne, and part of Germany, A. D. 279. The vine and sugar-cane were planted in Madeira in 1420. It was planted in England in 1552; and in the galdens of Hampton-court palace is an old and celebrated vine, said to surpass any known vine in Europe. See Gs'?'/aj, and Win;ie.* VINEGAR. Known nearly as soon as wine. The ancients had severcal kinds of vinegar, which they used for drink. The Roman soldiers were accustomed to take it in their marches. The Bible represents Boaz. a rich citizen of Bethlehem, as providing vinegar for his reapers. into which they migiht dip their breacl, and kindly inviting Ruth to share with them in their repast: hence we may infer that the harvesters, at that period, partoole of this liquid for their refreshment; a custom still prevalent in Spain aid Italy. It is conjectured that the vinegai which the Roman soldiers offeried to 9;' Saviour at his crucifixion was that which they used for their own dltinki * The followvine is a tradition in relalion to the vine:-When Adam planted the first vile, nmridl left it, Sa.tan approached it, and salid, I,ovely plant! I wilt cherish thee;"' alnd theieupon tak.inl three animals, a la li, a lio d a ho. he slayed them at the root of the tree. and ltheir blood 1has been imbibed by the fi'uit to this day. Thus, ii you take one goblet of wine, yot are clleered by its influence, yet are mnild and docile as the lahub; if'vou take two goblets, you become ftlrious, and rave anil bello-w like the lion; and if you drinkl of the third goblet, your reason sinks, and, like the hog, you wallow in the,mire.-Ashie. .ILR 3 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 583 There was, however, a kind of potent vinegar, which wias not proper for drinking till diluted. V IOL AND VIOLIN. As the lyre of the Greeks was the harp of' the moderns, so the viol and vielie of' the middle ac'es became the modelrn violin. The viol was of various sizes formerly, as it is at pr-es-nt and wiits anciently very much in use for chamber airs and songs. That of thlree strilgs was introducecl into Europe by the jugglers of' tlhe thirteenth century. The violin was invented towards the close of the salme centn lry.-Ab6d Lae,?e)t. Tile fiddle, however, is mentioned as early as A. 1). 1200, in the legendary life of St. Christopher. It was introduced into England, solme say, by Charles II. VIRGIN. The Assumption of the Virgin is a festival in the Greek and Latin churches, in honor of the miraculous ascent of [llary into heaven, according to their belief, August 15, A. D. 45. The Presentation of the Virgin, is a feast celebrated November 21, said to have been instituted among the Greeks in the eleventh century; its institution in the West is ascribed to Gregory XI., 1372. A distinguished writer says:': The Indian incarnate god Chrishna. the Hindoos believe, had a virgin-mother of the royal race, and was sought to be destroyed in his infanecy. about 900 years a. c. It appears that he passed his life ini worling miracles and preaching, and was so humble as to wash his fiiends' feet; at length dlying, but rising friom the dead, he ascended into heaven in the presence of' a multitude. The Cingalese relate nearly the same things of their Budda."`-Sir [ilicaci Jones. VIRGINIA, daughter of the centurion L. Virginius. Appius Claudlius, the decemvir, became enamored of her, and attempted to remove her from thle place where she resided. She was claimed by one of' his favorites as the daughter of a slave, and Appins, in the capacity and with the authority of judge, had pronounced the sentence, and delivered her into the hands of his friend, when Virginius, informed of his violent proceedings, arrived from the camlp. The father demanded to see his daughter, anld when this request was granted, he snatchled a knife and plunged it into Virginia's breast, exclaiming, " This is all, my daug'hter! I can give thee thee, to preserve thee from the lust of a tyrant." No sooner was the blow given than Virginius ran to the camp with the bloody knife in his hancl. The soldiers were astonisheci and incensed, not against the murderer, but the tyrant, and they immediately marched to Rome. Appius was seized, but he destroyed himself in prison, and prevented the execution of the law. Spurius Oppius, another of the tdecemvirs, who had not opposed the tyrant's views, killed himself also; and Marcus Claudius, the favorite of Appius, was put to death, and the decemviral power abolished, 449 B. c. VIRGINIA. One of the United States; sometimes called the " Old Dominion,"' having been settled, April, 1607, at Jamestown, on James river-the first white settlement in the United States. Named Virginia in honor of queemn Elizabeth, who had granted the country to Sir Walter Raleigh. A settlement attempted by Raleigh but failed, and the grant was vacated on his attainder and execution. The country granted by James I. to two comnpanies, the London and the Plymouth. Jamestown settled by the former. and named in honor of their royal patron. The colony suffered much fioom the Indians, and by various disasters; proved loyal during the English revolution; was the first to proclaim Clharles II. on his restoration; established the Church of England by law, 1662; took an early and promlinent part in the stlruggle for independence. Surrender of the British army under Cornwallis, at Yorktown. October 19. 1782. Constitution of the United States adopted June 25, 1788, by 89 to 79. Virginiat has given birth to six presidents of the United States, viz: Washington, Jefferson, gMIadison, MIonroe, 584 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ -,O Harrison, and Taylor; and also, Patrick Henry, John Marshall, and;,any distinguished patriots. Population in 1790 was 747,610; in 1810, 974,d22; in 1830, 1,211,272; in 1840, 1,239,737, including 448,937 slaves. vXSIER on VIZIER, GRAND. An officer of the Ottoman Porte, first appointed in 1370. Formerly this officer governed the whole empire immediately under the grand seignior; he is sometimes called the grand seignior's lieutenant, or vicar of the empire; at his creation, the prince's seal is put into his hand, upon which is engraven the emperor's name, which he places in his bosom, and carries away with him. —Knolles. VITTORIA, BATTLE OF. One of the most brilliant victories recorded in the annals of England, obtained by Wellington over the French army corn manded by Jerome Bonaparte and marshal Jourdan, June 21,1813. Marshal Jourdan lost 151 pieces of cannon, 451 wagons of ammunition, all his baggage, provisions, cattle, and treasure, with his baton as a marshal of France. Continuing the pursuit on the 25th, Wellington too.k Jourdcan's only remaining gun! VOLCANOES. In different parts of the earth's surface, there are above 200 volcanoes, which have been active in modern times. The eruptions of IMount Etna are recorded as early as 734i B. eC. by authentic historians. See Etnla. The first eruption of Vesuvius was in A. D. 79. See VesLrZixl. The first eruption of Hecla is said to have occurred A. D. 1004. For an account of the awful eruption of this volcano in 1783, see.Iceland. In Mexico, a plain was filled up into a mountain more than a thousand feet in height by the burning lava from a volcano in 1759. A volcano in the isle of Ferro broke out, Sept. 13, 1777, which threw out an immense quantity of red water, that discolored the sea for several leagues. Anew volcano appeared in one of the Azore islands, May 1, 1808. VOLUNTEERS. This species of force armed in England, in apprehension of the threatened invasion of revolutionary France, 1794. Besides their large army, and 85,000 men voted for the sea, England subsidized 40,000 Germans, raised the militia to 100,000 men, and armed the citizens as volunteers. Between the years 1798 and 1804, when this force was of greatest amount, it numbered 410,000 men, of which 70,000 were Irish. The English volunteers were, according to official accounts, 341,600 on Jan. 1, 1804. In the United States, on the breaking out of the _Mexican war, Congress authorized the enlistment of 50,000 volunteers. A much larger number responded, but less than 30,000 were actually needed or enrolled. VOYAGES. The first great voyage, or voyage properly so called, was by order of Necho, pharoah of Eg~ pt, when some Phoenician pilots sailed from Egypt down the Arabic Gulf, round what is now called the Cape of Good Hope, entered the Mediterranean by the Straits of Gibraltar, coasted along the north of Africa, and at length arrived in Egypt, after a navigation of about three years, 604 B. c.-Blair, HerodotLs. The first voyage round the world was made by a ship, part of a Spanish squadron which had been under the command of Magellan (who was killed at the Philippine island in a skirmish) in 1519-20. The era of voyages of discovery wag the end of the eighteenth century. See Circumnzvigators, and lNorid,- fHferg Passage. W. WAGES IN ENGLAND. The wages of sundry work men in England were first fixed by act of parliamefit, 25 Edward III., 1350. Haymakers had but one penny a day. Master carpenters, masons, tylers, and other coverers of houses, had not more than 3d. per day (about 9d. of our money); and their WAL I DICTIONAILY OF DATES. 585 servants 1 ~dl.- Fine r's Slczlltes. By the the 23d Henry VI., 144t, the wages or a bailiff of husbancdry Awas 23s. 4d. per annum, and clothing of the price of 5s. swith meat and drink; chief hind, carter, or shepherd, 20s., clothii.g 4s.; comlmon servant of husbandry. 15S., clothing 40d.; woman-servant, 10s. clothing 4s. By the 11th Henry VII., 1495, there was a like rate of wages, only with a little advance; as, for instance, a free mason, master carpenter, rough mason, bricklayer, master tyler, plumber, glazier, carver, or joiner, wvas allowved fiolm Easter to Mlchaelimas to take 6d. a day, without meat and drink; or with nmeat and drink 4d.; from lMichaelmas to Easter, to abate Id. A master havinv unier him six men was allowed 1d. a day extra. The following were the WAGES OF IHARVEST-MiEN IN ENGLAND AT DIFFERENT PERIODS. Year. s. d. I Year. s. d. Year. s. d. In 1350 per clie. 0 1 1 In 16S per diem. 0 8 In 1783 per diem., 1 4 In 1460 ditte 0 2 I 1716 ditto 0 9 an 1794 ditto 1 6 In 1568 ditto 0 4 In 1740 ditto 0 10 In 1800 ditto 2 0 In 1632 ditto 0 6 In 1760 ditto 1 0 In 1840 ditto 3 0 WAGRA15M, BATTLE or, between the Austrian and French armies, in which the latter was completely victorious, and the former entirely overthrown. The slaughter on both sides was dreadful; 20,000 Austrians were taken, y the French, and the defeated army retired to Moravia, July 5, 1809. This battle led to an armlistice, signed on the 12th; and on Oct. 24, to a treaty of peace, by which Austria ceded all her sea-coast to France, and the kingdoms of Saxony and Bavaria were enlarged at her expense. The emperor was obliged also to yield a part of his plunder of Poland in Gallicia to Russia. The emperor also acknowledged Joseph Bonaparte as king of Spain. WAKEFIELD, BATTLE OF, IN ENGLAND, between Margaret, the queen of Henry VI., and the duke of York, in which the latter was slain, and 3000 Yorkists fell upon the field. The death of the duke. who aspired to the crown, seemed to fix the good fortune of Margaret; but tile earl of Warwick espoused the cause of his son, the earl of M'larch, afterwards Edward IV., and the civil war that was continued from that time devastated all England. This battle was fought December 31, 1460. WAKES. Every church at its consecration received the name of some particular saint; this practice existed among the Romans alcnd Britons. and was continued among the Saxons. —'V/eXilaker. Women were hired among the ancient Romlans to weep at funerals: they were called Caribcr. Tlhe Irish howl originated fiom this Roman outcry at the decease of their frie Ids. They hoped thus to awaken the soul, which they supposed might lie inactive. WALDENSES. The persecution of this sect in the beginning of the thirteenth century led to the establishment of the Holy Office or Inquisition. Pope Innocent III. had collnmissionedc some llonks to preach against the heresies of the Waldenses in Narbonne and Provence; but the Catholic bishops were at first jealous of this nlission, armed as it was with great power. and the feudal chiefs refused to obey the orders of the legates. A. D. 1203-4. One of the mlonks, the first inquisitor, Peter Chateauneuf, having been assassinated, the aspiring pontiff called on all the neighboring powers to ma'ch into the heretical district. All obstinate heretics were placed at the disposal of Simon de Montfort, conmmander of this crusade, and the whole race of the Waldenses and Albigenses were ordered to be pursued witil fire and sword. Neither sex, age, nor condition was spared; the country became a wilderness. and the towns heaps of smoking ruins. Such was the era of the Inquisition. Dominic de Guzman was constituted first inquisitor-general, 1208. 25* 586 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS [WAIq WALES. After the Roman emperor Honorius quitted Britain, Vortigern was elected king of South Britain, and he invited over the Saxons to defend his country against the Picts and Scots; but the Saxons perfidiously sent foireinforcelments, consisting of Saxons, Danes, and Angles, by which they made themselves masters of South Britain, and most of the ancient Britons retired to Wales, and defended themselves against the Saxons, in its inaccessible mountains, about A. D. 447. In this state Wales remained unconquered till Henry II. subdued South Wales in 1157: and in 1282 Edward I. entirely reduced the whole country, putting an end to its independency by the death of Llewellyn, the last prince. The Welsh, however, were not entirely reconciled to this revolution, till the queen happening to be brought to bed of a son at Carnarvon in 1284, Edward with great policy styled himl prince of Wales, which title the heir to the crown of Great Britain has borne almost ever since. Wales was united and'incorporated with England by act of parliament, 27 Henry VIII. 1535. See Britain. WALES. PRINCE or. The first prince of this title was Edward, the son ofEdward I., who was born in Carnarvon castle on the 25th April. 1284, Immediately after his birth he was presented by his father to the Welsh c~iieftains as their future sovereign, the king holding up the royal infant in his arms. and saying, in the Welsh language, " Eich D.y," literally in English "This is your nman,"'but signifying, "This is your countryminai and king." These words were' afterwards changed, or corrupted, as some historians assert, to " Ich Dienm," which is the motto attached to the arms of the prince of Wales to this day. Owing to the premature death of his elder brother. this prince succeeded to the throne of England, by the title of Edward II., in 1307.-lMUvy7r' ianc A rch&eology. Hist. Wales. For another and very different account of the origin of the motto " Ic/; Dien," see the article under that head. WALLOONS. The people who fled to England from the persecution of the cruel duke of Alva. the governor of the Low Countries for Philip II. of Spain. On account of the duke's religious proscriptions, those countries revolted from Philip, 1566.-Sar'iana's Hist. o' Spai-n. The Walloons were well received in England. A large Protestant church was given to them by queen Elizabeth, at Canterbury, and many of their posterity still remain in this part of England. -Pardo-l. WALPOLE'S ADMINISTRATIONS. Mr. Walpole (afterwards sir Robert, and earl of Orford) became first lord of the treasury in 1715. He resigned, on a disunion of the cabinet, in 1717, bringing in the sinking fund bill on the day of his resignation. Resumed as head of the ministry, on the earl of Sunderland retiring, in 1721; and continued as premier until 1742, when his administration was finally shaken by its unpopular endeavors for some time previously to maintain peace with Spain. WANDERING JEW. The following is the strange account given of this personage:-His original name was Calaphilus, Pontius Pilate's porter. When they were dragging Jesus out of the door of the Judgment-hall. he struck him on the back, saying, " Go faster, Jesus! go faster; why dost thou linger." Upon which Jesus looked on him with a frown, and said, "I am indeed going; but thou shalt tarry till I come." Soon after he was converted, and took the name of Joseph. He lives for ever; but at the end of every hundred years falls into a fit or trance, upon which when he recovers, he returns to the same state of youth he was in when our Saviour suffered, being about thirty years of age. He always preserves the utmost gravity of deportment. He.was never seen to smile. He perfectly remembers the death and resurrection of Christ.- Cab.l-et's Hist. of tihe Bible. WAR] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 587 WARS. War is called by Erasmus " the malady of princes." Scriptural writers date the first war as having been begun by the impious son of Cain 3563 B. C. Osymandyas of Egypt was the first warlike king; he passed into Asia, and conquered Bactria, 2100 B. C. —Usher. He is supposed by some to be the Osiris of the priests. The most famious siege recorded in the annals of antiquity was that of Troy, 1193-1184 n. c. The longest siege was that of Azoth, 647 B. c. The most famous sortie was that of the Platscans from their city, 428 B. c. It is computed that from the beginning of the world to the present time, no less than 6,860 000,000 of men have perished in the field of battle, being about seven times as many of the human species as now inhabit our whole earth. GWARS, CIVIL, OF GREAT BRITAIN. The most remarkable civil wars of Great Britain are the following:-That of A. D. 1215-16. The war of the barons against IHenry III., 1565; of the usurpation of Henry IV., 1400; of the White and Red Roses, or houses of York and Lancaster, from 1452 to 1471. The war between Richard III. and Henry VII., 1485. The war against Charles I. from 1642 to 1651. The Scottish civil war under the Pretender, 1715-16; that under the Young Pretender, 1 745. In Ireland, that under Tyrone, 1599; under O'Neill, 1641; and that produced by the great rebellion, 1798. WARS, FoREIGN, OF GREAuT BRITAIN. The wars in France, in which England was involved for nearly two centuries, arose from the dukes of Normandy being kings of England. They held Normandy as a fief of the crown of France; and when William I. conquered England, it became an English province, but was lost in the reign of king John, 1204. The wars with France were many; the English princes gained bloody victories at Cressy, Poictiers, and Agincourt; but they were finally driven out of France in the reign of Henry VI., and lost Calais, by surprise, in the reign of Mary. It vwas to the English people a fortunate loss; but the rival policy and interests of the two governments have, ever since then, caused half as many years of war as peace. See the countries respectively, Battles, &c. FOREIGN WARS OF GREAT BRITAIN SINCE THE CONQUEST. WVar with Scotland, 1068 Peace 1092 War with Scotland, 1542 Peace. 1546 " France, 1116 " 1118 " Scotland, 1547 1550'c Scotlanld, 1138 " 1139 " France, 1549 " 1550 " France, 1161 " 1186 " France, 1557 " 1559' France, 1194': 1195 " Scotland, 1557': 1560 " France, 1201 " 1216 " France, 1562 " 1564 France, 1224'" 1234 " Spain, 1588 " 1604 France, 1294 " 1299 " Spain, 1694 " 1629 " Scotland, 1296 " 1323 " France, 1627 " 1629 i; Scotland, 1327 " 1328 H olland, 1651 " 1654 " France, 1339 " 1360 " Spain, 1655 " 1660 " France, 1368 " 1420 " France, 1666 " 1668 " France, 1422 " 1471 " Denmark, 1666 i" 1668 France,. 1492 " same year' Holland, 1666 " 1668 i' France, 1512 " 151.4 " Algiers, 1669 " 1671 C, France, 1522 " 1527 " Holland, 1.672 " 1674 " Scotland, 1522 " 1542 " France, 1689 " 1697 The general peace of Ryswick between England, Germany, Holland, France, and Spain, was signed by the ministers of these powers, at the palace of Ryswick, Sept. 20, 1697. It concluded this last war. THE GREAT MODERN AND EXPENSIVE WVARS OF GREAT BRITAIN. War of the Succession, commenced May 4, War with France, March 31, 1744. Closed 1702. Peace of Utrecht, March 13, 1713. also on April 30, 1748. War with Spain, Dec. 16, 1718. Peace con- War; the Seven years' war, June 9, 1756. cluded 1721. Peace of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. War; the Spaznish Was, Oct. 23, 1739. War with Spain, Jan. 4, 1762. General Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, April 30,1748. peace of Feb. 10, 1763. 588 THE. WORLD'S; PROGRESS. L WAR WARS, FOREIGN, Or GREAT BRITAIN-continued. War with the United States, July 14, 1774. War of thi Revolution, Feb. 1, 1793. Peace Peace of Paris, Nov. 30, 1782. of Amiens, March 27, 1802. War with France, Feb. 6, 1778. Peace of War against Bonaparte, April 29, 1803. FiParis. Jan. 20, 1783. nally closed, June 18, 1815. War with Spain, April 17, 1780. Closed War with'the United States, June 18, 1812. same time, Jan 20, 1783. Peace of Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814. War with Holland, Dec. 21, 1780. Peace For the wars with India and China, see those signed-Sept. 2, 1783. countries respectively. In the war against Bonaparte, the great powers of Europe leagued sometimes with, and'sometimes against Great Britain. England spent 65 years in war, and 62- in peace, in the 127 years previous to the close of the last war in 1815. In the war of 1688, she-spent 36 millions sterling; in the war of the. Spanish Succession, 62 millions; in the Spanish war, 54 millions; in the Seven Years' war, 112 millions; in the American war, 136 millions; in the. war of the French Revolution, 464 millions; and in the war against.Bonaparte, 1159 millions;- thus forming a total expenditure for war, in 127 years (from the Revolution in 1688 to the downfall of Napoleon in 1815), of 2023millions of pounds sterling. M. de Pradt estimates the loss of life-sustained by the French forces in the six campaigns of the Peninsular war at six hundred thousand men. The loss sustained by the Spaniards and. their allies was probably as great. During the war many districts of the Peninsu.la were from time to time laid waste by the contending armies, and the inhabitants were victims to all the calamities and horrors thus produced. The total destruction of human beings in this last war must have amounted to one million two hundred thousand. WAR, REVOLUTIONARY, ending in the independence of the United States, commenced by the battle of Lexington,'April 19, 1775. See Battles. Ended by the Treaty of Paris, 1783. This war cost $135,193;700. WAR, THE, OF 1812, between the United States and Great Britain: First difficulty respecting the search of War declared - June 19, 18 American vessels - - - 1806 Gen. H. Dearborn appointed commanChesapeake United States frigate fired der-in-chief. on -' - - 1807 [See Battles and N2aval Battles.l' Non-intercourse act passed - - 1809 The war opposed in New England, and United States frigate President, engag- levies of troops refused by Mass., ed the British'sloop-of-war Little Belt Conn., anid R. I. May 16,.1811 Treaty of'peace ratified - Feb. 17, 1815 President Madison's war message to congress - - June 1, 1812 1 WAR AGAINST ALGIERS, to punish piracies, &c., declared by the United States, 1815. Commodores Decatur and Bainbridge captured two Algerine vessels and " conquered a peace," July 4, WAR BETWEEN' THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. [The annexation of' Texas to the United States having been completed by the vote of the senate' of Texas, Dec. 22, 1845.] American army of occupation, (3500) already existed, by act of that power, under Gen. Taylor took post on the'and authorizing 50,000 volunteers Rio Grande opposite Matamo.ras, May 12, 1846 March 28, 1846 Monterey taken by Corn. Sloat, July 6, 1847 First collision-a reconnoitring party Santa Fe occupied by Gen. Kearney of 70 from American army under Col. Aug. 18,1846 Thornton, fired upon and taken pri- Mexican ports on the Pacific blockaded soners by the Mexicans - April 24, 1846 -by Coin. Stockton - - Aug. 19, 1846 Gen. Taylor defeats the Mexicans at' Battle of Monterey, 4700 Americans Palo Alto, loses 48 killed and 126 under Taylor, 10,000 Mexicans under wounded. Mexicans, 262 killed and Ampudia. Montereysurrendered. A355 wounded - May 8-9, 1846 merican loss, 120 killed 368 wounded, Bill passed both' houses of Congress U. Mexican much greater - Sept. 21-23, 1846 S., declaring that war with Mexico WAR ] IDICTIONARY OF DATES. 589 WAR WITH MEXICO, conetirLced. Stevenson's California regiment sailed Battles of Contreras and Churubusco, from New-orck - - Sept. 26, 1846 American sen. Smith drives the MexiToblasco bombarded by corn. Perry, cans fiom these fortified posts towards Oct. 25, 1846 Mexico, losing 1066 killed and woundTampico occupied by corn. Connor, ed; Mexican loss 6000 - Au. 20, 1847 Nov. 14, 1846 Armistice agreed upon; broken by the Col. Doniphan with 450 Missouri volun- Mexicans. Hostilities recommenced teers defeated 1100 Mexicans at Bari- Sept. 7, 1817 to, the latter losing 63 killed and 150 Battle of Molino del Rey; American wounded. American loss 6 wounded. gen. Worth carried tle fortifications Gen. Kearney deleats the "revolted" defended by 14,000 Mexicans under Calilornians, at San Gabriel, &c. Santa Anna. Anmerican loss, 787 kilJan. 8, 1847 led and wounded; Mexican loss 3000, Major Borland, Cassius M. Clay, Major Sept. 8, 1347 Gaines, and 80 men, taken prisoners Battle of Chepultepec, a height near by the Mexicans at Encarnacion, Mexico, carried by American geneJan. 23, 1847 rals WVorth, Quitman, and Pillow, Revolt against Americans in N. Mex- (under gen. Scott) after a loss of f6i2 ice, American governor Bent and five Sept. 12-13. 1847 others murdered - - Jan 14, 1847 This was followed by the surrender of 1500 N. Mexican Indians and Mexicans the city of Mexico - - Sept. 14, 1847 defeated by col. Price - Jan. 24, 1817 Col. Clilds with 400 men and 18010 Battle of Buena Vista: Americans 4759 sick in hospitals besieged3 28 days at mostly volunteers, Iuntder ge. Taylor Puebla, but compelled tile Alexicans and gesn. WoV~ol; and Mexicans 22,000 to raise the siege - Oct. 12, 13'7 under Santa Annta; latter defeated and Contriblution of $600,000 levied in Mexloss G000 killed and wounded; Anmei- ico for protecting public property in can loss 267 klilled and 456 wounded, the city - - - Sept. 17, 1847 /! Feb. 2a-93, 1847 City of lIuanmantla captured by AmeBattle of Sacrarmento; American col. rican ge. L.ane, who dlefeats Santa Doniphan, 924 men, defeated 4000 Anna. American loss,24'killed and Mexicans und(er HIerridea, latter loss wounded; Mexican loss 150, Oct. 9, 1847 300 ktilled, 300 wounded and 40 pri- Port of Guayamlas bombarded arnd capsoners; American loss, 1 killed and 8 tlured by American frigate Congress, wounded - - Feb. 28, 1847 and sloop Portsmouth Oct. 20, 18-17 Vera Cruz surienidered to gen. Scott A tax levied upon tle states of Mexico, anrl corn. Perry; American loss 65 anld duties &c. laid to the ainount of killed and woundedl - Mach 29, 1847 about $3,000,000 - - Dec. 31, 1847 Alvasado surrendered to lieut. Hunter, Gen. Scott superseded by Gen. Butler, April 2, 1847 Feb. 18, 1848 Battle of Cerro-Gordo; Americans 8500 Treaty of peace ratified at Queretaro, under gen. Scott, defeat 12,000 Mex- by the Hon. A. H. Sevier and N. icans under Santa Anna; 5 generals Clifford, for the United States, and and 3000 men, takenl prisoners by the foreign Mexican minister, Signor Scott: Aumerican loss 250, Mexican De la Rosa - - May 30(, 1848 350. American troops finally withdrawn Taspan taken by corn. Perry, April 18, 1847 from the city oifMexico, - June 12, 1848 WARSAW. Late the metropolis of Poland. The diet was transferred to this city from Cracow, in 1556. Warsaw surrendered to Charles XII. in 1703. It has been a great prey to war of late years. In the beginning of 1794, the empress of Russia put a garrison into this city, in order to compel the Poles to acquiesce in the usurpations she had in view; but this garrison was expelled by the citizens, with the loss of 2000 kIilled and 500 wounded, and 36 pieces of cannon, April 17, 1794. The king of Prussia besieged Warsawv in July 1794, but was compelled to raise the siege in September, same year. It was taken by the Russians in the Russians in the November following. See qtext article. Warsaw was constituted a duchy and annexed to the house of Saxony in August, 1807; but the duchy was overrun by the Russians in 1813, and soon afterwards Warsaw again became the residence of a Russian viceroy. The late Polish revolution commenced here, November 29, 1830. See Poland. WARSAW, BATT,LES OF. The Poles suffered a great defeat in a battle with the Russians, Oct. 10.12, 17094; and Suwarrowv, the Russian general, after the siege and destruction of Warsaw, cruelly butchered 30,000 Poles, of all ages and conditions, in cold blood, Nov. 8, 1794. The battle preceding the 5Z90 TH-R sTRE WOuLD S PROGRESS. WAT surrender was very bloody; of 20.000l men, more thllan 10,000 were killed, nearly 10,000 were made prisoners, and 2000 only escaped the fury of the merciless conqueror. Battle of Growchow, near Warsaw, in which the Russians were defeated, and forced to retreat with the loss of 7000 mlen, Feb. 20, 1831. Battle of Warsaw, when, after two days' hard fighting, the city capitulated, and was taken possession of by the Russians. Great part of the Polish army retired towards Plock and 1Iodlin. This last battle was fought Sept. 7 and 8, 1831. WARSAW, TREAAIFS O. The treaty of alliance of Warsaw, between Austria. and Poland, against Turkey, in pursuance of which John Sobieski assisted in raising the siege of Vienna (on the 18th of September following), signed March 31, 1683. Treaty of Warsaw, between Russia and Poland, February 24, 1768. WASHINGTON. The capita. of the United States, founded in 1791, and first made the seat of government in 1800. The house of representatives was opened for the first time, May 30, 1808. Washington was taken in the late war by the British forces under general Ross, when the Capitol and the President's house were consumed by a general conflagration, the troops not sparing even the national library, August 24, 1814. General Ross was soon afterwards killed in a desperate engagement at Baltimore, Sept. 12, following. See Uenlited States. WASHINGTON. GEORGE. Born Feb. 22, 1732; in the expedition of Braddock against fort Du Quesne 1755; appointed commander-in-chief of the American army 1775; elected president of Convention for forming Constitution 1787; elected President of the United States 1789; again in 1793; died 1799. Washington monument at New York, corner-stone laid, Oct. 19, 1847. National imonument to Washington, corner-stone laid July 4, 1848; osation by Robt. C. Winthrop. Virginia monument to Washington, cornerstone laid by President Taylor, Feb. 22, 1849. WATCHES. They are said to have been first invented at Nuremberg, A. D. 1477; although it is affirmed that Robert, king of Scotland. had a watch about A. D. 1310. Watches were first used in astronomical observations by Purbach, 1500. Authors assert that the emperor Charles V. was the first who had any thing that might be called a watch, though some call it a small table-clock, 1530. Watches were first brought to England fiom Germany in 1577.-IItLe. Spring pocket-watches (watches properly so called) have had their invention ascribed to Dr. Hooke by the English, and to M. Huygens by the Dutc'., Dr. Derham, in his Artificial Cloc/c&ia/cr', says that Dr. Hooke was the inventor; and he appears certainly to have produced what is called the pendulum watch. The timle of this invention was about 1658; as is manifest, among other evidences, from an inscription on one of the double-balance watches presented to Charles II., viz., "Rob. Hooke inven. 1658. T. Tompion fecit, 1675." Repeating watches were invented by Barlowe, 1676. HIarrison's time-piece was invented in 1735; improved 1739, 1749, 1753. In 1759, he made the time-piece which procured hihn the reward of 20 0001., offered by the Board of Longitude, 1763. Watche~s and clocks were taxed in 179'7. The tax was repealed in 1708. See Clocks. WATER. Thales of Miletus, founder of' the Ionic sect, looked upon water (as also did Homer, and several of the ancient philosophers) as being the original principle of every thing besides, about 59-4 B. c. —Stanley. It is the universal drink of man. The ancients usually diluted their wines with much water;'and Hesiod prescribes three measures of water to one of wine in sunmmer.-Mcadame Dacier. In the Roman church water was first mixed WAT J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 591 with the sacramental wine, A. D. 122. —Leng'let. "Honest water is too weak to be a sinner; it never left a man in the mire.".-S/ltakspeare. WATER-CLOCKS. The first instruments used to measure the lapse of time, independently of the sunshine, were clepsydrae or water-clocks. These were most probably vessels of water, with a small hole through the bottom; through this hole the water ran out in a certain time, possibly an hour; after which the vessel was again filled to be emptied as before. This invention was a manifest improvement on the old sun-dials, whose perpendicular gnomon gave hours of different length at the various seasons of the year. Something similar to the hour-glass was occasionally used; and Alfred the Great, probably ignorant of these methods, adopted the burning of a taper as a measure of time. WATER-MILLS. Used for grinding corn, invented by Belisarius, the general of Justinian, while besieged in Rome by the Goths, A. D. 555. The ancients parched their corn, and pounded it in mortars. Afterwards mills were invented, which were turned by men and beasts with great labor; and yet Pliny mentions wheels turneci by water. WATER TOFANA, oR WIVEs' POIsoN. See article Poisonin"g. The poison so freely adluinistered by Italians in the 17th century, called aqua tofcalbb, fi'o0l the name of the woman Totania, who made and sold it in small fiat vials. She carried on this traffic for half a century, and eluded the police; but on being taken, confessed that she had been a party in poisoning 600 people. Numerous persons were impllicated by her, and many of'them were publicly executed. All Italy was thrown into a ferment, and many fled, and some persons of distinction, on conviction, were strangled in prison. It appeared to have been chiefly used by married women who were tired of their husbands. Four or six drops were a fatal dose; but the effect was not sudden, and therefore not suspected. It was as clear as water, but the chemists have not agreed about its real composition. A proclamlation of the pope described it as aquafortis distilled into arsenic, and others considered it as a solution of crystallized arsenic. The secret of its preparation was conveyed to Paris, where the marchioness de Brinvilliers poisoned her father and two brothers; and she with many others was executed, and the preparers burnt alive.-PPhillips. WATERLOO, BATTLrE 01F. The greatest victory ever won by British arms, and the most decisive and happy in its consequences. In this great battle the French army, with Napoleon as its chief, was signally overthrown by the British and allies under the duke of Wellington, June 18, 1815. Napoleon attacked the British, wlhoml he expected to overwhelm by superior numbers, but they maintained their ground, and repulsed the enemy from about nine in the morning till seven at night, when the French line began to waver. The commander then gave orders to charge; a total rout ensued, and Blucher, who opportunely came up at this juncture, joined in the pursuit. On both sides the carnage was immense; but that of the French was double the amount of the British. Napoleon quitted the wreck of his flying army, and returned to Paris, where he attempted, after the destruction of three great armies, to raise a fourth; but finding this impossible, his abdication followed. See Bonaparte and Fr'ance. WATER-SPOUT. Whirlwinds and water-spouts proceed from the same cause, the only difference being that water-spouts pass over the water, and whirlwinds over the land.-Dr. FCraLnlin.?. Two water-spouts fell on the Glatz mountains in Germany, aend caused dreadful devastation to Hautenbachl, and many other villages; a prodigious number of houses were destroyed, and many persons perished, July 13, 1827. A water-spout at Glanflesk, near Kil. 592 THIE WORMLD S PROGRESS. [ WED larney, in Ireland, passed over a farm of Mr. John M.acarthy, and destroyed his cottag'e, two other farmhouses, and other buildings, of which not a vestige remlained. In this catastrophe seventeen persons perished. August t, 1831. WAX. This substance calne into use for candles in the twelfth century; and wax candles were esteemed a luxury in 1300. being but little used. In China, candles of vegetable wax have been in use for centuries. See Candlcebrry. Wax candles are made very cheap in America, from the berry of a particular species of myrtle, which yields excellent wax, of a green color. Sealingwax was not brought into use in England until about 1556. The wax-tree, Ligmqstru, IlucidcLum, was brought from China before 1794. WE. The common language of kings is zqe. which plural style was begun with king John, A. D. 11909.-Coke's Insti. Before this time sovereigns used the singular person in all their edicts.-Ide/cm. The German emlaperors asnd Fiench kings used the plural about A. D. 1200. —/:caLlt. It is now the style royal of all monarchs. In the articles of public journals they also adopt the plural, indicating that what they write proceeds firom a plurality of pens. WEALTH. This is a relative term; for as there is only a certain amount of property in a country, so the possession of a large share by one man is the poverty of others. The wealth of individuals is therefore no benefit to the country, while as to others it is the cause of their poverty. The instances of wealth in the early ages are many and most extraordinary. The mightiest conflagration of wealth on record is that of Sardanapalus, where riches amounting to one thousand four hundred millions sterling were destroyerl. -Atheneeu.s. Ccecilius Isidorus died at Ronie possessed of 4116 slaves, 3600 oxen. 200.000 head of other cattle, and three millions of our money in coin, 8 B. c.- Uoiv. Hist. WEAVING. The art of weaving appears to have been practised in China firo' the earliest antiquity —more than a thousand years before it uwas known in Europe or Asia. Poets assign the art to the spider. Women originally spun, wove, and dyed; and the origin of these arts is ascribed, by ancient nations, to different women as women's arts. The Egyptians ascribed it to Isis; the Greeks, to Minerva; and the Peruvians, to the wife of Maanco Capac. In most eastern- countries, the employment of weaving is still performed by the women. Our Saviour's vest, or coat, had not any seam, being woven from the top throughout, in one whole piece. Perhaps, says Dr. Doddridge, this curious garment might be the work and present of some piolls women who attended him, and ministered unto him of their substance, Lul/e viii. 3. The print of a frame for weaving such a vest may be seen in Ca?',et's Dictioarco'.y, under the word Veshtwiets. WEAVING IN ENGLAND. Two weavers froim Brabant settled at York, where they manufactured woollens, which, says king Edward, "may prove of great benefit to us and our subjects," 1331. Flemish dyers, cloth-drapers, linen-makers, silk-throwsters, &ec. settled at Canterbury, Norwich, Colchester, Southampton, and other places, on account of the duke of Alva's persecution, 1567. WEDGWOOD WARE. A fine species of pottery and porcelain, produced by Mr. Josiah Wedgwood, of Staffordshire, 1762. The manufactories for this ware employed 10,000 families in England. Previously to 1763, most of the superi( r kinds of earthenwares were imported from France. WEDNESDAY. The fourth day of the week, so called friom a Saxon idol, called Woden, supposed to be Mars, worshipped on this day. The name given to our Wednesday by the Saxons was Woden's day, which was afterwards corrupted to Wednesday. See next a'ticle. WES ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 593 WVEEK. The space of seven.cldays, supposed to be first used among the Jews, who observed the sabbath every seventh day; they had three sorts of weeks, the first the common one of seven days, tile second of years, which was seven years, the third of seven times seven years, at the end of which was the jubilee. All the present English names are derived from the Saxon: — Latin. English. Sazoen. Presided over by Dies Saturni, Saturday, Saterne's day, Saturn. Dies Solis, Sunday, Sun's day, The sun. Dies Lunue, Monday, Moon's day, The moon. Dies Martis, Tuesday, Tiw's day, Mars. Dies Mercurii, Wednesday, Woden's day, Mercury. Dies J.Tovis, Thursday, Thor's day, Jupiter. Dies Veneris, Friday, Friga's day, Venus. WEIGHTS AND -MEASURES. These, and the stamping of gold and silver money, were invented by Phydon, tyrant of Argos, 895 B. c. et seq. —Ar'eudeliezn Mcearbles. Weights were originally taken from grains of wheat, the lowest being still called a grain.-Clcdalnzcrs. The standard measure was originally kept at Winchester by the law of king Edgar, n D. 972. Standards of' weiohts and measures were provided for the whole kingdom of England by the sheriffs of London, 8 Richard I., 1197. A public weighingmachine was set up in London, and all commodities ordered to be weighed by the city-officer, called the weigh-master, who was to do justice between buyer and seller, statute 3ld Edward II., 1309.-Stowve. The first statute, directing the use of avordupois weight, is that of 24 Henry VIII., 1532.Pleilosophical TralcLsactions, vol. 65, cart. 3. The French adopt the metre of 3.28084, or the 10 millionth part of the distance from the Pole to the Equator, as the standard of measure; and the kilogramrlue, equal to 2;255 pounds avoirdupois, as the standard of weight. WESLEYAN METHODISTS. A large body of Christians, whose sect was founded by an excellent and pious man, John Wesley. In 1730 he and his brother, with a few other students, formed themselves into a small society for the purpose of mutual edification in religious exercises. So singular an association excited considerable notice, and among other names bestowed upon the members, that of Methodists was applied to them. Mr. Wesley went to Georgia in America, in 1735, with a view of converting the Indians. On his return to England, he commenced itinerant preacher, and gathered many followers; but the churches being shut against him, he built spacious meeting-houses in London, Bristol, and other places. For some time he was united with Mr. Whitefield; but differences arising on account of the doctrine of election, they separated, and the Methodists were denominated according to their respective leaders. 3fr. Wesley was indefatigable in his labors, and almost continually engaged in travelling over England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. His society was well organized, and he preserved his influence over it to the last. He died in London in 1791. WEST INDIES. Discovered by Columbus, St. Salvador being the first land he made in the new world, and first seen by him in the night between the 11th and 12th Oct., 1492. See the Islacds respectively. VWESTERN -EMPIRE. The Roman empire was divided into Eastern and Western by Valentinian and Valens, of' whom the former had the western portion, or Rome, properly so called, A. D. 364. Odoacer, a chief of the Heruli, entered Italy, defeated Orestes, took Rome and Ravenna, deposed Augustulus, andl assumed the title of king of Italy. August 23, which ended the Western empire, 507 years after the battle of Actium, A. n. 476. Seo Eastcsrn Esivivee. WESTMINSTER ABBEY. As regards this magnificent cathedral, the miracIA lous stories of monkish writers and of ancient historians have been que 594 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ Will tioned by sir Christopher Wren, who was employed to survey the present edifice, and who, upon the nicest examination, found nothing to countenance the general belief that it was erected on the ruins of a pagan temple. Historians, agreeably to the legend, have fixed the era of the first abbey in the sixth century, and ascribed to Sebert the ihonor of erecting it. This church becoming rnilous, it was splendidly rebuilt by Edwardl the Confessor, between A. D. 1055 and 1065; and he stored it with monks fr on Exeter. Pope Nicholas II. about this time constituted it the place for the inaug-uration of the kings of England. The church was once more built in a magnificent and beautiful style by Henry III. In the reigns of Edward II., EdwsardcIII., and Richard II., the great cloisters, abbot's house, and the principal monastic buildings were erected. The western parts of the nave and aisles were rebuilt by successive monarchs, between the years 1340 and 1483. The west front and the great window were built by those rival princes, Richard III. and Henry VII.; and it was the latter monarch who commenced the magnificent chapel which bears his name, and the first stone of which was laid Jan. 24, 1502-3. The abbey was dissolved. and made a bishopric, 1541; and was finally made a collegiate church by Elizabeth, 1560. WESTMINSTER HALL. One of the most venerable remains of English architecture, first built by William Rufus in 1097, for a banqueting-hall; and here in 1099, on his return from Normandy, " he kept his feast of Whitsuntide very royally." Richard II. held his Christmas festival in 1397, when the number of the guests each day the feast lasted was 10,000.-Slowve. The courts of law were established here by king John.-Ideln. Westminster-hall is universally allowed to be the largest room in Europe unsupported by pillars: it is 270 feet in length, and 74 broad. The hall underwent a general repair in 1802. WESTPHALIA. This duchy belonged, in former times, to the duke of Saxony. On the secularization of 1802, it was made over to Hesse Darmstadt; and in 1814, was ceded for an equivalent to Prussia. The kingdom of Westphalia, one of the temporary kingdoms of Bonaparte, composed of conquests fiom Prussia, Hesse-Cassel, Hanover, and the smaller states to the west of the Elbe, created December 1, 1807, and Jeromle appointed king. Hanover was annexed March 1, 1810. This kingdom was overturned in 1813. WESTPHALIA, PzACE of, signed at Munster and at Osnaburgh, between France, the emperor, and Sweden; Spain continuing the war against France. By this peace the principle of a balance of power in Europe was first recegnised: Alsace given to France, and part of Ponmerania and some other ditriets to Sweden; the Elector Palatine restored to the Lower Palatinate; the civil and political rights of the German States established; and the independence of the Swiss Confederation recognised by Germany, October 24, 1648. WHALE FISHERY OP THE UNITED STATES. In 1845 this trade employed 650 vessels, aggregate tonnage 200,000 tons,-cost, $20.000,000; manned by 17,500 officers and seamen.' Commercial history furnishes no parallel the this whaling fleet-it is larger than those of all other nations combined.' — Speecch of Ilt. Grinxell. WHEAT AND FLOUR. The amount exported by the United States, fisom 1790 to 1838, was 10;283,471 bushels,-average, 209.666 bushels per annum. In 1845 the amount exported was valued at $5:735,372; in 1846, $13.350 644. This was exclusive of Corn, Rye, &c. The amount was greatly increased by the scarcity in Europe, especially in Ireland. WHITE FRIARS. These were an order of Carmelite mendicants, who took WIL ] DICTIONAItY OF DATES. 595 their name from Mount Carmel, lying southwest of Mount Tabor, in tho Ioly Land. They pretended that Etlijah and Elisha were the founders of their order, and that Pythagoras and the ancient Druids were professors of it. At first they were very rigid in their discipline, but afterwards it was moderated, and about the year 1540 divided into two sorts, one following and restoring the ancient severities, and the other the milder regimen. They had numerous monasteries throughout England: and a precinct in London without the Temple and west of Blackfriiars, is called Mritefriars to this day, after a community of their order, founded there in 1245. WHITEHALL, LONDON. Originally built by Hubert de Burgh, earl of Kent, before the middle of the 13th century. It afterwards devolved to the archbishop of York, whence it received the name of York-place, and continued to be the town residence of the archbishops till purchased by Henry VIII. of cardinal Wolsey, in 1530. At this period it became the residence of the court. Queen Elizabeth, who died at Greenwich, was brought fiom thence to Whitehall, by water, in a grand procession. It was on this occasion, CAMDEN informs us, that the following quaint panegyric on her majesty was written:" The queen was brought by water to Whitehall, At every stroke the oars did tears let fall. iIore clung aboutt the barge; fish under water Wept out their eyes ofpearl, and swam blind after. I think the bargemen might, with easier thighs, Have rowed her thither in her people's eyes; For howsoe'er, thus much my thoughts have scann'd, She had come by waten, had she come by land." In 1697, the whole was destroyed by an accidental fire, except the banqueting-house, which had been added to the palace of Whitehall by James I., according to a design of Inigo Jones, in 1619. In the front of Whitehall Charles I. was beheaded, Jan. 30, 1649. George I. converted the hall into a chapel, 1723-4. The exterior of this edifice underwent repair between 1829 and 1833. WHITSUNTIDE. The festival of Whitsunday is appointed by the church to commemorate the descent of the Holy Ghost upon the apostles: in the primitive church, the newly-baptized persons, or catechumens, used to wear white garments on Wrhi'sunday. This feast is movable, and sometimes falls in May and sometimes in June; but is always exactly seven weeks after Easter. Rogation week is the week before Whitsunday; it is said to have been first instituted by the bishop of Vienne in France, and called Rogation week upon account of the many extraordinary prayers and preparatory petitions made for the devotion of Holy Thursday for a blessing on the finits of the earth, and for averting the dismal effects of wvar and other evils. WICK(LIFFITES. The followers of John Wickliffl, a professor of divinity in the university of Oxford. He was the father of the Reformation of the English church fiom popery, being the first who opposed the authority of the pope, the jurisdiction of the bishops, and the temporalities of the church, in 1377. Wiclliffi was protected by John of Gaunt, Edward's son and Richard's uncle, yet virulently persecuted by the church. and rescued fiom martvrdomn by a paralytic attack, which caused his death, IDec. 31, 1384, in his 60th year.-Mloitiei;er. WlILDFIRE. An artificial fire, which burns ulnder water. Thle French call it fCte Grcrq'C Lois, because it was discovered by the Greeks. by whom it was first used, about A. D. 660. Its invention is ascribed to Callinicus of Heliopolis.-Nort. Dict. See article Greek Fire. 596 THE WORLI)DS PROGRESS. [ WIN WILKES' NUMlBER. The designation given to the 45th number of a paper styled the Noet/l Briton, published by John NWilkes, an alderlman of London., He commenced a papel warfare against the earl of Bute and his administration, and in this particular copy, printed April 23, 1768, made so free a use of royalty itself, that a general warrant was issued against him by the earl of Halifax, then secretary of state, and he was conimitted to the Tower. His warfare not only deprived him of liberty, but exposed him to two duels; but he obtained ~1,000 damages and full costs of suit for the illegal seizure of his papers. He further experienced the vengeance of the court of King's Bench, and both houses of parliament, for the libel, and for his obscene poem "An Essay on Woman;" and was expelled the commons and outlawed; he was, however, elected a fifth time for Middlesex in October 1774, and the same year served the office of lord mayor; but was overlooked in a subsequent general election, and died in 1797. WILLS, LAST, AND TESTAMENTS. Wills are of very high antiquity. See Ge.nesis, c. 48. Solon introduced theml at Athens, 578 B. c. There are many regulations respecting wills in the Koran. The Romans had this power, and so had the native Mexicans; so that it prevailed at least in three parts of the globe. Trebatius Testa, the civilian, was the first person who introduced codicils to wills at Rome, 31 B. c. The power of bequeathing lands by the last will or testament of the owner, was confirmed to English subjects, 1 Henry I., 1100; but with great restrictions and limitations respecting the feudal system; which were taken off by the statute of Henry VIII., 1541. —Blackstone's Comzeseentc'ries. The first will of a sovereign on record is stated (but in error) to be that of Richard II., 1399. Edward the Confessor made a will, 1066. WIND-MILLS. They are of great antiquity, and some writers state them to be of Roman invention; but certainly we are indebted for the wind-mill to the Saracens. They are said to have been originally introduced into Europe by the knights of St. John, who took the hint fiom what they had seen in the crusades.-Baker. Wind-mills were first known in Spain, France, and Germany, in 1299.-Anderson. Wind saw-mills were invented by a Dutchman, in 1633, when one was erected near the Strand, in London. WINDOWS. See Glass. There were windows in Pompeii, A. D. 79, as is evident from its ruins. It is certain that windows of some kind were glazed so early as the third century, if not before, though the fashion was not introduced until it was done by Bennet, A. D. 633. Windows of glass were -used in private houses, but the glass was imported 1177. —Anderson. In England about 6090 houses now have fifty windows and upwards in each; about 275:000 have ten windows ncld upwards; and 725,000 have seven windows, or less than seven. The window-tax was first enacted in order to defray the expense of and deficiency in the re-coinage of gold, 7 William III., 1695. WINDSOR CASTLE. A royal residence of the British sovereigns, originally built by William the Conqueror, but enlarged by Henry I. The mlonarchs who succeeded him likewise resided in it, till Edward III., who was born here, caused the old building, with the exception of' three towers at the west end, to be taken down, and re-erected the whole castle, under the direction of William of Wykeham. He likewise built St. George's chapel. Instead of alluring workmen by contracts and wages, Edward assessed every county in England to send him so many masons, tilers, and carpenters, as if he had been levying' an army. Several additions were made to this edifice by succeeding sovereigns; the last by George IV. WINES. The invention of wine is given to Noah.-AbbI Leag, let. The art of WIT ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 597 making wine from rice is ascribed by the Chinese to their king, Ching Noung, about 1998 B. c. — Uiiv. Hist. The art of making wine was brought from India by Bacchus, as other authorities have it. Hosea speaks of the wvine of Lebanon as being very ifagrant. — eosea, xiv. 7. Our Saviour changed water into wine at the marriage of Cana in Galilee.-Je/la ii. 3, 10.,, The conscious waters saw their God, and blush'd."-Addisos. No wine was produced in France inll the time of the Romans.-Bossalet. Spirits of wine were known to the alchymists.-Idemn. Concerning the acquaintance which our progenitors had with wine, it has been conjectured that the Phoenicians might possibly have introduced a small quantity of it; but this liquor was very little known in our island before it was conquered by the Romans. Wine was sold in England by apothecaries as a cordial in A. D. 1300, and so continued for some time after, although there is mention of " wine for the king " so early as 1249; and we are even sent to a much earlier period for its introduction and use in Britain. In 1400 the price was twelve shillings the pipe A hundred and fifty butts and pipes condemned for being adulterated, were staved and emptied into the channels of the streets by Rainwell, mayor of London, in the 6th of Henry VI., 1427. -Stolwe's CAroe. The first importation of claret wine into Ireland was on June 17, 1490. The first act for licensing sellers of wine in England passed April 25, 1661. In 1800 England imported 3,307,460 gallons of all kinds of wine. In 1815, the United Kingdom imported 4.306,6528 gallons. In 1830 were imported 6.879,558 gallons; and in the year ending Jan. 5, 1840,- were imported 9,909,056 gallons, of which 7,000,486 were for home consumption. -Pail. Ret. WIRE. The invention of drawing wire is ascribed to Rodolph of Nuremberg, A. D. 1410. Mills for this purpose were first set up at Nuremb erg in 1563. The first wire-mill in England was erected at Mortlake in 663.-Mor-liszer. The astonishing ductility which is one of the distinguishing qualities of gold, is no way more conspicuous than in gilt wire. A cylinder of' 48 ounces of silver, covered with a coat of gold weighing only one ounce, is usually drawn into a wire two yards of which only weigh one grain; so that 98 yards of the wire weigh no more than 49 grains, and one single grain of gold covers the whole 98 yards; and the thousandth part of a grain is above one-eighth of an inch long. —Hallefy. Eight grains of gold covering a cylinder of silver are comimonly drawn into a wire 13,000 feet long; yet so perfectly does it cover the silver, that ever a microscope does not discover any appearance of the silver underneath.-Boyle. WIRTEMBERG. One of the most ancient states of Germany, and most populous for its extent. The dukes were Protestant until 1772, when the reigning prince became a Catholic. Wirtemberg has been repeatedly traversed by hostile armies, particularly since the revolution of France. Moreau made his celebrated retreat Oct. 23, 1796. The prince of Wirtemberg married the princess royal of England, daughter of George III., May 17, 1797. This state obtained new acquisitions in territory in 1802 and 1805. The elector assumed the title of king Dec. 12, 1805, and was proclaimed Jan. 1, 1806. His majesty, as an ally of France, lost the flower of his army in Russia, in 1812. The kingdom obtained a free constitution in 1819. The king granted liberty of the press, March 2, 1848. WISCONSIN. One of the western United States was organized out of the North West Territory, and received a territorial government in 1836; admitted into the Union as a state Feb. 9, 1847. Population in 1830,.30,945: clhiefly emigrants from the northern and middle states. WITCHCRAFT. The punishment of witchcraft was first countenanced by the 598 THE WVORLD7S PROGRESS. [ WIT church of Rome; and persons suspected of the crime have been subjected to the most cruel and unrelenting punishments. In tens of thousands of cases, the victims, often innocent, were burnt alive, while others wei0 drowned by the test applied; for if, on being thrown into a pond, they did not sink. they were presumed witches, and either killed on the spot, or reserved for burning at the stake. Five hundred witches were burnt in Geneva, in three months, in 1515. One thousand were burnt in the diocese of Conmo in a year. An incredible number in France. about 1520, when one sorcerer confessed to having 1200 associates. Nine hundred were burnt in Lorraine, between 1580 and 1595. One hundred and fifty-seven were burnt at Wurtzburg, between 1627 and 1629, old and young, clerical, learned. and ignorant. At Lindheim, thirty were burnt in four years, out of a popu.tdtili of 600; and more than 100,000 perished, mostly by the flames, in Germany. Grandier, the parish priest of Loudun, was burnt on a charge of having bewitched a whole convent of nuns,. 1634. In Bretagne, twenty poor women were put to death as witches, 1654.' Disturbances commenced on charges of witchcraft in Massachusetts, 1648-9; and persecutions raged dreadfully in Pennsylvania in 1683. Maria Renata was burnt at Wurtzburg in 1749. At Kalisk, in Poland, nine old women were charged with having bewitched, and rendered unfruitful, the lands belonging to that palatinate, and were burnt Jan. 17, 17, 1775.-A1 eg. Rego. Five women were condemned to death by the Bramins, at Patna, for sorcery, and executed Dec. 16, 1802.-I-dee.:TCHCRAFT AND CONJURATIO N N ENGLAND. Absurd and wicked laws were in force against them in Great Britain in former times, by which death was the punishment, and thousands of persons suffered both by the public executioners and the hands of the people. A statute was enacted declaring all witchcraft and sorcery to be felony without benefit of clergy, 33 Henry VIII., 1511. Again, 5 Elizabeth, 1562, and 1 James. 1603. Barrington estimates the judicial maurders for witchcraft in England in 200 yearls at 30:000. The English condemned and burnt the beautifll and heroic Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans, as a sorceress, A. D. 1431. See Jean o2f Arc. Sir Matthew Hale burnt two persons for witchcraft in 1664. Three thousand were executed in England under the long parliamlent. lNorthamptonshire and Huntingdon preserved the superstition about witchcraft later than any other counties. Two pretended witches were executed at Northampton in 1705, while'he Spectcator was in course of publication in London, and five others sevel: years afterwards. In 1716, Mrs. Hicks and her daughter, aged nine, were hanged at Huntingdon. In Scotland, thousands of persons were burnt in the period of about a hundred years. Among the victims were persons of the highest rank, while all orders in the state concurred. James I. even caused a whole assize to be prosecuted for an acquittal. This king published his Dialo-sues of Dmmoeolog-ie first in Edinburgh, and afterwards in London.* The last sufferer in Scotland was in 1722, at Dornoch. The laws All persons at court who sought the favor of James, praised his DaZ?72onoloie*; and paliarlent. to flatter him, made its twelfth law against witchcraft in 1603. By this statute death wad inflicted on sorcerers in these words: "If any person shall use any invocation or conjuration of any evil or wicked spirit-shall entertain, employ, feed, or reward any evil or cursed spirit-take up any dead body to employ in witchcraft, sorcery, or enchantment-or shall practise, or shall exor cise, any sort of witchcraft, sorcery, &c., whereby any person shall be killed, wasted, consumed pined, or lamed." This being the law of theb land, no person presumed to doubt thel existence ot N, itchleraft; hence Shahkspeare gave countenance to the error, and the learned bishop Hall mentions a place where, he said. there were more witches than houses. Allaying of ghosts, driving out evfi spirits, and abjuring witches became in consequence, for a century, a profitable employmnent to the clergy of all denoninations. Witch-finders existed, too, as public officers; and, besides the public executions, which disgraced every assizes, multitudes of accused were destroyed by popular re. sentment,-Phillips. WOO ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 599 against witchcraft had lain dormant for many years, when an ignorant person, attempting to revive them, by finding a bill against a pool' old womrlan in Surrey for the practice of witchcraft, they were repealed, 10 George II., 1736. — te r's Abridg'ment. WITENA-MOT, onR WITENA-GEMOT. Among our Saxon a'ncestors, this was the term which was applied to their deliberations, and which literally signified the assembling of the wise men in the great council of tie nation. A witena-mot was called in London, A. D. 833, to consllt on the proper means to repel the Danes. This name was dropped about the period of the Norman conquest, and that of parliament adopted. See Pa liaelmeat. WVOLVES. These animals were very numerous in England. Their heads were demanded as a tribute, particularly 300 yearly fromi Wales, by king Edgar, A. D. 961, by which step they were totally destroyed.-Ca'rte. Edward I. issued his mandate for the destruction of wolves in several counties of England, A. D. 1289. Ireland was infested by wolves for mawy centuries after their extirpation in England; for there are accounts of some being found there so late as 1710, when the last presentment for killing wolves was made in the county of Cork. Wolves still infest France, in which kingdom 834 wolves and cubs were killed in 1828-9. Wheu wolves cross a river, they follow one another directly in a line, the second holding the tail of the first in its mouth, the third that of the second, and so of the rest. This figure was, on this account, chosen by the Greeks to denote the year, composed of twelve months following one another, which they denominated Lycabas, that is, the march of the wolves.-Abbe Pulchce. WOMIAN. Among the ancient Greeks and Romans, women seem to have been considered merely as objects of sensuality and domestic convenience, and were commonly devoted to seclusion and obscurity; it was not until the northern nations had settled themselves in the provinces of the Roman empire that the female character assumed new consequence. They brought with them the respectful gallantry of the North, and a complaisance towards females which inspired generous sentiments hitherto little known to the polished nations of antiquity, and which ultimately led to the institution of chivalry. England is called the paradise of women; Spain, theirpurgatory; and Turkey, their hell. The following lines beautifully describe Adam's first sight of Eve: " Ile laid him down and slept-and from his side A woman in her magic beauty rose; Dazzled and charmed, he called that woman' bride.' And his first sleep became his last repose."-Besser, tranc!ated by Bowrissg. The following distinguished men, though married, were unhappy in that state: Arist tle, Socrates, Pittacus, Periander, Euripides, and Aristophanes. Among the moderns: Boccaccio, Dante, Milton, Steele, Addison, Dryden, Molidre, Racine, Sterne, Garrick, and lord Bacon.-ZWomane; as slhe is, andel as she sleoulld be. Among the most beautiful eulogies on woman is the following, addressed to a lovely Italian nun by an English nobleman: "Die when you will, you need not wear, At heaven's court, a form more fair Than beauty at your birth has given; Keep but the lips, the eyes we see, The voice we hear, and you will be An angel ready-made fbr heaven!"-Lord Herbert. WOOD-CUTS, oR WOOD-ENGRAVING. See article Eigre'avieg oat Wood. The invention is ascribed by some to a gun-smith of Florence; by others, to Reuss, a German, A.D. 1460; but it has an earlier origin, as shown in the article referred to. Brought to perfection by Durer and Lucas. Brought 600 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ Won to great perfection by Bewrick, Nesbett, Anderson, &c., in 1789-1799; and more recently by Cruikshank, and others. WOOL. Dr. Anderson, in a memorial subjoined to the " Report of the Committee of the Highland Society," proves, from indisputable records, that from the earliest times down to the reign of queen Elizabeth, the wool of Great Britain was not only superior to that of Spain, but accounted the finest in the universe; and that even in the times of the Romans, a manufacture of wroollen cloths was established at Winchester for the use of' the emperors. In later times, wool was manufactured in England, and is mentioned in A. D. 1185, but not in any quantity until 1331, when the weaving of it was introduced by John Kempe and other artisans from Flanders. This was the real origin of the English wool manufactures, Edward III., 1331.RyZner's -Fede'a. The exportation prohibited, 1337. The exportation of English wool, and the importation of Irish wool into England, prohibited, 1696. The non-exportation law repealed, 1824. WOOLLEN CLOTH. The manufacture of cloth was known, it is supposed, in all civilized countries, and in very remote ages, and probably of linen also. Woollen cloths were made an article of commerce in the time of Julius Cmsar, and are familiarly alluded to by him. They were made in England before A. D. 1200, and the manufacture became extensive in the reign of Edward III., 1331. They were then called Kendal cloth, and Halifax cloth. See preceding article. Blankets were first made in England about A. D. 1340.Camden. No cloth but of Wales or Ireland to be imported into England, 1463. The art of dyeing brought into England, 1608. See article Dyeibg. Medleys, or mixed broad-cloth, first made, 1614. Manufacture of fine cloth begun at Sedan, in France, under the patronage of cardinal Mazarine, 1646. British and Irish woollens prohibited in France, 1677. All persons obliged to be buried in woollen, or the persons directing the burial otherwise to forfeit 51., 29 Charles II., 1678. The manufacture of cloth greatly improved in England by Flemish settlers, 1688. Injudiciously restrained in Ireland, 11 William III., 1698. The exportation from Ireland wholly prohibited, except to certain ports of England, 1701. English manufacture encouraged by 10 Anne, 1712, and 2 George 1., 1715. Greater in Yorkshire in 1785, than in all England at the Revolution.- Calmncers. QUANT.TY AND DECLARED VALUE OF CLOTHS EXPORTED FROM GREAT BRITAIN IN THE FOLLOWVING YEARS:Quantity. 1800. 1825. 1830. 18:0. Pieces - 1,022,838 1,741,983 1,747,036 2,143,796 Yards - - 4,213,677 7,798,610 5,561.877 8,170,642 Declared value.~3,914,661 ~6,194,926 ~4,608,592 35,921,116 WORCESTER, BATTLE o,; in the Civil War, fought between the Royalist army and the forces of the parliament, the latter comnlancled by Cromwell. A large body of Scots had lllarched into England with a view to reinstate Charles II., but Cromwell signally defeated them; the streets of the city were strewed with the dead, the whole Scots army having been either killed or taken prisoners. This famous battle afforded Cromwell what le called his crownin~,g c.ecyJ. Charles with difficulty escaped to France. Of 8000 prisoners, most were sent to bond-service in the American colonies. Septembct 3, 1651. WORLD. According to Julius Afiricanus, as quoted by Gibbon, the world was created September 1, 5508 3. c. Most chronologers, however, mention the year 4004 B. c. as the period of its first existence. The Jews celebrate the 19th of Septemnber as the day of the creation, and some suppose that it was created in spring. Its globular form was first suggested by Thales of Miletus, about 640 B. c. The first geoglaphical table and map of the world was WOR ] DICTIONARY OF )LT'rES. 601 made by Anaximander, about 560 a. c.-Pliny. Discoveries of Pythagoras and his system, about 539 a. c. —S'anley. The magnitude of the earth calculated by Eratosthenes, 240 B. c. The system of Copernicus promulgated, A. D. 1530. Map of the world on Mercator's projection, in which the earth is taken as a plane, 1556. The notion of the magnetism of the earth started by Gilberd, 1583. Magnitude of the earth determined by Picart, 1669. WVORMS, DIET OF. The celebrated imperial diet before which Martin Luther was summoned, April 4, 1521, and by which he was proscribed. Luther was met by 2000 persons on foot and on horseback, at the distance of' a league from Worms. Such was his conviction of the justice of his cause, that when Spalatin sent a messenger to warn him of his danger, he answered, " If there were as many devils in Worms as there are tiles upon the roofs of its houses, I would go on." Before the emperor, the archduke Ferdinand, six electors, twenty-four dukes, seven margraves, thirty bishops and prelates, and many princes, counts, lords, and ambassadors, Luther appeared, April 17th, in the imperial diet, acknowledged all his writings and opinions, and left Worms, in fact, a conqueror. But Frederick the Wise advised him to seclude himself to save his life, which he did for about ten months, and his triumph was afterwards complete. WTORSHIP. Athotes, son of Menes, king of Upper Egypt, is said to have been the author of religious worship: he is supposed to be the Copt of the Egyptians, and the Toth or Hermes of the Greeks; the Mercucry of the Latins, and the Teubtates of the Celts or Gauls, 2112 B. c.- Usher. Religious worship had an origin in most tribes and nations, in their ignorance of the causes of natural phenomena. Benefits were ascribed to a good spirit, and evils to a bad one. This primary idea was enlarged and diversified by dreaming during imperfect sleep, or thinking while the volition was torpid, and by illusions of the senses, which led to belief in ghosts, signs, and omens, and these causes were augmented by enthusiasts.-P/billips. In all nations, whether civilized or barbarous, worship prevails, but is purest in Protestant states.-Sherlock. WORSHIP IN ENGLAND. In England were many forms of worship at the period of the Roman invasion. The first Saxons were idolaters, and dedicated to their gods groves of the tallest trees and thickest forests, and there worshipped them without building any temples to them, or representing them by any figures or images. Our days of the week are named after Saxon divinities-the Sun, Moon, Tuesco, Woden, Thor, Friga, and Saturn. Easter is named from their goddess Eostre; and Christmas was from their great festival Geoli. Faul, or Fola, was their dreaded enemy; and they believed in elves and fairies, sorcery and witchcraft. The Saxon religion was afterwards mingled with the Christian; but the former was in time wholly superseded by the latter, and in the end, the Reformation introduced our present pure and simple mode of worship. In Scotland, the benign influence of the Reformation soon put aside all other forms. The following is a remarkable document, given in M'Crie's Life of Jo/rn K7nox, (Blackwood, Edinburgh, 1831,) relating to the removal of images from Catholic places of worship in Scotland, at the period of the Reformation:" To our traistfriendis, the Lairds of Am?- and so cominittis yozo to the lprotection of tilly and Kiinvaid. God. Front Edinburgh, the xii of Au.gust, "I Traistfriends, after Woaist harty corn. 1560. o2nendaciooe, woe pray you faill not to pass Faill not, hot ze tak guid heyd that neiincontirnent to the hyrk' of Dunkceld, and tak ther the dasks, windocks, nor dulris, be ony dozen the haill inaoges thereof, and bring ways hurt or broken-either glassin wark furth to the kyrkizard, and burns thaym op- or iron wark. pinly. And siclylc cast down the altaris, "AR. ERGYLL, and purge the kyrk of all kynd of m7osou-'JAMES STEWART ments of idolatrye. Anod this ye faill not to "RUTHVEN.'" do, as ze will do us singulear enmpleseur; 26 602 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ WR, WORSTED. A species of woollen fabric, being spun wool, which obtained its name from having been first spun in a town called Worsted, in Norfolk, in which the inventor lived, and where manufactures of worsted are still extensively carried on, 14 Edward III., 1340. —Anderson. Worsted-stocking knave is a term of reproach or contempt used by Shakspeare. WRECKS oF SHIPPING. The wreckers of Cornwall are the inhabitants of a few parishes, on the rocky coast, between Mount's Bay and the Lizarid. When a wreck takes place, thousands assemble with axes, hatchets, crowbars, &c.; and many women and children fight, by habit, for the plunder, utterly regardless of the sufferers. —Phillips. The loss of merchant and other ships by wreck upon lee-shores, coasts, and lisasters in the open se., was estimated at Lloyd's, in 1800, to be about an average of 365 ships a year. In 1830, it appeared by Lloyd:s List, that 677 British vessels were totally lost, under various circumstances, in that year. The annual loss varies; but it is always many hundreds. SOME OF THIE MOST REMARKABLE SHIPWRECIKS. Of the Tl.lhunderer, 74 guns; Stirling days afterwards, and has never since Castle, 64; Phcezix, 44; La Blancihe, been heard of - March 13, 1811 42; Laurel, 28; Asndromteda, 28; Of the Peacock, one of the United States Deal Castle, 24; Scasrborough, 20; exploring expedition, at the mouth Barbadoes, 14; Cameleon, 14;.En- of the Columbia river, Oregon, middeavour, 14; and Victor, 10 guns; day and smooth water - July 18, 1841 British vessels of war, all lost in the Of the Mlissouri United States steamsame storm, in the West Indies, in fiigate, by fire, at Gibraltar, Aug. 27, 1843 October, 1780 Of the United States schooner Shalrk, Of the Royal George, Capsized in Ports- wreckled at same place - Sept. 10, 1816 mouth harbor, England, when 1,000 Of the Great Brfitais iron steam-ship. persons perished - June 28, 1782 This stupendous vessel grounded in Of the steamer Home, from New York Dundrum bay, on the east coast of to Charleston; 100 lives lost, Oct. 9, 1837 Ireland - - Sept. 22, 1846 Of the Fosus:farshire steamer, from Iull Of the United States sloop of war Bosto Dundee; 38 persons drowned. ton, on the Bahamas - Nov. 16, 18'4a Owing to the courage of Grace Dar- Of the United States brig Somners, capling and her father, 15 persons were sized in a squall, off Vera Cruz; 39 saved. See JFofarshire - Sept. 5, 1838 drowned - - Dec. 8, 1846 Of the Pennsylvania, Osforad, and St. Of the West India mail packet Tweeed; Asldrewo, packet ships, in a great gale about 90 souls perished - Feb. 19, 1847 off Liverpool - - Jan. 6, 1839 Of the ship Ocean Monarch, of Boston, Of the Poland from New York to burnt near Liverpool; 170 lives lost, Havre, struck by lightning, May 16, 1840 Aug. 24, 1848 Of the President steamer, from New Of the barque Charles Bartlett, run York to Liverpool, with fifty pas- down at sea by steamer Europa; 134 sengers on board; sailed on March lives lost - - June 27, 1849 11, encountered a terrific storm two See Fires, and Steam Vessels. It is estimated at Lloyd's that about 170 British registered vessels are annually lost; 360 are annually rendered unfit for service; and 1100 experience serious damage, requiring extensive repairs, exclusively of the ordinary wear and tear. WRITING. Pictures were undoubtedly the first essay towards writing. The most ancient remains of writing which have been transmitted to us are upon hard substances, such as stones and metals, used by the ancients for edicts and matters of public notoriety. Athotes, or Hermes, is said to have written a history of the Egyptians, and to have been the author of hieroglyphics, 2112 B. c.-Usher. Writing is said to have been taught to the Latins by Europa, daughter of Agenor, king of Phoenicia, 1494 n. c.-TThucydides. Cadimus, the founder of Cadmea, 1493 B. c., brought the Phoenician letters into Greece.- Vossiscs. The commandments were written on two tables of stone, 1491 B. c.- Usher. The Greeks and Romans used waxed table-books, and continued the use of them long after papyrus was known. See Papyrls, Par'chmesnt, Pacper. "I would check the petty vanity of those who slight good penmanship, as below the notice of a scholar, b3 reminding XER,! DICTIONARY OF DATES. 603 them that Mr. Fox was distinguished by the clearness and firmness, Mr. professor Porson by the correctness and elegance, and sir William Jones by the ease and beauty, of the characters they respectively employed."-DE. PARR. X. XANTHUS. SIEGE OF, by the Romans under Brutus. After a great struggle, and the endurance of great privations, the inhabitants, being no longer able to sustain themselves against the enemy, and determined not to survive the loss of their liberty, set fire to their city, destroyed their wives and children, and then themselves perished in the conflagration. The conqueror wished to spare them, but though he offered rewards to his soldiers if they brought any of the Xanthians alive into his presence, only 150 were saved, much against their will; 42 B. c.-Plutar-h,. XENOPHON, RETREAT OF. Xenophon surnamed the Attic Muse, led in the memorable retreat of the Greeks, one of the most celebrated events in ancient history. The Greeks were mercenaries of the younger Cyrus, after whose defeat and ftll at the battle of Cunaxa, they were obliged to retreat; but Xenophon kept them in a compact body, and retreated through Asia into Thrace. The Greeks proceeded through various fierce and barbarous nations, surmounted all the obstacles and dangers that arose at every step, and accomplished their arduous enterprise, after repeated triumphs over toils, fraud, and force. This retreat is esteemed the boldest and best-conducted exploit on record; 401 B. c. — Vos.si,3s. XERXES' CAMPAIGN iN GREECE. Xerxes entered Greece in the spring of 480 B. c. with an army, which, together with the numerous retinue of servants, eunuchs, and women that attended it, amounted, according to some historians, to 5,283,220 souls. But Herodotus states the armament to have cctsisted of 3000 sail, conveying 1,700,000 foot, besides cavalry, and the mariners, and attendants of the camp. This multitude was stopped at Thermopyla, by the valor of 300 Spartans under Leonidas. Xerxes, astonished that such a handful of men should oppose his progress, ordered some of his soldiers to bring them alive into his presence; but for three successive days the most valiant of the Persian troops were defeated, and the courage of the Spartans might perhaps have triumphed longer if a base Trachinian, named Ephialtes, had not led a detachment to the top of the mountain, and suddenly fallen upon the devoted band. The battle of Therllopylea (which see) was the beginning of the disgrace of Xerxes, Aug. 7, 480 B. c. The more he advanced, the more he experienced new disasters. His fleet was defeated at Artemisium and Salamis, and he hastened back to Persia, leaving Mardonius, the best of his generals, behind, with an army of 300,000 men. The rest that had survived the ravages of war, famine, and pestilence, followed Xerxes on his route home. XERXES' BRIDGE. The famous bridge of Xer'xes across the Hellespont, the strait which joins the Archipelago and the sea of Marnlora. It was formed by connecting together ships of different hinds, some long vessels of fifty oars, others three-banked galleys, to the number of 360 on the side towards the sea, and 318 on that of the Archipelago; the former were placed transversely, but the latter, to diminish the strain on their cables, in the direction of the current, all secured by anchors and cables of great strength. On extended cables between the lines of shipping were laid fastbound rafters, over these a layer of unwrought wood, and over the latter was thrown eartlh: on each side was a fence, to prevent the horses and 604 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [LYA beasts of burthen from being terrified by the sea, in the passage from shore to shore. This wonderful work was completed, it is said, in one week, 480 B. C. Y. YEAR. The Egyptians, it is said, were the first who fixed the length of the year. The Roman year was introduced by Romulus 738 B. C.; and it' as corrected by Numa 713 B. c., and again by Julius Caesar, 45 B. C. See Calendar. The solar or astronomical year was found to comprise 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 51 seconds and 6 decimals, 265 B. c. The siderial year, or return of the same star, is 365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes, and 11 seconds. A consi;lerable variation prevailed generally among the nations of antiquity, and still partially prevails, with regard to the commencement of the year. The Jews dated the beginning of the sacred year in the month of March; the Athenians in the month of June; the Macedonians on the 24th Sept.; the Christians of Egypt and Ethiopia on the 29th or 30th of August; and the Persians and Armenians on the 11th of that month. Nearly all the nations of the Christian world now commence the year on the 1st of January. Charles IX. of France, in 1654, published an arrat, the last article of which ordered the year for the time to come to be constantly and universally begun, and writfen on and from January 1. See New Style, &c. YEAR, LUNAR. This is the space of time which comprehends twelve lunar months, or 454 days, 8 hours, 48 minutes, and was in use among the Chaldeans, Persians, and ancient Jews. Once in every three years was added another lunar month, so as to make the solar and lunar year nearly agree. But though the months were lunar, the year was solar; that is, the first month was of thirty days, and the second of twenty-nine, and so alternately; and the month added triennially was called the second Adar. The Jews afterwards followed the Roman manner of computation. YEAR or OUR LORD. The first sovereign who adopted this distinction was Charles III., emperor of Germany: he added " In the year of our Lord " to his reign, A. D. 879. It was followed by the French kings, and afterwards by the English; and is the mode of designating the year from the birth of the Redeemer in all Christian countries. See Eras. YEAR, PLATONIC. The doctrine of the Platonic year was believed among the Chaldeans, and in the earliest ages. It is that space of time at the end whereof all the planets are to return to the same point from whence they set out, and have the same aspects and configurations one upon another. Some affirm this return to be in 15,000 common years, others in 36,000. The ancient heathens were of opinion, that when this period was completed, the world would be renewed again, and the departed souls re-enter their bodies and go through a second course of being. EAR, SABBATICAL. This was every seventh year, among the Jews. In this year the people were enjoined by the law to let the ground lie fallow and have rest. Every seventh Sabbatical year, or every forty-ninth year was called the JUBILEE YEAR, when was joy and rejoicing; all debts were forgian-n. and slaves set at liberty, and it was usual to return to the original families all estates and property that had been sold or mortgaged.-Hist. Jews. EAR, SIBBEIAN, AND IN LAPLAND. The year in the northern regions of Siberia and Lapland, is described in the following calendar, as given by a recent traveller:June 23, Snow melts. July 25, Plants in flower. July 1, Snow gone. Aug. 2, Fruits ripe. July 9, Field quite green. I Aug. 10, Plants shed their seed. July 17, Plants at full growth. Aug. 18, Snow. OR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 605 The snow then continues upon the ground for about ten months, from August 18th of one year, to June 23d of the year following, being 309 dlays out of 365; so that while the three seasons of spring, summer, and autumn, are together only fifty six days, or eight weeks, the winter is of forty-four weeks' duration in these countries. YEAR AND A DAY. A space of time, in law, that in many cases establishes and fixes a right, as in an estray, on proclamation being made, if the owner does not claim it within the time, it is forfeited. The term arose in the Norman law, which enacted that a beast found on another's land, if unclaimed for a year and a day, belonged to the lord of the soil. It is otherwise a legal space of time. YELLOW FEVER, THE, visited the city of New York in the years 1741, 1742, 1791, 1795, 1795, 1798, 179 1799, 1800, 1803, 1180, and 1822. The deaths by that disease were as follows: 732 in 1795; 2086 in 1798 (population, 55,000); 670 in 1803; 280 in 1805; 23 in 1819;.366 in 1822. In 1805, 37,000 of the inhabitants (out of 76,000, the whole population) fled from the city. In 1804, 40 persons died with it at Brooklyn, but New York escaped. Philadelphia was nearly desolated by it in 1793, and again in 1798. 4041 persons died in 1793, and 17,000 fled from the city (population, 50,000). In 1798, the mortality was great, and 50;000, out of 70,000 inhabitants, fled. Several thousand died, and the greatest number of deaths in one day was 117. Baltimore suffered from this disease in 1798, 1819, and 1821. New Orleans and Havana have it annually. In several of the islands of the West Indies in 1732, 1739, and 1745. It broke out in Spain in Sept. 1803. The yellow fever was very violent. at Gibraltar in 1804 and 1814; in the Mau'ritius, July 1815; at Antigua, in Sept. 1816; and it raged with dreadful consequences at Cadiz, and the Isle of St. Leon, in Sept. 1819. The yellow fever rages more or less every year or two at Charleston, New Orleans, and other southern cities of the United States. It first appeared at Rio Janeiro in 1849-50, where it proved fatal to many thousands. YOKE. The ceremony of making prisoners pass under it, was first practised by the Samnites towards the Romnans, 321 B. c. This disgrace was afterwards inflicted by the Romans upon their vanquished enaenies.-AbbU Le'nglet, DufJiesnoy. YORK. The Eboracum of the Romans, and one of the most ancient cities of England. Here Severus held an imperial court, A. D. 207; and here also Constantius kept a court, and his son Constantine the Great was born, in 274. York was burnt by the Danes, and all the Normans slain, 1069. York received its charter from Richard II., and the city is the only one in the British kingdoms, besides London and Dublin, to whose mayors the prefix of lo~rd has been granted. YORK. AacnmsnHOPRIC OF, the most ancient metropolitan see in England, being, it is said, so made by king Lucius, about A. D. 180, when Christianity was first, although partially, established in England. But this establishment was overturned by the Saxons driving out the Britons. When the former were converted, pope Gregory determined that the same dignity should be restored to York, and Paulinus was made archbishop of this see, about A. D. 622. York and Durham were the only two sees in the north of England for a large space of time, until Henly I. erected a bishopric at Carlisle, and Henry VIII. another at Cllester. York was the metropolitan see of the Scottish bishops; but during the time of archbishop Nevil, 1464, they withdrew their obedience, and had archbishops of their own. Much dispute arose between the two English metropolitans about precedency, as, by pope Gregory's institutions, it was thought he meant, that which ever of them was 606 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ZAN first confirmed, should be superior; appeal was made to the court of Rome by both parties, and it was determined in favor of Canterbury; but York was allowed to style himself primate of England, while Canterbury styles himself primate of all England. York has yielded to the church of Rome eight saints, and three cardinals; and to the civil state of England, twelve lord chancellors, two lord treasurers, and two lord presidents of the north. It is rated in the king's books, 39 Henry VIII., 1546, at 16091. 19s. 2d. per annum.-Beatson. YORK CATHEDRAL, ENGLAND. This majestic fabric was erected at different periods, and on the site of former buildings, which have again and again been destroyed by fire. The first Christian church erected here, which appears to have been preceded by a Roman temple, was built by Edwin, king of Northumbria, about the year 630. It was burnt for the third time in 1137, along with St. Mary's Abby, and 39 parish churches in York. Archbishop Roger began to build the choir in 1171, but it was by many hands, and with the contributions of many families, and of multitudes who were promised indulgences for their liberality, that this magnificent fabric was completed, about 1361. It was set on fire by Jonathan Martin, a lunatic, and the roof of the choir and its internal fittings destroyed, Feb. 2, 1829; the damage estimated at 60,0001., was repaired in 1832. YORK AND LANCASTER, WARS OF THE HOUSES oF. The first battle between these houses was that of St. Albans, fought May-22., 1455. The last was that of Tewkesbury, fought May 4, 1471. In these battles the Yorkists, or Whilte Roses, were victorious against the house of Lancaster, or the Ped Roses. But in the sixteen years between these two dates, more than thirty great battles were fought with different success, and half' the country was depopulated, and nearly the whole of the nobility exterminated. See Roses. YORKTOWN. A village in Virginia, memorable for the surrender of the British army under lord Cornwallis, consisting of 7000 men, to the Americans and their allies under Washington and count Rochambeau, Oct. 19, 1781. This event decided the contest for independence in favor of the Americans. YUCATAN, adopted a constitution as a republic (having declared its independence of. Mexico), May 16, 1841. Z. ZAMA, BATTLE OF, between the two greatest commanders in the world at the time, Hannibal and Scipio Africanus. It was won by Scipio, and was decisive of the fate of Carthage; it led to an ignominious peace which was granted the year after, and closed the second Punic war. The Romans lost but 2000 killed and wounded, while the Carthaginians lost, in killed and prisoners, more than 40,000; some historians make the loss greater; s. c. 202. ZANTE. This island, with the rest of the islands now forming the Ionian republic, was subject to Venice prior to the French Revolution; but the whole group were ceded to France by the treaty of Campo Forntio (which see), October 17, 1797. They were taken by a Russian and Turkish fleet, and were erected into an independent republic by the name of the Seven Islands, in 1799. They fell into different hands in the course of the succeeding year, and were surrendered to the French by the Russians, together with Ragusa. August 14, 1807. They submitted to the British army, October 3, 1809. In the arrangements at the congress of Vienna, in 1815, they were put: under the protection of Great Britain. The treaty was ratified. ZIN ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 607 Paris for that purpose, between Great Britain and Russia, November 5, 1815. The new constitution was ratified by the prince regent, February 22, 1817. ZANZALEENS. This sect rose in Syria, under Zanzalee. A. D. 535; he taught that water by baptism was of no efficacy, and that it was necessary to be baptized with fire, by the application of'a red-hot iron. The sect was at one time very numerous.-Ashe. ZE, ZOW, ZIERES. For ye, yo;u, and yours. The letter z was retained in Scotland, and was commonly written, for the letter y, so late as the reign of queen Mary, up to which period many books in the Scottish language were printed in Edinburgh with these words, A. D. 1543. ZEALAND, NEW, IN THE PACIFIC. Discovered by Tasman in 1642. He traversed the eastern coast, and entered a strait where, being attacked by the natives soon after he came to anchor, he did not go ashore. From the time of Tasman, the whole country, except that part of the coast which was seen by him, remained altogether unknown, and was by many supposed to make part of a southern continent, till 1770. when it was circumnavigated by captain Cook, who found it to consist of two large islands, separated by the strait. The introduction of potatoes into New Zealand has saved many lives, for the natives give this root a decided preference to human flesh, under every circumstance, except that of wreaking vengeance on a chief of the foe whom they have taken in battle. Captain Cook, in 1773, planted several spots of ground on this island with European garden-seeds; and in 1777, he found a few fine potatoes, greatly improved by change of soil. ZELA, BATTLE OF, in which Julius Csesar defeated Pharnaces, king of Pontus, son of Mithridates. Cqesar, in announcing this victory, sent his famous dispatch to the senate of Romne, in three words: " Veri, vidi, vici" —"I came, I saw, I conquered," so rapidly and easily was his triumph obtained. This battle concluded the war; Pharnaces escaped into Bosphorus, where he was slain by his lieutenant, Asander; and Pontus was made a przvince of Rome, and Bosphorus given to Mithridates of Pergamus, 47 B. c.Suie. Cezs. ZELICHOW, BATTLE OF, between the Polish and Russian armies, one of the most desperate and bloody battles fought by the Poles in their late struggle for the freedom of their country. The Russians, who were commanded by general Diebitch, were defeated, losing 12,000 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners; and Diebitch narrowly escaped being taken in the pursuit of his flying army, April 6, 1831. ZENO, SECT o?! founded by Zeno. This sect also took the name of Stoic, from a public portico, so called, from which the philosopher delivered his harangues. It was the most famous portico in Athens, and was called by way of eminence, Eroax, the porch. See Stoics. In order to form his own school of philosophy, and to collect materials for a new system, Zeno had attended the schools of various masters, and among others he offered himself as a disciple of Polemo. This philosopher, aware of Zeno's object, said, " I am no stranger, Zeno, to your Phoenician arts. I perceive that your design is to creep slily into my garden, and steal away my fruit." He taught about 312 B. c. ZINC.' The discovery of this metal, so far as the fact is known, is due to the moderns. It is said to have been long known in China, however, and is noticed by European writers as early as A. D. 1231; though the method of extracting it from the ore was unknown for nearly five hundred years after. A mine of zinc wa's discovered on lord Ribbledale's estate, Craven, Yorkshire, in 1809. Zincography was introduced in London shortly after 608 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ZUR the invention of lithography became known in England, in 1817. See Litlhogrbaphy. ZODIAC. The obliquity of the zodiac was discovered, its twelve signs named, and their situations assigned them in the heavens, by Anaximander, about 560 B. c. The Greeks and Arabians borrowed the zodiac from the Hindoos, to whom it has been known from time immemorial.-,Sir Williamn Jones. The invention of geographical maps, and of sun-dials, belongs also to Anaximander.-Pliny. ZOE, REIGN or. This extraordinary woman, daughter of the emperor Constantine IX., married Romanus, who, in consequence, succeeded to the throne of the Eastern empire, A. D. 1028. Zoe, after intriguing with a Paphlagonian money-lender, caused her husband Romanus to be poisoned, and afterwards married her favorite, who ascended the throne under the name of Michael IV., 1034. Zoe adopted for her son Michael the Fifth, the trade of whose father (careening vessels) had procured him the surname of Calaphates, 1041. Zoe and her sister, Theodora, were made sole empresses by the populace; but after two months, Zoe, although she was sixty years of age, took for her third husband Constantine X., who succeeded to the empire in 1042. See Eastern Empire. ZOOLOGY. The animal kingdom was divided by Linnmus into six classes, viz: —MaZammalia, which includes all animals that suckle their young; Aves, or birds; Amphibia, or amphibious animals; Pisces, or fishes; Insecta, or insects; Vern'es, or worms; A. D. 1741. From this period the science of zoology has had many distinguished professors, the most illustrious of whom was the baron Cuvier, who died in Paris, May 13, 1832. The Zoological Gardens of London were opened in April 1827; the society was chartered March 27, 1829. ZUINGLIANS. The followers of Ulricus Zuinglius. This zealous reformer, while he officiated at Zurich, declaimed against the church of Rome and its indulgences, and effected the same separation for Switzerland from the papal dominion, which Luther had for Saxony. He procured two assemblies to be called; by the first he was authorized to proceed, and by the second the ceremonies of the Romish church were abolished, 1519. Zuinglius, who began as a preacher, died in arms as a soldier: he was slain in a skirmish against the Popish opponents of his reformed doctrines, in 1531. The reformers who adhered entirely to Zuinglius were called after his name and also Sacramentarians. ZURICH. It was admitted to be a member of the Swiss confederacy, of which this canton was made the head, A. D. 1351. Cession of Utznach, 1436. This was the first town in Switzerland that separated from the church of Rome, in consequence of the opposition given by Zuinglius to a Franciscan monk sent by Leo X., to publish indulgences here, 1519, et seq. A grave-digger of Zurich poisoned the sacramental wine, by which eight persons lost their lives, and many others were grievously injured, Sept. 4, 1776. The French were defeated here, losing 4000 men, June 4, 1799. The Imperialists were defeated by Massena, the former losing 20,000 men in killed and wounded, Sept. 24, 1799. See Switzerland. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY. [From the Companion to the British Almanac, with additions.] Tins following Chronological List of Authors is in extension of the Catalogue furnished in the Companiorn of 1831, differing from it by adding to the name of each author the title of his most important production, or some word expressive of the nature of his works. In order to show the various literary character of each age the catalogue is divided into three columns: the first containing those authors who have drawn chiefly from their own sources. as poets and novelists; the second those who Ireat on matters of fact, as history and geography; and the third. the philosophic and scientific writers. Where an author has written in different styles, his name will be found in the column to which his most distinguished productions appertain. The Hebrews having, almost without exception, treated on speculative subjects, the triple division does not extend to them. The dates of birth and death are appended to each name, where they could be ascertained. In other cases, the situation of the name will show nearly the time when each author has flourished. HEBREW. [The words in italics between parentheses are the familiar appellations of the preceding persons; they are formed from the first letters of each word composing their names. Fbor example, the Jews call Maimonides Rambasn, from the four initial letters of his full name, Rabbi Moses ben Maimon. J ~.m Tof, in like manner, is called Ritba, from the words Rabbi Yom Tof bar Abraham.]a B. C. B.. 1500 Moses, 1572-1452. 100 Nechoniah ben Halkkanah,'SenTler habPhinehas, supposed author of the book of bahir,' the illustrious book. The most Joshua. ancient of Rabbinical books. Cabbalistic. 1100 David, 1085-10815. Jonathan,' Targum,' or Chaldee paraphrase 1000 Solomon, 1033-975. of the Bible. 800 Jonah, d. 761. A. D. Amos. 0 Onkelos,'Targum.2 IIosea. Josephus, b. 35. Joel. 100 Akiba, d. 120. The Mishna has been inObadiah. correctly attributed to him. Micah. Shimeon ben Jochai (Rashbi). The' Zohar,' Isaiah, d. 681. a celebrated cabbalistic Commentary Nahum. on the Pentateuch is usually attributed 700 Habakkuk. to him, but was composed by his disZephaniah. ciples. Jeremiah. Jose ben Chilpheta,'A History of the 600 Baruch. World.' Ezekiel. Nathan of Babylon,' Pirke aboth,' the sayDaniel. ings of the fathers. Ethics. Zechariah. Eliezer,'Pirke Eliezer,' the sayings of Haggai. Eliezer, a History of the World. 500 Ezra. Judah Hakkadosh,' Mishna,' the oral tradiNehemiah, d. 430. tions of the Jews, which, with the Malachi. Gemara or Commentary, constitutes the 500 Jesus, son of Sirach. Babylonian Talmud. 26* 610 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. Raf, supposed author of the'Siphra,' a Moses Milkkotsi,'Great Book of Precepts,' commentary on Leviticus, and of the'Compendium of Talmud.''Siphre,' a commentary on Numbers Isaac ben Solomon, d. 1268.'Proverbs and and De)uteronomy. Fables.' 200 Ushaya,' Bereshith Rabba,' a Commentary Nissim, d. 1268.' Book of Homilies.' on the Mishna. Isaac ben Joseph, d. 1270.'Book of Precepts.' Author of the'Mechilta,' a Commentary Moses Aben Tybon, Translator of Matheon Exodus. matical and Philosophical works from Jochanan, Talmud of Jerusalem.' the Greek and Arabic. 300 Rabba bar Nachmon,' Rabboth,' Commen- Solomon ben Adras (Rashba), Theology. taries on the Bible. Meir, Meditations, on' Maimonides.' 400 Rabasha, began the' Gemara,' a Commen- Menachem Rekanat, d. 1290.' Reason for tary on the Mishna. the enactment of the Laws of Moses.' Martemar, continued the' Gemara.' Bechai,' Commentary on Pentateuch.' 500 Abina, completed the'Gemara.' 1300 Shimson, d. 1312.' Intro. to the Talmud.' 800 Simeon Hejara, Great decisions,' jurid. Isaac Israeli,'Foundation of the World,' Judah bar Nachman (Riban), Compendium History. of the preceding. Judah, son of Benjamin, Riital. 980 Saadis Gaon,' Philosopher's Stone,'' Book Mordechai,' Compendium of Talmud.' of Faith,''Grammar,' &c. Isaac Dura,' On Forbidden and Permitted Sherira,' The Book of Answers,' history. Food.' 1000 Samuel Haccohen, d. 1034. Aaron Ilaccohen,' The Way of Life.' Joseph Ching, Grammarian. Jerucham,' Book of Rectitude.' Judah Barzelloni,'Rights of Women,' ju- Jacob ben Asher,'The Four Orders,' a ridic. Ritual of much authority. Joseph ben Gorion (Ribag),' Compendium David Abudraham, astronomy. of Hebrew I-istory.' Levi ben Gerson (Ralbag), d. 1370.' Comn Moses Aben Ezra, d. 1080. Grammarian. mentary on the Law.' Isaac of Cordova, cl. 1094.' Chest of Spices.' Menachen Aben Serach, d. 1375. Ritual. 1100 Alphes, d. 1103.'Compendium of the Isaac ben Sheshat (Ribash),'Questions Talmud.' and Answers on Various Subjects.' Nathan, d. 1106.'Talmudic and Chaldee Moses Haccohen,' Help of Faith.' Lexicon.' Isaac Sprot,'Aben Bochan,' a polemic work Solomon Jarchi (Rashi), Grammarian, d. against Christianity. 1105.'Tongue of the Learned.' Join Tof bar Abraham (Ritba), CommenJoseph ben Meir (Ribarest), d. 1141.' Com- tary on Maimonides.' mentary on Talmud.' Chasdai, d. 1396.'Liht of the Lord.' Juda the Levite,'Sepher Cosri,' philoso- Ethics and Theology. phical. Simeon bar Zemach,' Shield of the Fathers.' Abraham Aben Ezra, very learned Com- 1.400 Jacob Levi, d. 1427. A Ritual. mentaries on the Bible. Joseph Albo, the Divine Philosopher,Tam. d. 117.' Sepher Hajashar,' the Book' Foundation of Faith.' of Righteousness. Israel Germanus,' Questions and Answerb Samuel ben Meir (Rashbasn), d. 1171. on the Law.'' Commentary on the Talmud.' Joshua Levita,' Introd. to the Talmud.' Benjamin of Tudela, d. 1173.' Travels.' David Vital,' Golden Verses.' Samuel,' Book of Piety,' Ethics and Theo- Samuel Sirsa, Grammar. logy. Isaac ben Arama,' Corn. on the Law.' Isaac bar Abba, Grammarian. Elias Misrachi (Ram), Arithmetic. Moses Kimhi, Grammarian. Abarbinel,' Commentary on the Bible.' David Kimhi (Radak), Grammarian. Isaac Abuhaf, Ethics. Abraham bar Dior (Rabad), cd. 1199. Cab- 1500 Abraham Seba,' Bundle of Myrrh,' a Combalist. mentary. Abraham ben David (Rabad), Jurist. Isaac Yarro,' Explanations of the Bible.' Moses ben Maimon (Rambaon), 1131-1205. Elias Levi, Grammar.' Yad Hazaka,' the'sq.ong hand, a very Solomon ben Virga,' History of the Jews.' celebrated Commentary on the Talmud, Benjamin Zeef,' Questions and Answers.' &c. (This author is better known by Abraham Zaccoth,'Juchasin,' Sacred and his Latinized name, Maimonides.) Jewish History. 1200 Abraham bar Chasdai, Ethics. Moses Iserle, Astrology. Eliakim, Ceremonies. Joseph Karro,' Com. on Maimonides.' Baruch Miggarmisa, Laws, Ceremonies. Azarias Edomaeus, History and Philology. Eliezer Miggarmisa, Ethics, Commentaries. Gadaliah,' Cabbalistic Chain,' History and Asher, Compendia of Talmud. Chronology.?erez Itaccohen (Haraph), Cabbalist. Leo, d. 1592.'Lion's Whelp,' Grammar. Moses ben Nachman (Ramban), d. 1260. David Gans, IHistory.'Law of Man,' a celebrated book on 1600 Moses of Trana,' Book of God.' Ceremonies, &c. 1700 Moses Mendelssohn, 1729-1785, Philosophy. AUTHORS OF THE NEW-TESTAMENT. A. D. 0 St. Matthew, St. Mark, St. Luke, St. John, Evangelists. St. Paul, St. Peter, St. James, St. Jude, Epistlers. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY-GRELEEK. 611 GREEK. IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. D.C. B.C. B.C. 900 Homer,'Iliad,'' Odyssey,' 900 900 &c. Hesiod,' Works and Days,' &c. 700 Tyrtweus, Elegies (fragm'ts.) 700 700 Archilochus, Satires, Elegies (fragments). 600 Alc us, Lyrics (fragments). 600 600 Sappho, Lyrics (fragments). Solon, d. 558. Epimenides. Stes-ichorus, 633-553 Lyrics (firagments). Mimnnermus, Elegies (fragmerits.) Anacreon, Lyrics. Pythagoras, Philosophy. 5090 Simonides, 556-467, Lyrics. 500 500 Zeno of Elea, Philosohy..Eschylus, 525-456, Trage- Ocellus Lucanus, Philosodies. Gorgias, Orations (frgts.) phy. Pindar, 518-439, Odes. Bacchylides, Lyrics. Anaxagoras, 500-428, Philo. Hecatreus, Hist. (fragmn'ts.) sophy. Sophocles, 495-405, Trage- Herodotus, d. 484, History. dies. Thucydides, 471-391, HistoEuripides, 480-486, Trage- ry of Peloponnesian War. dies. Antiphon, Orations. Aristophanes, d. 338, Come- Andorides, Orations. Socrates, 468-399, Philosodies. Lysias, 458-378, Orations. phy. 400 400 Ctesias, History (fragm'ts.) 400 Xenophon, 444-359, History, Philosophy, &c. Ismeus, Orations. Hippocrates, 460-357, MediIsocrates, 536-338, Orations. cine. Dinarchus, Orations. Democritus, 450-357, PhiloLycurgus, Orations. sophy. Demosthenes, 382-322, Ora- Plato, 429-347, Philosophy. Diphilus, Comedy (figats.) tions. Aristotle, 384-322, PhilosoMenander, 242-291, Come-.Eschines, 389-314, Orations. phy, Criticism. dies (fragments.) Theophrastus,d. 288, Ethics. Epicurus, 341-270, Philosophy. 300 Bion, Idyls. 300 300 Euclid, Geometry. Zento of Citium, d. 263, Philosophy. Moschus, Idyls. Lycophron,' Cass;mdra.' Callimachus, Hymns and Epigrams. Theocritus, Idyls. Manetho, History (fragm'ts.) Aratus, Poem on Astrono- Apollonius, Conic Sections. my. Cleanthes, Hymns. Apollonius Rhodius, Argo- Archimedes, d. 212,' Sphere nautics.' and Cylinder,' &c. Eratosthenes, Philosophy. e.~~~~ ~ _ _. _ _. 61i 2 THE WORLD9S PROGRESS. IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 200 Nicander, Theriaca. 200 Polybius, 206-124, Universal 200 History. Apollodorus,' Bibliotheca,' Mythology. 100 Meleager, Epigrams. 100 Conon, Mythology. 100 Scymnus, Poetical Geogr. Dionysius Halicarnassus,'Roman Antiquities.' Dionysius Periegetes, Geography? Diodorus Siculus, General History. 0 0 Strabo, Geography. 0 Dioscorides, Botany and MePausanias, Description of dicine. Greece. Plutarch, Biography, Morals &c. Dion Chrysostom, Orations. Epictetus,'Enchiridion,' Philosophy. A. D. A. D. A. D. 100 100 2Elian, d. 140. Varieties. 100 Appian, History. Justin Martyr, d. 163, TheoPtolemy, Geog., Astron. logy. Polycarp, d. 167, Theology. Arrian,' Expedition of Alex- Galen, 103-193, Medicine. ander.' Athenagoras, d. 172,' On the Iamblichus,' Rhodis and Si- Resurrection.' nonides, a novel. Phavorinus, Lexicon. HIermogenes, d. 161, Rh,toric. Polymenus, Strategy. M. Aurelius Antoninus, Philosophy. Nephaestion,' On Metres.' DMax. Tyrius, Philosophy. Lucian, Dialogues. Oppian, Poems on Hunting and Fishing. Athenaeus, d. 194,'Deipnosophiste, anecdotes. Julius Pollux,'Onomasticon,' Rhetoric. 200 200 Diogenes Laertius, d. 222, 200'Lives of Philosophers.' Philostratus, d. 244, Life of Apollonius. Dion Cassius, History of Rome. Ammonius, Philosophy. IIerodian, History of Rome. Origen, d. 254, Theology Hesychius, Lexicon. lamblichus, Philosophy. Longinus, d. 273,'On thc Porphyrius, 23.3-304, Life of Sublime.' Pythagoras, Philosophy. 300 300 Eusebius, d. 340, Ecclesias- 300 tical History. Achilles Tatius,'Clitophon and Leucippe,' novel. Julian, d. 363, Philosophy. Xenophon,'Anthea and Ab- Liabanius, Orations and Athanasius, 298-371, Theorocome,' novel. Epistles. logy. Greg. Nazianzen, 318-389, Theology. LITERARY CH:RONOLOGY.-GREEK. 613 IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 300 300 Gregory Nysseus, d. 39G, Theology. Cyril, 315-386, Theology. Diophantus, Mathematics. Eunapius,' Lives of Philosophers.' 30C Aristarnetus,'Erotic Let- 300 300 ters.' Chrysostom, 354-407, The. ology. Heliodorus,' Theagenes & Chariclea,' novel. Chariton,' Chmeleus and Calirrhoe,' novel. 400 Longus,'Daphnis and 400 Synesius, Orations &Epis- 400 Nemesius,' Nature of Chloe,' novel. ties. Man,' Philosuphyo Nonnus,' Conquest of India by Bacchus.' Stobmus,' Literary Collections.' Quintus Smyrnaeus (com- Zosimus,' Hist. of Roman monly called) Calabar, Emperors.' Cyril, d. 443, Homilies.' Contin. of Homer.' Socrates, 389-446, Ecclesi- Proclus, d. 445, Theology. Musmeus, Poem of Hero and astical History. Leander 3 Sozomen, d. 450, Ecclesiastical History. Theodoret, d. 450, EcclesiEumathius,' Ismenmus & astical History. Ismenaea,' novel. Proclus, d. 500, Platonist. Coluthus, Poem on'Rape of Helen.' Tryphindorus, Poem on'Destruction of Troy.' 500 500 Stephanus, Geography. 500 Simplicius, Comments on Aristotle.' Tribonianus, Jurist. Procopius,'Hist. of Reign of Justinian.' Olympiodorus,'Hist. of Honorius.' Cos. Indicopleustes, Topography. Evagrius, Ecclesiast. Hist Agathias, Byzantine Hist. 600 600 Menan, Protector, Chron. 600 Theophanes, Byzant. His. Philoponus, Grammarian. Theophylactus Simocatta, Byzantine History. 700 700 700 Damascenus, d. 750, Theology. 800 800 Nicephorus, 758-828, Hist. 800 Theodorus Studites, 759Syncellus, History. 826, Sermons. Photius, d. 891, c Biblio. theca.' John Malalas, History. 900 900 900 Leo VI., d. 911,' On Chris. tian Faith.' Leontlus, History. Genesius, History. 614 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULAI1VE AND SCIENTIVIC. 900 900 Const. Porphyrogenneta, 91)0 905-959, Hist. Selections. Sim. Metaphrastes, Lives of Saints. I000 1000 George Cedrenus, History. 1000 John Xiphilinus, d. 1080, Abridg. of Dion Cassius. Theophylactus, Theology. [ Michael Psellus, MathemaJohn Scylitza, History. tics. 1100 1100 1100 Euthymius Zygabenus, Nicephorus Bryennius, d. Theology. 1137, Byzant. Affairs. Anna Comnena, Reign of her father Alexius. C. Theo. Prodromus,'Rhodanthe and Dosicles,' novel. Const. Manasses, History. Zonaras, History of Ro- Suidas, Lexicon. mans, History of Jews. Eustathias, Commentaries on Homer. Will. of Tyre, 1100-1184, History. John Tzetzes, History in Isaac Tzetzes,Commentary Verse. on Lycophron. Cinnamus, History. 1200 1200 Joel, History. 1200 Michael Glycas, History. Nicephorus Blemmidas, George Acropolita, Hist. Theology. Nicetas Acominatus, Hist. George Pachymer, Hist. 1300 Manuel Philes, 1275-1340, 1300 Theod. Metochita, d. 1312, 1300 Poems. History. Callistus Xantopulus, Ecclesiastical History. Niceph. Gregoras, History. Maximus Planudes, Anthology. Leo Pilatus, Literature. John Cantacuzenus, Hist. George Codinus, Hist. Michael Ducas, History. 1400 1400 1400 Eman. Chrysolorus, d. 1415, Grammar. Geo. Gemistius, or Pletho, d. 1450, Philosophy. Eman. Moscopulus, Notes on Hesiod. Bessarion, 1395-1472, Theology. Geo. of Trebizond, 13961468, Aristotelian. Theodore Gaza, d. 1478. Origin of Turks. Laonicus Chalcondyles, History of Turks. John Argyrophilus, Aristc. Demet. Pamperes, Tales. George Phranza, History. telian. Marullus Tarchoniota d. 1500, Poems.!500 1500 1500 Demetrius Chalcondyles, | 1453-1513, Philology. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY-LATIN ARD ITALIAN. 615 IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 166d 1600 1600 Panagioti, d. 1763, Theology. 1700 Kallinikus, Poems. 1700 1700 Dorotheus, Aristotelian. Alexander Maurocordato, History of the Jews. Meletius, Geography. Nicholas Caradza, Trans- Marcus Tharboures, Melation of Voltaire. chanics. 1700 1700 1700 Bulgaris, Mathematics. Riga, d. 1796, Lyrics, Natural Philosophy. Ducas, Translation of Thucydides. 1809 N. Piccolo, Tragedy. 1800 D. Philippides, d. 1827, 1800 Psalidas, Metaphysics. Christopulus, Anacreon- Hist. of Wallachia, &c. Coray, Commentaries, Lex. tics, Opera. Paliuris, Hist. of Greece. icon. Calvos, Lyrics. Perrevos, History of Suli Cumas, Dictionary. Ilarion, Translation of So- and Parga. Neophitus, Bamba, Ethics. phocles. Gr. Demetrius, Geography. LATIN AND ITALIAN. [The Latin ceased to be a spoken language about the sixth century, but was in almost universal use throughout Europe as the language of composition until the thirteenth century, when the modern languages began to appear. As long as the literature of the West was almost exclusively confined to Italy we have arranged all authors who wrote in Latin under the same head; but about the sixth century they will be found under those countries where their works were published, whatever the language in which,-hey wrote.] IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. B. r. s. C. B. C. 200 M. A. Plautus, Comedies. 200 200 Q. Ennius, Epics (Fragts). P. Terentius, Comedies. M. P. Cato, De Re Rustica. o00 100 T. Pomponius Atticus, 110- 100 Varro, 115-28, De Re Rusti 33, Letters. ca Lingua Latina. Vitruvius, Architecture. Verrius Flaccus, d. 4, Fasti Capitolini. T. Lucretius, b. 95, De Re- MI. T. Cicero, 107-43, Orator rum Natura. and Philosopher. Catullus, 86-40, Lyrics. Julius Caesar, 98-46, Commentaries. Hirtius Pansa, Gallic War. C. Sallustius, 85-35, Jugurthine War. Corn. Nepos, Biography. P. Virgilius, 70-19, Eneid. Q. Horatius, 65-8, Odes, Satires. Propertius, 59-16, Elegies. T. Livius, 59 B. o.-19 A. D., A. Tibullus, 43 B. C.-17 History of Rome. A. D., Elegies. Ovid, 43 B. c. —17 A. D., Metamorph. Fasti, &c. Hyginus, Poeticon Astronomicon. 616 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. A. D. A. D. A. D. 0 0 Vel Paterculus, 19 B. c.-30 0 A. D., Hist. of Rome. Pomp. Mela, Geography. Valerius Maximus, Anecdotes of Great Men. Phzedrus, Fables. C. Celsus, De Medicina. Quintus Curtius, History of Columella, Agriculture. Alexander. Persius, 34-62, Satires. L. A. Seneca, 12-65, PhilosLucan, 38-65,' Pharsalia.' opher, Tragic Poet. Petronius Arbiter, d. 67, Sa- Pliny the Elder, 23-79, Nax; tyricon. ral History. Valerius Flaccus, Argonau- Quintilian Criticism. tics. Silius Italicus,' Punic War.' Sulpicia, Satires, &c. Statius, d. 99,'Thebais,''Achilleis.' Martial, 29-104, Epigrams. Juvenal, 48-128, Satires. Pliny the Younger, 61-113, Epistles. 100 100 Tacitus, History. 100 Valer, Probus, Grammar. Suetonius, Biography. Frontinus, Strategy. Florus, History of Rome. Terentianus Maurus, De Ar. Aulus Gellius, Noctes At- te MetricS. L. Apuleis, Gohlen Ass. ticTe. (. Jul. Solinus, Polyhistor. Justin, History. Pompei. Festus, Grammar. 200 200 200 Ulpian, d. 228, Law. Tertullian, d. 220,' Apology for Christianity.' Minutius Felix, Dialogue in favor of Christianity. Julius Obsequens,'De P'odigiis.' Censorinus,'De Die Na. tali.' Cyprian, d. 258, Theology. Nemesianus, Cynegetica. Jul. Calpurnius, Eclogues. 300 300 El Spartianus, IIistory. 300 Arnobius,'Adversus genJut. Capitolinus, History. tes.' EIl. Lampridus, History. Lactantius, d. 325, Defence Vul. Gallicanus, History. of Christianity.' Trebellius, Pollio, History. Aquilinus Juvencus, Gospel F. Vopiscus, History. 2El. Donatus, Grammar. in Verse. Aurelius Victor, History. F. Maternus, Astronomy Theology. M. Victorinus, Hymns. Ambrosius, Theology. F. Eutropius, History of Festus Avienus, Geographi- Rome. cal Poem. Amm. Marcellinus, History Jerom. 329-420, Version of D. M. Ausonius, Idyls. of Rome. Bible. Rufinus, d. 410, Ecclesiastical History. T. Vegetius Renatus, De Re Militari. A. T. Macrobius, Satur- Augustin, 354-430, Theolnalia. ogy. Symmachus, Epistles. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY —LATIN AND ITALIAN. 617 IMAGINA'TION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENT1FIP 300 C. Claudianus, Poems. 300 300 A. Prudentius Clemens, Christian Poems. 400 400 Vib. Sequester, Geography. 400 Sulpitius, Severus, d. 420, Sacred History. Sedulius, Poetical Life of Orosius, Ilist. of World. Christ. Martianus Capella, De Nuptius Phil. et Mere. Paulin. Pretocorius, Poem, on Martin of Tours. Sidonius Apollinaris, d. 488, Poems. Victoius, History of Church in Africa. Ennodius, d. 521, Christian Idacius, Chronicles to 468. Poems. 500 Boethius, Poet and Philo- 500 Cassiodorus, 481-562, His- 500 Priscianus, Grammar. sopher. tory. Fulgentius, 468-533, Theology. Dionysius Exiguus, d. 536, Christian Era. Non. Marcellus, Grammar. Arator, 490-556, Acts of Apostles in VTerse. Jornandes, Hist. of Goths. Evagrius, Eccl. History. 600 600 Secundus, d. 615, History 600 of Lombards. 700 700 700 Cresconius, Collection Paul Warnefrid, History Canons, Verses. of Lombards. 800 800 Erchempert, History of 800 Lombards. Anastasius, Lives of Popes. 900 900 Luitprand, History of his 900 Times. 1000 1000 1000 Papias, Grammar. Lanfranc, d. 1089, Theol. 1100 Donizo, Latin Poe'ry. 1100 1100 Falcandus, Hist. of Sicily. Gratian, Canonist. Campanus, Mathematics. Ciullod' Alcamo, Sicilian Poetry. 1200 1200 Pietro dalle Vigne, d. 1249, 1200 Accursius, 1182-1260, Law Guido of Colonna, Poetry, History. Thomas Aquinas, 1224History. 1274, Theology. Brunetto Latina, d. 1294, Bonaventura, Scholastic.' I1 Tesora.' Guido Cavalcanti, d. 1300, Poems. Marco Polo, Travels. John XXII., Poem on Medicine. G. Durand, Law. G. de Voragine, d. 1298, Pietro d'Albano, 1250-1r -, Legends of Saints. Astrology, Physics. Torregiano Rustechelli, Commentaries. 618 THE WORLD)S PROGRESS. IMAGCINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 130C Dante, 1265-1321, La Di- 1300 1300 Mon. de Luzzi, Anatomy. vina Commedia. Ar. Villanovan, d. 1313, Alchemy. Cecco d'Ascoli, d. 1327, F. Barberino, 1264-1348, Astronomy. Poems. G. Andreas, d. 1348, CaPetrarca, 1304-1374, Son- nons. nets, Epic, Literature. Bartolus, Law. Boccacio, 1313-1375, I1Decamerone.' Ferreti, 1356-1429, History of his Times. 1400 1400 Leonardo Bruni, History of 1400 Leonard of Pisa, Algebra. Florence. Nicholas Tedeschi, Law. A. Beccadelli, 1374-1471,' Hermaphroditus.' Guarino, 1370-1460, TransPoggio, 1380-1459, Litera- lation of Plutarch. ture. Mich. Savonarola, d. 1462, Lorenzo Valla, 1407-1457, Medicine. Literature. Bar. Montagnana, d. 1460C D. Burchiello, Sonnets. B. Accolti, 1415-1466, His- Baraterius, Law. tory of IHoly War. Gianozzo, Manetti, 139r.Flav. Blondus, 1388-1463, 1479, Orier.talist. thistory of Venice, &c. Paul Toscanello, d. 1482.,En. Sylvius, 140-1464, His- Astronomy..tory, Poetry, &c. John Gobelin, History. Beccat. Panormita, 1393Pulci, 1432-1487,' Mor- 1471, Biography. gante Maggiore.' Bart. Platina, 1421-1481, Franc. Philelphus, 1398- Lives of Popes. 1481, Poetry and Ethics. F. Buonaccorsi, 1437-1496, Loren. de'Medici, d. 1492, Biography. Poetry, Literature. Pomp. Lnetus, 1425-1495, Angelo Poliziano, 1454- Lives of Caesars, &c. 1494, Poetry, Drama. Franc. Berlinghieri, GeoMarsilius Ficinus, 1433- graphy. Pico Ae Mirandola, 14631499, Translat. Plato. G. Pontano,1426-1563,Wars 1494, Metaphysics. of Ferdinand I. Luca di Burgo, Mathem. Bonfinius, d. 1502, IIistory of Hungary. 1500 1500 R. Accolti, 1455-1532, His- 1500 Ant. della Torre, d. 1512, tory. Anatomy. L. da Vinci, 1452-1520,'Treatise on Painting.' G. Abrosi, Astronomy. G. Ruccellai, 1475-1526,' Le A. Acchillini, 1472-1512, Apt.' Medicine. Alexander ab Alexandro, B. Castigilione, 1478-1529, 1461-1523, Dies Geni-'The Courtier.' tales. M. Boiardo,' Orlando innamorato.' Sanazar, 1458-1530, Arcadia. Machiavelli, 1482-1528, HisBerni, d. 1530, Satires. tory of Florence, &c. Ariosto, 1474-1533,' Orlando Furioso.' F. M. Molza, d. 1544, Po- Guicciardini, 1482-1540, ems. History of Italy. Bembo, 1470-1547, History Trissino, 1478-1550,'Italy of Venice. G. Fracastoro, 1483-1533, Delivered,' Epic Trage- L. Alberti, cd. 1552, History Medicine. dy. of Bologna. And. Alciato, 1492-1550, Law. Nic. Tartaglia, Mathem. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY —— LATIN AND ITALIAN. 619 IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 1500 Hier. Vida, d. 1566, Latin 1500 1500 F. Commandido, 1509-1575,.Poetry. B. Cellini, 1500-1570, Auto- Mathematics. Mic. Angelo Buonaroti, d. biography. Angelo Caninio, d. 1557, 1564, Poems. B. Varchi 1503-1566, His- Orientalist. Giovanni della Casa. 1503- tory of his Times. 1556, 11 Galateo, &c. G. Anguillara, b. 1517, Tragedy. L. Dolce, 1508-1568, Tragedy, Epic, History. Bernardo Tasso, 1493-1575, V. Borgh.ni, 1515-1580, His- And. Vesalio, 1514-1564,' Amadis.' tory. Anatomy. Greg. Giraldi, 1504-1573, G. Vasari, 1514-1578, Lives Falopius, 1523-1563, MediTragedy. of Painters, &dc. cine. Sperone Speroni, 1500-1588, Eustachi, d. 1576, Do. Orations. P. Manut Aldus, 512-1574, S. Ammirato, 1531-1600, Commentaries. History of Florence. Cardano, 1501-1576, MatheG. Adriani, 1511-1579, His- matics. A. F. Grazzini, d. 1583, tory of his Times. P. Launcelloti, 1511-1591, Comedies.- B. Davanzati, 1529-1606, Law. Torq. Tasso, 1544-1595, Hist. Eng. Reformation.'Gerusalemme Liberata.' C. Baronius, 1538-1607, EcG. Bagnioli, d. 1600, Tra- clesiastical Annals. ged.y. P. Paruta, 1540-1598, HistoGuarini, 1538-1613,'I1Pas- ry of Venice. Andrlea Cmesalpino, 1519tor Fido.' Possevini, 1533-1611, De- 1603, Botany. scription of Muscovy,&c. U. Aldrovandi, 1522-1605, P. R. Sarpi, 1552-1623, His- Natural Ilistory. tory of Coun. of Trent. Orazio Torsellino, 15451609, Grammar. Ottavio Rinuccini, Opera. F. Braccilolini, 1566-1605,'La Croce Racquistata.' Oraz.Vecchi, Comic Opera E. C. Davila, 1576-1631, G. Marini,1569-1625,Poems. Hist. Civil Wars France. C. Achillini, 1577-1640, Poems. A.Tassoni,1561-1635,'Sechchia Rapita.' 1600 G. Chiabrera, 1552-1637, 1600 G. Bentivoglio, 1579-1644, 1600 J. Fabricius, d. 1619, ComrnPoems. History Civil Wars Flan- parative Anatomy. ders. Bellarmino, 1542-1621, Polemics. Galileo, 1564-1642, Astron. T. A. Campanella, 15681693, Philosophy. L. Vanini, 1585-1619, Theology. B. Castelli, d. 1644, Mathematics. B. Cavalieri, d. 1647, Do. Fabio Colonna, 1567-1647, Botany, &c. P. della Valle, 1586-1652, Travels. F. Strada, 1571-1649, Hist. Laur. Lippi, 1606-1664, Co- of Wars of Flanders. mic Poems. G. B. Nani, 1616-1678, HisG. Marini, Romances. tory of Venice. Oderic Rainaldi, EcclesiasSalvator Rosa, 1615-1673, tical Annals. Satires. F. Redi, 1626-1697, Natural C. M. Maggi, 1630-1699, Villani, Iist. of Florence. History. Poems. M. Malpighi, 1628-1694, Anatomy. 620 THE WORLD)S PROGRESS. IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 1600 Ben. Manzina, 1646-1704, 1600 V. Viviani, 1621-1703, MaArt of Poetry Satires. thematics. V. Filicaja, 1642-1707, Po- A. Magliabecchi, 1633-1714. ems. Literature. G. D. Cassini, 1625-1712, Mathematics, Astron. D. Guglielmini, 1655-1710, Mathematics. 1700 Aless. Guidi, 1650-1712, Ly- 1700 1700 G. Baglivi, 1668-1706, Merics. dicine. A. Marchetti,1633-1714, Po- G. V. Gravina, 1564-1718, ems, Philosophy. Law. N. Forteguerra, 1674-1735. Ricciardetto. G. M. Crescembini, 16631728, Poetry. L. Muratori, 1672-1750, Apostolo Zeno, 1669-1750, Annals of Itality. Operas. B. Giannone, 1680-1748, S. Maffei, 1675-1755, Tra- History of Naples. gedy. G. Cassini, 1677-1756, Astronomy. F. X. Quadrio, 1695-1756, G. Morgagni, 1681-1771, History of the Valteline. Anatomy. M. Metastasio, 1698-1782, Dramas, Operas. A. Genovesi, 1712-1769, Metaphysics. B. Buonamici, 1710-1761, F. Algarotti,, 1712-1764; History.'Newtonianism.' G.R. Boscowich, 1711-1787, Mathematics, Pbilology. F. M. Zanotti, 1692-1777, C. Goldoni, 1707-1772, Co- Philosophy. medies. C. Beccaria, 1720-1795, C. 1. Frugoni, 1692-1768,'Crimes & Punishments.' Poems. A. Fabroni, 1732-1802, BioG. Gozzi, 1713-1786, Sa- graphy. tires, Odes. G. Tiraboschi, 1731-1794, L. Spallanzani, 1729-1799. Hist. of Italian Literature. Natural HIistory. L. Galvani, 1737-1798, GalV. Alfieri, 1749-1803, Tra- vanism. gedies. Volta, 1745-1827, Do. G. Filangieri, 1751-1798, Legislation. 1800 Pindemonte, Poems. 1800 1800 Monti. Poems. Ugo Foscolo, Drama, Poems. Botta, History of Italy, &c. Denina, History of Italian Scarpa, Anatomy. Revolutions. I. da Ponte, Poems, Operas. Silvio Pellico, Memoirs. Manzoni, Novels. anoi NovelsM. Gioja, 1767-1839, Poli, Economy. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY-BRITISH. 621 BRITISH, &c. IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.. D. A. D. A. D. 500 500 Gildas, Conquest of Britain. 500 600 Ceadmon, Saxon Poems. 600 Nennius, Origin of Britons. 600 Aldhelme, d. 709, Latin Poems. 700 700 Bede, 673-735, Eccl. Histo- 700 ry of England. Alcuin, d. 804, Theology, IHistory, Poetry. 800 Alfred, 849-901, Saxon Po- 800 800 J. Scot Erigena, d. 83,' Of ems, Tranlslations, &c. the Nature of Things.' Asser, d. 909, Life of Alfred, History of England. 900 900 Ethelwerd, History of Great 900 Britain. 1000 1000 Ingulphus, 1030-1109, His- 1000 tory of Croyland. Eadmer, Chronicle. 1100 1100 Order. Vitalis, 1075-1132, 1100 History of England. Florence of Worcester, d. 1118, Chron. of England. Geoffiry of Monmouth, History of Britain. Robert Pulleyn, d. 1150, William of Malmsbury, d. Theology. 1143, Hist. of Britain. Henry of Huntingdon, Chronicles of England. Simeon of Durham, Chronicles of England. Richard of St. Victor, d. John of Salisbury, d. 1181, 1173, Theology.'Life of Becket,' &c. Layamon, Saxon Poetry. Ralph Glanville, Collection Nigellus, Speculum Stulto- G. Cambrensis, Conq. of of Laws. rum. Ireland, Itin. of Wales. Walter Mapes, Satires, Wm. of Newbury, b. 1136, ~Soags.~~ ~ Chron. of England. Jos. of Exeter, Troi. War. War of Antioch, Epics. 1200 1200 Roger Hoveden, Chron. of 1200 England. Gervase of Canterbury, Alex. Neckham, d. 1227, History of England. Theology. Roger of Wendover, Hist. of England. Robert Grosteste, Natural Philosophy. Alexander Hales, d. 1245, Aristotelian. John Peckham, Theology. John Holiwood, d. 1258, Matthew Paris, d. 1259, Astron., Mathematics. History of England. 622 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFI0. Robert ofGlocester, Chron- William Rishanger, His- Roger Bacon, 1214-1292. icle in verse. tory of England. Chemistry, Optics, &c. T. Lermont, the Rhymer, Rich. Middleton, Theology Sir Tristem, Romance. 1300 1300 1300 Albricus, Theology. Duns Scotus, d. 1308, Philosophy. Walter Burleigh, Philosophy. Gilb. Anghllcus, Medicine. Adam Davie, Metr. Ro- Nicholas Trivetlh, d. 1328, R. Aungervile, 1281-1345, mance, Life of Alex. Hist. Physic, Theology. Philobiblion. Richard of Chichester, Lawrence Minot, d. 1352, Chron. of England. J. Wicliffe, 1324-1384, Historical Poems. Ralph Higden, d. 1360, Theology, Translation of Chron. of England. Bible. Henry Knighton, d. 1370, Chron. of England. Matthew of Westminster, John Barbour, 1326-1396,'Flowers of History.'' The Bruce.' John Maundeville, d. 1372, 11. de Bractoi, Law. R. Langlande,' Pierce Travels. Plowman,' a Satire. John Fordun, Chron. of Geof. Chaucer, 1328-1400, Scotland.' Canterbury Tales,' &c. John Gower, d. 1402, Elegies, Romances, &c.'400 1400 Andrew of Wyntoun, 1400 Chron. of Scotland. John Lydgate, 13380-1440, Poems. T. Walsingham, d. 1440, History of Normandy. James I. of Scotland, 1395- John Fortescue, Laws of 1437,'King's Quhair,' England. &c. Harry the Minstrel,'Sir W. Wallace.' John Hardyng, Chron. of Thomas Littleton, d. 14875 Enaland. Law. Lord Berners, Trans. of Froissart. Stephen Hawes,'Passe- W. Caxton, Translations. tyme of Pleasure.' John Skelton, d.4529, Douglas of Glastonbury, Satires, Odes. Chron. of England. 1500 Wm. Dunbar, 1465-1530, 1500 R. Fabyan, d. 1512, Chron. 1500 Thos. Linacre, 1460-1524,'Thistle and Rose.' of England and France. Philology, Medicine. Gawin Douglas, 1475-1522, Trans. Virgil. Thomas More, 1480-1535, Anth. Fitzherbert, Hus-' Utopia.' bandry. Thomas Wyatt, d. 1541, Sonnets. T. Halls, d. 1547, Hist. of John Heywood, d. 1565, Houses of York and Lan- Thomas Elyot, Philology. Drama. caster. 11. Latimer, 1475-1555, Earl of Surrey, d. 1.546-7, John Leland, d. 1552, Eng- Sermons. Poems. lish Antiquities. Geo. Gascoigne, d. 1577, W. Cavendish, 1505-1557, DraLma.'Life of Wolsey.' J. Ball, 1495-1563,' Lives Roger Ascham, 1515-1568, of British Writers.'' The Schoolmaster.' Ralph Hollingshed, d. 1581, Thomas Wilson, d. 1581, Chronicles. Logic and Rhetoric. Geo. Buchanan, 1506-1582, Thomas Tusser, d. 1580, History of Scotland. I -usbandry. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY —BRITISH. 623 IBIAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. Philip Sidney, 1554-1586, J. Fox, 1517-1587, Book' Arcadia.' of Martyrs. Christ. Marlowe, d. 1593, Drama. Edm. Spenser, 1553-1598,'Faery Queen." J. Jewel, 1522-1570, DiW. Shakspeare, 1564- vinily. 1616, Drama. N. Fitzherbert, 1550-1612, R. Hooker, 1553-1600, Ec. John Lylie, 1550-1600, Biography. clesiastical Polity.'Euphues. John Stowe, 1527-1605, W. Gilbert, 1540-1603, Chronicles, Topography.' On the Loadstone,' Sir T. North, Translations L. Andrews, 1565-1626, John Fletcher, 1576-1625, of Plutarch. Sermons. Drama. F. Beaumont, 1586-1615, Drama. 1660 John Owen, d. 1612, Latin 1600 J. Pitts, 1560-1616, Biog. 1600 Edward Colte, 550-1634, Epigrams. ofKings, Bishops, &c. Law. Sir H. Wotton, 1568-1639, Richard Knolles, d. 1610, John Napier, 1550-1617, Poet. History of the Turks. Logarithms. Winm. Camden, 1551-1623, Antiquities. R. Hackluyt, 1553-1616, Naval Histories. W. Raleigh, 1552-1617, History of the World. Samuel Daniel, 1567-1619, History of England. John Hayward, d. 1627, J. Ford, b. 1586, Drama. English History. Ben Jonson, 1574-1637, J. Speed, 1555-1629, HIist. Drama. of Great Britain. Robert Burytcr, 1576-1-639, P. Massenger, 1585-1639. Henry Spelman, 1562-1641,'Anat. of Melancholy.; Drama.' Antiquities. Francis Bacon, 1560-1626, J. Harrington, 1561-1612, R. B. Cotton, 1570-1631, Philosophy, History. Trans. Ariosto. Antiquities. Win. Harvey, 1578-1657, E. Fairfax, d. 1632, Trans. S. Purchas, 1577-1628, Circulation of Blood. Tasso. Collection of Voyages. M. Drayton, 1563-1631, Poems. G. Sandys, 1577-1643, Thomas Roe, 1580-1641, John Selden, 1584-1654, Translations, Poems. Travels in the East. Antiquities, Law, Hist. J. Daniel, 1562-1619, E. (Lord) Herbert, 1581- J. Harrington, 1611-1677, Poems. 1648, History of Henry'Oceana.' W. Drummond, 1585-1649, VIII. James Usher, 1580.-1656, Poems. R. Baker, d. 1645, Chron. Divinity, Sermons, Hist. John Donne, 1573-1662, of England. Thos. Hobbes, 1588-1679, Satires, Essays. Metaphysics Geo. Wither, 1588-1667, W. Dugdale, 1605-1686, Satires. Thomas Fuller, 1608-1661, Antiquities, History. James Shirley, 1594-1666, History, Biography. W. Chillingworth, 1602Drama. Clarendon, 1608-1673, His- 1644, Theology. Sir J. Suckling, 1609-1641, tory of Rebellion. Isaac Barrow, 1630-1677, Poems. Thomas May, d. 1650, IIis- Divinity, Mathematics. John Denham, 1615-1668, tory of Parliament. J. Pearson, 1612-1686, Tragedies, Cooper's Hill. Izaak Walton, 1593-1683, Divinity. Samuel Butler, 1612-1688, Biography. Brian Walton, 1600-1661, Hudibras. B. Whitlocke, 1605-1676, Polyglot Bible. John Milton, 1608-1674, History. Jeremy Taylor, d. 1667,' Paradise Lost.' iMrs. Hutchinson, Biogra- Divinity. Edm. Waller, 1605-1687, phy. Alger. Sydney, 1617 —1683, Poems. W. Prynne, 1660-1667,'Discourse on GovernA. Cowley, 1618-1667, History, Politics. ment.' Poems. Thos. Browne, 1605-1682, A. Maxwell 1620-1678,' On Vulgar Errors.' Poems. Edmund Castell, d. 1685, Lexicon Heptaglotton. R. Cudworth, 1617-1688, Metaphysics.' 624 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 1600 1600 1600 J. Evelyn, 1620-1706,'Sylva.' H. More, 1614-1687, The. ology. Rochester, 1648-1680, Wm. Temple, 1629-1710, T. Sydenham, 1624-1689, Satires. History. Medicine. Roscommon, 1633-1684, W. Sherlock, d. 1689, DiPoems. vinity. N. Lee, 1656-1691, Drama. J. Tillotson, 1630-1694, John Bunyan, 1628-1688, Sermons.' Pilgrim's Progress.' Archbishop Leighton, John Dryden, 1631-1701, 1613-1684, Divinity. Tragedy, Satire,' Virgil.' R. Baxter, 1615-1691, Thos. Otway, 1651-1685,'Saint's Everlasting Tragedy. R. Brady, d. 1700, History Rest.' of England. R. Boyle, 1627-1691, Theology, Chemistry. 1700 John Pomfret, 1667-1703, 1700 Thomas Rymer, d. 1713, 1700'The Choice.' Faedera. John Ray, 1628-b1705, Bot. any, Natural History. John Locke, 1632 —1704, Metaphysics. R. South, 1633-1716, Di. vinity. John Philips, 1676-l708,' Splendid Shilling.' Thos. Parnell, 1679-1718, S. Ockley, 1678-1720,' The Hermit.' Oriental History. Isaac Newton, 1642-1719, Geo. Farquhar, 1678-1707, Thos. Hearne, 1678-1735, Principia.' Comedies. History and Antiquities. J. Flamsteed, 1642-1719, John Strype, 1643-1737, Astronomy. Eccl. History, Biog. R. Hooke, 1635-1702, PhilGilbert Burnet, 1643-1715, osophy.'History of his Times.' B. de Mandeville, 16'/oMatthew Prior, 1664-1721, L. Echard, 1671-1730, 1733,' Fab. of the Bees.' Poems. History of England. Edm. Halley, 1656-1742, R. Steele, d. 1729, Drama, Thos. Carte, 1686-1754, Astronomy. Essays. History of England. Hans Sloane, 1660 —1753, Daniel Defoe, 1660-1731, John Potter, 1674-1747, Natural History.' Robinson Crusoe.' Antiquities. Jos. Addison, 1672-1719, Sir W. Petty, 1623-1682,'Spectator,'' Cato.' Statistics. Nich. R owe, 1673-1718, Tragedy. J. Vanbrugh, d. 1726, Comedy. A. Clark, 1696-1742, DiW. Congreve 1672-1728, vinity, Philosophy. Comedy. D. Waterland, 1683-1740, John Gay, 1688-1732, Divinity.'Beggar's Opera,' Fab. Nathanael Ilooke, d. 1763, R. Bentley, 1661-1740, M. W. Montague, 1690- History of Rome. Divinity, Philology. 1762, Letters. C. Middleton, 1683-1750, A. Baxter, 1687-1750, MetRobert Blair, 1699-1746, Life of Cicero, &c. aphysics.'The Grave.' Lord Bolingbroke, 1672S. Richardson, 1689-1761, 1751, Politics, Literatura Clarissa,'' Pamela,' &c. G. Berkeley, 1684-1753, Metaphysics, Ethics P. Doddrhge, 1701-1751. Divinity. Jas. Bradley, 1692-1762, Astronomy. F. Hutcheson, 1694-1747, Moral Philosophy. D. Garrick, 1716-1779, T. Sherlock, 1678-1761, Drama. Divinity. S. Foote, 1720-1771, C. Maclaurin, 1696-1746, Drama. Mathematics. LITERPARY CHRONOLOGY-BRITISI-. 625 IMAGINATION. PACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 1700 R. Rodsley, 1703-1764, 1700 John Swinton, 1703 —1767, 1700 Earl of Chesterfield, 1694Drama. History, Antiquity. 1773, Letters. Jona. Swift, 1667-1745, Eph. Chambers, d. 1740, Satires, Tales, &C. Cyclopsedia. 1. Watts, 1674-1748, B. HIoadley, 1676-1761, Hymns. Polemics. Edw. Young, 1681-1765, Bishop Butler, 1692-1752,'Night Thoughts.' Divinity Alex. Pope, 1688-1744, Poetry. W. Somerville, 1692-1743,' The Chase.' Allan Ramsay, 1696 -1758,' The Gentle Shepherd.' Rich'd Savage, 1698-1743, Poems. Jas. Thomson, 1700-1748, J. V esley, /703-1791, Di-'Seasons.' Lord Lyttleton, 1709-1778, vinIity. John Dyer, 1700-1758, History, Poems, Divin- D. Hartley, 1704-1757, Poems. ity.' Observations on Man.' 1. Fielding, 1707-1754, James Granger, d. 1776, Soame Jenyns, 1704-1787,'Tom Jones,' &c. Biog. Hist. of England. Theology. James Hammond, 1710- W. Warburton, 1709-1779, 1742, Elegies. Theology, Criticism. Lawr. Sterne, 1713-1768, J. Jortin, 1698-1770, Di-' Tristram Shandy.' vinity, Criticism. W. Shenstone, 1714-1763, Sam. Johnson, 1709-1784, Lord Kaimes, 1696 —1782, Pastorals, &c. Lives of Poets, Diet., &c. Elements of Criticism. W. Collins, 1720-1756, Jonas Hanway, 1712-1786, R. Lowth. 1710-1787, DiOdes. Travels in the East. vinity, Philology. H. Brooke, 1706-1783, John Blair, d. 1782, Chro- W. Blackstone, 1723 —1780,' Fool of Quality.' nology. Laws of England. M. Akenside, 1721-1770, David Hume, 1711-1776, "Junius."'Pleasures of Imagina- History of England, tion.' Essays, &c. Thos. Gray, 1716-1771, Odes, Elegies. W. Robertson, 1721-1793, Adam Smith, 1723-1790, T. Smollet, 1720-1771, Hist. of Charles V., &c.'VWealth of Nations.' Novels. Thomas Warton, 1728- J. harris, 1709-1780, PhiR. Glover, 1712-1789,' Le- 1790, History of England, lology. onid.-s.' Poetry, Poems. John Hunter, 1728-1793, O. Goldsmitlh, 1731-1774, Medicine.'Traveller,''Vicar of F. Balguy, 1716-1795, DiWalkefield.' vinity. W. Mason, 1725 —1797, Poems, Biography. H. Walpole, d. 1797,'HisT. Chatterton, 1752-1770, toric Doubts,''Royal Poems. and Noble Authors.' Ar. Murphy, 1727-1805, J. Moore, 1730-1802, T. Reid, 1710-1796, MetaDrama.'Views of Society and physics. Wm. Cowper, 1731-1800, Manners.' Sir J. Reynolds, 1723-1792, Poems. James Bruce, 1730-1794, Art. R.Cumberland, 1732-1811, Travels. S. Ilorsley, d. 1806, TheoDrama. W. Gilpin, 1724-1804, Bio- logy. Eras. Darwin, 1732-1802, graphy, Divinity. Jos. Priestley, 1733-1804,'Botanic Garden.' E. Gibbon, 1737-1794, Metaphysics, Chemistry. James Beattie, 1735-1803, Decline and Fall of Ro- Hugh Blair, 1719-1800, Poems. man Empire. Sermons. R. Ferguson, 1750-1774, J. Whitaker, 1735-1808, J. Horne Tooke, 1736-1812, Poems. Hist. of Manchester, &c. Philology. Geo. Colman, 1733-1794, Edmd. Burke, 1730-1797, Win. Jones, 1747-1794, Comedies. Oratory. Orientalist. J. Wolcot (Peter Pindar), J. Boswell, 1740-1795, Bio- R. Price, 1723-1791, Meta1738-1819, Com. Po- graphy. physics, Divinity. enls. J. Milner, 1744-1797, Wm. Paley, 17413-1805, Jas. Macpherson, 1738- Church History. Theology. 1796,' Ossian's Poems.' Joseph Strutt, 1748-1802, Ricd. Porson, 1759 —18081 Robert Burns, 1759-1796, Chronology, Antiquities. Philology. Poems. Ths. Beddoes, 1760-1808, J. Home, d. 1808, Drama. Medicine. 27 626 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 1700 1700 N. Maskelvne d. 1811, Ricd. B. Sheridan, 1751- Astronomy. 18.6, Drama. G. L. Staunton, d. 1801, Chinese Code. Ann Radcliffie, 1764-1823, Charles Burney, d. 1841, W. Herschell, 1738-1822, Novels.'History of Music. Astronomy. 1300 Rob. Bloomfield, d. 1823, 1800 J. Macdiarmid, 1779-1808, 1800 Arthur Young, 1741-1820,' Farmer's Boy.' Biography. Agriculture. Mrs. Barbauld, Poems, A. Rees, 1743-1825, CycloTales. paedia. Joseph Banks, 1743-1820O Natural History. E. D. Clarke, d. 1822, Dr. Parr, d. 1825, Philo. Travels. logy. C. J. Fox, d. 1796, History. D. Ricardo, d. 1823, Politi. Lord Byron, 1788-1824, cal Econo.my. Poems. C. Hutton, d, 1823, Mathe. John Keats, Poems. matics. P. B. Shelley, d. 1822, John Playfair, d. 1819. Poems. W. Mitford, History of PI Elmsley, Philology. R. C. Maturin, d. 1824, Greece. T. Wollaston, Chemistry Drama. Thomas Young, Hierc%-' Miss Austin, Novels. phics, &c. Wm. Godwin, 1755-1836, T. Scott, d. 1821, I)lvinity. Novels, Metaphysics. D. Stewart, d. 1821, MetaWalter Scott, 1771-1832, physics. Novels, Poems. Vicessimus Knox, 1752R. Heber, Travels, &c. 1821, Essays. Major Rennel, Geography. Malthus, Polit. Economy. Wm. Rosco, 1751-1831, Wm. Hazlit, Critic and Life of Leo X., &c. Essayist. Robt. Pollok, 1798-1827, Walter Scott, -1832, Francis Jeffrey, 1773-1849,'Course of Time.' History, Biography. Essays, Criticism. Geo. Crabbe, d. 1832,'The Archbish. Magee, d. 1331, Borough,' &c. Divinity. Fanny Burney, -1840, Sir Humph. Davy, d. 1829, Novels. Chemistry. Wm. Beckford, 1760-1844, Jer. Bentllam, d. 1832 Novels.'Principles of LegislaThos. Haines Baily, 1797- tion.' 1839. Lyrics. Sir Jas. Mackintosh, 1766- Adam Clarke, 1763-1832, Thos. Hamilton, 1789- 1832. Hist. of England. Divinity, Criticism. 1842, Novels, Travels. Geo. Chalmers, 1742-1825, Arch. Alison, 1757-1839, Felicia Hemans, 1794- Political Annals. Essays on Taste. 1835, Poems. Marsden, 1755-1836, Ori- Francis Baily, 1774-1844, Barbara Hofland, Novels. ental Hist. and Travels. Astronomy, &c. Jas. Hogg, -1835, Po- Jas. Mill, -1836, Hist. Bp. Burgess, 1756-1837, ems and Tales. British India. Theology. Theo. E. Hook, 1788-1841, Robt. Morrison, -1834, Herbert Marsh, 1758-1839, Novels. Travels, Philology. Theology. Thos. Hood, Poems, No- Jas. Grahame, History of Thos. Mitchell, 1783-1845, vels, &c. United States. Classic. Critic. Hannah More, 1744-1833, John Gillies, 1747-1836, Robert Mudie, 1777-1842, Poems, Tales. History of Greece. Scient. Miscellanies. Jane Porter, -1849, Basil Hall, 1788-1844, Sir E. Brydges, 1762-1837, Novels. Travels and Voyages. Miscellanies. S. T. Coleridge, -1834, Win. Cobbett, -1J83r Poems. Politics, &c. Wm. Wordsworth, - J. Dalton, -1844, Che1850, Poems. Wm. Hone, -1842, mist. Robt. Southey, — 1843, Every Day Book. J. F. Daniell, -1845, Poems. Chemist. Marg. Blessington, - Sydney Smith, — ).845, 1849, Novels. Theology, Essays. Chas. Lamb, 1775-1834, Chas. Bonnycastle, Poems, Essays. R. & J. Lander, 1834, 1840, Mathematics. Thos. H. Lister, 1801-1842, Travels in Africa. Thos. Chalmers, Theology, Novels. and Political Economy. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY — GERMAN. 627 IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 1800 S. T. Coleridge, 1773-1834, 1800 1800 John Leslie, -1832, Ethics. Mathematician. L. E. Landon Maclean, Southey, 1774-1843, Bio- J. C. Loudon, 1783-1843, 1804-1838, Novels and graphy. Botany, Agricul., Archit. Poems. Wnm. Beckford, 1769-1844, John Bell, 1763-1825, Winm. Maginn, 1793-1842, Travels. Anatomy & Physiology. Poems, Arch. Alison, History of Olinthus Gregory, 1774Marryatt, -1847, Nov- Europe. 1841, Mathematics and els. Thos. Arnold, 1795-1842, Religion. John Galt, 1779-1839, History of Rome. Robert Hall, 1764-1831, Novels. Thos. D. Fosbrooke, 1770- Sermons. Wmin. H. Ireland, Shaks. 1842, Archaeology. Sir Chas. Bell, 1781 —1824, Forgeries. Thos. McCrie, 1772-1835, Anatomy and PhysioLady Morgan, -184-, Life of Knox. 1( gy. Novels. Sir John Malcolm, History Jas. Morier, 1780-, Persia and India. Novels. I. D'Israeli, 1766-1848, CuThos. Campbell, 1777- riosities of Literature. 1844, Poems. Basil Hall, 1788 —1844 VoyThos. Banim, 1800-1842, ages and Travels. Novels. Henry F. Cary, 1772-1844, Trans. Dante, &c. GERMAN. IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 800 800 Eginhard, d. 839, Life of' 800 Charlernagne, Annals. Walafrid Strabo, d. 840, Rabanus Maurus, 776-856, Poems, Theology. Theology. Nithard, d. 853, Ilistory of, Wars of France. Gottschallk, d. 869,'On Predestination.' Otfried, Harmony of Gospels in rhyme. 900 900 Regino, d. 915, Chronicles. 900 HIroswitha, Let. Comedies. Batherius, d. 974, TheoloNotger, Trans. of Psalms. gy, Grammar. Witikind, Hist. of Saxons. 1000 1000 Dithmar, d. 1018, Chron. 1000 Witpo, I Praise of Henry' of Saxon Emperors. IIL.,' Biography. Hermannus Contractus, Willeram, Francic Poems. Universal History. Mar. Scotus, 1028-1086, Chronicles. Adam of Bremen, Ecclesiastical History. Lambert, General History. Sigebert, d. 1113, Chron. Kosmas, 1045-1126, History of Bohemia. 1100 1100 Berthold Constantiensis, 1100 Mangold, Theology. Universal History. Otto, d. 1158, Chronicle. Henry of Veldeck, Minne- Helmold, d. 1170, Chron. singer. of Slavi. 628 THE WOR1LD'S PROGRESS. IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC, 1200 Gunther, Poems. 1200 1200 Arnold of Lubeck, Chronicle of Slavi. Frederic II., 1196-1254, Epko of Repgow,'Saxon'De Arte Venandi.' Mirror,' (Law). John Semeca, Law. Alb. Magnus, 1193-1280, Natural Philosophy. Freydank, Poems. 1300 Riidger of Manesse, Collec- 1300 1300 tion of Ballads. Henry Frauenlob, Songs. Boner, Fables. John Tauler, Sermons. Henrich von Rebdorf, Chronicle. Heinrich von Hervorden, Chronicle. Jacob von KIbnigshofen, Chronicle. John Schildberger, History John Huss, 138-1415, of Timour. Theology. 1400 1400 Gobelin Persona, General 1400 Felix Hlimmerlein, Satires. History. Windeclr, Life of Sigis- John von GmUnden, Astromund. h nomy. John Stadweg, Chronicle. Hans von Rosenplut, Peter von Andlo, de lm- Geo. von. Peurbach, 1423Poems. perio Romano. 1461, Theory of Planets Regiomontanus, 1436-1476 Astron., Mathemat. Nic. von Cuss, Mathemat. Thomas h Kempis, 1380Heinrich von Alkmaar. 1471, Theology.'Reinke de Voss.' Mar. Behhaim. Geography. Gabriel Brie, d. 1495, TheBreydenbach, Topogy. ology. Conrad Botho Chronicle. John Geyler, 1445-1510, Conrad Celtes, 1459-1508. Theology. Latin Poems, History of John Trithemius, 1462 — Nuremburg. 1516, Nat. Philosophy. Thos. Murner, 1475-1536, Reuchlin, 1454 —1522, Phil-' Rogues' Guild.' ology. 1500 1500 Maximilian, d. 1508, Auto- 1500 J. Wimpfelingen, 1452 — biography. 1528, Theol., Poems. Grunbeck, Lives of Emperors. Melc. Pfinzing, 1481-1535, Albert Kranz, d. 1517, His- Holoander, d. 1531, Law.'Theuerdank.' tory of Saxons, &c. Corn. Agrippa, 1486 —1535, B. Pirkheimer, 1480-1530, Physics, Theology. History, Poetry. M. Luther, 1483-1546, John Aventin, 1466-1534, Theology. Anals of Bavaria.. Zwingle, 1484-1531, Theology. Glareanus (H. L.) 1488- Con. Peutinger, 1465 —1547, IMelancthon, 1497-1560, 1563, Classics. History and Geography. Theology. John Carion, 1499-1538, Paracelsus, 1493-1541, Comp. of History. Chemistry. Joac. Camerarius, 15001574, Philology. John Sleidan, 1506-1556, Conrad Gesner, 1516 —1565, Universal History. Natural History. Hans Sachs, 1494-1574, G. Tschudi, d. 1572, Hel- Basil Faber, 1520-1576, Poems. vetic Chronicle. Thes. Erud. Schol. John Fischart, 1511-1581, Gerard Mercator, 1512- Mar. Chemnitz, 1522-1586, Satires, 1594, Geography. I Theology. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY-GERMAN. 629 IMAGINATION. FACT, SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 1500 G. Fabricius, 1516-1571, 1500 Simon Schardl, 1535-1573, 1500 Wm.Xylander, 1532-1576, Lat. Pms. Topography. Collec. German Hist. Philology. Wesenbeck, 1531-1586, I.aw. Fred. Sylberg, 1531-1596, Philology. Theocl. Beza, 1519-1609, Theology,.Philology. Rollenhagen, I542-1609, John Pistorius, 1544-1607, S Froschmaiiusler. Collec. German Hist. Fr. Taubman, 1565-1613, Marq. Freher, 1565-1614, C. Ritterhuis, 1560-1613, Latin Poems. Hist. Germy. & France. Law. 1600 1600 1600 C. Schwenkfeld, d. 1616, Natural History. P. Cluvier, 1580-1623, J. Buxtorf, 1555-1621, Geography. Philology. M. Goldast, 1576-1635, John Kepler, 1571-1631, History. Astronomy. B. von Helmont, 15771644, Chemistry. C. Scioppius, 1576-1649, Ars Critica. Martin Opitz, 1597-1639, John Bayer, Uranometria. Poems. G. Barth, 1587-1658, PhilJames Balde, 1603-1668, G. Calixtus, 1586-1656, ology. Poems. Ecclesiastical History. Sol. Glass, 1593-1656, A. Gryphius, 1616-1664, Olearius, 1604-1685, Philol. Sacra. Tragedies. Travels. Otto Guerikle, 1602-1686, Air-Pump, &c. Paul Fleming, 1609-1640, Her. Conring, 1606-1681, Poems. Antiquities. S. von Puffendorf, 1631- Ez. Spanheim, 1629-1702, 1694, History, Law. Numismatology. Lohenstein, 1638-1683, D. G. Morhoff, 1639-1691, John Schilter, d. 1705, An-'Poems. Biography, Iistory. tiquities. 1700 C. Gryphius, 1649 —1706, 1700 H. iMeibomius, 1638-1700,1700 Ludolph, 1649-1711, PhilPoems, Hist., Philology. History. ology. C. Cellarius, 1638-1707, Leibnitz, 1646-1716, MaGeography, Antiq. thematics, Metaphysics. Von Canitz, -1654-1699, C. Frankenstein, 1661- C. Thomasius, 1655-1728, Poems. 1717, History, Biog. Law. J. Arnold, 1665-1714, Ec- F. Budceus, 1667-1729, clesiastical History. Divinity. J. G. von Eccard, 1670- G. E. Stahl, 1660-1734, 1730, General History. Chemistry. J. A. Fabricius, 1668-1736, F. Hoffman, 1660-1742, Bibliography. Medicine. J. Bernouilli, 1667-1747, Mathematics. Gunther, 1695-1724, Poems. H. Freyer, Gen. History. B. Hederick, 1675 —1748, B. G. Struve, 1671-1738, Philology. History of Germany. J. L. Mosheim, 1695-1755, Liscov, Satires. Ecclesiastical History. J. M. Gessner, 1691-1761, Philology. J. C. Gottsched, 1700-1766, A. G. Baumgarten, 1714Poems, Trag., Criticism. 1751, Ethics, Metaph. Hagedorn, 1708-1754, J. J. Gessner, 1707-1787, Fables. Numismatology. Haller, 1708-1777,'The G. F. Meyer, 1711-1777, Alps.' Philosophy. J. E. Schlegel, d. 1759, F. W. von GeIicken, 1714Drama. 1783, Nat. History. E. C. Kleist, 1715-1759, J. Winkelmann, 1718-1768 Idylls. Antiquity. Gellert, 1715-1769, Fables. A. F. Bisching, 1724-1793 Leon. Euler, 1707-1783, Rabener, 1714-1770, Satir. Geography. Mathematics. 630 THE WTORLD'S PROGRESS. IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 1700 Gleim, d. 1803, Songs. 1700 Frank, d. 1784, Chronol. 1700 G. J. Zollikofer, 1730 — Walch, d. 1784, Ecclesias- 1780, Setrmons. tical History. J. A. E. Gtitze, 1731-1786 Klopstock, 1724-1.803, Entomology. I'Tie. Messiah.' Im. Kant, 1724-1804, Zachariae, 1727-1777, Metaphysics. Comic Poems. C. F. Weisse, Drama. J. G. Zimmerman, 17281795,'On Solitude.' Gotz, 1721-1781, Pastorals. Ramler, 1725-1798. Odes. Dusch, 1727-1788, Poems. G. E. Lessing, 1729-1781, Drama, Fables. S. Gessner, 1730-1788,' Death of Abel.' Wieland, 1733-1813, Ro- C. Gatterer, d. 1799, Hist. mances, Poems. Pfeffel, 1736-1809, Fables. Seoler, d. 1791, Thhology. G. A. Biirger, 1748-1794, J. W. von Archenholz, Poems. 1745-1812,' Seven Years' I. H. Voss, 1751-1S26, WVar.' PUtter, Law of Nations. Novels. F. Schiller, 1750 —105, Di'ama. Scurokh, d. 1808, Eccle- Adelung, dc. 1807, PhilKotzebue, 1761-1819, siastical History. ology. Drama. Forster, d. 1798, Geogra- Lavater 1741-1801, Phy. Goethe, 1749-1832, Drama, phy. siognomy. Tales, Poems. A. 1. von Sc.hlzer, d. 1809, Werner, Geology. Hlistory. 1800 F. Schlegel, 1773-1829, 1800 J. von Muller, d. 1809, Uni- 1800 Herder, 1741-1803, PhiloNovels, Poetry, IFist..&c. versal History. sophy of History. Ernst Schultze, 1787-1817, J. G. Eichhorn, d. 1827, Fichte, d. 1819, MetaphyElegies. History. sics. E. T. W. Hoffmnan, d. 1822, F. H Jacobi, d. 1819, MeTales. taphysics. A. G. II. Lafontaine, 1760- Blumenbach, Physiology. 1831, Tales. Schelling, Metaphysics. Kbrner, Poems. Thaer, -1828, Agri. culture. Rosenmuller, — 1855, Theology, Criticism. Von Hammer, Orien. Hist. Gail, -1829, Philology. B. G. Niebuhr, hIistory. Griesbach, -181.%f PIhilology. Grotefend, -1836, PhiL. von Arnim, -1831, lology. Poems, Novels. II. J. Klaproth, 1784-1835, Philology. F. Passow, -1833, Philology. Scholl, -1833, History. C. O. Muller, -1840, Hegel, -1831, MetaHistory, Archweology. physics. F. Accum, -1838, Chcmistry. Mohs, -1839, MiaeraSchopenhauei, -1838, logy. Novels. F. Rotteck, -1849, His- G. A. Fatt, -1841, Phitory. lology H. Hase, -1812, His- E. Bekker, Philology. tory, Antiquities. Buttmann, -1841, Philology. C. T. Follen, — 1840, Theology, Essays. LITERARY CHR ONOLOGY' —FRENC H. 631 IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 1800 1800 Augt. Neander, 1850, 1800 Olbers, -1840, AstroEcclesiastical History. h orny. Tieck, Poems, Novels. J. L. C. Heeren,'-1842, History. Hahnemann, -1843, H. Berghaus, Geography. IIomceopathy. A. von Humboldt, Travels, A. W. Schlegel, -1845, History. Criticism, Essays. Humboldt, Science. Liebig, Chemistry. FRENCH. IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 500 Venan. JFortunatus, Latin 500 500 Poetry. Gregory of Tours, 554-595, History. 600 600 Marculfe,' Charta Re- 600 gales,' &c. 700 700 Fredegaire, Chronicle. 700 800 Theodulph, d. 821, Hymns, 800 800 Theology. Agobard, d. 840 Theology Servatus Lupus, d. 862, Epistles. Paschasius Radbert,'Tran Hinemar, d. 882, Epistles. substantiation.' Abbon,'Siege of Paris.' Ado, d. 875, Chronicle. 900 900 Flodoard, 896-966, Chron. 900 Dudon, History of Norman Conquest in France. Adalberon, d. 1030, Poetry. 1000 1000 Aimoin, d. 1008, History of 1000 Gerbert, d. 1003, Geometry, France. Mathematics, &c. Abon, d. 1004, Arithmetic, and Astronomy. Fulbert, d. 1029, Epistles. Berengarius, d. 1088, Theology. 1100 1100 Guibert, 1058-1124, Histo- 1000 Anselm, 1033-1109, Schory of First Crusade. lastic. Pierre Theutbode, HIistory of Crusades. Marbodaeus, d. 1123, Bio- Pierre Abelard, 1079-1142, Wm. of Poictiers, 1071- graphy. Theology. 1126, First Troubadour. Hildebert, 1067-1133, Poetry. Bechada, Norman Poetry, Suger, 1082-1152, Life of'Bernard of Clairvaux,' Gestes de Godefroi.' Louis le Gros. 1091-1153. Mystic. 632 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. IMAGINATION. 5 FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIPIO, 1100 1100 Hugh de St.Victoire, 1097- 1100 1140, Geography, HIistory, and Theology. Peter Lombardus, d. 1164, Geoffroi Galmar, Anglo- Theology. Norm. Chron. in verse. Rob. Wace,' Roman de Rou.' Alain de l'Isle, d. 1202, Theology, Ethics. Fouque, a Troubadour. Alexander of Bernai, Poetry, Fables. 1200 1200 Pierre de Poictiers, Sacred 1200 Hlistory. John 2Egidius, Poem on Geoffrey de Villehardouin, Medicine. Conq. of Constantinople. William le Breton,'Deeds of Philip,' in verse. P. Gautier,'Alexandrieda.' Phil. Mouskes, d. 1283, His- Vincentius of BIt emuvais, tory of France in verse. Encyclopwedia. William de Lorris,'Roman W. Rubruquis, Traveller. Rob. of Sorbonne, d. 1271, de la Rose.' Theology. Jean de Meun, Contin. of Jean de Joinville, 1260 —' Roman de la Rose.' 1318, Hist. of Louis IX. Esteve de Bezier, Last Troubadour. 1300 Peter Langtoft, Anglo-Nor- 1300 1300 Bernard Gordon, Medicine. man Chronicles. John of Paris, d. 1306, Theology. W. Durand, d. 1333, Law. W. Occam, d. 1347, Law. Philippe of Vitri, Translation of Ovid. John Froissart, 1337-1402, Chronicles. 1400 1400 1400 Peter d'Ailly, 1350-1425, Astronomy. John Gerson, 1363-1429, Scholastic. Raymund de Sebunda, d. 1432, Theology. Henry of Balma, d 1439, Alain Chartier, d. 1458, Mystic. Poetry. Corbeil, Satire. D'Auvergne, d. 1458, Po- James Lefevre, 1436-_-537, ems. Theology. Wm. Budaus, 1467-1540, Clement Marot, 1463-1525, Philip de Comines, 1445- Jurist. Poems. 1509, Hist. of his Times. 1500 1500 1500 J. C. Scaliger, 1484-1558, Philology. Du Bois, 1478-1555, Anat. F. Rabelals, 1483-1553, Guill. du Bellay, d. 1543, Satires. History of his Times. Rob. Stephens, 1503-1559, J. du Bellay, 1492-1560, Philology. Poems. P.Ramus,]515-1572, Logic Seb. Castellio, 1515-1563, Steph. Jodelle, 1532-1573, Philology. Odes, Tragedies, &c. Jas. Cujacius, 1520-1590, Jaques Amyot, 1514-1593, Law. Translations. Lambinus, 1516-1572, Commentaries. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY-FRENCH. 633 IAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIE!LTIFIC. i00 5I. A. Muret, 1526-1585, 1500 1500 Hen. Stephens, 1528-1590, Poems, Criticisms. Philology. Mich. de Montaigne, 1533- J. J. Scaliger, 1540-1609, F. Vieta, 1540-1603, Al1592, Essays. History, Criticism, &c. gebra. Pierre Charon, 1543-1603, Theology. Isaac Casaubon, 15591604, Philology. Fran. Malherbe,1556-1628, J. A. ce Thou, 1553-1617, Odes. History of France. 1100 MI. Reignier, 1573-1613, 1600 P. Matthieu, 1544-1621, 1600 Satires. IHistory of France. An. Du. Chesne, 1584-1640, C. Salmasius, 1596-1652, Collections of histories. HIistory and Criticism. Dennis Petau, 1583-1652, Ch. rUology. P. Gassendi, 1592-1655, J. Chapelain, 1595-1674, Bochart, 1599-1667,' Geo- Philosophy. La Pucelle.' graphia Sacra.' Des Cartes, 1596 1650, Henry Spondanus, 1568- Metaphysics, Malhem. 1643, History. P. Corneille, 1606-1684, S. Gulicheron, 1607-1664, Drama. Hist. of House of Savoy. Henri Valesius, 1603-1696, Ecclesiastical History. St. Evremond, 1613-1703, Literature. B. Pascal, 1623-1662, Divinity. D'Ilerbelot, 1626 —1695, Rochefoucault, 1603-1680, Adr. Valesius, 1607-1692, Orientalist. Reflections.'Deeds of the Franks.' Cassini, 1625-1712, Astron. Moli re, 1620-1673, Drama. La Fontaine, 1621-1696, Fables, Tales. Segrais, 1624-1701 Idyls. T. Corneille, 1625-1709, Drama. M. de Sevigne, 1626-1694, Letters. J. Racine, 1639-1699, L. Moreri, 1643-1680, Huet, 1630-1721, Philos'phy Drama. Historical Dictionary. Bourdaloue, 1632-1704, Tillbmont, 1637 —1698, Ec- Sermons. clrsiastical History. La Bruyere, 1636-1696,'Characters.Malbranche, 1633-1715, Boileau, 1636-1711, Satires. _'Search after Truth.' 1700 Regnard, 1647-1709, 1700 1700 P. Bayle, 1647-1706, (,omedies. Dictionary. Galland, 1646-1715, Tran. Hardouin, 1646-1729, of Arabian, Nights. Criticism. And. Dacier, 1651-1722, Philology. Arine Dacier, 1651-1720, Philology. Fenelon, 1651-1715,' Telemachus,' &c. Deshoulieres, 1638-1694, Elegies. J. Marsollier, 1647-1724, Tournefort, 1656-1708, History, various. Botany. Fleuiry, 1653-1723, Eccle- Fontenelle, 1657-1756, siastical History.' Plurality of Worlds.' G. Daniel, 1649-1728, His- Montfaucon, 1655-1741, tory of France. Antiquities. Vatincourt, 1653-1730, Massillon, 1663-1742, Biography. Sermons. 217* 634 THE WORL)'S PROGRESS. IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 1700 1700 Vertot,1655-1735. History. 1700 Paul Rapin, 1661-1725, History of England. Bossuet, 1662-1704, HisJ. B. Rousseau, 1671-1741, tory, Sermons. Odes. C. Rollin, 1661-1741, Crebillon, 1674-1762, Ancient History. Folard, 1669-1752, StraTragedies. tegy. Ren. Le Sage, 1677-1747, Saurin, 1677-1730, Ser-'Gil Blas.' mons. P. N. Destouches, 16801754, Comedies. J. B. Gr6court, 1683-1743, Odes, Tales, &c. Marivaux, 16E8-1763, &.Montesquieu, 1698-1755, Novels. C. I. P. Henault, 1685-1770,'Esprit des Loix.' Voltaire, 1695-1778, Tra- Chronicles, History. R6aumur, 1683-1757, gedy, Poetry, Hist., &c. Natural History. Houbigant, 1686-1783, Criticism, Philology. C. Villaret, 1715-1766, Girard, d. 1748,'Synony. History of France. mes.' L. P. Anquetil, 1723-1808, History. J. J. ousseau, 1712-1778, Mart. Bouquet, d. 1754, Buffon, 1707-1788, Natural' Emile,''Heloise,' &c. Recueil d'Histoireks. History. Diderot, 1713-1784,'En- A. Goguet d. 1758,'Origin De Brosses, 1709-1777, cyclopedie,' Novels. of Laws, Arts, &c.' Philology, EHistory. Bernis, 1715-1794, Poems. Larcher, 1726-1812, Trans. Favart, d. 1762, Comic of Herodotus. Operas. Crevier, d. 1765, Ancient Louis Racine, d. 1763, History. Poems. Guyot, d. 1771, Ecclesias- Helvetius, 1715-1771, J. J. Barthelemy, 1716-1795, tical History.' De l'Esprit.'' Anacharsis.' D'Aubenton, 1716-1799, Marmontel, 1719-1799, Natural IIistory. Tales. N. Vattel, d. 1770,'Law Gresset, d. 1777, Elegies. of Nations.' Dorat, d. 1780, Novels. J. De Guignes, 1721-1800, D'Alembert, d. 1783,' EnHistory of the Huns. cyclopedie.' D'Anville, 1702-1782, La Grange, Mathematics. Geography. G. Raynal, 1711-1796, His. Bailly, 1736 —1793,' Hist., of East and West Indies. Astronomy. C. F. X. Millot, 1726 —1785, Lavoisier, 1743-1794, History. Chemistry. Montucla, 1725-1799, Mathematics: Turgot, Polit. Economy. Florian, 1755-1794, Tales. Mirabeau, Politics. Beaumarchais, d. 1799, Fourcroi, d. 1809, Chem. Comedies. J. Lalande, d. 1807, Astron. 1800 B. St. Pierre,'Paul and 1800 1800 Volney, 1755-1820, Travels, Virginia.' Philology, &c. Madme. de Genlis, Novels. Hauy, d. 182, Crystallo graphy. Mdme. Cottin, 1772-1807, La Place, d. 1827, MatNhTales. matics. Delille, d. 1813,'L'Homme Guyton Morveau Chem. des Champs.' Cuvier, d. 1832, kat. Hist. Madame de Stall, 1768- Denon, d. 1825, Travels in Dumont, Legislation. 1817,' Corinne,' &c. Egypt. P. L. Courier, Politics. H. de Balzac, 1799-1850, J. P. F. Ancillon, 1767- J. F. Audoin, 1797-1841, Novels. 1837, History. Zoology. J. J. Boissaid, 1743-1831, Louis E. Bignon, -1841, J. E. D. Esquirol, 1772Fables. History. D 1840 on Insanity. J. J. Jacotot, 1770-1840, Chas. iourier, 1772-1837, Education. Socialism. LITERAlRY CHRONOLOGY-SPANISHI AND PORTUGUESE. 635 IMAGINATION. FACT- SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 1800 1800 Mad. Junot, 1784-1839, 1800 T. S. Jouffroy, 1796 —1842, Biography. Metaphysics. A. L. G. Laborde, -1842, A. L. de Jussieu, 1748-1836, Travels. Botany. Las Cases, -1842, Biog- S. F. Lacroix, 1765-1843, raphy. Mathematics. J. Michaud, -1839, His- Lamlarck, -1829, Natural tory. History. Bourrienne, -1834' Life Legendre, 1753 —1833, Ma. of Napoleon.' thematics. A. Coille, -1838, Voyage Louis, -1837, Surgery. k Tembuctou, &c. Broussais, -1838, MediChampollion le Jeune, cine, Physiol. 1832, Antiq. Egypt. Chaptal, -1832, ChemJ. P. A. Reimusat, -1832, istry. History. SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE. P. is plrefixedfor Portuguese. liMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 500 500 500 Anian, Law. Fulgentius Ferrandus, Canon Law. Martin, d. 580, Ethics. *00 600 John of Biclair, d. 620 600 Chronicle. Isidore, d. 636, Chron. de Goth. Ildefonso, d. 667, Polemics. ~300 800 Eulogius, d. 859, Martyr- 800 ology. Alvarez, Biog. of Eulogius. P. 1100 Egaz Monez, Songs. 1100 1100 P. Gonzalo Hermiguez, Songs. ___ 1200 1200 Rodrigo Ximenez, d. 1245, 1200 History of Spain. R. de Penafort, 1175-1275, Decretals. Gonzalo Berceo, Rhymes. Alphonso X., d. 1284, Astronomy, Alchemy. Raimund Lullo, 12361315, Theology, Chem. istry, &c. 3O00 Juan Manuel, d. 1362, Ro- 1300 1300 mances. 1400 Villena, d. 1434, Trans. 1400 Diez de Games, Biography. 1400 Virgil and Dante. E. de Villena, 1434, Moral Drama. Juan de Mena, 1412-1456 J. de Torquemada, d. 1468, Poems. Sermons, Criticism. L. de Mendoza, 1393-1458, Poems. 636 THE WORLD7S PROGRESS. ISMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 1400 Perez de Guzman, Lyrics. 1400 R. de Zamora, 1407-1470, 1400 History of Spain. Fern. del Pulgas, Biog. of Juan de la Enzina, Pastoral Ferdinand and Isabella. Fras. Ximenez, 1437-1517, Drama. Polyglot Bible. 1500 Lope de Rueda, Comedies. 1500 1500 Perez de Oliva, d. 1533, Torres Naharro, Comedy. Ethics. Juan Boscan, d. 1544, Son- J. Luis Vives, 1492-1540, nets. Philosophy, Theology. P. Ber. Ribeyro, Eclogues. Garcilaso de la Vega, 1503-1536, Poems. P. San de Miranda, 1495-1558, P. Damian Goez, History, Ant. de Guevara, d. 1544, Lyrics. Travels. Ethics, Epistles. Juan de la Cueva, Art of P. A. Govea, 1505-1565, Law. Poetry. P. Gil Vicente, d. 1557, Comedy. Ant. Agostino, 1516-1586, J. de Montemayor, 1520 —P. Joao de Barros, d. 1570, Theology, Law. 1561, Romance.' Hist. Portugu. in India.' Ant. Ferreira, 1528-1569, A. Zarate,'Discov. of S. des Brosses, 1523-1600, Elegies. Peru.' Grammar. A. de Morales, 1513-1590, P. D. de Andrada, 1528-1535, History of Spain. rheology. Luis Molina, 1535-1600, Metaphysics. Diego de Mendoza, d. 1575, J. Acosta, 1547-1600, Hist. Poems, History. of the West Indies. P. Camoens, 1524-1579,'The Gonsalvo Illescas, d. 1590, Lusiad.' Lives of the Popes. Luis de Leon, 1527-1591, Luis Martcol, Description Lyric Poems. of Africa. Fern. de Herrera, d. 1578, Jeron. Zurita, 1513-1580, Classical Poems. History of Arragon. P. Rodriguez Lobo, Ro- Estevan Garibay, History mances, Pastorals, &c. of Spain.' P. P. de A. Caminha, d. 1595, Epigrams, Pastorals. C. de Castillejo, d. 1596, Romantic Poems. A. de Ercilla, 1533-1600, Juan Mariana, 1537-1624,' Araucana.' Hist., Chronology, &c. Geron. Bermudez, d. 15S9, Blanca, History of Spain. J. Guevara, 1541-1622, Tragedy. Publicist. L. de Argensola, 15651613, Tragedy, History. P. Jeron. Cortereal, Poems. J. G. de Mendoza, Hist. of J. Valverda, Anatomy. Cervantes, 1549-1616, China.' Don Quixote.' 1600 1600 Her. y Tordesillas, 15651625, History of Spain. P. A. de Meneses, d. 1617, History of Augustilles. Bart. de Argensola, 1566- P. F. Andrada, Chronicle of 1631, Tragedy, History. John III. F. Quevedo, 1570-1645, P. B. de Brito, 1570-1617, Tales, Satires. History of Portugal. L. Congora, 1585-1638, Poems. Lope de Vega, 1562-1635, Drama. P. A. de Andrada, d. 1633, J. P. de Montalvan. d. 1639, Travels in Thibet and Tragedy. Cathay. M. de Madrigal, Romances. Pru. de Sandoval, History P. Man. de Faria e Sousa, d. Jayme Bleda, History of I 1649, Pastoral Poems. Moors in Spain. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY-SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE. 637 IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 1600 L. V. de Guevara, d. 1646, 1600 1600'El Diablo Coxuelo.' Vic. Espinel, 1545-1634, Elegies. C. Acuna, 1597-1641, 1 Descrip. of River Amazon. P. E. de Almeyda, d. 1646, History of Ethiopia. Calderon, 1601-1667, P. J. F. de Andrada, 1597Drama. 1657, Life of John de L. Ulloa, d. 1660, Poems. Castro, Comic Poetry. P A. B. Bacellar, d. 1663, Sonnets. P. Mlatheo Ribeiro, Romance. Nic. Antonio, 1617-1672, Bibliotheca Hispanica. P. Alb. Coelho, d. 1658, M. de Villegas, 1595-1669,'Wars of Brazil.' Anacreontics. P. F. de Vasconcellos, Poems. P. R. doe Macedo, d. 1682, Poems. P. Viol. do Ceo, 1601-1693, Ant. de Solis, 1611-1686, Poems. Hist. of Conq. Mexico. P. F. da Castanheira, Novel. P. A. Nunhes da Sylva, Sonnets. 1700 Fran. Candarno, d. 1709, 1700 J. Ferreras, 1652-1735, 1700 Drama. History of Spain. Ant. de Zamora, Comedy. P. Xav. de Meneses, 16731743,' Henriqueide,' Feyjoo, 1765, Ethics, CritiEpic Poem. cism. Ignacio de Luzan, d. 1754, A. Itlloa, 1716-1795, MathArt of Poetry. P. Barbosa Maehado, Diction- ematician. ary of Learned Men. Velasquez, d. 1772, Hist. of Castilian Poetry. P. Figoeireda, Eccl. History. Tomas de Yriarte, d. 1771, Fables, &c. P. A. de Barros Pereira, Poems. P Manoel da Coste, Poems. Munoz, Hist. of America. V. Garcia de la Huerta, Tragedy. P. P. Correo Garcao Lyric Ruiz, Botany. Poems. Pavon, Flora Peruvians. Leon de Arroyal, Odes. Cavanilles, Annals. P. J. H. Magalhaens, d. 1790, P. Paulino de Vasconcellos, Natural Philosophy. Sonnets. Felix de Azara, Zoology. Mel. Valdez, Odes, Lyrics. J. N. de Azara, 1731-1804, P. Cathar. de Sousa, Tragedy. Antiquity. 1800 G. Jovellanos, 1744-1811, 1S00 J. A. Llorente, History of 1800' Agrarian Law.' Inquisition. P. Tol. da Almeida, Satires. Fern. de Moratin, d. 1828, Jose Antonio Conde, HisComedies. tory of Moors in Spain. M. Garcia de Villanueva,' On the Theatre.' J. H1. Davila, General Literature. 638 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. DUTCH. IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIO 1200 J. Van Maerlant, 1235- 1200 1200 1300, Poems,'Rymbybel.' Melis Stoke, Poetic Chron. 1300 Jan van Helen, Poems, 1300 1300 Chronicles. Heij. van Holland, Poems. Claes Willems, Poems. Gerard Groot, Theology. 1400 J. Wilt, Trans. Bcethius. 1400 Edmund Dinter, d. 1448, 1400 Chronicles of Brabant. p. vander Heyden, 1393- 1473, Chronicles. J. W. Gransfc~t, Theo. Dirk van Munster,' Christian Mirror.' Rud. Agricola, 1442-1485, Lambert, Goetman,'Mir- Philosophy, Hist., &c. ror of Youth.' [500 1500 1500 Erasmus, 1467-1536, The. ology, Literature, &c A. Byns, Religious Poems. Jan. Fruitiers, Poems and Prose. J. Secundus, 1511-1536, Amatory Poems. Dirk Koornhert, 1522- S. Pighius, 1520-1604, 1590, Transl. Homer.'Roman Almals.' P. van Marnix, Odes, Songs. J. Heurnius, 1543-1601 R. Visscher, Epigrams. Medicine. Ilendrick Spieghel, Didac- C. Kiliaan, d. 1607, Dic. tic Poems. tionary. Justus Lipsius, 1547-1606, Philology. Sim. Stevinus, d. 1633, Hydrostatlcs, Mathem. A. Schott, 1552-1629, His- H. Erpenius, 1584-1624, tory of Spain. Orientalist. 1600 G. Brederode, 1585-1637, 1600 1600 Comedies, &c. D. R. Kamphuizen, 15861626, Religious Poems. Daniel Heins, 1580-1655, Poems, Philology. J. Cats, 1577-1660, Drama. P. C. Hooft, 1587-1647, H. de Groot (Grotius), Tragedy, Odes, Hist. of 1583-1645i Hist., Theolthe Netherlands. ogy, Poetry, &c. G. van Baerle (Barlaeus), 1584-1648, Latin Poems. J. Golius, 1596-1667, Ori. Just van Vondel, 1587- entalist. 1679, Tragedies. Voetius, 1589-1676. M. Visscher, Trans. Tasso. Polemics. Jan van Heemskerk;'Ar- Beverwylr, 1594-1647, cadia.' Medicine. J. Westerbaen, 1599-1669, Diemerbroek, 1609-1674, Epigrams. Anatomy. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY-DUTCH. 639 IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. Cons. Huygens, 1596-1687, J. F. Gronovius, 1611Epigrams. 1671, Philology. Jer. Declker, 1610-16066, J. Leusden, 1614-1699, Elegies. Philology. D. Joncktijs, d. 1654, Amatory Poems. Nicholas Heins, 1620-1681, F. Burman, 1628-1679, Poems, Philology. Theology. Jan de Brune,' Whetstone Chr. Huygens, 1629-1695, of Wit.' Mathem., Mechanics. Jan Vos, Drama, Epi- B. Spinoza, 1632-1677, grams. Theology. Reinier Anslo, 1622-1669,' Plague of Naples.' Ger. Brandt, 1626-1685, Hist. of Reformation. Cau, Collect. of Batavian History. J. G. Graevius, 1632-1703, Swammerdam, 1637-1680, Roman Antiquities. Natural History. J. Perizonius, 1631-1715, A. Leuwenhoek, 1632History. 1723, Natural History.'700 P. Francius, 1645-1704, 1700 1700 F. Ruysch, 1639-1731, Latin Poetry. Anat. J. A. Vander Goes, 16471648, Drama. J. Gronovius, 1645-1716, Greek Antiquities. G. Bidloo, 1649-1713, P. Bondam, Collection of Anat. Batavian History. C. Vitringa, 1659-1722, Simon Styl, History of Theology. Netherlands. Binkerschoek, 1663-1743, Law. H. Boerhaave, 1668-1738, Medicine. Hemsterhuis, 1685-1766, Philology. A. Schultens, 1686-1750, Philology. Glavesande, 1688-1742, Mathematics. Chr. Hecht, 1696-1748, Philology. B. S. Albinus, 1683-1771, Anatomy. Oudendorp, 1696-1761, Philology. W. Otto Reiz, 1702-1768, Law. D. Gaubius, 1705-1780, Medicine. Hoogeveen, 1712-1794, Philology. Eliz. Wolff Novels. G. van SWieten, 1700Loosjes, Novels. 1772, Medicine. P. Camper, 1722-1789, Bellamy, 1757-1786, Odes. Anatomy. Klein, Lyrics. D. Ruhnken, 1723-1798, Van Alphen, Odes. Philology. Valckenaer, Philology. 1800 1800 1800 D. Wyttenbach, d. 1808, Hincopen Odes. Philology. Helmers, d. 1831, Poems Nieuwland, Poems. Borger, Odes. Te Water, History. Engelberts, Ancient IIist. Bilderdyk, Dramas, Odes, of Netherlands. Van Kampen, Statistics. &c. 640 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. Tollens, Poems. Kluits, Hist. of Holland. De Jonge, Antiquities. Da Costa, Sacred Poems. Westendorp, History. Hamaker, Orientalist. Wilderbosch, Odes. Ypey, Ecclesiastical Hist. Vander Palm, Literature. SWEDEN, DENMARK AND ICELAND. S.,,Sweden; D., Desnmzark; Ic., Iceiand. IIMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. Ic. 900 Hjalti, Poems. 900 900 Ic. 1100 Thorwald, Ballads. 1100 1100 Ic. Aro, d. 1148, Annals of Iceland. D. Saxo, Grammaticus, d. D. Sunesen, Jurist. 1204, Iist. of Northern D. Axel, Theology. Nations. Ic. Smemund, b. 1156, The D. Sueno, list. of Denmark. Elder Edda. Ic. 1200 Snor. Sturleson, d. 1241, 1200 1200 Younger Edda, Hist. of Norway. Ic. Suerron, Tales. D. Sturla Thoridsen, History of Norway. 1400 1400 1400 S. Eric Olai, History of Goths S. Bryn. Karlsson, d. 1430, and Swedes. Instruction to Kings and Princes. 1500 1500 1500 S. John Magnus, d. 1544, Hist. of Sweden. S. Olaus Magnus, Customs of Northern Nations. S. P. Lagerloof, 1538-1599, History North of Europe. Ic. Arn. Jonas, 1545-1640, D. Tycho Brahe, 1546-1601, Hist. of Iceland, &c. Astronomy. D. Ursus, a. 1600, Astronomy. 1600 1600 1600 S. P. Kirsten, 1577-1640, Orientalist. D. G. Bartholine, 1585-1629, D. Anders Arrebo, b. 1587, Anatomy, Theology. Religious Poetry. D. Ole Worm, 1588-1654, An. D. J. J. Pontanus, 1591-1640, tiquities, Philo. DT)nislh Hist_ D. Anders Bording, b. 1619, Poems. S. Stiernhjelm, Epic Poem,' Hercules.' LITERARY CHRONOLOGY-SWEDEN) DENMARK) AND ICELAND. 641 IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. Ic. Torfeeus, 1639-1720, Hist. S. O1. Rudbeck, 1630-1702, of Norway. Botany, Anat., &c. D. 1700 Thos. Kingo, b. 1634. 1700 IHymns. 1700 S. John Perngskiold, 1654- D. J. C. Sturmius, 1635-1703, 1720, History. Phys., Mathem. - D. Arne Magnussen, b. 1663, Collec. Hist. D. Albert Thura, Hist. L. HIolberg, 1684-1754, D. Hans Gram, d. 1748, HisDrama, Satire; Hist. tory. D. Ch. Falster, 1690- 1752, Satirist. D. Langebek, d. 1775, Collec. S. Linnaeus, 1707-1778, Danish History. Botany. S. Olof Dalin, 1708-1763, D. Pontoppidan, d. 1764, OriPoetry, History. gines Havnienses. S. Lagerbring, d. 1781, tIistory..D. Sneedorf, 1724-1764, Poems. S. Wallerius, d. 1785, Mineralogy. D. P. T. Suhm, 1720-1798, D. Oeder, Flora Danica. D. Tullin, Lyrics. Hist. of Denmark. S. Ihre, Dictionary. DI. John Ewald, 17431781, Tragedy, Lyrics. D. J. H. Wessel, Humorous Poems. S. Bellerman, 1741-1796, Lyrics. T). H. Tode, 1736-1806, Dramas, Fables. D. Samsoe, 1759-1796, Tragedies. D. P. A.: Heiberg, b. 1758, Drama. i~. S. Elgstrim, d. 1810, Poems. Ic. 1800 Thorlacksen, d. 1819, 1800 1800 Transl. Milton D. Malte Brun, d. 1826, GeogD. C. L. Sander, Dramas. raphy. D. Jens. Baggesen, d. 1826, Lyrics. S. Thorild Travels. D. Oehlenschlager. S. Berzelius, Chemistry. Poems. D. Rask, Orientalist. D. B. S. Ingermann, S. Wodderstadt,' On Yellow Lyrics. S. Afzelius, Iceland Records. Fever.' S. Atterbone, Poems. S. Hallenberg, History. S. Liliegren. Northern AnS. Tegner, Romances, &c. S. Granberg, Statistics. tiquities. S. F. Bremer Novels, 5. Blexell, Topography. S. Norberg, Orientalist. J. F. Blumenbach, 1840, Naturalist. 642 THE WORLDIS PROGRESS. POLISH. IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 1200 1200 Vine. Kadlubek, d. 1226, 1200 History of Poland. Boguphalus, d. 1253, Chronicle of Poland. Martin Polonus, d. 1278, Chronicle of Popes and Emperors. Vltellio, Optics. 1400 1400 Dluglossus, 1415-1480, 1400 History of Poland. 1500 1500 1500 N. Copernicus, 1472-1543, Astronomy. Cawalezewski, Chronicles. Lucas Gornicki, Ethics. Bielski, Chronicles. Rey of Naglowic, 1515 — 1568, Ethics. Kochanowski, 1530-1584 Stryjkowski, Chron. of Poland and Russia. 1600 1600 Ab. Bzovius, 1567-1637, 1600 Ecclesiastical Annals. Sarbiewski, 1595-1640, John Maccov, d. 1644, TheLatin Poetry. ology. Przipcov, 1590-1670, TheLubienetski, 1623-1675, ology. History of Reformation. 1700 1700 Dogiel, Coell. Hist. Poland. 1700 Mizler, Do. Naruszewicz, d. 1796, Poetry and History. 1g00 Krasicki, Poems, - Roman- 1800 1800 ces. Boguslawski, Drama. Bronikowski, Novels. Bernatowicz, Novels. Bulgarin, Novels. Mickiewicz, Poems. Lach Szmyrna, Travels. Odyniec, Drama. Potocki, Travels. Linde, Lexicon. RUSSIAN. [The Russian has been in use as the language of literature scarcely more than a century. Almost ell books used in Russia were written in the ancient Sclavonic tongue, which does not greatly differ from Russian, but more closely resembles the languages spoken in Servia, and in the other provinces near the Save and Danube. The first printing-office in Russia was established in 1553.] IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 1000 1000 1000 Yaroslaf, Code of Laws. Nestorof iew, 10of Russ-1115a. Chronicles of Russia. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY —— USSIAN. 643 IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 1100 1100 Theodosius, d.1120, Annals. 1100 Sylvester, d. 1l 23, Chronicles of Russia. The Expedition of Ighor, a celebrated Poem, author Unknown. Simeon of Susdal, d. 1206, Chronicles of Russia...1200 1200 John of Novgorod, HIistory 1200 of Russia. [The blank of nearly four centuries arises from the oppression of the Mongols, who held Russia from 1.223 to 1477. They destroyed almost all ancient books, and repressed the rising spirit of knowledge which a close connection with the Greeks was then introducing into Russia.].1500 1500 1500 Sudebuek, Code of Laws. 1600 1600 1600 Demetrius of Rostoff Theology, Spiritual Dramas. Simeon of Polotsk, Poems, Spiritual Dramas. 1700 1700 Khilkoff, History of Russia. 1700 Theophanes, Setmons. V. Tatischeff, d. 1750, Chronicles of Russia. Cantemir, 1708-1744, Satirical Poems. Lomonosoff, 1711-1765, Poetry, History, Science. Tredianoffski, Poems. Cherbatoff, History. Popofski, Transl. Pope. Golikoff, History. Sumarokoff, 1718 —1777, Drama. Kheraskoff, 1733-1807,' The Russiad.' Plato, 1737-1812, Sermons. Kostroff, d. 1796, Transl. the Iliad. P. S. Pallas, 1741-1811, Petroff, 1736-1799, Transl. Natural History. the Eneid. Kniajuin, 1742-1794, Drama. J. Khemnitzer, 1744-1784, Fables. Klushin, Comedies. Ephimieff, Comedies. Ablesimoff, Operas. G. R. Dellavin, 1743-1816, Muravieff, 1757-1816, HisLyric Poetry. tory, Didactics. H. Bogdanovitch, 1743- Eugenius, History. 1803,' D ushenka,' Poems. Vizin, 1745-1792, Comedies, Tales. Nicoleff, Tragedies. 1800 Maikoff, Comic Poems. 1800 Karamsin, b. 1765, History 1800 Shishkoff, Criticism. Dmitrieff, Lyrics. Fables. of Russia. Ozeroff, d. 1816. Tragedies. Kachenofski, History. P. Sumarokoff, Poems, G. Glinka, History. Tales. V. A. Jukofski, b. 1783, Poems. Augustin, Sermons. Milonoff, d. 1821, Satires. Kotzebue, Voyage of DisBatiushkoff, Transl. Tibul- covery. lus. Gretch, History of Russian Gneditch, Transl. Iliad, Literature. Odes. Timkowski, Journey to Kryloff, Fables. China. 644 THE WORLDSS PROGRESS. ARABIAN, PERSIAN, AND TURKISH. P. Persian. T. Turkish. Those unmarked are Arabian. IMAGINATION. SACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIF,. 600 Mahomet Koran. 600 600 Lebid, 62 —757, Poems. Zohair, Poems. Aharun, Medicine. Kais' El Ameri, or Amrulkais, Poems. 700 700 700 Jafar, Chemistry. Abu Hanifah, 699-767, Theology. Abun Massab, Poems. Abunowas,762 —810, Poems. Rehashi, Poems. Au Obeid, d. 838, Fables. Muham. ben Omar, History. 800 800 800 Asmai, 740-830, Theology. Kendi, Philosophy. J. ben Serapion, Medicine. Almamon, Astronomical Tables. Bahali, d. 835, Etymology. Alfragan, Astronomy. Nasir Khosru, Metaphys. A.Temain, 801 —845, Poems. Albumazar, 805-885, Mathematics, Astronomy. Wahab, Travels. Bochari, 810-870,' The Abuzeid, Travels. Sahih,' Traditions. I. Kotaibah, d. 889. History. Abu Jafar, 838-922, Hist. Bochteri, 821-882, Anthol. Honain ben Isaac, d. 874, Geber, Chemistry. Translations from Greek. Abu Mohammed Abdallah, Literature. 900 Ibn Doraid, d. 931, Poems. 900 900 Albategni, Astronomy. Rases, d; 922, Medicine. Ben Musa, Mathematics Almotanabbi, d. 95, Azophi, Astronomy. Poems Said ben Batrik, 876-937, General History. Eutychius, History. Massudi, d. 957, History and Geography. Alfarabi, d. 954, Aristotelian Philosophy. Geuhari, d. 998, Aristotelian Philosophy. Ibn Haukal, Geography. P. 1000 Ferdusi, 932-1020, 1000 Almuyadad, History of 1000 Achmet, Treatise on Shalh Nameh' Epic Saracens in Sicily. Dreams. Poem. Ibn Mesua, Medicine. Avicenna, 980-1038, Philosophy, Medicine. Abul Ola, 973-1057, Poems. Abulcasis, Medicine. Jelaleddin, Correction of Calendar. Arzachel, Astronomy. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY —ARABIAN PERSIAN, AND TU~RKISH. 6j45 IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 1100 Tograi, d. 1119, Poems. 1100 1100 Gazali, 1058-1112, Aristotelian Philosophy. Alhazin, Optics. Tabrizi, d. 1136, Commen. IIairi, 1054-1121, Moral taries. Poems. Algazel, Antiquities, &c. Alchabit, Optics, Astron. P. Feleki, d. 1181, Poems. Ben Idris, b. 1099, Geog. A Zohar, d. 1168, Medic. P. Khakani, d. 1186, Poems. P. Anwari, d. 1200, Poems. Averroes, d. 1206, AristoJaafar ebn Tofail, cd. 1198, telian Philosophy.'Hai ben Yokdan,' a Novel. 1. Elfaredih, d. 1234, Poems. 1200 1200 Bohadin, Life of Saladin. 1200 A. Baca, d. 1219, Arithm. Abdollatif, Topography of Egypt. Abuldem, d. 1244, History. E1 Harawi, Travels. P. Saadi, 1193-1291,'Gulis- Caswin, d. 1274, Natural tan,'' Bostan.' History. Beithar, d. 1246, Botany, Medicine. Elfaragi, Poems. Abulfarage, 1226-1286, Universal History. Elmacin, d. 1302, History of Saracens. P. Nasireddin, 1201-1273, Astronomy. P. Fadlallah, History of Moguls. 1300 1300 Abulfeda, 1273-1333, 1300 E. Hajan, d. 1344, Gran. Geography, History. Novairi, d. 1331, Universal History. Mohammed Ibn Batuta, Travels. Ibn al Wardi, d. 1358, Geography. Abu Shameh, b. 1299, Hist. P. Turan Shah, d. 1377, Hist. P. Hafix, d 1395, Odes. Jafei, d. 1368, Biography. Firuzabadi, 1329-1414,'The Camoos.' 1400 P. 1400 Ali Yezdi Sherifeddin, 1400 Zeineddin Abulhassan, Life of Tamerlane. Dictionary. Makrizi, 1367-1438, Hist. Ulug Beg, 1393-1444, Arabshah, d. 1450, Life of Astronomy, Chronology. Timur. Babacushi, d. 1481, Baccai, d. 1480, Biography. Politics. P. Khondemir, or Mirkhond, P. Jami, d. 14386, Poems. CGen. Hist. to A. D. 1474. T. Baber, d. 1530, Autobiography. 1500 Alhassan, Description of 1500 Africa. Babacushi, d. 1566, Morals. A1 Jannali, di 1590, Universal History. 646 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 1600 1600 Ferishta, Hist. of India. P. 1600 Nured. Shirazi, Metaph. Abulgazi, 1605 —1663, Hist. Moham. Ilossain,' Borhani of Tartars. Kata,' Dictionary. T. Haji Khalifleh, d. 1675, History. 1700 P. 1700 Gholam Hussein, An- 1700 Gholam Ali, Grammar. nals of IIindostan. UNITED STATES OF NORTH AMERICA. IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC,. 1600 1600 1600 Thomas IIooker, d. 1627, Sermons, &c. Wm. Hubbard, 170-1, Hist. John Cotton, d. 1652, Theol. of Massachusetts. Cotton Mather, 1662-1728, Sermtons,' Magnalia,'&c. 1700 John Adams, 1705-1740, 1700 Inc. Mather, 1723,'History 1700 Benj. Colnan, d. 1747, Poems. of War with Indians.' Theology. Benj. Church, 1739-1776, Thos. Prince, d. 1757 Hist. Jona. Edwards, d. 1757, Poems. of New England. Theology. Wm. Livingston, 1723- Samuel Davies, d. 1761, 1790, Poems. Sermons. John Trumbull, 1750-1831, John Clayton, d. 1773,'McFingal,' &c. Botany. Joel Barlow, 1755-1812, Cadwallader Colden, 1688-'The Columbiad.' 1776, History of the Five Nations of Indians. John Blair Linn, 1777- John Bartram, d. 1777, 1804, Poems. Botany, Travels. Thos. Hutchinson, d. 1780, Jos. Bellamy, d. 1790, Ilist. of Massachusetts. Theology. Benjamin Franklin, 17061790,Natural Philosophy, Politics, &c. Jas. Otis, d. 1783, Politics John Hancock, 1793, Politics. John Witherspoon, d. 1794, Theology, Politics. Patrick Henry, d. 1796, David Rittenhouse, d. 1796, Politics. Astronomy. Samuel Adams, 1803, Jeremy Belknap, 1798, His- Politics. tory of N. hIampshire. Samuel Hopkins, 1721Amer. Biog. &c. 1803, Theology. Geo. R. Minot, 1802,' Hist. Fisher Ames, d. 1808, of Massachusetts Bay.' Politics. Isaac Backus, 1806, Church History of N. England. 1800 Clas. B. Brown, d. 1810, 1800 Jas. Sullivan, d. 1809, Hist. 1800 Thos. Paine, 1737-1809. Novels. of Maine. Politics,'Age of Reason Robt. Treat Paine, 1773-'Rights of Man,' &c. 1811,'Invention of Let- David Ramsay, d. 1812, Jos. S. Buckminster, d. ters,''The Ruling Pas-'Life of Washington,' 1812, Theology. sion,' and other Poems.'American Revolution,' Alex. Hamilton, 1757-'Universal History.' 1804, Politics. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY-U. S. OF NORTH AMERICA. 647 IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC, 1800 Paul Allen, 1775-1826, 1800 Alexander Wilson, d. 1813, 1800'Noah,' (a poem,) LHist.'American Ornithology.' of Am. Revol.] Hugh Wtilliamnson, d. 1318, Hist. of N. Carolina. Benj. S. Barton, d. 1815, Botany. Gouverneur Morris, 17521816, Politics. Timothy Dwight, 17521817,'Theology Explained and Defended.' Levi Frisbie, 1784-1822, Moral Philosophy. Wm. Pinckney, 1764-1822, Wm. Bartram, d. 1823, Law, Politics. Botany, Travels. Jno. Marshall, 1755-1835, Jedediah Morse, d. 1826, Law. Geog., Statistics, &c. W. E. Channing, 1780J. G. C. Brainard, cd. 1826, 1842, Sermons, Criticism. Poems. Nathl. H. Carter, 1788- Thomas Jefferson, 1743 — 1830,'Letters from Eu- 1826, Potitics, Philos. rope.' John Adams. 1735-1826, Wm. Wirt, 1772-1834, Edmund D. Griffin, 1804- Politics. British Spy.' 1830, Travels in Europe, John MI. Mason, D.D., Lectures on Literature, 1770-1829, Divinity, &c. Sermons, &c. John D. Godman, d. 1830, John H. Hobart, D. D., Anatomy, Natural Hist., 1776-1830, Sermons, &c. &c. Jos. Story, 1779-1845, Robt. C. Sands, d. 1832, John Marshall, 1755-1835, Law. Poems. Life of Washington, &c. Henry Wheaton, 1782J. Q. Adams, 1767-1847, Jno. Armstrong 1758-1843, 1848, Law. Poems.'War of 1812. Edw. Livingston, 1764Washington Allston, 1779- Abiel Holmes, 1763-1837, 1836, Criminal Code, &c. 1843, Painter, Poet, and Annals of America. David Hosack, 1769-1835, Novelist. Timothy Flint, 1780-1840, Medicine. Timothy Flint, 1780-1840 -list. of Mississ. Valley. Jas. Madison, 1751-1836, Novels. A. S. Mackenzie, -1849, Politics. Jas. A. Hillhouse, 1789- Travels in Spain, &c. 1841, Poems. Wm. Leggett, 1802-1840, Alex. H. Everett, 1790Poems, Miscellan., Polit. 1847, Essays. R. II. Wilde, 1789-1840, R. Harlan, 1796-1813, Poems, Researches on Natural History. Tasto, &c. James Kent, 1763-1847, Comment. on.Am. Law. Htugh S. Legar6, 17971843, Miscellanies. Jas. Marsh, 1794-1642, Metaphysics. E. A. Poe, 1811-1849,Poems, Albert Gallatin, 1761-1849, Tales. Ethnology, Philology. J. C. Calhoun, 1782-1850, Politics, Speeches. HEATHEN DEITIES, AND OTHER FABULOUS PERSONS, WITH THE HEROES AND HEROINES OF ANTIQUITY. A ZiuEofs, one of the four horses of ths sun..Escsclt'szsus, a Roman god of riches. Abtaris, a Scythian, priest of Apollo. A_/scuzlal'pis, the god o' physic. Abeotna, a goddess of voyages, &c..zEthaltides, a son of mercury. Abreta'nsss, a surname of Jupiter.. EA'fthon, one of the four horses of the sun. Albron, a very voluptuous Grecian.. ttneuts, a title of Vulcan. Abyfla, a famous mountain in Africa. Etollos, a son of Endymion aud Diana. Acanttha, a nymph beloved by Apollo. Agamemtnon, a brother of Menelaus, chosen Acasftus, the name of a famous hunter. captain-general of the Greeks at the sieg. Acetus, one of the priests of Bacchus. of Troy. Achaz'msenes, the first king of Persia. Aganipipe, daughter of the river Permessus, Achattes, a trusty friend of AEneas. which flows fiom mount Ilelicon. Achleron, a son of Titan and Terra, changed into Agetnosr, the first king of Argos. a river of hell fbr assisting the Titans in their Agenot'sia, the goddess of industry. war against Jupiter. Ag-elas'tus and Agesitlaus, names of Pluto. Achil'les, son of Peletus, king of Thrace, and Aglatia, one of the three Graces. Thetis, a goddess of the sea, who, being dip- A[jax, one of the most distinguished princes and ped by his mother in the river Styx, was in- heroes at the siege of Troy. vulnerable in every part except his right Albhunea, a famous sybil of Tripoli. heel, by which she held him; after signaliz- Alcildes, a title of Hercules. ing himself at the siege of Troy, for his valor, Alcitnous, a ling of Corcyra. as well as cruelty, he was at length killed by Alcilonezus, a giant slain by Hercules. Paris with an arrow. Alcilope, a favorite mistress of Neptune. Acidtalia and Arnoatta, names of Venus. Alc?7zetna, the wife of Amphitryon. Acidatlus, a famous fountain of Baeotia. Alec'to, one of the three Furies. Atcis, a Sicilian shepherd, killed by Polyphemus, Alecti'yon, or Gallhts, a favorite of Mars. because he rivalled him in the affections of Altmus, and Alum'nus, titles of Jupiter. Galetea. Alola, a festival of BaJcchus and Ceres..Alc!9,onz, a famous king of the Titans. Alcezsss, a giant who warred with Jupiter. Actratus, the genius of drunkards at Athens. Anstalth'ta, the goat that suckled Jupiter. A] -ttceon, a celebrated hunter, who, accidentally Amzbarvatle, a spring sacrifice to Ceres. discovering Diana bathing, was by her turned Arzbrolsia, the food of the gods. into a stag, and devoured by his own hounds. Auzuzon, a title of Jupiter. Admettus, a king of Thessaly. Assphiarartis, son of Apollo and Hypermnestra, Adolnis, the incestuous offspring of Cinyras and a very famous augur. Myrrha, remarkably beautiful, beloved by Amphimet'don, one of the suitors of Penelope. Venus and Proserpine. Alsphilon, a famous musician. Adrasttea, the goddess Nemesis. Amlzhitri'te, the wife of Neptune..Itacus, one of the infernal judges. Amyntor, a king of Epirus..Elga, Jupiter's nurse, daughter of Olenus. Analtis, the goddess of prostitution. /get'zs, a king of Attica, giving name to the Ancao'us, a king of Arcadia..Egean sea by drowning himself in it. Androsgels, the son of Minos..giltna, a particular favorite of Jupiter. Andclrolache, the wife of Hector.'tgis. a Gorgon, whom Pallas slew. Aundro7oneda, the daughter of Cepheus and Cas-,lgle. one of the three Hesperides. siope,who, contending for the prize of beauty./Elgoe, a wrestler famous for strength. with the Nereides, was by them bound to a.,gyplltus, son of Neptune and Lybia. rock and exposed to be devoured by a sea /elilo, one of the three Harpies. monster; but Perseus slew the monster. and XEnelas, son of Anchises and Venus. married her.,zOllotis, the god of the winds. Angeeroza, the goddess of silence. HEATHEN DEITIES1 ETC. 6 4 AnatA, the sister of Pygmalion and Ditdo. Bellero'phosn, son of Glaucus, king of Ephyra, sAntes'as, a giant son of Neptune and Terra; lhe who underwent numlberless hardships for was squeezed to death by Hercllies. relhsing an intimacy with Schenobwea, thle Ant'teros, one of the names of Cupid. wife of Pretua, king of' Argos. Anteverlta, a goddess of wome n in labor. Bellona. the noddess of war. An'tlZia, and Argitva, titles of.Juno. Berecyns"z/hiu IarLt/er, a title of Cybele. Anlzubis, an Egyptian god with a dog's head. Be- reniuce, a Grecian lady, who was the only Aojrides, a namne of tle Muses. person of her sex permitted to see the ClvymAonatutiria, and Aplhrodiltis, titles of Venus. pic games. Atpis, son of Jupiter and Niobe, called also, Bertgion, a giant, slain by Jupiter. Serapis, and Osiris: he first taught the Bitl2io, the wile of Duillius, who first instituted Egyptians to sow corn and plant vines; a triumph fbr naval victory. after his death they worshipped him in the Bi'cejps and EBiyions, names of Janus. form of an ox, a symbol of husbandry. Bisult'ors- a name of Mars. A,.ach'ne, a Lydian princess, turned by Minerva Bilthon, a remnarkably strong Grecian. inlto a spider, flbr presuming to vie with her Bolitrso, a nymiph rendered imirlrtal for her at spinning. modesty and resistance of Apollo. Arethlu'sar, the daughter of Nereus. Bona Dela, a title of Cybele. and Fortuna. Argentilnus, and AEsculannus, gods of wealth. Bolnus Daslzorn, a title of Priapus. Ar?'go, the ship that conveyed Jason and his com- Botreas, son of 2Estrwus and Heribeia, generally panions to Colchis, and reported to have been put for the north wind. the first man-of war. Brelvis, a title of Fortuna. Artgosznauts, the companions of Jason. Brilareus, a monstrous giant, son of Titan and Ar'tgus, son of Aristor, said to have had a hun- Terra: the poets feign him to have had a dred eyes; also an architect, who built the hundred arms and fifty heads. ship Argo. Briiszo, and Bulbastis, names of Hecate..,f-ioad'ne, daughter of Minos, who, from love, Brise'is, daughter of Brises, priest of Jupiter, gave Theseus a clue of thread to guide him given to Achilles upon the taking of Lyrout of the Cretan labyrinth: being after- nessus, a ciiy of Troas, by the Greeks. wards deserted by him, she was married to Bron'tes, a maker of Jupiter's thunder. Bacchus, and made his priestess. Bro'theus, a son of Vulcan, who threw himself Arizaslpi, a warlike people of Scythia. into mount ALEtna, on account of his deAiri'on, a lyric poet of MeLhymna. formity. Aristc'lus, son of Apollo and Cyrene. Br1unallia, feasts of Bacchus. Aristosne'nes, a cruel Titan. Bubolzna, the goddess of oxen. Aristophlanes, a comic poet, born at Lindus, a Bus1ilriS, a son of Neptune, and a most cruel town of Rhodes. tyrant; he was slain by Hercules, A?rte'zsis, the Delphic sybil; also Diana. Bybtlis, the daughter of Miletus. Ascletpia, festivals of.Esculapius. Ascotlra, feasts of Bacchus, celebrated in Attica. v Aste'ria, daughter of Ceus. Astrapoatues, and Ataby'rus, Jupiter. Cabartni, priests of Ceres. Astr'ao, the goddess of' justice. Cabilri, priests of Cybele. Astroltogus, a title of Hercules. Ca'bruszs, a god of the P'laselitm. Alstyranx., the only son of Hector., Carczs, a son of Vulcan. Astypaloa,,a daughter of Phoenix. Coadl'sus, son of Agenor and Telephessa, who, Atte,-the goddess of revenge. searching in vain for his sister, built the city Atlan'tes, a savage people of Ethiopia. of Thebes, and invented 16 letters of the AtIlos, a king of Mauritania. Greek alphabet.,t1'-opos, one of the three Fates. Cadulceus, Mercury's golden rod or wand. A'ver'nus, a lake on the borders of hell. Cwtca, and Conservaltrix, titles of Fortuna. Averr2uncnC s. a god of' the Romans. Cctulus, a robber, son of Vulcan. Augetas, a kling of Elis, whose stable of 3000 Ce'szeas, a title of Jupiter. oxen was not cleansed for 30 years, yet Her- Callchas, a famous Greek soothsayer. cules cleansed it in one day. Calis'to, the daughter of Lycaon. Alvistnper, a title of Priapus. Callilope, the muse of heroic poetry. Azs'rea, a name of Fortuna. Calyp'so, daughter of Oceanus and Thetis, who AuZoira, the goddess of morning. reigned in the island of Ogygia, where she Autolleon, a general of the Crotonians. entertained and became enamored of UlysAutltzutneus, the god of fruits. ses, on his return from Troy. Cam'bles, a gluttonous king of Lydia. g CcsanDby'ses, the son of Cyrus, and king of the Medes and Persians. Bactchus, the god of wine. Cazct'rzna, and Caona, goddess of infants. iBaptta, the godldess of shame. GCasies, a title of the Furies. Barbaotta, a title of Venus and Fortuna. Canospus, an Egypiian god. Bas'sar-es, a title of Bacchus. Catdclua, a household goddess. Eoat'tzs, a herdsnlan, turned by Mercury into a Carmeneia, a name of Themis. loadstone. Cay-rna, a Roman goddess. Bauocis, an old woman, who, with her husband Coryatlis, a title of Diana. Philemon, entertained Jupiter and Mercury, Cas'pii, a people of Hyrcania, who were said to travelling over Phrygia, when all others re- starve their parents to death when 70 years fused. old, and to train up dogs for war. 28 650 THE WVORLD S PROGRESS. Cassanrrdra, a dtaughter of Priam and Hecuba, D endowed with the gift of prophecy by Apollo. C!astal'ides, the Muses, fiom the fountain Cas- Dcedatlion, tile son of Lucifer. talius, at the foot of Parnassus. Dceda'lus, an artificer of Athens, who formed the Castto-, son of.1lupiter anid Leda, between whom Cretan labyrinth, and invented the auger, and his brother Pollux immortality was al- axe, glue, plumb-line, saw, and mlasts and ternately shared. sails lor ships. Catltius, a tutelar god to grown persons. DaCt7n0s, the silcere fiiend of Pythias. Celcreops, the first cing of Athens. Detoe.et, Botles, Dithyall/1tbus, antd Dionss'Celast'o, one of the three Harpies. ius, titles of Bacchtus. Cen'taurs, children of Ixion, half men, half Dcat'sae, the daughter of Acrisius, king of Argos, horses, inhabiting Thessaly. seduced by Jupiter in the formn of a golden Cephat'ltls, the son of Mercury and Hersa. shower. CeIaheous, a prince of Arcadia and Ethiopia Dcana'iles, or Bellides, the fifty daughters )f Ce? azinius, a title of Jupiter. Danaus, cing of Argos, all of whom, except C'e. tberus, a dog with three heads and necks, Hypermnestra, killed their husbalcls, the solls who e-ouarded the gates of hell. of their uncle'Egyptus, on the marriage C oersealia, testivals in honor of Ceres. night: they were therefore condemned to 0C'roes, the goddess of agriculture. draw water out of a deep well with sieves. Ceotrus, or Sb'etrus, the god of opportunity. so that their labor was without end or sucChalllea, lestivals in honor of Vulcan. cess. Chatrites, a name of the Graces. D)aphtne, a nymph beloved by Apollo. Chalton, the flrrymaln of hell. Dardca'ns, the founder of Troy. Chtiloeic, a strange monster of Lycia, which Dalres, a very ancient historian who wrote an was killed by Bellerophon. account of the Trojan war. Chitronn, the preceptor of Achilles. Deloa Syrlia, a title of Venus. Chot'inis, a cruel son of Hercules. Dec'ilzta, a title of Laclhesis. C]hssaoter'lts, a surname of Jupiter. Deioszic-a, the wife of Hercules. Chlysis, a priestess of Juno and Argos. Deildactmia, a daughter of Lycomedes, king of Csitce, a fthmous enchantress. Scyros, by whom Achilles had Pyrrhus, Ci-rhoa, a cavern of Phocis, near Delphi, whence while he lay concealed in woman's apparel the winds issued which caused a divine r]age;, in the court of Lycomedes, to avoid going to and produced oracular responses. the Trojan war. Cithwtrides, a title of the Muses. Deiapeta, a beautifiul attendant on Juno. Clausia, a name of Venus. fDeip/t'obe, the Culsean sybil. Clatt'sius, or CGlutsizts, a namne of Janus. Doeiphlobts, a son of Priam and liecuba. Cleotmnedes, a famous wrestler. Detlia, Deliuzts, Diana and Apollo. Cli'o, the Mluse presiding over history, and pa- De'las, the island where Apollo was born. troness of heroic poets. Del'phi, a city of Phocis, flamous for a tetmple Clostho, one of the three Fates. and an oracle of Apollo. Clytennes'ira, daughter of Jupiter and Leda, Delfphicus, DidclynaJus, titles of Apollo. killed by her son, Orestes, on account of her DeeLtades an Athenian orator. adultery with ~Egisthus. Der'hices, a people near the Caspian Sea, who Cocyllus, a river of hell, flowing from Styx. punished all crimes with death. Colli'na, the goddess of hills. Deuca'lion, son of Prometheus, and king of TilesCozpilallia, games of the household gods. saly, who, with his wife Pyrrha, was pre. C'orsous. the god of festivals and merriment. served frotom the general deluge, and re-peoConcorldia, the goddess of peace. pled the world. Consservato'r, and Custtos, titles of Jupiter. Devertoa, the goddess of breeding women. Con'sus, a title of Neptune. Diag'toras, a Rhodian, who died ibr joy, because C0ortilna, the covering of Apollo's tripos. his three sons had on the same day gailied Ceorybatles,.antd Cur.'le -riests o' Cvbele. prizes at the Olympic games. Creton, a king of Thebes. Dialna, the goddess of hunting, &c. Cs-itnis, a priest of Apollo..Di'lo, daughter of Belus, the lounder and queen Crinis'szus, a Trojan prince, who could change of Carthage, whom Virgil fables to have himself into any shape. burnt herself through despair, because E.neC?-cersus, a rich king of Lydia. as left her. Crotznia, festivals in honor of Saturn. Dites, and Diestpiter, titles of Jupiter. Ctes'ibus, a famous Athernian parasite. Din'lyze, Ditzdysoe'ee, titles of Cybele. Cu'nia, the goddess of new-born infants. Diost'ecdes, a king of 2Etolia, who gained great Cutpid, son of Mars and Venus, the god of love, reputation at Troy, and, accompanied by smiles, &c. Ulysses, carried off the Palladium; also a Cy'clops, Vulcan's workmen, with only one eye tyrant of Thrace. in the middle of' their forehead. Ditone, one of Jupiter's mistresses. Cybiele, the wife of Saturn. Dionystia, feasts in honor of Bacchus. Cyt'nus, a kin,g of Liguria; also a son of Nep- Dioscuhi, a title of Castor and Pollux. tune, who was invulnerable. Diilrce, a title of the Furies. (,pilelnists, and Cartsililus, names of Mercury. Dis, a title of Pluto. C'ynocephlah, a people of India, said to have Discor'dia, the gocddess of contention. heads resemblinlg those of dogs. D.Douidutca, a title of' Juno. Cyn'thia, and Cynstlhits, Diana, and Apollo. DsDotidu'lcus, and Dos7stizitts, nuptial gods. Cyporissaoa, a title of Minerva. Dognuitza, a title of Proserpine. Cyptria, Cythere a, titles of Venus. lDrylades, nymphs of the woods and forests. HEATHEN DEITIES, ETC. 651 Febrdta, Flor ida, Fluco'nia, titles of Juno, Fetr ta,o a goddess of purification.,'i.chifon, a companion of Cadmus. PFeblrtzis, a title of Pluto. tk'c io, daushter of Aer andt Tellus, who pined lFePtcitas, the goddess of happiness. away for love of Nalcissus. FePrlcu6ts, a household god. Edo;i'das, priestesses of Bacchus. Fet e'tr is, and FTzulinauor, titles of Jupiter. Ed',lca. a gc- 4dess o' new born infants. Fe'o'nzia, a goddess of woods. Le'ietroia, a title.f Juno; also a goddess. Pissoio, a goddess of wearied persons. l-kecCft ra the dau-hter of Agalmelanon and Cly- idcl'itus, the god of treaties. temnestra. who insitiated Orestes to revenge Flaotinles, priests of' Jupiter, Marls, &c. their lather's death on their mother and her Flo/ra, the goddess of flowers. adulterer IEtgisthus. Fiuviatles, or PocaiLides, nymphs of rivers. E'leas, and Eleiuthe't ise, titles of Bacchus. Fo rtnax, the godtless of corn and bakers. tIets. i7,ti t febasts in honor of Ceres and Proser- F rt'fona, or oert tizne, the goddess of happiness, pine. &c.. saidt to be blind. Elo'ides, nymphs of Bacchus. FuPt1ties, or Eztuoelztides, the three daughters of EJpnz)u'sc., a name of the Gorgons..Nox and Acheron, named Alecto, Megera, lEndlly7itionl, a shepherd of Carla, who, for inso- and Tisiphone, with hair composed ofsnakes, lently soliciting Juno, was condemned to a and armed with whips, chains, &c. sleep of 30 years; Luna visited him by night in a cave of mount,atimus. Eniallius, a title of Mars. G Eniyo, the same as Bellona. Epelues, the arList of the Trojan horse. Galateta, daughter of Nereus and Doris, passionEpig'ones, the sons of the seven worthies who ately beloved by Polyphtemus. besieged Thebes, a second time. Galtii, castrated priests of Cybele.'pil'tnea, sacrifices to Bacchus. Gatlzis, or Alectlrion, a f:vorite of Mars: and tEpistrotphlia, and Eryrcizna, titles of Venus. changed by him into a cock. E,'pizephtrii, a people of Loclis, wvho punished CGazeliz, a title of Juno. those with death that dranlk moie wine than Gantl-es, a famous river of India. physicians prescribed. Ganyiernede, the cup-bearer of Jupiter. ral'to, the muse of love-poetry. Gelasitnus, lthe god of' mirth and smiles..er'ebus, an infernal deity, son of Chaos and Nox, Gelotzi, a people oft Scythia, who used to paint a river of hell. themselves in order to appear more terrible Erteane, a river whose waters inebriated to their enemies. Eriotltotnizs, a kin, of' Athens, who, being lame Geniit. guardian angels. and very deformed in his feet, invented Gerntis, a name of Priapus. coaches to conceal his lameness. Ger yon, a king of Spain, who fed his oxen with Erintnys, a conmmon name of the furies. human flesh, and was therefore killed by -Eros, one of the names of Cupid. Hercules. Eos'tratus, the person who, to perpetuate his Glaucotpis, a name of Minerva. name, set fire to the celebrated temple of Glaucus, a fishemtnan made a sea god by eating Diana at Ephesus. a certain herb: also the son of Hippolochus, Plte'ocles, and Poly'tnices, sons of (Edipus, who who exchanged his arms of gold for the braviolently hated, and at last killed each other. zen ones of Diomede. EJvadtne, dauhter of Mars and Thebhe, who Gnostsis, a name of Ariadne. threw herself on the funeral pile of her hus- Gortldiuts, a husbandman, but afterwards king of band Cataneus, fronom affection. Phrygia, remarkable for tying a knot of cords.luctrates, a person rebmarkable fb. shuffling, du- on wliich the empire of Asia depended, in so picity, and dissimulation. very intricate a manner, that Alexander the Eusnntides, a nan.oe' the Furies. Great, unable to unravel it, cut it to pieces. Euplhrostyne, one of the three Graces. Gol-'oszs, the three daughters of Phorcys and Eurotp)a, the daughter of Agenor, wlho, it is said, Ceta, Medusa, Euryale, and Stheno, who was carried by Jupiter, in. the form ofa white coull change into stone those whorn they bull, into Crete. looked on; Perseus slew Meduss, the prinEt'rytale, one of the three Gorgons. cipal of them. Euotd'ice, the wife of Orpheus. Gso-gsoophftorus, a title of Pallas. Etuyp'7sttee, an infernal deity. Gtaoces, Aglaia, Thalia, and Euphrosyne, the E'htserlpe, the muse presiding over music. daughters of Jupiter and Eurynomb; attenuitlhyipnus, a very famous wrestler. dants on Venus and the Muses. Graditvus, a title of Mars. Gyfies. a Lydian, to whom Candaules, kinG of Lydia, showed his queen naked, wlich so incensed her that she slew Candaules, and oh')iula, the goddess of lies. married Gyges; also a shepherd, who by To'ahdit'snus, a god of infants. means of a ring could render himself invi-,o'atsza the goddess of report, &c. sible. Ths'tcinuion, a title of Priapus. Fates, the three daughters of Nox and Erebus. Clothos, I,achesis, and Atropos, intrusted with the lives of mortals, &c. Ih'atdes, a title of Pluto. oazmtna, and Ftatua, names of Cybele. Hamaxotbii, a people of Scythla, who lived in Fautnus, the son of Mercury and Nox, and fa. carts, and removed from place to place as ther of the Faluns, rural gods. necessity required. 652 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. Htarnotznis, a famous artist of Troy. Hy'dra, a serpent,'which had seven heads, or as Hrsspualycsa, a very beautiful maid of Argos. some say nine, others fifty, killed by lIercuHaltpies, three monsters, Aello, Ceiceno, and les in the lakle Lerna. Ocypete, with the faces of virgins, bodies of Iy:ygetia, the goddess ot health. vultures, and hands armned with monstrous Ryl/lus, the son of HTercules and Dejanire. claws. llylt.en, the god of marriage. Ila poct rates, the Egyptian god of silence. Ilypetrisos, a son of Celus and Terra. He'be, the goddess ot youth. Nypsil'lyle, a queen of Lemnos, who was banHe'brus. a river in Thrace. ished for preserving her fatither when all tle He'calius, a title given to Jupiter by Theseus. othex men of the island were murdered by Hecrate, Diana's name in hell. their kindred. Hec'lor, a son of Priam and Hecuba, and the most valiant of all the Trojans. Hec'uba, the wife of Priam. 1[ Hegetsius, a philosopher of Cyrene, who described the miseries of life with such a Iactchus, a name of Bacchus. gloomy eloquence, that many of his auditors Ianlhte, the beautiful wibfe of Iphis. killed themselves through despair. Lapeltus, a son of Ccelem andt Terra. Heretena, the wife of' Menelaus, the most beauti- lar fbas, a cruel icing of Mauritanlia. ful womas.. in the world, who, running away Icdr'ius, the son of Oebalus, who, Laving rewith Paris, occasioned the Trojan war. ceived from Bacchus a bottle of wine, went teltenuss, a son of Priam and tHecuba. into Attica, to show men the use of it; but, lellicon, a famous mountain of Bceotia, dedi- maling some shepherds drunrk, they thought cated to Apollo and the Muses. he had given them poison, andt therefore Hera'ia, sacrifices to Juno. threw him into a well. 7llertcules, the soil of Jupiter and Alemena, re- Icetesns, the son of Dzedalus, who, flying with his markable for his numerous exploits and father out of Crete into Sicily, antl soaring dangerous enterprises. too high, melted the wax of his wings, and leleribetia, the wiile of Astleus. fell into the sea, thence called the Icarian flerolztce, statutes of Merlcury. sea. irelernes, a name of Mlercury. Itda, a mountain near Troy. Liersmmtone, a daughter of Mars and Venus, mar- Idata 3:later, a name of Cybele. 1ied to Cadmus; also a dauighter of sMene- Iclrati Dclettyli, a priestof Cybele. laus anld Helena, married to Pyrrhus. Idallia.c a name of Venus. ~Ietro, a beaultiful woman of Sestos, in Thrace, Idnto2tn, a famous soothsayer. priestess of Venus; Leander, of Abydos, Idolthea, Jupiter's nurse. loved her so tenderly that lhe swam over the llirone, the eldest daughter of Priam. ITellespont every night to see her; but being lis'suzs, a river in Attica. at lenith unfortunately drowned, she threw ltPts, tsle son of Tros and Callirrhoe, from whom herself' into the sea, through despair. Troy was called Ilium. Herod'ot/us, a very famous historian of Ialicar- Imperl/ator, a nairne of Jupiter. nassus. Ivstachis and Itses, names of Io. Herophli/a, the Erythrman sybil. I'no, daughter of Cadmus and Hermiones, and Hersili'a, the wife of Romulus. wife of Athamnas.:Iestpertes, or Vesper, the evening star. Istercidotna, a godless of breedint women. Hestpericles, the daughters of lIesperus; *Egle, Intertduica, and J.t.ga, names of' Juno. Arethusa, and HesperethuLsa, who had a gar- Intluus, and Inc'ubhs, names of Pan. den bearing golden apples, watched by a Ito, daughter of Inachus, transformed by Jupldragon, which Hercules slew, and bore away ter into a white heifer; but afterwards rethe fiuit, suming her former shape, was worshipp'd He'sus, a name of Mars among the Gautls. as a goddess by the Egyptians, under the Iiiptpias, a philosopher of Elis. name of Isis. I-IFjppocanL1tpi, Neptune's horses. Iphric/ls, the twin brother of Hercules. ifpipocene, a fountain at the botton' )f mount Iphzig'etzia, daughter of Agaamemn on and ClyHelicon, dedicated to Apollo. temnestra, who, standing as a victim readly Hippol'ytus, the son of Theseus and Antiope or to be sacrificed to appease the rage of Diana, Hyppolite, who refused intimacies with his was, by that goddess, transformed into a steptmother Phlsedro. At the request of white hart, carried to Tauris, and made her Diana, oEsculapius restored him to life, priestess. after he had been thrown fiom his chariot, ILp/his, a prince of Cyprus, who hanged himnself and dragged through the woods till he was for love; also a daughter of Lygodas. torn in pieces. Ipl'it/us, son of Praxonicles, who instiliuteil HIippotna, the goddess of horses and stables. Olympic games to Hercules. iLlisto'ria, the goddess of history. Itris, the claughter of Thautnas; she was Juno's lort/enstis, a name of Venus. favorite companion, and her messenger on rittus, a title of the sun. affairs of discord, &c. ftoslilitna, a goddess of corn. Ilys, thle son of Tereus and Progne, murdered 1ty'ades, the seven daughters of Atlas and and served up by his mother at a banquet Ethra; Ambrosia, Eudora, Coronis, Pasi- before Tereus, in revenge for hil having viothoe, Pl'lexaris, Pytho, and Tyche. They lated her sister Philomela. were changed by Jupiter into seven stars. Ixitron, the son of Phlegyas, who was fastened in gyt'bla, a mountain in Sicily, universally famous hell to a wheel perpetually turning round, for its tlhyme and bees. for boasting that he had lain with Juno. HEATHEN DEITIES1 ETC. 653 dJ MNlausolus, a king of Caria, who had a most magnificent tomb erected to him by his wife Janritor, and Junoenints, titles of Janus. Artenmisia..J'anus, the first king of Italy, son of Apollo and ilIede'a, daughter of hEtes, king of Colchis, a Creusa. famous sorceress, who assisted Jason to obJarfson, a Thessalian prince, son of.Eson, wh.o tain the golden fleece. by Medea's hellp brought away the golden lseditrina, a goddess of grown pe-:wons. fleece liom Cotchis. iiediztsa, thle chief of' the three Gorgons. Ttolcaslua, the diaughter of Creon, who unwittingly J lIegce'nra, one of the three Furies. ilmarried her own son, UEdipus. lMegalentsic, festivals in honor of Cybele.,Jul'so, the sister and wile of Jupiter. lllIegar ia, the wife of IHercules. fn(.'7U, Jy n ienao, a lmnne of PLoselpine. iMelelazi'ra, a namle of Venus. sitn-oless, guardian angels of women. leA'lice, nymphs of the fields. Jn1fifter, a son of Saturn and Ops-the supreme l'le'lius, a namle of Hercules. teity of the heathen. Tlelotna, the goddess of honey. Jlpiterl- Seczndifus, a name of Neptune. l31elponi'enie, the muse of' tragedy. Jn'piter 7Terllius, InJe'nrous, or Sty'gius, seve- ilIelnon, a king of Abydos. ral appellations given to Pluto. llenoaal'ns, a famous Centaur. Juvlen'tn, a goddess of youth. ll2eenelaelus, the husband of Helena. ilentlha, a mistress of Pluto. ll1entolor, the governor of Telemachus. L 3tfile'rrcufFy. the messenger of the gods, inventor of letters, and god of eloquence, merchandise, La'tchesis, one of the three Fates. and robbers. Lacinstia, and Lucillia, titles of Juno...lle7or1pe, one of the seven Pleiades. Lacttul'ra, or Lactucitna, a goddless of corn. llil'das, a king of' Phrygia, who entertained BacLt-estrigtones, cannibals of Italy, who roasted chus, or, as some say, Silenus, had the power and ate the companions of Ulysses. given him of turning whatever he touched Lasiuss, a king of Thebes, killedt unwittingly by into goltd. his own son, gndipus. Mitlo, a wrestler of remarklable strength. Lationice, a name of the Gorgons. ilinsailIones, attendants on Bacchus. Laroctoon, a son of Priatm and hligll-priest of ilinertva, the goddess of wisdom.,Apollo: he and his two sons were killed by i_3ltnos, a king of Crete, nmade, for his extriaordi. serpents for opposing the reception of the nary justice, a judge of' hell. wooilen horse into Troy. Minllotarsn, a monster, half man, half beast. Latpis, or Lapid'eus, titles of Jupiter. l _iss'yme, a name of the Argonauts. Lat'res, sons of Mercury and I ara., worshipped ilneenosl'ynne, the goddess of memory. as household gods. 2Itosns, the god of' raillery, wit, &c. ateraltnus, a household god. illonelta, a title of Juno. Latsvertna, a goddess of thieves. iMorlpheuls, the god of sleep, dreamls, &c. Leant'der, see IHero. llor s, the goddess of death. Le'da, daughter of Thestias, and wife of Tyn- ilultlciber, a title of' Vulcan. darus, seduced by Jupiter in thle shape of a Multses, nine daughters of Jupiter and Tnemo. swan. syne, born on mount Pierilus, mistresses of L'emonitades, nymphs of meadows, &c. alt the sciences, presidents of musicians and Le'ne, priestesses of Bacchus. poets, andt governesses of tile fleasts of the Lert'na, a marsh of Argos, famous for a HIydra, gods; Calliope, Clio, Erato, Euterpe, Melkilled there by Hercules, pomene, Polyhymnia, Terpsichore, Thalia, Letlhe, a river of hell, whose waters causetl a and Urania. total forgetfulness of things past. li:srla, the goddess of silence. Lservatla, a goddess of new born inlants. Libitili'a, tile goddess of funerals. Linus, son of Apollo and Terpsichore. N Lnbfsens'ia, the goddess of pleasurse. Luscifer, son of Jupiter and Aurora, tmade the XNenia, the goddess of funeral songs. miorning star. Na'iades, nymphs of the rivers, &c. uLrizna, Diana's name in heaven. arcis'susn. a very beautifuil youth, who, falling L~upe'tctalia, feasts in honor of Pan. in love with his own shadow in the water, LyJper'ci, priests of Pan. pined away into a dalffodil. Lyc'lon, a king of Arcadia, turned by Jupiier i altio, and NTslnditnC, godTdess of infants. into a wolf. A~cYnneaa, a country of Elis, fil-sed for a terrible lion killed there by HIercules. ATemnesis, the cgoddess of revenge. 312 Arepttune, the rnd of the sea. Nereildes, sea nhymphs. Ilimtia, loved by Jupiter, and by him turnel into Nelt io, the wife ol Mars. a star to avoid Juno's rage. iV.iceuh torns, a title ol'Jupiter. ik.fo.Escngese'ta, a goiidess of women in laboo. stsTnns tine fst lin of the Assyrians. ialolsd'ra, na godddess of coln..,s!'obe, (lalhllter of Tantalus, and wife of AmiMra,zro?.tnna, and -le'nza, nuptial goddesses. phion. who, preferring herself to Latona, aricfon-ar,:ielta'nis, ilVeretlrix, hisgonistisl and lad ter 114 children killed by Diana and.l3zlt'cia, titles of Venus. Apollo, and wept herself into a statue. MIsars, the god of war. Irotrnizus, a n sne of Apollo. 654 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS..Nox, thcl most ancient of the deities; she was Peneltope, daughter of Icarus, celebrated for her even reckoned older than Chaos. chastity and fidelity during the long absence of Ulysses. Persseus, son of Jupiter ardl Danae, who pesi0 folrmled many extraordinary exploits by means of Medusa's head. Obtsequens, a title of Fortuna. Phcecaslarni, ancient gods of Greece. Occaulor, the god of harrowing. Phatelto, son of Sol (Apollo) and Climene, who Oce'taozs, an ancient sea god. asked the guidance of his father's chariot Ocyp'ete, one of the three Harpies. for one day, as a proof of his divine descent; (Edtipus, son of Laius and Jocasta, and king of but unable to manage the horses, set tlhe Thebes, who solved the riddle of the Sphinx, world on fire, and was therefore struck by unwittingly klled his father, married his Jupiter with a thunderbolt into tile river Pi. mother. and at last ran mad, and tore out Phasltlica, feasts of Bacchus..his eyes. Philazit.znon, a skilfi ll musician. Omelphale, a queen of Lydia, with whom Her- Pailonse'la, daughter of Pandion, Iking of Athe's, cutles was so enamored, that she miade him who was ravished by lher brother-in-law, submit to spinning and other unbecoming Tereus, and was changed into a nigrhtinoffices. gale. 01, erttcss, a nanme of Pluto. P/hinteas, son of Agenor, and king of Paph!;Opi'gena, a name of Juno. gonia, who had his eyes tcrn out by Borea', Ops, a name of Cybele. but was recompensed with the klnowvlesge Or'bonea, a goddess of grown persons. of futurity; also a king of Thrace, turned Oresttes, the son of Agamemnon. into a stone by Perseus, by the help of MeOrilos,, a great and mighty hunter. dusa's head. Oripheusss, son of Jupiter and Calliope, who had Phlefgethoen, a boiling river of hell. great skill in music, and was torn in pieces P/hle/gon, one of the iour horses of Sol. by the Menades, for disiliing the company Phl1etfyae, a people of Boeotia, destroyed by of women after the death of Iris wife Eury- Neptune, on account of their piracies and dice. other crimes. Orythi'a, a queen of the Amazons. Phcsrbas, the priestess of Apollo. Osi'ris, see Apis. PhcDtbus. a title of Apollo. Phcacni.c, son of Amyntor, wiho being falsely accused of having attemptedl the honor of one of his father's concubines, was cocndemned to have his eyes torn out; but was cured by PactloElss, a river of Lydia, vith golden sands Chtiron, and went with Achilles to the siege and metlical waters. of Troy. Pcsaan, and Phot'lbcs, names of Apollo. Picnitnu's, a rural god. Patles, the goddess of shepherds..Ptinztnus, a god of breeding womlel,. Paliltia, feasts in honor of Pales. Pin/cdus, a mountainr in Thessaly. Pallut'liumz, a statue of Mtinerva, which the Piltho, ca goddess of eloqsuence. Trojans imagined fell firon heaven, aind that Ple'iles, the seven daughters of' Atlas and their city could not be taken whilst that re- Pleione; Mala, Electra,'l'aygete, Asterope, mained in it. Merope, l1alcyone, and Celeno; they were Paltlas, and Pyllolis, names of Minerva. chansed into stars. Pan, the god of shepllerds. Plut/o, the god of hell. Pandlotra, the first woman madle by VTulcan, and Plul2cs, the god of riches. endoweft with gifts by all the deities; Jupi- Po1lltec. See Castor. ter gave her a box containinu all manner of Polydc7-tracs, a Ilmous wlrestler. evils, war, famline, &c., with hope at the Poliydtrits, a fa-eous prophet and physician. bottonm. Polyhyp7/tnia, the muse of rhetoric. Pantope, one of the Nereids. Polyph/etr uses a monstrous giant, son of NepPatphlia, a title of Venus. tune, with but one eye in the n-liddle of his Par?'ct, a name of the Fates. forehead. Parlis, or Al'exandcer, son. of Priam and He- Poensrs'ca, the goddess of fruits and autumn cuba, a most beautiful youth, who ran away Posetidoz, a name of Neptune. with Helena, and occasioned the Trojan Prcenestitna, a name of Fortuna. war. Praestles, a title of Jupiter and Minerva. Parnaszsus, a mountain of Phocis, famous for Prraxitleles, a famous statuary. a temple of Apollo, and being the favorite Pritfac,? son of Laomedon, and flather of Pa-ris. residence of the Muses. tHector, &c.; he was the last king of' Trloy. Parttcsnda, a nuptial goddess. Pro-'tle, wife of Tereus, Icing of TIhrace, aMl Pastoph'ori, priests of Isis. sister of Philomela; she was turned ilto a Pal'arreus, a title of Apollo. swallow. Patelitez, a goddess of' corn. Prometlhezts, son of Iapetus, who animatedc a Patulatcisss, a name of Janlus. man that he had fuormed of clay, with fire, Patsletius, a namse of.Jpiter. which, by the assistance of Minerva, lie sto'e Pavesntlia, antd Polilc.r. goddesses of' infants. fromnl heaven, and was therefore chainel by Peg'tasus, a wingredl horse belonging to Apollo.Jupiter to mount Caucasus, with a vlllture andt the Muses. continually preying upon his liver. Pellotnia, a goddess of grown persons. Propy'lasa, a name of HIecate. Pena'ltes, small statues or household gods. Psosserpine, the wife of Pluto. HEATHEN DEITIES5 ETC. 655 PJrotteus, a sea god, who could transform himnse.Tf Stalt, a goddess of grown persons. into any shape. Sles'tior, a Grecian, whose voice is reported to P.y'rlche, a goddess of pleasure. have. been as strong and as loud as tile voices Pl'radls, the constant friend of Orestes. of 50 men together. Pyrtanztus, and T/is'be, two lovers of Babylon, S'the'rso, onle of tle three Gorgons. who killed themselves with the same swordc, Styx, a river of hell. and occasioned the turnings the berries of the Sla'clcda, a nuptial goddess. mulberry-tree, under which they died, fiiom ts2ttnrctqisll, a name of Pluto. white to red. Sfyivaol'us, a god of woods and forests. Pr1;ycrteis, one of the four horses of the sun. Sy'renls, sea monsters Pyrlrhus, son. of Achilles, remarkable for his cruelty at the siege of Troy. Pytth/on, a huge serpent, produiced fromll the mild ofl the deluge, which Apollo killed, and in memnory thereof, instittuted the Pythisau gatmLes. T7'cila, at goddess of' silence. FPtlhonistsa, the priestess of Apollo. Tanrtarllte-s, a k;in of Paphllagonia, who, serv. ing utip to table the limbs of his son, Pelops. to try the divinity of the gods, was plungedl to the chin in a. lake of hell, anti doomned to everlasting thirst andl hunger, as a punishQuladrrifronss, a title of Janlus. ient for his barbarity antd impiety. Quiles, a goddess of grown persons. Taraftrus. the place of the wicked in hell. Qts.ielatlis, and Quie'tlss, names of Pluto. Taurlus. the bull, undler wvhose lfon Jupiter Qtitsquastreria, feasts of Pallas. carried away Luropa. TelchiItnes, priests of' Cybele. Telet'atchzts, the only son of Ulysses. El i2'eimp'e, a most beautiful valley in Thessaly, the resort of the gods. Reclzss, a sitle of Bacchrus. 7'erlnizzs, the god of bouncdaries. Reid-cxt, and Re'gia, titles of Fortune. Tetysicholre, thie muse of music, &c. Regitna, a title of Juno. Ter1ror, the god of dreal and fear. Rhadamn anthues, one of the three inferlnal T7halria, the muse of comedy. judges. Thelstmis, the daughter of Ccelum and Terra, the Rhe'a, a title of Cybele. goddess of laws, oracles, &c..Rhela-sylviatu the mother of Romulus. Thles'pis, the first tragic poet. 2Robil-us, a got of corn. Theltis, daughter of Nereus and Doris, and godRooisulshs, the first king of Rome. dess of the sea. G2.emitna, a goddess of new-born infants. Thyr'tsus, the.rod of Bacchus..u2lUncitra, the go:ldess of weeding. Tilphys, the pilot of the ship Argo. Russitna, a rural deity. Tisipltlone, one of the three Furies. Ti'tcan, son of Ccelum alnd Terra, and the elder brother of Saturnus. or Saturn. Tnrmarius, a title of Jupiter. cSabatzia, feasts of Proserpine. Tri'ton, Neptune's trumpeter.,S'alii, the 12 frantic priests of Mars. Trilonizia, a nane of' Milerva. ~Saltshsonefzs, a kiing of Eiis, struck by a thunder- Trotilus, a son of Priam and Hecuba. bolt to hell fobr itnitating Jupiter's thunder. Troy, a city of Phrygia, famious for iholding out athlts, the goddess of healtth a siege of ten years against the Greeks, but Sanctus, a god of the Sabines they at last captured and destroyed it.'ator, and So'rritlor, rural gods. Teuteli'na, a goddess of corn. S'aturnallia, feasts of Saturn. lTytro, one of the Nereids. S'atusrtnus, or Salttzfn, the son of Celus and Terra. S'atl'yrs the attendants of Bacchus, horned mon- U sters, half men, half goats. Scytrlon, a hamous robber of Attica. Ulystses, son of Laertes and Anticlea, and king S'e'ia, and Segeltia, goddesses of corn. of Ithaca, who, by his subtlety and eloquence, Seltli, priests of Jupiter. was eminently serviceable to the Greeks in Senrla, a goddess of married women. the Trojan war. Sereapis. See Apis. Unxtia, a title of Juno.,S'iletnus, the loster-father and companion of Bac- Ue-alnia, the muse of astronomny. chus, who lived in Arcadia, rode on an ass, and was drunk every day. S'i'tzis, a famous robber, killed by Helrcules. Sistyphzs, the son of A'olus, killed by Theseus, and doomed incessantly to roll a huge stone Flacurna, the goddess of idle persons. up a mountain in hell for his perfidy and Vagitatnus, a god of little inifants. numerous robberies. Vallonia, a goddess of valleys. Sol, a name of Apollo. Venitlia, a wife of Neptune. So'?stznus, the god of sleep. Tetnus, the goddess of love, and beauty. Sphinx, a monster, born of Syphon, and Echidna, Vergiltlc, a namne of the Pleiades. who destroyed herself because cEdipus Verticortclia, a namne of Venus. solved the enigma she proposed. VTertumistns s, the god of spring. 656 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. Yestra, the goddess of fire. the harpy Celceno, a river near Troy, called Finales, deities of the highways. also Scamander. Vibiltia, the goddess of wanderers. VirgnmenIsis, a nuptial goddess. Vi?' go, a name of Astrea and Fortune. z Viritis. and ViscaCta, titles of Fortune. Viritplaca, an inferior nuptial goddess, who re- Zatgreus, a title of Bacchus. conciled husbands to their wives; a temple, Zephlyrus, son of Aolus and Aurora, wi:o pasat Rome, was dedicated to her, whither the sionately loved the goddess Flora, and is put married couple repaired after a quarrel, and for the west wind. returned together firiendly. Ze'tes, and Ca'lais, sons of Boreas and Orythia, Vitu'la, the goddess of mirth. who accompanied the Argonauts, and drove Vo>lu'sia, a goddess of corn. the Harpies ifrom Thrace. Vtl'can, the god of subterraneous fire. Ze'tus, a son of Jupiter and Antiope, very expert in music. J1 Zetus, a title of Jupiter. Xanttlhus, one of the horses of Achilles, born of BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. N. B. This list of remarkable persons, from the earliest period to the present time, is not of courlse intended to include every name mentioned in history, but merely the most important in dheir several departments. The names of Sovereigns are referred to occasionally only, as full lists aie given in their proper place. This list may be useful in two ways, viz: First, as an Index to the names mentioned in the Chronological Tables in this volume; and Secondly, to indicate, by reference to those tables, the chief political events and contemporary public characters during the life of each person in the list. Thus: SOCRATES, the Greek philosopher, was born 470, and died 400 B. ".. The tables on page 20 to 24, show who lived, and what happened, during the seventy years of Socrates' life. MISITON was born A. D. 1608, one year after the first settlement at Jamestown, Virginia; six:years after the East India Company was founded; five years after James I. ascended the throne; the same year that the Protestant Union was formed in Germany; one year before Gustavus Adolphus became king of Sweden; two years before Louis XIII. became king of France. Ile was 12 years old when the Puritans first landed at Plymouth; he was 17 whens Charles I. succeeded James, and he was 41 years old when Charles was beheaded. Among his contemporaries were Lord Bacon, Inigo Jones, Jeremy Taylor, Algernon Sydney, Sir C. Wren, Butler, Waller, Dryden, Henly More, Baxter, and Boyle, in England: Peter Stuyvesant, Winthrop, Cotton, and Eliot, in America: Richelieu, Mazarine, Colbert, Rubens, Kepler, Des Cartes, toli,.re, Corneille, Racine, Pascal, on the Continent. -IHe died A. D. 1674, nine years after the great plague in London, 14 years after Charles II. was restored, and 7 years after New-York was ceded to the English. And thus of any person mentioned in the Index-a great variety of particulars may be found at a glance, on referring to the tables. *%* No living persons are mentioned, except some of the most noted in Europe. ABBREVIATIONS.-See List in the Introduction. Bar. (Barbaria7n), includes several different natioiss, some not entirely civilized. f: is used for loturished. The dates before Christ are indicated by B. c.-all others are A. D.-I-n some cases the dates are nzecessari y left blank. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. Dan. Aagesend, Svind, historian... 1188 Jew. Aaron, the first high-priest a... 1570 1453 Gr. Aaron, of Aloandria, physician... f. 622 Eng. Abbot, George, Archbishop of Canterbury and author 1562 1623 Arab. Abd'el Kad{er, distinguished warrior. 1806 Fr. Abelard, Peter. a celebrated scholastic divine. 1079 1142 Nor. Abe[, Nicholas II., mathematician... 1802 Sp. Abenezra, an astron., philos., poet, philologist, &c.. 1119 1174 Eng. Aberdeen. Earl of, statesman and antiquary Eng. Abercronmby, Sir Ralph, military commander.. 1738 1801 Eng. Abernethy, John, eminent physician and medical writer. 1764 1831 Fr. Ablancourt, N. P. D., translator of the classics.. 1606 1664 Jew. Abraham, the great progenitor of the Jewish nation B. c. 1995 B. C. 1821 Pyan. Absalom (real name Axel), archbishop of Den., Sw., and Nor.. 1128 1203 Ara. Abubetker, father-itl-law anti successor of Mahonmet.. 561 624 Syr. Abulfeda, the geographer.. 1273 1345 Roem. Accius, or Attius, a tragic poet (works not extant). B. O. 171 Ital. Accursius, or Accorso, an eminent critic.. 1229 Gee. Accum., Fredl, operative chemist (in Eng.). 1769 1838 Prnss. Ackerman, Rudolph, introduced gas lighting and lithog. in London 1764 1834 Gr. Achilles, one of the leaders in the Trojan war f. 1184 Gr. Achilles ratiis (of Alexandria), Christian bp. and author.. 3d cent. Gr. Acropolita, of Constantinople, statesman and historian 1220 1282 Eng. Adam, Alexander, schoolmaster and author.. 17t11 1809 28* 658 THE WVORLD'S PROGRESS. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. Eng. Adam, Robert, an architectural author..172 1728 1794 Amcr. Adams, John Quincy, diplomatist, poet, Pres. I1. S.. 1767 1848 Amer. -, Samuel, one of the patriotic founders of the republic 1726 180&: Alner., John, patriot and statesman-2d Pres. U. S.. 1735 1826 Eng. Addison, Joseph, one of the ornaments of English literature. 1672 1719 Rom. Adrian, the 15th Emp. (born in Spain). 76 138 Ire. Adrain. Robert. mathematician (at New-York, &c.). 1775 1843 Gr. iElian, the historian and rhetorician... 160 Gr. yEneas, son of Priam, king of Troy.. f. B. C. 1183 Gr. 2Eschines, of Athens, philos.-disciple of Socrates Gr. -- orator B. C. 393 B. c. 323 Gr. oEschylus, of Athens, the great tragic writer B... 468 B. o. 400 Gr. Esop, of Phrygia, the prince of fabulists. f. B. C. 600 Rom. Etius, lnil. corn. (defeated Atilla) 4... 54 Rom. Africanus, Julius, historian... 22 Gr. Agamemnon, "the Icing of' kings" B... 904 Gr. Agathius, historian and poet f. 565 Swiss. Agassiz, Louis, naturalist. 1807 Gr. Agesilaus II., king of Sparta; (defeats the Per., Egypt., and Greekls) B. C. 361 Gr. Agis IV., the greatest of the Spartan kings B. C. 251. Eng. Aglionby, one of the translators of the Bible. 1610 Rom. Agricola, Cneius Julius, military commander. 4t 93 Ger. Agricola, John, a divine *-founder of the Antiilomians 490 1566 Ruom. Agrippa, military commander, governor of Judea.. 0 94 Fr. -—, Cornelius, philosopher, &c.. 486 1535'Eng. Aikin, John, M. D., an elegant writer; editor of poets, &c. 1747 1821 Eng. Ainsworth, grammarian and lexicographer. 1660 1743 Tartar. Akbar, Mohamnmed, a great Mogul sovereign,.. 1555 1605 En;i. Akenside, Mark, a popular poet.. 1721 1770 Swe. Akerblad, philologist... 1819 Bar. Alaric I., king of the Visigoths. 411 Span. Alberoni, Julius (cardinal), statesman. 1664 1752Ital. Alberti, an eminent writer, paint., sculp.,... 1398 1490 Ger. Albertus Magnus, philosophic writer; tutor of Aquinas 1205 1.280 Bar. Alboin, the Lombard conqueror. 574 Port. Albuquerque (the great), military commander 1452 Gr. AlcaMus, of Lesbos, a lyric poet. B... 606 Ital. Alciati, of Milan, an eminent civilian aud author.. ^. 1492 155G. Gr. Alcibiades, a famous Athenian general and statesman B... 450 B. C. 404 En-. Alcuinus (founder of schools at Paris, &c.) 732 804 Eng. Aldhelm, St., an eminent scholar and poet. 709 Fr. Alembert, John le Rond d', math., hist., and philosopher.. 1717 1783 Bar. Alexander. the Great, founeder of the Macedonian empire B... 356 B. C. 323 PRom. ~, Severus, emperor... 209 235 Rus u Nevskoi, a saint and hero; —def: of the Tartars, &c., 1218 1262 Rus. —, I., emperor (coalition against Napoleon) 1777 1825 Gr. Alexius Cornmenus, emperor of the East... 1118 Ital. Alfieri, Victor, an eminent tragic poet. 1749 1803 Eng. Alfred, justly called the Great, Iing... 849 900 Ital. Algarotti, a general sch/tlar and critic.. 1712 1764 Bar Ali Bey, gov. of Egypt, -revolted against the Turks 1728 1773 Bar. -- Tepelini, pacha of Jannina... 1744 1822 Scot. Alison, Archibald Rev.,' Essays on Taste'. 1757 1839 Scot. Alison, Archibald,'IHistory of Europe,''Essays' Amer. Allen, EIthan, an intrepid officer in the Revolution.. 1789 Amer. Allston, Washington, painter and poet. 1779 1843 Sar. Almamon, Caliph, patron of learning. 833 Sar. Almansor, Caliph, patron of learning... 775 Span. Alphonso X., Icing of Castile, Leon-and author. 1203 1284 Port. --- I., Henriquez, founder of the Portuguese monarchy 1094 1185 Span. Alva, duke of, celebrated and barbarous rail. com.. 1508 1582 Jew. Amaziah, king of Judah B.. B.. 809 Ital. Ambrose, St., bishop of Milan-author. 340 387 Ital. Americus Vespucius (of Florence)-explored the S. Amer. coast 1451 1512 Anmer. Ames, Fisher, a statesman and orator.. 1750 1808 Eng. Amherst, Jeffrey, lord, mil. corn. in America, &c... 1717 1797 Rom. Ammianus, Marcellinus, historian... 300 Gr. Ammonius, a peripatetic philosopher B... 24 Fr. Ampere, Jean Marie, mathematician and nat. philos... 1775 1836 Fr. Amyot, Jalmes, bp. of Auxerre-translator of Plutarch. 1513 1593 Bar. Anacharsis, a Scythian philosopher, and disciple of Solon f. B. C. 592 Gr. Anacreon, a celebrated poet.. B. a. 474 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 659 NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. Gr. Anastaslus I., emperor of the East. 518 Gr. Anaxagoras, a philosopher... B. c. 500 B. c. 428 Gr. Anraxarchus, a philosopher, companion of Alexander the Great f B. c. 340 r. Anaximander of Miletus, an Ionsc philosopher. 611 B. o. 547 Gr. Anaximenes ".. B.C. 504 F'. Ancelot, J. A. P. F., poet and novelist.. 1794 Pruss. Anclon, J.. P. F., historian and statesman.. 1767 1837 Dan. Andersen, lHans Chris., poet and novelist En. Anderson, Sir Edmund, a judge and author... 1605 Scotch. - -, Adam, commercial writer.. 1692 1765 E nn. Andrews, Lancelot, bishop of Winchester. 1555 1626 F. Andral, G. A., writer on anatomy and medicine. 1797 Gr. Andronicus of Rhodes, a peripatetic philosopher, flourished B. c. 63 Ital. Anielo, Thomas (commonly called MIasiniello), a fisherman of Naples who rose to great power.. 1623 1646 Anna Cominena, daughter of the Emperor Alexis I., historian. i113 2148 Eng. Annet, Peter, a deistical writer... 1703 1778 Car. Annibal, or Hannibal, a celebrated Carthaginian general a. o. 247 B.c. 153 Fr. Anluetil du Perron, a classic scholar, and author 1731 1805 Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury —a learned divine 1033 1109 Eng. Anson, George, lord, celebrated naval commander 1697 1762 Egypt. Anthony, St., the founder of monastic institutions 251 356 Ital. - -, of Padua, a divine. 1195 1231 Mace. Antigonus, one of the generals of Alexander the Great B. c. 301 Antiochus V....... 164 Mace. Antipater, one of the generals of Alexander the Great.. 0. 319 Dr. Antisthenes, a philos. —lbunder of the sect of Cynics, before Christ. 423 Rom. Antoninus, Pius, emperor... 86 161 Rom. —, Marcus Aurelius, emperor-surnamed the philosopher 121 180 Rom. Antony, Mark, mil. commander and statesman B. c. 86 a. c. 30 Pets. Anveri, a celebrated poet.... 1201 Egypt. Apion, a grammarian, and bitter enemy of the Jews, flourisled 80 Gr. Apollonius, surnamed Rodius, a poet.. B. c. 194 Gr., Pergamensis, a geomnetrician, flourished.. B.. 242 Gr., Tyaneus, a Pythagorean philosoplher.. 97 Gr. Appian, an historian, flourished.. 143 Ital. Aquinas, St. Thomas, a celebrated theologian.. 1224 1274 Fr. Arago, astron., nat. philos., and statesman. Eng. Aram, Eugene, a learned schoolmaster, executed for murder 1705 1759 r. Aratus, of Sicyon, mil. con. and statesman B. a. 273 a. a. 216 Scotch. Arbuthnot, John, Dr., a poet 1735 Gr. Archelaus, Ionic philosopher, flourished B. aC. 450 Ge. Archius, a poet, flourished.... c. 719 GCr. Archilochus, a poet, flourished.... c. 685 Gr. Archidemes, a celebrated mathematician B. a. 287 B. o. 212 Gr. Archytas, a mathematician.. B. a. 408 B. a. 360 Ital. Aretino, Guido, inventor of the ganrut of music 995 Ital., Leonard, an historian.. 1369 1414 Ital., Peter, satirist.... 1492 1556 Pruss. Argelander, F. W. A., astronomer. 1799 Span. Argensola, Lupercio, historian and poet... 1565 1613 Span. ---, Bartholomew, historian.. 1566 1631. Ital. Ariosto, Lewis, a celebrated poet.. 1474 1533.r. Aristarchus, of Samos, mathematician and philosopher I. i. c. 280 Gr. -, grammarian and critic..... 160 Gr. Aristides, an Athenian statesman B.... c. 467 Gr. -, _ /lius, an oratorand sophist. 129 185 Gr. -, one of the fathers of the church, flourished. 127 Gr. Aristippus, of Cyrene, philosopher-founder of the Cyreniacs f. B. C. 392 Gr. Aristonomenes, a warrior and patriot, flourished B. a. 662 Gr. Aristophanes, an Athenian comic poet... B.C. 389 Gr. Aristotle, philosopher —founder of the Peripatetics a. a. 384 B. c. 381 Ir. Arius, of Alexandria, the founder of the Arian sect. 336 Span., Montanus, Benedict.-orientalist.. 1527 1598 Eng. Arkwright, Sir Richard, inventor of spinning jennies 1732 1792 Fr. Arlincourt, Victor, vicompte de, novelist.. 1789 Ger. Arminius, the deliverer of Germany.. 20 Dutch. —, James, a celebrated divine-founder of a sect 1560 1610 Eng. Armstrong, John, M. D., poet... 1709 1779 Amer. --—, John, general, statesman, military com., and historian 1758 1843 Ital. Arnaud, Daniel, troubadour... 1220 Fr. -—, Francis Baculard d', thamatist and poet 1718 1805 660 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. Eng. Arne, Thomas Augustus, musical composer. 1710 1778 Gr. Arnobius, a defender of Christianity.. f. 303 Prtus. Arnirn, L. A. von, poet and novelist.. 1781 1831 Ital. Arnold, of Brescia, a learned monk —disciple of Abelard. 1156 Eng., Thos., D. D., theologian, historian and philologist 1795 1842 Amer. -, Benedict, major general-the traitor to his country. 1801 Gr. Arrian, historian-disciple of Epictetus.. f. 140 Eng. Arrowsmith, Aaron, constructor of maps and charts.. 1823 Bar. Arsaces I., the founder of the Parthian monarchy. B. f. 250 Bar. Artaxerxes I., king of Persia.... B. 425 Bar. —, founder of the new Persian kingdom... 242 Brit. Arthur, a prince celebrated in fable 472 542 Eng. Arundel, Thomas H., earl of. importer of the Arundelian marbles. 1686 Eng. Ascham, Roger, a learned writer.. 1515 1568 Bar. Asdrubal, a Carthaginian general B. c. 22( Amer. Ashmun, John H., jurist-professor of law.. 1800 1833 Eng. Asser, John, historian... 909 Ger. Ast, Geo. A. F., philologist,' Lexicon Platonicu'.. 1778 1841 Ger. Astor, John Jacob, wealthy merchant at New York.. 1763 1848 Gr. Athanasius, St., one of the fathers of the church. 296 371 Gr. Athenagoras, philosopher... f. 177 Gr. Athenais, Emp. of the West, and authoress (called also Eudoxia) 460 Gr. Athenreus, a celebrated grammarian-the Greek Varro. f. 190 Bar. Attalus, founder of the monarchy of Pergamus-inv. of parchment B. C. 198 Gr., Rhodius, mathematlician f. 3B.. 173 Eng. Atterbury, Francis, bp. of Rochester, exiled for conspiracy. 1662 1731 iom. Atticus, a knight, and author (works lost)..... 109 B. C. 0 Bar. Attila, king of the Huns, "the Scourge of God"... 453 Fr. Auber, D. F. E., famous musical composer.. 1784 Eng. Auckland, XVilliam, lord, statesman. 1814 Fr. Audoin, J. F., zoologist..... 1797 1841 Fr. Augereau, duke of Castiglione, mil. corn. 1757 1816 Augustine, St., a celebrated father of the church 354 430 the Apostle of the English —lst archbishop of Canterbury 604 Rom. Augustul-ls, Romulus, the last emperor of the W'est 476 Tom. Augustus, Caitis Julius Cresar Octavius-lst emperor B... 63 14 Tom. Ausonius, Decimus Magnus, poet.... 39 Fr. Auvergne, Theophilus —rel.sbiicasn-military commander.. 1743 1800 Ara. Averroes, philosopher, physician, and author... 1197 Ara. Avicenna, philosopher, physician, and autllor... 980 1037 Eng. Ayscough, Samuel, Compiler of Index to Sihakspeare, &c.. 1804 Ena. Babbage, Clharles, o.tllaerlmatiian antld acllinist. 1790 Gr. Ilacchylides, lyric poet... o. 450 Port. Bacceilar, a civili;an, hitorian, and lyric poet... 1610 1663 Ame, Backus, Isaac, a divine and historian.. 1724 1806 Eng. Back, Geo., Capt. R. N., Polar navigator and author Eng. Bacon, Roger, a tmonk, celebrated for his scientific knowledge. 1214 1292 Eng. -, Francis, lord Verulam, the celebrated philosopher and statesman 1561 1626 Danl. Baden, James, one of thlle founders of Danish literature. 1735 1804 Ger. Blhr, Jno. C. F., classical philologist.... 1798 Eng. Bailey, Nathan, a grammarian asc lexicographer. 1742 Fr. Baillet, a learned theolo-gian, historian, and miscellaneous writer. 1649 1706 Scot. Baillie, Matthew, physician and anatonmist... 1761 1823 Eng. Baily, Francis, astronomer and mathematician.. 1774 1844 Fr. Bailly, John Silvain, a learned author, and a leader in the revolution. 1736 1793 Amer. Bainbridge, Wm., naval commander.. Princeton 1774 1833 Scot. Baird, Sir David, military commanader.. 1757 1829 Turk. Bajazet. sultan-conquered by Tamoerlane. 1453 Ital. Batbi, Adrian, geographer and ethnographer. Venice 1782 Fr. Baldwin, who became emperor of the East. 1206 Fr. Balzac, Honorl de, novelist.... Tours 1799 1850 Swe. Banier, or Banner, a celebrated military commander. 1596 1641 Irish. Banim, John, novelist.. 1800 1842 Eng. Banks. Sir Joseph, navigator-President Royal Society. 1743 1820 Pruss. Baratier, a Hebrew lexicographer before ten years of age. 1721 1740 Eng. Barbauld, Anna Letitia, a popular miscellaneous writer. 1743 1825 Turk. Barbarossa, the celibrated corsair-usurper of Algiers. 1518 Fr. Barbeyrac, John, miscellaneous writer. 1674 1729 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 661 NIATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. Amer. Barbour, James, statesman and diplomatist. Va. 1775 1842 Amer. Barbour, P. P., statesman, and Judge of Sup. Court Va. 1783 1841 Eng. Barclay, Robert, the celebrated vindicator of the Quakers.. 1648 1690 Ital. Barertti, Joseph, lexicographer-author of Travels, &c.. 1716 1789 En. Baring, Alex. (lord Ashburton), statesman Amer. Barlow, Joel, a statesman, and poet... 1756 1812 En. Barnes, Joshua, an eminent GCreek scholar... 1654 1712 Amer -, Daniel H., a distinguished conchologist.. 1818 I)1utcl. Barneveldt, John, statesman (beheaded)... 1547 1619 Amer Barney, Joshua, a distinguished naval comin ander.. 1759 1818 r. Barras, Paul, count de, mem. of the direct..in the revolution. 1755 1829 Enag. Barrow, Isaac, a divine, and mathematician. 1630 1677 Amer. Barry, W. T., statesman and diplomatist.. Va. 1785 1835 Pr. Barthelemy, John James, author of'Anacharsis,' &c.,.. 1716 1795 Anmer Barton, Benj. Smith, lI. D., a learned physician and botanist 1766 1815 AnheIr. Bartram. John, an eminent botanist... 1701 1777 r. Basil, St., a celebrated father of the Creek church.. 326 379 Fr. Basnage De Beaval. James, histofian.. 1653 1723 Fr. Bassano, H. B. M., duke of; political writer andi statesman.. 1758 1839 Lng. Bath, William Pulteney, earl of, statesman. 1682 1764 En. Bathurst, earl of, statesman-friend of Pope, &c. 1684 1775 F t. Batteux, Charles, rhetorician, and miscellaneous writer. 1793 1780 Eng. Baxter, Richard, an eminent divine, and author.. 1615 1691 Fr. Bayard, Peter, military commander.. 1476 1524 Amer. - -, James A., a distinguished statesman, and lawyer.. 1767 1815 Ger. Bayer, John, astronomner... 1627 Oer. —, Theophilus, chronologist, and historian 1694 1738 Fr. Bayle, Peter, an eminent philosopher, and critic [Bayle's Dictionary] 1647 1706 Eng. Bayly, Thos. Haines, poet... 1797 1839 En. Beattie, James, IL.D., poet... 1735 1803 Fr. Beauharnois, Eugene Hortense, ex-queen of Rolland.. 1753 1837 Fr. Beanharnois, Eugene, son of the empress Josephine, mil. com. —viceroy of Italy, &c........ 1780 1824 Fr. Beautnarchais, P. A. C. dle, an eminent dramatist.. 1732 1799 Fr. Beaumont, Elie de, mineralogist and geologist... 1798 Eng. Beaumont, Francis, dramatic writer. 1555 1616 Fr. Beauzee, Nicholas. an eminent grammarian... 1714 1789!tal. Beccaria, John Baptist, an ecclesiastic and philosopher. 1716 1781 ital. --—, Marquis, professor of political economy, and author. 1735 1793 Eng. Becket, Thomas 1, celebrated prelate and statesman.. 1119 1170 Eno. Beckford, Win., traveller and novelist... 1760 1844 lrit. Bede, styled the Venerable, a learned Saxon monk, and historian. 672 735 Lng. Bedford, John, duke of, military commander.. 14315.Pruss. Beer, Michael, dramatic poet (bro. of' IMeyerbeer').. 1800 1833 Ger. Beethoven, Ludwig von, celebrated musical composer. 1770 1827 Ger. Bekker, Emmanuel, philologist. orn. Belisarius, a celebrated general and conqueror... 56 Scot. Bell. Jolen, surgeon, anatomist, and physiologist.. 1763 1821 Scot. Bell, Sir Charles, anatomist and physiologist... 1781 1842 inier. Bellamy, Joseph, D. D., a learned divine and author. 1719 1790 Ital. Bellarmin, cardinal, the champion of the Roman Catholic church 1542 1626 Fr. Bellau, Remi, poet.... 1528 1577 Fr. Belleisle, Count de, military commander... 1684 1761 Ital. Bellini, Vincenzo, musical composer. 1808 1835 Eng. Betoe, Wn., a divine and critic-translator of Ierodotus, &c. Fr. Belon, William, naturalist and traveller.... 1518 1564 ELn. Belsham, William, historical, political, and miscellaneous writer 1752 1827 Ital. Belzoni, the celebrated traveller in Egypt... 1823 Ital. Bembo, cardinal, one of the restorers of literature.. 1470 1542 Eng. Benbow, John, a gallant admiral... 1650 1702 Ital. Benedict, St., one of the originators of monasteries.. 480 547 Ital. --- XIII., pope-theological writer... 1649 1728 [tal. - XIV., pope-theological writer. 1675 1758 Fr. Benezet, Anthony, philanthropist and historian (died in America). 1713 1784 Bar. Benhadad, Iking of Syria.o. 895 Fr. Benserade, Isaac, a wit and poet. 1612 1691 Eng. Bentham, Jeremy, political and philosophical writer.. 1832 Eng. Bentley, Richard, an eminent critic and scholar... 1662 1742 Fr. Beranger, Pierre Jean de, lyrical poet. Fr. Berenger, A. M. M. T., statesman and jurist... 1785 Ger. Berghaus, Henry, mathematician and geographer.. 1797 Swe. Bergman, professor of chemistry at Upsal.. 1735 1784 662 TIlE WORLDBS PROGRESS. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN DIED, Dan. Behring, a navigator, from whom the strait dividing Asia and America was named...... f. 1730 Bel. Beriot, Chas. A. de, violinist and composer. 1802 Irish. Berkely, George, bp., an eminent prelate and philosopher. t 1684 1753 Amer. -, William, governor of Virginia... 16567 Fr. Berlioz, Ilector, musical composer. 1803 Fr. Bernadotte.l. B. J., elected king of Sweden, as Charles XIV. 1764 1844 Fr. Bernard, Simon, engineer and mnil. commander.. 1779. 1839 Fr.,St., preacher of crusades, and author.. 1091 1153 En. Edward, a divine, astronomer, and author. 1638 1697 Dutch l,John Frederick, a boolkseller, editor and author. 1751 Amr. --—,F rancis, governor of Massachusetts.. 1779 Fr. Bernardin, Ie Sainte Pierre, author of'Studies of Nature,' &c.. 1737' 1814 Ital. elrni, poet (poisoned).... 1536 Swiss. Bernotlli, James, mathematician.... 1654 1705 Bar. Berosus, the Chaldean historian f. B.C. 268 Fr. Berruyer, a Jesuit, author of a' History of the People of God,' in 11 vols. 4to...... 1681 751 Fr. Berryer, Pierre A., statesman. 1790 Fr. Betlhier, Alexander, a distinguished military commander. 1753 1815 Fr. Berthollet, Claude Louis, an eminent chemist. 1748 1822 r. Bertrand, Henri G., gen. in Napoleon's army..1778 1844 Ena. Berwick, dulke of; military comnmander (kI. at Phillipsburg). 1670 1734 Swe. Berzelius, John Janies, chemist... 1779 Fr. Bessieres, duke of Istria, military comnmalnder (k. at Lutzen). 1769 Ger. Bessel, Fred. Wm., astronomer.... 1784 Ital. Bettinelli, Xavier, an elegant miscellaneous writer.. 1718 180i Fr. Beudant, Francois S., mineralogist and naturalist.. 1787 Eng. Beveridge, William, an emninent theologian, and orientalist]. 1638 1708 Beza, Theodore, an eminent reformer.. 1519 1605 Fr. Bezout, mathematician..... 1730 1783 Ital. Bianchini, Francis, inathemratician and author.. 1662 1725 Gr. Bias, one of the seven sages. f. f... 606 Fr. Bichat, an eminent anatomist atnd physiologist.. 1771 1802 Eng. Biddle, John, an eminent Sociniau wlriter... 161.5 1662 Amer., Nicholas, financier and lilterafeur... 1786 1844 Amer. -, Nicholas, a captain in the U. S. navy.. 1750 1778 Anier. --- James, commodore, in U. S. navy... 1783 1848 Fr. Bignon, Louis E., historian.. 1771 1841 Gr. Bion, pastoral poet......300 Gr. - of Borysthenes, philosopher (Cyreniac).. B. c. 240 Fr. liot, Jean B., mathematician En-. Birbecl, Geo., M. D., founder of mechanics' institutions 1776 1841 Fr. Biron, duke of, military comnimander (beheaded for conspiracy). 1561 1602 Scotch. Bisset, Robert, historian and biographer... 1759 1805 Span. Bivar, Don Rodrigo, known in history and romance under the name of the Cid...... 040 1099 Eng. Blackstone, Sir William, an eminent lawyer and author. 1723 1780 Scotch. Blair, Robert, a divine and poet.. 1699 1777 Scotch. -, John, a chronologist... 178. Scotch., Dr. Hulh a divine and rhetorician 1718 1800 Scotch. - -,James, founder of William andl Mary's college in Virginia. 1660 1743 Eng. Blake, Robert, a celebrated admiral.. 1599 1657 Irish. Blessington, Marguerite, Countess, novelist, and liteateur. 1849 Eng. Bloonifield, Robert, a poet... 1766 1823 Pruss. Blucher, a celebrated military commander.. 1742 1819 Swe. Blumenbach, John Fred., naturalist.... 1752 1840 Brit. Boadicea, the warlilke queen of the Iceni... 61 Ital. Boccacio, John, one of the great classic writers of modern Italty. 1313 1373 Ital. Boccalina, a satirist.. 1556 1613 Fr. Bochart, Samuel, an eminent divine, and orientalist 1509 1567 Fr. Bodin, John, a lawyer and author. 1530 1596 Ger. Bwehnen, Jacob, a fanatic and author. 1575 1624 Dutch. Boerhaave, one of the nlost eminent of modern physicians.. 1668 1738 Rom. Boethius, a statesman and philosopher... 455 526 Fr. Bohemond, a Norman adventurer.... 1111 Ger. Boekh, Augustus, classical philologist Fr. Boileau, Nicholas, an eminent poet... 636 1711 S'r. Boissard, Jean J., fabulist... 1743 1831 Fr. Boissy, louis de, a!thor of comedies.... 1694 1758 Fr. -—, D'Angles, F. A., count of, statesman and revolutionist. 1756 1826 Eng. Bollnbroke, Henry St. John, lord, political and deistical writer. 1678 1751 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 663 NATION NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. Cololm. Bolivar, Simon, the heroic deliverer of his country 1785 1831 Fr. Bonaparte, Napoleon, emnp. of France.. 1769 1821 F'. -, Maria Letitia, mother of Napoleon 1750 1836 Fr. --, Joseph, ex-king of Naples and Spain 1768 1844 Fr., Lucien, prince of Canino 1775 1840 Fr. —, Louis, ex-king of Holland. 1778 1846 Fr., Jerome, ex-king of Westphalia. 1784 Fr., Louis Napoleon, 1st pres. Republic of France 1808 n18g. Bonner, bishop, the persecutor of Protestants 1569 Swiss. Bonnet, Charles, a celebrated naturalist 1720 1793 Eng. Bonnycastle, John, mathenatician 1821 En. -, Charles, mathematician 1840 Amner. Boone, Daniel, tlie first settler of Kentucky 1730 1823 Ger. Bopp? Francis, sanscrit scholar 1791 FI I3Bonpland, Annti, traveller and botanist. 1840 Ital. Boregli, philosopher and mathematician 1507 Ital. Botrghesi, Bartolomeo, count, antiquarian. 1781 Ital. Borgia, Caesar, the infamous pope, Alexander VI... 1608 1679 Ital. Borromeo, cardinal, theological writer. 1538 1584 Fr. Bose, Louis A. W., naturalist.. 1759 1828 Eng. Boscawen, Edward, a brave and siilful adcliral 1711 1711 176 Ital. Boscovitch, mathematical and philosophical writer 1711 1787 Fr. Bossuet, Jaitles B., a divine and historian 1627 170)4 Fr. Bossut, Charles, mathematician. 1730 1814 Scotch. B1oston, Thomas, a divine and author. 1676 1732 E!g. oslwell, James, the biographer of Dr. Johnson. 1710 1795 Bottiger, archwologist anti antiquarian.. 1835 Gr. Botzarris, Marco, a gallant leader in the modern revolution 1780 1823 Amer. Boudinot, Elias, a statesman and philanthropist 1740 1821 Fr. Bouners, duke of, military commander. 1644 1711 Fr. Bourgainville, Louis A., lnilitary commander, and author 1729 1811 Fr. Bourguer, Peter, mnathematician and hydrographer 1698 1758 Fr. Bourtlailnvilliers, Henry, count de, historian... 1658 1752 Eng. Boulton, Matthew, an eminent engineer 1728 1809 Fr. Bourcet, Peter J. de, an officer and topographer 1700 1780 Fr. Bourdaloue, Louis, a noted preacher. 1632 1704 Fr. Bourignon, Antoinette, a fanatical author 1616 1680 Fr. Bournmont, L. A. V., count of, marshal of France 1773 Eirg. Bourne, Vincent, an elegant Latin poet.. 1747 Fr. Bourrienne, biographer of Napoleon. 1834 Fr. Bousmard. M. de, a military engineer.. 1807 Amer. Bowditch, Nath., astronomer, mathematician, &c. 1773 1838 Eng. Bowdler, Thomas, editor Shakspeare, &c. 1754 1825 Aml er. Bowdoin, James, IL. D., philosopher and statesman. 1727 1790 Amer. - -, James (son of the last), ambassador to Spain. 1752 1811 Eng. Bowring, John, statesman, poet, and linguist. 1792 Fr. Boyer, Jean Pierre, president of Hayti (died at Paris) 1776 1850 Amer. Boylston, Zabdiel, an eminent physician. 1680 1776 Scotch. Boyd, Mark Alexander, a poet.. 1562 1601 Ir -h. Boyle, Robert, an eminent philosopher 1626 1691 Enff. Bradley, Dr. James, astronomer and mathematician. 1692 1762 Eng. Bradwardine, Thomas, mathematician and theologian 1319 Eng. Brady, Robert, physician and historian. 1700 Anmer. Bradifrd, William, second governor of Plymouth colony 1588 1657 Amer. -, William, attorney general of the United States. 1755 1795 Da n. Brahe, Tycho, a celebrated astronomer. 1546 1601 Ger. Brandes, Henry Win., mathematician and astronomer. 1777 Ger. -, John Christian, actor and dramatist. 1735 1799 Amer. Brainard, David, missionary to'the Indians. 1718 1747 Amer. -, J. G. C., a poet.. 1797 18t6 Ger. Breitkopf, John G. E., an eminent printer and type-founder 1719 1794 L.;-e., Bremer, Fredrika, novelist... 1802 Bar. Brennus, the leader of the Gauls,. f. B. o. 390 Scotch. Brewster, Sir David, natural philosopher.. 1785 Eng. Bridgewater, duke of, introducer of canals in England. 1736 1803 Eng. Briggs, Henry, mathematician... 1536 1630 Fr. Brisson, Mathurin James, naturalist... 1723 1806 Fm. Bissot, John, a revolutionist and author.. 1757 1793 Fr. Broglio, duCe de, statesma... 1785 Irish. Brooke, Hlenry, miscellaneous writer 1.. 1706 1783 Amer Brooks, John, LL. D., governor of Massachusetts. 1752 1825 Fr. )Brotier, G., a Jesuit-editor of Tacitus... 1723 1789 664 THE WVORLD'S PROGRESS. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED, Fr. Brougniart, Alex., mineralogist and geologist.. 1770 Fr. -- -—, Adolphe T., botanist.. 1801 Eng. Broughamn, Henry, lordi, statesman and jmurist. 1779 Ft. Broussais, F. J. V., medical and physiological writer. 1772 1b83 Amer. Brown, Arthur, a distinguished scholar and barrister.. 1805 Amer. -, Charles Brockden. a novelist.. 1771 1810 E1ng. --, John, D D., a miscellaneous writer... 1715 1766 Scotch., John, a divine and author. 1722 1787 Scotch. -, Dr. Thomas, metaphysician and poet... 1777 1820 Amer., Maj. Gen. Jacob, general in war of 1812. 1828 Amer. -, James, senator, minister to France. 1766 1835 Eng. --, Robert, emninent botanist. 1781 En. Browne, Sir Thomas, a physician and philos. writer.. 1605 1682 Irish., George, count de, an officer in the Russian service. 1698 1792 Eng. --, William George, a traveller in Afirica, &c. 1I1 Scotch. Bruce, Robert, the deliverer of his country. 1329 Scotch. 1,James, a celebrated traveller. 1730 1794 F1'. Brueys, Francis Paul, admiral.. 1750 1798 Ft. Brumoy, Peter, a jesuit andl author 1688 1742 Ft. Brune, William Mary Ann, mnarshal and revolutionist 1763 1815 Ft. Brunel, Sir M. J., engineer of Thames Tunnel, &c.. 1769 l s.1 Ft. Brunet, Jacques Charles,' Bibliographer's Manual' Bruno, St., founder of the Carthusian order. 1377 1444 Ger. Brunswick, Ferdinandl, duke of, military commander 1721 1792 Ger. Lunenburg, Charles Win. Fer., duke of, mil. commander 1735 1806 iom. Brutus, Lucius Junius, founder of the republican government. 0. 505 Rom. -, Marcus Junius, conspirator against Cmsar E. o..2 Ft. Bruyere, John de la, a celebrated writer. 1644 1697 Duttch. Bruyn, Cornelius le, traveller. 1652 Eng. Bryant, Jacob, a philologist and antiquary.. 1715 180-4 Eng. Brydges, Sir Egerton, eccentric literatecur... 1762 1837 Fr. Buat, Nancay, Louis G., count de, a learned writer Fr. Bucer, Martin, one of the fathers of the reformation. 1491 1551 Scotch. Buchan, William, a physician and author.. 1729 1791 Scotch. Buchanan, George, an eminent writer.. 1506 1582 Scotch. ----, Claudius, a divine.... 1766 1805 Eng. Buclkingham, George Villiers, duke of, statesman. 1592 1628 Eng. --- -, George Villiers, son of the former 1627 1;C, Amer. Buel, Jesse, agricultural writer.. 1778 lbh9 Polish. Buffier, Claude, a Jesuit, and miscellaneous writer.. 1661 1737 Fr. Buffon, George L. le Clerc, count of; celebrated naturalist. 1.707 1788 Fr. Buoeaud, T. R., marshal of France. 1784 Ger. Buhle, J. G., hist. of philosophy, &c. 1763 Nor. Bull, Ole, famous violinist.. 1810 Swiss. Bullinger, Henry, reformer and author. 1504 1575 Eng. Bulwer, (now Sir Edward Lytton,) novelist andi dramatist.. 1803 Eng., Sir Henry L., diplomatist and pol. writer Pruss. Bunsen, C. C. J., chevalier de, diplomatist and historian.. 1791 Erg. Bunyan, John, author of' Pilgrim's Progress'.. 1628 1688 Swiss. Burckhardt, John Louis, oriental traveller... 1784 J.' 5 Ger. _-, John Charles, mathematician.. 1773 1815 Eng. Burdett, Sir Francis, politician.. 1770 1844 Eng. Burgess, Thomas, bp. of Salisbury, classicaland theological writer 1756 1837 Eng. Burgoyne. John, military commander and author.. 1792 Irish. Burke, Edmund, a great statesman and writer... 1730 1797 Eng. Burleigh, William Cecil, lord, eminentstatesman.. 1520 1598 Dutch. Burman, Peter, critic and editor... 1668 1741 Scotch. Burnes. Sir Alex., travels in Bolkkara-' Cabool,' &c... 1805 1841 Scotch. Burnet, Gilbert, a divine and historian... 1643 1715 Eng. Burney, James, admiral and author... 1739 1820 ng. —, Charles, a doctor of music... 1726 1814 Scotch. Burns, Robert, a popular and national poet. 1759 17..~ Amer. Burr, Col. Aaron, vice-pres. U.S... 1756 1836 Eng. Burton, Robert, author of the' Anatomy of Melancholy'. 1576 1639 Ger. Busching, Anthony Fredericlk, philosopher and geological writer. 1721 1793 Eng. Bute, John Stuart, earl of, statesman... 1738 1792 Eng. Butler, Samuel, a humorous poet... 1612 1680 Eng., Joseph, bishop, an eminent prelate and author. 1692 1762 Eng. --, Samuel, bp. of Litchfield, editor of I X schyles,' &c. 1774 1840 Amer. -, Richard, colonel, an officer in the revolution. 1791 Ger. Buttman, Philip C., philolozist... 1764 1829 Ger. Buxtorf, John, a Hebrew and Chaldaic-]exicographer.. 1564 1629 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 665 NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. Ger. BItlxtorf, John, (son of the preceding) lexicographer.. 1599 1644 Eng. ByIng, honorable John, admiral... 1704 1757 Eng. Byron, honorable John, admiral... 1723 1786 Eng. -, George Gordon, lord, a popular poet.. 1788 1824 "Ital. Cabot, Sebastian (son of John) navigator... 1477 Port. Cabral, Pedro Alvarez, navigator.. f. 1500 Span. Cabrera, don Ramon, military commander for Don Carlos.. 1810 Fr. Cadet De Grassicourt, Charles L., chemist and philosopher. 1769 1821 Ital. Cadamosta, Louis da, navigator. f. 1456 Fr. Caille, Rene,' Voyage at Tembouctou,' &c... 1838 Rom. Cmsar, Caius Julius, warrior, statesman, and author. c. 100:s. c. 44 Ital. Cajetan, Cardinal, diplomatist and author... 1510 1593 Gr. Calaber, Quintus, poet... f. 250 Span. Calderon de la Barca, don Pedro, dramatist. 1600 1687 Ital. Calepino, Ambrose, author of a Lexicon in 11 languages.. 1435 1511 tAmer. Calhoun, John C., senator of the U. S. 1782 1850 Gr. Calippus, astronomer and mathematician.. f. B. C. 330 Gr. Callimachus, a poet.. f. B. B. 150 Gr. Callisthenes, philosopher and historian... B.. 328 Fr. Calmet, Augfustine, an erudite divine and author o. 1672 1757!tal. Calogera, Angelo, a learned monkl and author... 1699 1768 lFr. Calonne, Charles Alex. de, minister of state... 1734 1802 Ft. Calvin, John, one of the apostles of the Reformation. 1509 1564 Amer. Calvert, Leonard, first governor of Maryland [See Baltimore]. 1676 Fr. Cambaceres, John J. R., distinguished revolutionist.. 1753 1824 Eng. Cambridge, duke of, sixth son of George 1II... 1774 1850 Eng. Camden, William, an eminent antiqutary and historian.. 1551 1623 IRom. Camillus, Marcus Furius, a distinguished dictator. B. C. 365 Port. Camoens, Louis, the most eminent poet of his country. 1517 1579 Scotch. Campbell, George, a divine and author... 1709 1796 Scotch. John, a multifarious writer... 1775 Scotch., Thos., poet-' Life of Petrarch,& &e.. 1777 1844 Scotch. - -, Lord, jurist-' Lives of Chancellors'.. 1778'Ger. Camper, Peter, an eminent naturalist... 1722 1789 Fr. Campiston, John G. de, dramatist.... 1656 1723 Fr. Cange, Charles Dufresne, Sieur du, historian., 1610 1688 Eng. Canning, George, statesman, orator, and poet.. 1770 1827 Fr. Capefigue, B. H. R., historian... 1799 Span. Capmany, Don Antonio, historian... 1754 1810'CRom. Caracalla, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, emperor.. 188 217 Brit. Caractacus, prince of the Silures, a brave warrior (ab.) 100 Ital. Cardan, Jerom, philosopher, mathematician, and physician. 1501 1576 Fr. Cardonne, Dennls D., an eminent orientalist... 1720 1783 Eng. Carey, Henry, Earl of Monmouth, translator.. 1596 1661 Amer., Matthew, philanthropist, publisher, and politician.. 1760 1839 Eng. W, William, missionary to India.... 1761 1822 Ital. Carissimi, James, musical composer. 1600 Irish. Carleton, Sir Guy, military commander, and governor of Canada. 1724 1808 Ital. Carli, John Rinaldo, count de, author.... 1720 1795 Eng. Carlisle. Sir Anth., physician and medical writer.. 1768 1840 Span. Carlos, don, son of Philip II. (hero of Schiller's tragedy).. 1545 1568 Port. -, don M. J. Scoteld. Carlyle, Thomas, historian and metaphysician.. 1795 Gr. Carneades, philosopher, founder of the 3d Academy. B. C. 218 B. c. 128 Fr. Carnot, Lazarus Nicholas, revolutionist.. 1753 1823 Fr. Carrel, Armand, historian and metaphysician... 1800 1836 Eng. Carter, Elizabeth, a learned translatress, &c,.. 1717 1806 Amer. -, Nathaniel H., a scholar and traveller. 183C Eng. Cartwright, Majoa. John, parliament reformer.. 1740 1824 Ger. Carus, C. G., writer on anatomy and physiology... 1789 Amer. Carver, Jonathan, traveller aaid author.. 1732 1780 Amer. -, John, first governor of Plymouth colony.. 1621 Eng. Cary, Henry F., poet-translator of' Dante'.. 1772 1844 Span. Casas, Bartholomew de las, philanthropist and historian. 1474 1554 Fr. Cassini, John Dominic, astronomer. 1625 1712 Tjal. Cassiodorns, Marcus Aur., statesman and historian.. 470 516 RIem. Cassius, Longinus Caius, conspira.tor against CMasar.. a. a. 42 Eng. Castell, Edmund, divine and lexicographer... 1606 1685 f66'ITHE WORtLD'S PROGRESS. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORIN. DIED Ital. Castiglione, Balthasar, statesman and author.. 1468 1529 Ital. Catalini, Madame, eminent vocalist... 1782 18i Eng. Catesby, Mark, naturalist... 1680 1749 Russ. Catherine 11., a powerful. and profligate empress.. 1729 1796 Rom. Catiline, Lucius Sergius, patrician conspirator. c. 62 Fr. Catinat: Nicholas, military commander.. 1637 1712 Rom. Cato, Marcus Portius, the Censor, statesman and author..c. 232 a. c. 147 Rout. -, Marco Porcius,'of Utica,' statesman B... 95 a. c. 46 Rom. Catullus, Caius Valerius, poet a. C. 86 Fr. Cauchy, Aug. L., mathematician. 1780 Fr. Caussin, Nicholas, a Jesuit, author of'The Holy Court'.. 1583 1651 Fr. Cavaignac, Gen., military commander and statesman Enug. Cavendish, Sir William, courtier and writer... 1505 1.557 Eng. ~, Thomas, navigator.. 1591 g. Caxton, William, the introducer of printing into England.. 1410 1492 Cazales, James A. lI. de. an eloquent orator. 1752 1805 FP. Caylus, A. C. P., count de, miscellaneous writer... 1720 1765 R )m. Ceisus, Aurelius Cornelius, a celebrated physician. f. 30 Gr. -, an Epicurean philosopher... f. 50 Roim. Censorius, a critic and grammarian.. f. 240 Irish. Centlivre, Susanna, a dramatic writer. 1667 1723 Span. Cervantes, Saavedra Michael, author of' D)on Quixotte' 1547 1616 Ital. Cesarotti, Melchior, a voluminous author.. 1730 1808 Scotch. Chalmers, George, miscellaneous writer.. 1744 1825 Eno. —, Alex.,'General Biographical Dictionary,' &c.. 1759 1834 Scotch. -, Thomas, D. D., theologian and political economist. 1770 1846 Eng. Chambers, Sir William, an architect.. 1796 Fr. Champollion, the younger,' Monuments d'IEgypte,' &c.. 1790 1832 Fr. Champollion-Figeac, historian and antiquary. 1779 Amer. Channing, William Ellery, D. D., theologian and philanthropist. 1780 1842 Eng. Chantry, Sir Francis sculptor... 1781 1841 Eng. Chapman, George, poetical translator... 1557 1634 Eng. Chapone, Hester, miscellaneous writer... 1727 1801 Fr. Chaptal, J. A. C., chemist. 1756 1832 Fr. Charles Martel, statesman and warrior... 741 Fr. Charles, J. A. C., natural philosopher... 1746 1825 Fr. -, V. E. P., historian and literatesur Fr. Charlemagne, emperor of the West, and king of France 742 814 Swe. Charles XII., king, a celebrated warrior.... 1682 1718 Fr. Charlevoix, Peter F. X. de, a Jesuit historian.. 1682 1761 Dutch. Chass6, David II., baron, military commander.. 1765 Fr. Chateaubriand, poet, statesman, and traveller.. 1769 1848 Fr. Chatel, Abbd Fer. F., theological reformer.. 1795 Eng. Chatham, VWm. Pitt, earl of, statesman.. 1708 1778 Etng. Chatterton, Thomas. famed for precocious talent. 1752 1770 Eng. Chaucer, Geoffrey, the fatlher of English poetry.. 1328 1400 Amer. Chauncey, Charles, D. D., president of Harvard College 1671 Amner, -, Commodore Isaac, naval commander.. 1840 Eng. Cheselden, William, an eminent anatomist. 1688 1752 Eng. Chesterfield, Philip D. Stanhope, earl of, statesman and writer. 1694 1773 Ital. Cherubini, musical composer... 1842 Fr. Chevalier, Michael, engineer, traveller, and statesman.. 1806 Fr. Chevreul, M. E., chemist. 1786 Gr. Chilo, Euphorus of Sparta-one of the seven wise men. f. B. C. 598 Amer. Chipman, Nathaniel, jurist and statesman.. 1752 1843 Eng. Chitty, Joseph, author of numerous works on law... 1776 1841 Poi. Chlopicki. J., military commander-dictator of Poland 1772 Fr. Choiseul-Stainville, C. A. G., duke of, statesman and author. 1762 Swe. Christina, queen (daughter of G. Adolphus).. 1626 1689 A fric. ('hristophe, a slave —alterwards king of Hayti 1767 1820 Gr. Chrysiphus, a stoic philosopher... c. 280 a. C. 207 Gr. Chrysostom, John, Christian father and orator... 344 407 Eng. Churchill, Charles, a satirical poet. 1731 1764 Ames Church, Benjamin, military commander... 1639 1718 Eng. Cibber, Colley, tragic and comic actor and poet. 1671 1557 Rum. Cicero, Marcus Tullius, one of the greatest of orators. B. C. 105 a. c. 43 Ital. Cimarosa, Dominic, dramatic and music composer. 1754 1801 Gr. Cimon, an Athenian general...... 449 Rom. Cincinnatus, Lucius Quinctius, the patriot, flourished. C. 456 Rom. Cinna, Lucius Cornelius, partisan of Marius, flourished...a. 87 Ital. Cirillo, Dominic, a botanist and physician.. 1734 1799 13IOGRAPHCAL INDEX. 667 NATION. NAMIU AND PROPESSION. BORN. DIED. Amer. Clair, Arthur St., a distinguished officer in the revolution. 1818 Pr. Clairaut, Alexis Claude, geometrician.. 1713 1765 Amcr. Clap, Thomas, president of Yale College. 1703 1767 Scotch. Clapperton, Hugh, traveller in Alifica.. 1788 1827 Eng. Clarendon, Edward Hyde, earl of, statesman and historian. 1608 1674 Eng. Clarke, Samuel, Dr., theologian and philosopher. 1675 1729 n., Dr. Edward Daniel, traveller and mineralogist. 1767 1821 lnt. 1, Dr. Adam, a celebrated theologian and commentator 1760 1832 En, Sir James, medical author Amer. Clark, Willis Gaylord, poet and essayist. 1810 1841 En. Clarkson, Thomas, philanthropist.. 1761 Anme r. Clayton, John, an eminent physician and botanist. 1705 1773 Q'. Cleanthes, a Stoic philosopher, flourished.. 3. o. 260 ital. Clementi, Mazio, musical composer.. 1832 Gr. Cleobolus, one of the seven wise men, flourished B.C. 559 Egypt. Cleopatra, a voluptuous queen.. C0. 30 Amer. Clinton, George, governor of New-Yorlk, and vice-president of U. S.. 1739 1812 Amer. -, Dewitt, governor and benefactor of Nevw-York.. 1769 1828 drug. Clive, Robert, lord, military commander... 1725 1774 Fr. Cloquet, Ilypolite (brother of Jules), anatomist. 1787 Fr. Clot, or CUlot Bey, surgeon and medical writer (in Egypt).. 1795 Eng. Cobbett, William, political writer... 1835 Enl. Cogan, Thomas, physician, and miscellaneous writer.. 1736 1818 Eng. Coke, Sir Edward, a learned judge.. 1549 1634 r. Colbert, John Baptist, an eminent statesman.. 1619 1683 Amer. Colburn, Zerah, precocious arithmetician.. 1804 1840 Amer. Colden, Cadwallader, an eminent botanist, astronomer, &c.. 1688 1776 Amer. -, Cadwallader D., statesman, biographer of Fulton, &c.. 1769 1834 Eng. Coleridge, Henry N., i'terateur.. (ab.) 1800 1843 E -ng -, Samuel T., poet and metaphysician.. 1834 Eng. Collingwood. Cuthbert, lord, admiral.... 1748 1810 Eng. Collins, William, a popular poet.. 1720 1756 Eng. Coleman, George, dramnatic writer... 1733 1784 Amer. -—, Benjamniin, a learned divine (in Boston). 1673 1747 Eng. Colman, George, the younger, dramatist 1762 1836 Fr. Colombat, de 1'Isre, medical writer (ab.) 1800 ital. Columbus, Christopher, the discoverer of America.. 1441 1506 Engr. Cotton, C. C., author of' Lacon'.. 1773 1832 Scotch. Combe, George, phrenologist and philosopher.. 1788 Scotch. —, Andrew, medical and physiological writer 1797 Ft. Conde, Louis II. of Bourbon, Protestant military commander 1621 1680 F C. Condillac, Stephen Bonnot de, metaphysical writer.1715 1780'Chinese Confucius, a celebrated philosopher n..... 550 Eng. Congreve, William, a comic drmatnatist.. 1670 1728 r. Conon, an Athenian general B. c. 390 Fr. Constant, Benjamrnin, statesman and metaphysician 1767 1830 Gr. Constantine (the Great), the first Christian emperor. 274 337 Gr. ---- - VII. (Porphyrogenitus), emperor and author. 905 959.r1. --—.-~- (Paleologus), the last of the Greek emperors 1403 1453 Eng. Cook, James, a celebrated circumnavigator.. 1728 1776 Cooke, Thomas, editor and translator.. 1702 1756 Enug.,' — George F., an eminent actor. 1756 1812 Aner. Cooper, Satnuel, D. D., a divine and political writer. 1725 1783 JEng., Sir Astley Paxton, physician and tmedical writer. 1768 1841 Eng., Thomas, chemtist, jurist, and politician (in Anmer.). 1759 1840 Itish., Coote, Sir Eyre, military commander in India. 1726 1783 Pruss. Copernicus, Nicholas, a celebrated astronomer-the reviver of the Pythagorean system of the universe.. 1473 1543 Gr. Corinna, a poetess, flourished in the fifteenth century, before Christ. Itom. Coriolanus, Caius Marcius, a warrior... c. 488 Fr. Corminenin, L. M. de la Haye, vic. de, political writer 1788 Ital. Cornaro, Lewis, a noble-author of a book on temperance. 1467 1565 Fr. Corneille, Peter, an eminent dramnatic writer... 1606 1684 Fr., Thomnas (brother of' Peter), poet and dramatist.. 1625 1709 Gee. Cornelius, Peter, painter (in fresco, &c.) Fr. Cornelli, Mark Vincent, a Venetian geographer and hiistorian. 1718 Eng. Cornwalis, Charles, marquis; nmilitary commander. 1738 1805 Port. Cortes, Fecdinand, the brutal conqueror of Mexico.. 1485 1554 hItal. Cosla, Paola, litelraetecu.. 1771 1836 Dutch. Coster, John Lavwrence, one of the supposed inventors of printing 1370 Ger. Cotta, Baron F., publisher and statesman.... 183 Fr. Cottin, Sophia, madame, a novelist.. 1773 18Cl 668 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. Amer. Cotton, John (of Boston), a lealrned divine... 1585 1652 Fr. Coulomb, Charles, Augustine de, philosopher... 1736 1806. Fr. Courier, Paul Louis, poet and satirist... 1772 1'25 Fr. -—, Paul Louis, political writer.. 1774 1825 Fr. Court de Gebelin. Anthony, an antiquarian and author.. 1725 1784 Fr. Cousin, Louis, historian... 1627 1707 Fr. -, Victor, statesman and metaphysician Eug. Cowley, Abraham, poet.... 1618 1667 Eng. Cowper, William, poet..... 1731 1800 Eng. Coxe, William, traveller and historian... 1747 1828 En. Crabbe, Rev. George, poet..... 1754 1832 Ger. Cramer, John Andrew, miscellaneous writer.. 1723 1788 Eng. Cranmer, Thomas, a celebrated reformer.. 1489 1556 Rtom. Crassus, Marcus Lucinius (the Rich), military commander. B. O. 53 Amer. Crawford, William H., statesman and jurist... 1772 1834 Fr. Crebillon, Prosper Jolyott de, tragic poet... 1674 1762 Fr. Crevier, John Baptist Lewis, historian.... 1693 1765 Amer. Crockett, David, eccentric statesman... 1836 Eng. Croly, Rev. George, poet and novelist Eng. Cromwell, Thomas, earl of Essex, successor of Wolsey.. 1490 1540 Eng., Oliver, military comsmander and statesman.. 1599 1658 Scotch. Cruden, Alexander, author of a Concordance to the Bible. 1701 Eng. Cruikshank, George, artist, chiefly caricature... 1780 Eng. Cudworth, Ralph, philosopher.... 1617 1688 Scotch. Cullen, William, an eminent physician. 1712 1790 Eng. Cumberland, William Augustus, duke of, military commander. 1721 1765 Eng., Richard, a multifarious writer... 1732 1811 Scotch. Cunningham', Allan, poet, biographer, &c. 1763 1842 Irish. Curran, John Philpot, a celebrated barrister and orator. 1750 1817 Reom. Curtius, Rufus Quintus, history. Fr. Cuvier, baron, one of the greatest of naturalists... 1769 1832 Fr. ~, Fred. (brother of the baron), naturalist... 1773 1838 Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, an eminent lIther of the church. 258 Cyril, St., the apostle of the Sclavi.... 822 D Fr. Dacler, Anne, a celebrated classical scholar... 1651 1720 Swe. Dalin, Olaus Von, the father of Swedish poetry.. 1708 1753 Amer. Dallas, Jamnes Alexander, secretary treasury U. S... 1759 1817 Amer., Commodore A. J., naval commander.. 1791 1844 Eng. Dalton, John, chemist and mathematician... 1766 1844 Ger. Damin, Christian Tobias, Greek lexicographer.. 1699 1778 Eng. Dampier, William, an eminent navigator... 1652 1711 Eng. Daniell, John F., chemist... 1790 1845 Eng., W., R. A., Author of pictorial works on India.. 1837 Ger. Dannecker, sculptor (' Ariadne,' &c.).. 1758 1841 Ital. Dante Alighieri,' the sublimest of the Italian poets'.. 1265 1321 Eng.' D'Arblay, Madame (Fanny Burney), novelist.. 1752 1840 Eng. Darwin, Erasmus, a poet, physician, and botanist... 1721 1802 Aust. Daun, Leopold Joseph Mary, count de, military commander. 1705 1765 Fr. Daunou, P. C. F., statesman and literateur.. 1761 1840 Amer. Davidson, Lucretia M., a youthf'ul poetess of uncommon genius. 1808 1825 Amer. Davies, Samuel, president of Princeton College-theol. writer. 1724 1761 Ital. Davila, Henry Catharine, an historian.. 1576 1631 EnL. Davis, John, a navigator-discoverer of'Davis' Straits'.. 1605 Eng. Davy, Sir Humphrey, eminent chemist... 1778 1829 Amer. Deane, Silas, minister of the U. S. to France... 1758 1789 Amer. Dearborn, Henry, a distinguished officer of the two American wars 1751 1829 Fr. Debrue, William Francis, a bookseller and bibliographer. 1731 1782 Swiss. Decandolle, A. P., botanist,.. 1778 1841 Amer. Decatur, Stephen, a gallant commodore in the IJ. S. navy.. 1779 1820 Eng. Defoe, Daniel, miscellaneous writer.... 1661 1731 Fr. Delambre, John Baptist Joseph, astronomer... 1749 1822 Fr. Delavigne, Casimir, dramatist.... 1794 1843 Fr. Delille, James, a celebrated poet.... 1738 1813 F1. Delisle, Joseph Nicholas, an eminent astronomer.. 1683 1768 Gr. Democritus, a celebrated philosopher..... 46,0 Gr. Demosthenes, one of the greatest of orators.a. 8. 1, C. 322 ErE. Denham, lieut. colonel Dixon, an enterprising traveller.. 1786 1828 Ital. Denina, Charles John Maria, an historian... 1731 1813 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 669 WATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN DIED. Russ. Derzhavine, Gabriel R., a poet and statesman.. 1743 1816 Fr. Desaix, Louis Charles Anthony, military commander.. 1768 1800 Fr. Descartes, IRen6, an eminent philosopher.. 1596 1650 Fr. Dessaix, J. AM., count, marshal of France.. 1768 Afl. Dessalines, John.James, emperor of Hayti.. 1806 Fr. Destouches, Philip Nericault, dramatic writer.. 1680 1754 Dutch. Deurhoff; William, founder of a sect, and an author. 1650 1717 Amer. Dewees, W. P., medical writer.... 1841 Dutch. De Witt, John, an eminent statesman.... 1625 1672 Port. Diaz. Bartholomew, discoverer of the Cape of Good Hope 1500 Eng. Dibdin, Charles, a dramatic and musical composer. 1748 1814 Eng., Thomas, dramatist and song writer (son of Charles). 1841 Eng. --, Rev. Thomas F., bibliographer... 1849 CEl. Dick, Thomas, author of 6 Christian Philosopher' Eng. Dickens, Charles, novelist Fr. Diderot, Denis, first editor of' Encycloptedie Methocique'. 1713 1784 Fr. Didot, Francis A., a celebrated printer and type-fbunder.. 1730 1804 Fr. -—, Firmin, publisher, and member of Deputies. 1764 1836 Ft. —, Amb. Firmin, publisher and traveller.. 1790'Eypt. Didymus, who wrote from 3000 to 6000 works f. B. o. 30 IPruss. Ditsbitsch-Sabalkanski, count, military commander. 1785 1831 Pruss. Dieffenbach, J. F., surgeon.... 95 Ger. Dindorf, William, philologist. 1802 Span. Diez, John Martin, a patriotic military commander 1775 1825 Mace. Dinocrates, an architect-(built Alexandria, &c.) f. B. C. 350'Gr. Dion Cassius, author of Roman history.. 155 Gr. Dio Chrysostom, a rhetorician and philosopher. f. 30 Gr. Diodorus Siculus, a historian.f... 10 Gr. Diogenes, the Cynic, a philosopher B. c. 413 B. C. 323 Gr. Diogenes l.aertius, biographer Gr. Dionysius, of Halicarnassus, critic and historian.. 52 Gr. -- a, a geographer.. f. 140 Eng. Dodd, Dr. William, miscellaneous writer. 1729 1777 Eng. Doddridge, Philip, a gifted and pious divine and writer 1702 1756 Ger. Doebereiner, J. W., chemist.... 1780 Ital. Donizetti, Gaetano, musical composer Ttal. Doria, Andrew, the deliverer of his country (Genoa) 1468 1560 Scotch. Douglas, Gawin, a poet and translator. 1474 1521 Gr. Draco, an Athenian legislator... f. 623 Eng. Drake, Sir Francis, a celebrated circumnavigator 1545 1596 Dutch. Drebbel, Cornelius Van, inventor of the thermometer. 1572 1634 Fr. Droz, Joseph, historical and political writer Eng. Dryden, John, an eminent poet... 1631 1700 Fr. Duchatel, C. M. T., count, statesman and author 1.. 03 Fr. Duchesne, Andrew, an historian. 1584 1640 Fr. Duclos, Charles Pineau, an historian.. 1704 1772 Fr. Duguescland, Bertrand, military commander. 1314 1380 Fr. DPumas, Alex., novelist, traveller, &c. 1803 Fr. -, J. B., chemist. 1800 Fr. Dumont, John, traveller and political writer... 1726 Fr. - d'Urville, J. S. C., circumnavigator... 1790 1842 Fr. Dumourier, Charles Francis Duperier, military commander 1739 1823 Scotch. Dunbar, William, a poet. 1465 1535 Scotch. Duncan, William, logician and translator. 1717 1760 Scotch --, Adam, viscount, a successful admiral 1731 1804 Amer. Dunlap, William, painter and historian... 1766 1839 Fr. Dupin, Louis Ellies, an ecclesiastical historian.. 1637 1719 Fr., A. M. J. J., jurist anti statesman... 1783 Fr., Charles, baron, jurist and statesman... 1784 Fr. Duponceau, P. S., philologist, jurist, &c. (at Philadelphia) 1760 1844 Fr. Dupuytren surgeon and anatomist. 1778 1835 Fr. Duiquesne, Abraham, a gallant admiral. 1610 1688 Eng. Durham, J. G. Lambton, earl of, governor general of Canada. 1792 1840 Fr. Duroc, Michael, duke of Friuli, military commander.. 1772 1813 Amer. Dwight, Dr. Timothy, an eminent divine and writer 1752 1817 E Ger. Eckhard, John George, an antiquary and historian. 1674 1730 Irish. Edgeworth, Maria, novelist.. (about) 1770 Eno. Edward, the Black Prince, a warrior.. 1330 1376 6"70 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. )MED, Amer. Edwards, Jonathan, an able divine and metaphysician. 1703 1757 Eng. - B, Bryan, an historian. 1743 18"-—, W. F., anatomist and physioloogist (born at Jamaica) 1777,Milne (son of the last), naturalist Gr. Eginhard, an historian..... 339 Ger. Ehreoberg, C. J., naturalist. 1795 Ger. Eichborn, F. C., theologian and jurist EL. Eldon, Lord lord chancellor of England 1750 1823 Scotch. Elgin, T. Booce, earl of, diplomatist-remover of' Elgin narbles' 1771 1841 Eng. Elizabeth, queen..... 1533 1603 Amer. Elliot, John,' the apostle to the Indians'... 1604 1690 Amer. Elliott, J. D., commodore in American navy. 1785 1815 Amner Ellsworth, Oliver, a distinguished chief justice of the U. S... 1745 1807 LEg. Enmerson, William, an eminent mathematician. 1701 1781 lirish. Emnmet, Thomas Addis, an eminent lawyer and orator. 1764 1827 elr. Empedocles, a Pythagorean philosopher Elg. Enfield, William, miscellaneous writer.. 1741 1797 Fr. Eon De Beaumont, Chevalier, an eccentric writer. 1728 1810 Gr. Epaminondas, an illustrious Theban general.. B. C. 363 Gr. Epictetus, a Stoic philosopher.... f. 40 Gr. Epicurus, founder of the Epicurean sect of philosophers. B. C. 342 B. c. 371 Dutch. Erasmus, Desiderius, a celebrated scholar and author.. 1467 1536 Span. Ercilla, Don Alonzo, a poet.. 1525 1595 Span. Ericeira, Ferdinand, a statesman and historian. 1614 1699 Eng. Erigena, John Scotus, a learned writer of the ninth century Pruss. Erman, A. G.,'Travels in Siberia,' &c... 1806 Ger. Ernesti, John, Augustus, an eminent critic.. 1707 1781 Scotch. Erskine, Thomas, lored, a celebrated forensic orator.. 1750 1823 Span. Escobar, Y. Mendoza Anthony, a celebrated casuist.. 1589 1669 Fr. Esquirol, J. E. D., writer on insanity.. 1772 1840 Ger. Ess, L. Van, theological writer... 1770 Eng. Essex. Robert Devereux, earl of, a warrior... 1567 160, Aust. Esterhazy, Prince Paul, wealthy statesman Afric. Euclid, an eminent geometrician.. f... 300 Fr. Eugene, Francis, prince, a great warrior (in the German service) 1663 1736 Swiss. Euler, Leonard, an eminent mathematician. 1707 1783 Gr. Euripides. a celebrated tragic poet. B. c. 480 Gr. Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea, a learned father of the church, and ecclesiastical historian... 340 Romn. Eutropius, an historian. f. 360 Rlom. Eutyches, an ecclesiastic, founder of a sect Eng. Evelyn, John, miscellaneous writer... 1620 1651 Amer. Everett, Alex. 11., essayist and diplomatist... 1790 1847 Eng. Faber, George Stanley, theological writer Rtem. Fabius, Quintus M. V., a skililll warrior... B.. 204 Ger. Fabricius, John Albert, a critic and bibliographer.. 1668 173i Ital. -, John Christian, a celebrated entomologist.. 1742 1807 Ital. Fabroni, Angelo. a learned biographer.. 1732 1803 Pruss. Fahrenheit, Gabriel Daniel, an experimental philosopher. 1686 1736 Eng Fairfax, Thomas, lord, a general in the civil war.. 1611 1671 Eng. Falconer, Williamn, a poet..... 1730 1769 Ital. Faliero, MIarino, doge of Venice (beheaded).. 1355 Irish. Faraday, Michael, chemist... 1790 P'ort. Faria Y. Souza, Manuel, an historian and poet.. 1588 1647 Irish. Farquhar, George, a dramatist.... 1678 1707 Ger. Faust, John, one of the inventors of printing.. 1466 Eng. Fawkes, Francis, a poet and translator.. 1721 1777 Fr. Fayette, Mary M., countess of, miscelianeous writer 1632 1693 Fr. Fenelon, Francis de Salignac de la Motte, an able writer, and one of the most virtuous of men 1651 1715 Swe Fer ber, John James, an eminent mineralogist 1743 1790( L,n0,. Ferguson, James, a self-educated astronomer, philosopher, &c. 1710 1776 5LD --—, Adam, an historian and moral philosopher. 1724 1816 Span. Fesreras, John de, a celebrated historian. 1652 1735 Fr. Fesch, Joseph, senior, priest-cardinal, archbishop of Lyons 1763 1.839 Ger. Feurbach, Paul John A. von, statesman and jurist 1775 1833 Span Feyjoo Y. Montenegro, an able miscellaneous writer 1701 1764 ltai. Ficino, Mtarsilius, a Platonic philosopher. 1433 1499 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 671 NATION' NAME AND PROFESSIO0T!. BORN. DIED. Elgy. Fieldinv, Henry, a humorous novelist and dramatist. - 1707 1754 Ital. Fiesco, John Louis, the conspirator against Doria.. 1547 Eng. Flavel, John, an eminent nonconformist divine.1627 1691 Fr. Flechier, Esprit, a celebrated prelate... 1632 1710 Ger. Fleischer. -I. L., orientalist.... 1801 Eng. Fletcher, John, a dramatist..... 1576 1625 Fr. Fleury, Clautde, a divine and historian. 1640 1722 r. —, Andrew HIercules de, a cardinal and statesman. 1653 1743 A inr. Flint, 1Rev. Timothy, novelist and historian... 1780 1840 Florian, John Peter Claris de, miscellaneous writer.. 1755 1794 GeV Fliigel, G. L., philologist and historian.. 1802 Ger. Follen, C. T. C., theologian and philologist (in U. S.. 1796 1840 FtF. Fontenelle, Bernard le Bovier de, miscellaneous writer.. 1657 1757 Eng,. Foote, Samuel, a comic writer and actor... 1721 1771!tal. Forcellini, Giles, a Latin lexicographer.... 1688 Ent. Ford, John, an early dramatic writer 15.. 86 1639 Amer. Forsyth, John, diplomatist and statesman... 1780 1841 Eng. Fosbroolke, RIev. T. D., archleologist (Ency. Antiq.).. 1770 1842 Eng. Foster, John, essayist Fr. Fouche, Joseph, duke of Otranto, a brutal revolutionist.. 1763 1820 Fr. Fourier, Charles, founder of the' social' system.. 1772 1837 Eng. Fox, John, a divine, author of the' Book of Martyrs'. 1517 1587 Eng. —, George, the founder of the Society of Friends, or Quakers. 1624 1690 Eng., Charles James, one of the greatest of statesmen and orators. 1748 1806 Irish. Francis, Sir Philip, political writer... 1740 Ik 2S Amer. Franklin, Benjamnin, a celebrated philosopher and statesman 1706 1790 Pruss. Frederick II., the Great, king —a able general and author.. 1712 1786 Ger. Freytag, G. WV. F., Arabic Dictionary, &c. 1778 Eng. Frobisher, Sir Martin, a celebrated nlavigator.. 1594 Fr. Froissart, John, a chronicler and poet... 1333 1400 Eng. Fry, Elizabeth, philanthropist.... 1780 1845 Eng. Fuller, Thomas, a divine and historian... 160 1661 Eng. Fuller, Andrew, an eminent Baptist minister... 1754 1815 Amer. Fulton, Robert, the introducer of steamboats in America. 1767 1815 Fr. Furitiere, Antony, a philologist.... 1620 1683 G Fr. Gagnier, John, an orientalist and author... 1670 1740 Fr. Gail, J. B., philologist..... 1755 1829 Fr. Gaillard, Gabriel HIenry, miscellaneous writer and historian 1728 1806 Amer. Gaines, Maj. Gen. E. P., military commander... 1777 1849 Gr. Galen, Claudius, a celebrated physician.. 131 Ital. Galileo, an illustrious philosopher and astronomer.. 1564 1642 Ger. Gall, Join Joseph, a celebrated physiologist, and founder of the science of phrenology.. 1758 1828 Swiss-Amer. Gallatin, Albert, statesman, diplomatist, philologist, and ethnol. 1761 1849 Scotch. Gait, John, novelist.... 1779 1839 Ital. Galvani, Louis, a physician and experimental philosopher-discoverer of galvanic electricity 1737 1798 Port. Gama, Vasco de, navigator, first who doubled the Cape of Good Hope 1524 Ger. Gans, Edward, jurist.. 1798 1841 Span. Garcia, Manuel, musical composer.... 1779 1832 Span. Garcias Lasso, de la Vega,' the Prince of Spanish poetry'.. 1503 1536 Fr. Garlier, Count Germain, jurist.... 1754 1821 Eng. Garriclk, David, a celebrated actor and dramatist. 1716 1779 Eng. Gascoigne, Sir William, the judge who imprisoned Henry Prince of Wales for a misdemeanor.. 1350 1413 Fr. Gassendi, Peter, a celebrated philosopher. 1592 1655 Amer. Gates, Horatio, a distinguished officer in the revolution. 1728 1806 Eng. Gay, John, a popular poet..... 1688 1732 Fr. Gay-Lussac, N. F., chemist 1778 1850 Ger. Gellert, Christian Furchtegott, a poet and miscellaneous writer 1715 1769 Bar. Genghis Khan, a celebratedl conqueror... 1164 1227 Fr. Genlis, Stephania FelicitO, countess de, miscellaneous writer. 1746 1830 Eng. Geoffrey of Monmouth, an historian of the 12th century Fr. Gerando, Baron de, writer on education, &c... 1770 Rom. Germanicus, Tiberius Drusus Cresar, military commander. 19 Fr. Gerson, John Charlier de, an ecclesiastic and author. 1363 1429 Swiss Gesner, Conrad, an eminent naturalist.. 1516 1f6C5 Ger.,John Matthias, a philologist.. 1691 1761 Amer. Gerry, Elbridge, a distinguished patriot, vice-president U. S. 1811 671;.a.THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. NA.TION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN DIED. ItPal. Giannone, Peter, an historian. 1676 1758 Ellg. Gibbon, Edward, one of the greatest of English historians. 1737 179'1. Amer. Gibson, Col. John and Col. George, both officers in the Revolution Eng. Gitford, William, a critic and poet. 1757 1826 Eng., John, an historical and political writer 1758 1818 Eng. Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, one of the earliest adventurers in America. 15183 Eng. Gill, John, a divine, oriental scholar, and author. 1697 1771 Scotch. Gillies, John, h Iistory of Greece,' &c... 1747 183(6 Ital. Gioja, Melchior, writer on economical sciences 1767 1829 Swe. Gmelin, John Fredericlk, a chemist.... 1748 1S05 Fr. Godfrey of Bouillon, or Boulogne, a celebrated leader in the crusades 1100 Amer. Godman, John, M. D., a distinguished naturalist, &c.. 1830 Eng. Godwin, William, novelist and metaphysician 1755 1836 Gel:. Goethe, a celebrated dramatist... 1749 1831 Itay. Goldoni, Charles,'the Italian Moliere'. 1707 1793 Irisl Goldsmith, Oliver, a celebrated poet and miscellaneous writer 1731 1774 Dutch. Golius, James, an orientalist and lexicographer.. 1596 1667 Span. Gonsalvo of Cordova, a celebrated warrior. 1443 1515 Gr. Gorgias, an orator and sophist, f. B. C. 5th century Fr. Gourgaud, Gen., military commander under Napoleon Eng. Gower, John. one of the earliest English poets. 1402 Rom. Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius, a celebrated democrat.. 133 Rom. - -- Caius Sempronius...B.. 121 Ger. Greefe, or Graevius, an erudite classic writer. 1632 1703 Scotch. Grahame, James, author of' History of the United States' Scotch. Grahatne, James, a poet. 1765 181 Scotch. Grant, Anne (of Laggan), novelist, essayist, &c.. 1755 1838 Eng. Granville, John Carteret, earl, a statesman.. 1690 1763 Ital. Gratian, a monkt, compiler of the canon law, f. 12th century Irish. Grattan, Henry, a distinguished orator and statesman. 1750 1820 Dutch. Gravesande, Win. Jacob, a geometrician and philosopher 1688 1742 Eng. Gray, Thomas, a poet. 1716 1771 Gregory Nazianzen, St., Christian writer 328 389 Gregory of Nyssa, St., do. 331 396 Fr. Gregory (of Tours), St., an historian.. 544 593 Fr. Gregory I., the Great, pope, an author.. 544 604 Ital. Gregory VII., the Great, pope (EIildebrand), a celebrated despot 1085 Scotch. Gregory, James, a philosopher and mathematician 1648 1618Scotch. Gregory, David, do. do. 1661 1710 Irish. Gregory, George, D. D., a miscellaneous writer. 1754 1808 Eng. Gregory, Olinthus, mathematician and religious writer. 1774 1841 Amer. Greene, Nathaniel, maj. gen., distinguished in the Revolution. 1741 1786 Eng. Grey, lady Jane, the accomplished victim of another's ambition. 1537 1554 Eng. Grey, Earl, statesman-whig premier for William IV... 1764 1845 Ger Griesbach, John James, an eminent theologian and philologist. 1745 1812 Amer. Griomke, Thomas S., jurist.... 1786 1834 Ger. Grimm. J. L. C., miscellaneous writer.. 1785 Dutch. Gronovius, James, an erudite critic. 1645 1716 Ger. Grotefend, G. F., p. lologist... 1775 1836 Dutch. Grotius, or De Groot, Hugh, an eminent scholar. 1583 1645 Fr. Grouchy, Emanuel, count, marshal of France.. 1766 Amer. Grundy, Felix, senator of the U. S. (Tenn.).. 1777 1840 Ger. Gryph, Andrew, a dramatist.... 1616 1664 Ital. Guarini, John Baptist, a poet.. 1537 1612 Ger. Guericlke. Otto, exp. philos.-inventor of the air-pump. 1602 16% Ital. Guicciardini, Francis, an historian... 1482 1540t Nor. Guiscard, Robert, a Norman warrior... 1015 1085 Fr. Guise, Francis of Lorraine. duke of, a celebrated warrior 1519 1563 Fr. Guise, Charles of, Caidinal, a bigoted and ambitious statesman. 1525 1574 Fr. Guise, Henry, of Lorraine, duke of. an ambitious warrior 1550 1588 Fr. Guizot, Francis, statesman, historian, and metaphysician. 1787 Eng. Gunter, Edmund, a mathematician-inventor of the' Gunter's scale,' &c. 1581 1619 Swe. Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, an able warrior. 1594 1633 Scotch. Guthrie. William, author of a history of England, Scotland, &c. 1708 1770 Ger. Guttemberg, John, one of the inventors of printing.. 1400 1468 Pruss. G utzlaff, Charles, traveller and historian of China. 1803 Pers. Hafiz, Mohammed, a poet-the Anacreon of Persia. 1.389 Ger. Hahn, Simon Frederick, an historian. 1692 17.?' BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 673 NUATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. onamA. DIED. Ger. lahnesann, founder of' Hommeopathy' in medicine. 1755 1843 Ger. Ilahn-Iahn, Ida, countess of, traveller and'novelist 1805 Eng. IHakluyt, Richard, autlhor of voyages, &c. of the English. 1553 1616 Eng. iHale, Sir Matthew, an eminent and incorruptible judge. 1609 1676 Eng. Halford, Sir IHenry. physician and medical writer.. 1766 1844 Scotch. Hall, Capt. Basil, author of Travels, &c.. 1788 1844 Eng. Hall, Rev. Robert, thieologian and pulpit orator. 1764 1831 Eng. Hallam, Ilenry, historian. "wiss. Hailer, Albert Von, miscellaneous writer 1708 1777 Eng. Halley, Edmund, an eminent astronomer and mathematician 1656 1741 Amer. Hamilton, Alexander, a statesman-first secretary of treasury, U. S. 1757 1804 Irish. Hamilton, Elizabeth, a talented mniscellaneous writer. 1758 1816 EnB. Hamilton, Thomas, Captain, novelist,'Men and Manners in America 1789 1842 Ger. Hammer, Von, baron, historian and orientalist.. 1774'Lng. Hampden, John, a celebrated patriot... 1594 1643 Amer. Hancock, John, a distinguished patriot-president of Congress 1737 1793 Ger. HIandel, Geo. Frederick, one of the greatest nmusical composers. 1684 17'58 Nor. Hansteen, C., mathematician and astronomer... 1784 Eng. Harley, Robert, earl of Oxford, a celebrated statesman.. 1661 1724 Sa. Hiaroun Al Raschid, caliph, a patron of learning. 808 Amer. Harlan, Richard, M.., naturalist.... 1796 1843 Bng. Harris, James, compiler of the first Cyclopedia, &c.... _670 1719 Amer. Harrison, Gen. W. H., military commander, and pres. U. S.. 1773 1841 Amer. Harvard, John, founder of Harvard College... 1688 Eng. Harvey, William, discoverer of the circulation of the blood.. 1569 1658 ~ er. Lase, Henry, classical antiquarian... 1789 1842 fsig. Haslam, John, writer on insanity.1764 1844 Eng. Hastings, Warren, governor-general of British India. 1733 1816 Eng. Hastings, marquis of, military commander... 1754 1825 Ger. Hauser, Casper, a mysterious' wild-boy'.. 1833 Fr. IHaussez, Baron, minister of Charles X.-traveller.. 1778 Fr. Hauy, Renatus Justus, mineralogist... 1742 1822 ing. Hawke, Edward, lord, a brave and successful admiral.. 1713 1781 Eng. Hawkesworth, Dr. John, miscellaneous writer.. 1715 1773 gEn. Hawkins, Sir John, a navigator-originator of the slave trade. 1520 1595 Ger. Haydn, Joseph, a celebrated musical composer.. 1732 1809 Ena., Hayley, William, a poet and miscellaneotil writer.. 1745 1820 Agmer. Hayne, Robert V., governor of South Carolina, and senator of U. S. 1791 1835 Eig. Hazlitt, William, essayist and critic....1830 Eng. Heber, Reginald, a divine, and poet... 1783 1826 Ger. Hedlerich, Benjamin, a lexicographer... 1675 1748 Ger. Hedwig, John, a physician and botanist... 1730 1799 Ger. Heeren, A. H. L., historian.... 1760 1842 G er. legel, G. W. F., metaphysician. 1770 1831 Ger. Heine, Henry, poet and literateur... 1799 Gr. Heliodorus (of Emessa), the first romance writer, flourished in the 4th century. Ger. Helvicus, Christopher, a chronologist... 1581 1617 Eng. Iemans, Felicia D., poetess. 1794 1835 Ger. Hengstenberg, E. W., metaphysician, antiquarian, and theologian 1802 l:' Henry IV., an able and popular monarch... 1553 1610 Eng. Henry, Robert, an historian... 1718 1790 Amer. Henry, Patrick, an orator and patriot... 1736 1799 Gr. IHeraclitus, a philosopher, flourished before Christ. 504 Ger. Herder, John Godfrey, a philosophical writer.. 1744 1803 Ger. Hermann, J. G. J., philologist.. 1772 (Ler. Hermann, Ch. F., philologist,' History of Philosophy,' &c. 1804 Gr. Hermogenes, a rhetorician, flourished.. 180 Gr. Herodian, an historian... f. 230 Gr. Herodotus, the earliest of the Greek historians whose works are extant, B. o. 484 Ft. Herold, L. G. P., musical composer.. 1792 i833 Span i Herrera, Anthony, an historian... 1559 1625 T.g Herrick, Robert, a poet... 1591 En. IHerschel, Sir William, one of the greatest of astronomers. 1738 1822 Jew. IHerschel, Dr. Solomon, Chief Rabbi of the Jews in England 1760 1842 Eng. Iterschlell, Sir J. F. W., astronomer and natural philosopher En'. Itervey, Janmes, a pious and amiable divine and writer. 1713 1758 Gr. Hiesiod' a poet, contemporary of Homer, flourished. o. a. 907 ier. Heyne, C. G., a learned critic and writer.. 1729 1812 Eng. Ihickes, Georg e, a theologian and philologist.. 1642 1715 Fr. Hilaire, Geof. St., naturalist. 1772 Eng. Hill, viscount, miilitary commander (Peninsula and Waterloo). 1772 1842 Eng Hill, sir John, a botanist and multifarious writer... 1716 1775 29 674 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIEB Jew. IIlllel, thle elder, one of the compilers of the Talmud. B. C. 112 Amer. Hillhouse,.James A.. poet.. 1789 1841 Gr. Hippocrates, the fatlher of medicine. B.. 460 Eng. Iloadley, William, a celebrated prelate antd author.. 1676 1761 Amer. hobart, tolln Henry, bishop of New York. 1776 1833 EnI. Hobbes, Thomas, a philosopher and translator.. 1588 1679 F'r. Hoche, Lazarus, a military commander.. 1768 1797 Swiss Hofer, Andrew, a Tyrolian patriot... 1765 181.0 Eng. ITofland, Barbara, novelist.... 1844 Ger. Hloffnann, E. T. A., novelist. 1776 1822 Sotchl. 1Iogg, James,'The Ettrick Shepherd'... 1772 1835 Dan. Ilolberg, Louis, baron de, an historian... 1685 1754 Eng. Holc'oft, Thomas, a dramatist and miscellaneous writer. 1744 1809 Eiln. Holingshed, a chronicler.. 15182 Eng. Holland, Lord, statesman and literateur.. 1773 184G Eng. Holland, Philemon, a translator.... 1551 1636 Amer. Holmes, Abiel, D. D.,' Annals of America'.. 1763 1837 Scotch. Home, John, a divine, dramatist, and historian. 1724 1808 Gr. Homer, the " greatest of poets," [supposed to have] flourished. B. c. 907 Eng. Hone, William, author of' Every Day Book' and political works 18412 Eng. Hood, Samuel, viscount, a naval officer..... 1724 1816 Eng. hIood, Thomas, poet and humorist.... 1778 1815 Dutch. Hoogvliet, Arnold, a poet. 1687 1763 Eng. Hook, Robert, a mathematician... 1635 1702 Eng. Hook Theo. E., novelist and humorist. 1788 1841 En. Hooke, Nathaniel, author of a Roman History.. 17j Eng. Hoolrer, Sir W. J., botanist Enl. Hooker, RIichard, an eminent divtne. 1553 1600 Eng. Hoole, John, a poet and translator... 1717 1803 Eng. Hooper, John, one of the first Protestant martyrs... 1495 1555 Eng. Hope, Thomas, a miscellaneous writer... 1831 Amer. Hopkins, Samuel, an eminent divine and author... 1721 1803 Amer. Hopkinson, Joseph, jurist and statesman... 1770 1842 Rom. Horace, Quintus Flaccus, an eminent poet.. B. C. 65 B.C. 8 Eng. Horne, George, a learned prelate. 1730 1792 Eng. Horsley, Samuel, a prelate and mathematician. 1731 1806 Amer. Hossack, David, M. i)., medical and scientific writer. 1769 1835 Eng. Howard, John, a celebrated philanthropist.. 1726 1701 Eng. dItdson, Henry, discoverer of" Hudson river".. f. 1600 Fr. Huet, Peter Daniel, an erudite prelate and author... 1630 1.721 Fr. Hugo, Victor M., novelist, poet, and statesman.. 1802 Amer. IIull, Commodore Isaac. naval commander (Const. and Guer., &c.) 1775 1845 Pruss. hIumboldt, F. H A., baron, traveller —geog. and nat. philosopher. 1769 Scotch. Hume, David, an historian and philosopher.. 1711 1776 Hunmlades, John, a celebrated warrior.. 1456 Eng. HIutt, Leigh, poet and essayist Eng. Husklsson, Rt. hon. William, an able statesman. 1769 1830 Ger. Huss, John, the great Bohemian reformer.... 1376 1416 Irish. Hutcheson, Francis, a philosophical writer... 1694 1747 Amer. Hutchinson, Thos., a distinguished gov. of Massachusetts, and historian 1711 1733 Scotch. Hutton, James, a geologist and philosopher... 1726 1797 Eng. Hutton, Charles, an eminent mathematician.. 1737 1823 Dutch. Huygens, Christian, a scientific author... 1629 1705 Ind. Hyder A]i, a celebrated warrior..... 1782 Gr. Ibycus, a lyric poet..f. B. C. 550 Span. Ignatius De Loyola, the iounder of the Jesuits.. 1491 1556 Eng. Inchbald, Elizabeth, a dramatist and.novelist.. 1756 1821 Amer. Inman, Henry, portrait and landscape painter. 1801 1846 Eng. Ireland, W. H., author of the' Shakspeare Forgeries' Eng. Irving, Rev. Edward, theological writer. 1792 1834 Gr. Ismus, an orator..... 418 Gr. Isocrates, an orator... B. 436 Spas. Iturbide, emperor of Mexico.... 1784 1S81 Amer, Jackson, Gen. Andrew, military commander, Pres. U. S. 1767 1845 Ger. Jacobi, Fred. H., philosopher, novelist, &c.. 1743 1819 Ger. Jacobs, Fred., classical philologist... 1764 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 675 NATION NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. Fr. Jacotot, Jean J., educational writer. 1770 1840 Dutch. Jacqnin, Nicholas Joseph, a botanist... 1727 1817 Ger. Jahn, John, an eminent oriental scholar. 1750 1817 Eng. James, G. P. It., novelist and historian. r. Janin, Jules, literate... 1804 Dutch. Jansen, Cornelius, founder of a sect. 1585 1638. Jasmin, Jacques, a barber-poet.. 1798 Anelr..lay, John, a distinguished patriot and statesman 1745 1829 Amer..JelTlrson, Thomas, a patriotic statesman, 3d president of the United States 1743 1826 Scotch. Jefihey, Francis, lord, essayist and critic.. 1773 1850 Eng. Jenner, Edward, introducer of the vaccine inoculation 1749 1823 Et. Jenyns, Soame, a poet and miscellaneous writer 1704 1787 Jerome, St., one otf the fathers of the church... 420 Ger. Jerome, of Prague, a reformer, companion of Huss 1416 Elng. Jewel, John, a learned prelate ancl author.5.. 1571 Fr. Joan of Arc, " the greatest of heroines". 1410 1431 Eng. Johnson, Satnuel, a divine and writer in the cause of liberty. 1649 1703 Eng. Johnson, Samuel,' the colossus of English literature" 1709 1784 Ital. Jomnelli, Nicholas, a dramatic and musical composer.. 1714 1774'SwyiSs. Jomlii. Henry, baron, military writer.. 1775 Eng. Jones, inigo, an eminent archlitect. 1572 1652 Eng. Jones, William, a divine and author. 1726 1S00 ELg. Jones, Sir William, an eminent poet, scholar, and lawyer 1746 1794 Scotch. Jones, John Paul, a captain in the navy of the United States. 736 1792 Eng. Jonson, Benjamin, a celebrated poet and dramatist.. 574 1637 E3ng. Jortin, Dr. John, a learned theologian and author. 1698 1770 Josephine, emnpress of the French (born in Martinico) 1761 1814 Jew. Josephus, a celebrated historian and warrior. 37 95 Fr. Jouffroy, Theo. S., metaphysician and statesman. 1796 1842 Fr. Jourdan, J. B., marshal of France. 1762 1833 Ger. Juan, or John, of Austria, don. a warrior.... 1546 1578 Jew. Judah,. Ialkkadosh, a famous rabbi, and Talmudist 129 194 Dan. Juel, Nicholas, a celebrated admniral... 1629 1697 Julian, Flavius Claudlius, a Roman emperor and author 331 363 Fr. Julien, A. J., orientalist. 1799 Ger. Junge, Joachiln, philosopher. 1587 1657 Dutch. Junius, Adrian, a voluminous writer. 1512 1575 Fr. Junot, Andoche, dukle d'Abrantes, military officer 1771 1813 Fr. Junot, Madame, duchess dl'Abrantes, biography, &c. 1784 1839 Fr. Jussieu, A. L. rde, botanist. 1748 1836 Gr. Justin Martyr, one of the fathers of the church. 91 165 Rom. Justin. Latin historian. f. B.C. 200 Rom. Juvenal, Decius Junius, tile itr Ot vehement of satirists 128 Ger. KCmpfer, a naturalist, traveller, and historian.. 1651 1716 Qer. IKestner, Abrahamn Gothelf, a mathematician and astronomer 1719 1799 Fr. Kalb, baron de, who generously aided the American cause. 1717 1780 Scotch. Rames, Henry Home, lord, a judge and author.. 1696 1782 Ger. Kant, Emanuel, metaphysician.. 1724 1804 ItRuss. Karamsin, Nicholas M., historiographer of the empire 1765 1826 Eng. Kean, Edlmund, tragedian.... 1787 1833 Eng. Keats, John, a poet. 1796 L820 Scotch. Keith, James, an officer in the Russian and Prussian service. 1696 1758 Irish. Kelly., Michael, a composer and singer... 1762 L826 Eng. Kemble, John Pllilip, a celebrated tragedian 1757 1823 Fr. Kempis, Thomas 1, supposed author of the " Imitation of Christ" 1380 1471 Erng. Kennet, White, a learned prelate and author... 660 1728 Eng. Kennicott, Benjamin, a divine and biblical critic.. 1718 1783 Amer. Kent, James, jurist-chancellor of N. Y. 1763 1847 Ger. Kepler. John, an eminent astronomer.... 1571 1630 Scotch. Kerr. Robert, a miscellaneous writer. 1814 Ag elt. King, Itufus. statesman and diplomatist... 1755 1827 htish. Kingsborough, Lord, patron of great work on Mexican Anticluities 1795 1837 En r. Kitchiner, William, writer on coolkery. 1827 Pruss. Klaproth, I-enry J., philologist and ethnologist. 1784 1835 F K. Kleber, John Baptist, military officer... 1754 L800 Ger. Klopstock, "I the Milton o' Germany"... 1724 1803 Scotre:. Knox, John, the great champion of the reformation.. 1505 1572 Eng. Knox, Dr. Vicesimus, a divine and miscellaneous writer 1752 1821 676 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED, Amer. Knox, HIenry, military officer and statesman... 1750 1806 Gert. Koch, Christopher William, an historian.. 1737 1813 Fr. Kock, Charles Paul de, novelist and dramatist.. 1794 Polish. Kosciusko, Thaddeus, a warrior and patriot. 1746 1817 (Served in the American army during the revolution.) Ger. Kotzebue, Augustus Frederick, Per. Von, an historian, &c. 1761 1819 Ger. Kunth, Charles S., botanist. 1788 Russ. Kutosoff; Michael L. G., field marshal.. 1745 181.3 L Fr. Laborde, Alex. L. C., comte de, traveller, &c.. 1842 Fr. Lacepede, Bernard G. S. de la Ville, count de, naturalist.. 1756 1825 Fr. Lacretelle, Charles, traveller and literateur Lactantius, L. C., a father of the church; styled the Christian Cicero 325 Fr Lacroix, Silvestre F., mathematician. 1765 1843 Fr. Laennec, R. T. H., an eminent physician... 1781 1826 Fr. La Fayette, G. M., marquis, &c., military commander and statesman 1757 k834 Fr. La Fayette, George W., statesman Fr. Laforitaine, "an inimitable fabulist". 1621 1695 Ger. La Fontaine, Aug. H. J., author of 200 volumes, miscellaneous. 1756 1831 Fr. Lafitte, Jacques, wealthy banker and statesman.. 1768 1844 Ital. Lagrange, Joseph Lotis, an able mathematician. 1736 1813 Fr. La Harpe, John Francis de, a dramatist, critic, &c.. 1739 1793 Swiss. La IHarpe, F. C., statesman and author... 1754 183 Fr. Lalande, Joseph J. le Francis de, astronomer.. 1732 1807 Fr. Lamarck, J. B. A. P., naturalist. 1745 1829 Fr. Lamarque, Maxim., a general of the revolution of 1789. 1770 1832 Fr. Lamartinle, poet, historian, traveller, and statesman. 18(12 Eng. Lambert, A. B., botanist..... 1761 1842 Eng. Lamb, Charles. poet and essayist... 1775 1834 Fr. Lamnmenais, F. R., abbe de, theological and political writer. 1782 Eng. Lancaster, Joseph, founder of system of Education.. 1771 1839 Eng. Lander, Richard anti John, travellers in Africa.. 1834 Fr. Landon, C. P., author of works on the fine arts 1826 Eng. Lane, Edward William, orientalist-author of Modern Egyptians, &c. Ital. Langfranc, a learned archbishop of Canterbury.. 1005 16g; Eng. Langton, Stephen, cardinal, and archbishop of Canterbury. 1228 Eng. Lansdowne, Win. Petty, marquis of-premier.., 1737 1805 Eng. Lansdowne, Henry Petty, marquis of, Pres. of Council. 1780 Fr. Laplace, marquis Peter Simon, an eminent astronomer alnd geometrician 1749 1827 Eng. Lardner, Nathaniel, a learned dissenting divine... 1684 1768 Fr. Las Casas, biographer of Napoleon, &c... 1763 1842 Nor. Lassen, Chris., oriental philologist and historian... 1800 Eng. Latimer, Hugh, a prelate —martyred for beirg a reformer. 1470 1555 Eng. Laud, William, a prelate, famed for his tyranny and superstition 1573 1645 Amer. Laurens, Henry, a patriot and statesman... 1724 1792 Fr Lavalette, M. C., count de, military commander... 1769 1830 Swlss. I,avater, John Caspar, a celebrated physiognomist.. 1741 I8so Fr. Lavoisier, Anthony L., a celebrated chemist.. 1743 FHng. Layard, Austen H., traveller and explorer of Nineveh Fr. Lebrun, Pontius D. E., a poet..... 1729 1807 Swiss. Leclerc, John, an eminent critic... 1657 i736 Amer. Ledyard, John, an intrepid and enterprising traveller.. 1788 Amer. Lee, CharJes, an officer in the revolution... 1782 Amer. Lee, Richard Henry, president of congress.. 1732 1794 Amer. Lee, Arthur, TI. D., a statesman... 1740 1782 Amer. Legar6, Hugh S., jurist, statesman, and literateu.. 1797 1843 Fr. Legendre, mathematician... 1753 1833 Amer. Leggett, William, political and miscellaneous writer.. 1802 1840 Ger. Leibnitz, Godfirey William, an able and learned philosopher. 1646 17li Elng. Leicester, T. W. Cole, earl of, agriculturist... 1752 1842 Scotch. Leighton, Robert, an able prelate.... 1613 1684 Eng. Leland, John, an eminent divine and author... 1691 1766 Irish. Leland, Thomas, an eminent divine and author.. 1772 1785 EnHg. Lempriere. John, a biographer and lexicographer... 1824 Dutch. Lennep, David J. von., jurist and poet.. 1774 Ital. Leo X., pope (John de Medici), a patron of injustice and the arts. 1475 1521 Ger. Leo, Henry, historian.. 1799 Gr. Leonidas I., king of Sparta-the hero of Thermopyle f. B. f. 491 Fr. Lesage, A-laulB Rones a novelist and dramatist... 1668 1747 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 677 NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. Scotch. Leslie, John,,mathematician and natural philosopher.. 1832 F'r. Levizac, John P. B. L. de, a grammarian. 1813 Amer. Lewis, Maj. Gen. Morgan, military commander, jurist, &c... 1754 1832 Eng. Lewis, Matthew Gregory, miscellaneous writer.. 1773 1818 Ger. Iiclhtenberg, Geolge C., experimental philosopher.. 1742 1790 Ger. Liebig, Justus, baron, chemist. 1803 Eng. Lihtlltoot, John, a learned divine and author.. 1602 1675 Dutnch. Li-ne, Charles Joseph, military officer, and author.. 1735 1814 Dutch. Limborch, Philip, a theologian and author... 1633 1712 Eng. Lingad, Johlln, author of I History of England' Fr. Lingueet, Simon N. H., political writer, and historian.. 1736 1794 S Wed. Linaceus, Charles Von, the most celebrated of naturalists 1707 1778 iung. Liszt, Francis, performer on piano. 1811 ntg, Lister, Thomas Henry, novelist, and biograplher of Clarendon. 1801 1842 Ger. Littrow, John J., writer on mathematics and astronomy.. 1781 Eng. Liverpool, Robert Banks Jenklinson, earl of; premier.. 1770 1828 Amer. Livingston, Edward, jurist, diplomatist, and statesman.. 1764 1836 Amer. Livingston, William, a poet.... 1723 1790 Rom. Livius. or Livy, Titus, a celebrated historian... 17 Fr. Lobau, Count, marshal of France. 1770 1838 Eng. Locke, John, an eminent philosopher and metaphysician.. 1632 1704 Scotch. Lockhart, J. G., critic and novelist-editor of' Quarterly'. 1794 Russ. Lomonozoff, Michael V., a poet and historian.. 1711 1765 Irish. Londonderry, Robert Stewart, marquis of, a statesman 1769 1822 Gr. Longinus, Dionysius Cassius, a critic and philosopher. f. B. 0.250;-pan. Lope, De Vega Carpio, Felix, a poet and dramatist. 1562 1635 Scotch. Loudon, J. C., voluminous writer on horticulture, agricult., and architect. 1783 1843 Fr. Louis, Baron, eminent surgeon... 1837 Eng. Lowth. Roberlt, an eminent divine and author... 1710 1787 Lucan, Marcus Anneaus, a Latin poet... 37 Gr. Lucian, a celebrated writer.. 120 210.tom. Lucilius, the earliest Rotnan satirist.. 0..148 B. c. 191 ltom. Lucretius, Caius Titus, ant emlinent poet....B. o. 95 Rom. Lucullus. a wealthy warrior... B.. 1 15 B. C. 49 Ger. Luther, Martin, the parent of the Protestant reformation.. 1484 1546 Fr. Luxemburg, duke of; a military officer.. 1628 1695 Or. Lycurgus, the Spartan legislator.... B. C. 898 S[;otch. Lyell, Sir Charles, geologist and traveller... 1797 Gr. Lysander, a Ifamous Spartan general B. a. 395 Gr. Lysias, an orator..... 459 Eng. Lyttleton, George, lord, a poet and historian.. 1709 1763 Eng. Macaulay, T. Babington, essayist, historian, critic, and statesman. Scotch. McCrie, Thomas, D. D., biographer of Knox... 1772 1835 Eng. McCulloch, John, M. D., geologist, &c.. 1773 1835 Jcptch. Macculloch, political economist and statistician Fr. Mac Donald, marshal of France.. 1765 1840 Amer. Mac Donough, Thomas, commodore, victor on Lake Champlain. 1773 1825 ital. Machiavel, Nicholas, a celebrated writer on-politics, &c.. 1469 1527 Scotch. Mackenzie, Henry, " the Addison' of the North". 1745 1831 Amer. Mackenzie, A. Slidell, naval commander, author of Travels. 1849 ng-. Mackintosh, Sir James, a celebrated literary character. 1766 1832 Scotch. Macknight,.ames, a divine and author.. 1721 1800 Scotch. Maclaurin, Colin, a mathematician. 1698 1746 Enu. Mac Lean, L. E. L. (Miss Landon), poet and novelist.. 1804 1838 Scotch. Maclure, William, geologist, &c. 1763 1840 Amer. Macomb, Maj. Gen. Alex., military commander.. 1782 1811 >uotch. Macpherson, James, a miscellarneous writer. 1738 1796 Rontn. Mecenas, Caius C., the minister of Augustus, and patron of literature B. C. 9 Atner. Madison, James, 4th President of United States... 174l 1836 Port. Magellan, Ferdinand. a celebrated navigator... 1521 IFr. Magendie. Francois, physiologist... 783 Ir ish. Maeginn, WViliat,t classical and miscellaneous writer and critic. 1793 1842 Sar. M tlhomlet, or Mohammed, the founder of the religion which bears his name 569 63'2 Turk. Mahomet II, 7th Turkish sultan-conqueror Of Constantinople. 1430 1481 Ital. Maio, An1elo, discoverer anti editor of Latin classics Fr. Maimbourg, Louis, an historian... 1610 1686 Jew. Maimonides, Moses, a celebrated rabbi.... 1131.120Pr Maintenon, Frances d'Aubigne, queen. 1635 1719 678 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. Eng. Maittaire, Michael, a bibliographer, &c. 1668 1747 Eng. Malcolm, Sir John, History of' Persia and India Ital. Malibran, M. F. Madame, vocalist. 1808 1836 Eng. Malmesbury, William of, an historian.. 1143 Eng. Malone, Edward, a dramatic conmmentator... 1741 1812 Ital. Malpighi, Marcellus, a naturalist and anatomist... 1628 1694 Ger. Malte-Brun, Conrad. a poet and geographer... 1775 1826 Ger. IMalte-Brun, M., geographer.. Eng. MalLhus, T. R., political economist... 1834 Pers. Manes, or Manichaeus, founder of the Manichtean sect.. 239 274 Ger. Mansfield, Ernest of, a warrior.1585 16826 Eng. Mantell, G. A., geologist Ital. Manutius, Aldus, a celebrated pi;inter and author.. 1447 1515 Ital. Manzoni, author of' I Promessi Sposi I Fr. Marat, John Paul, an infamous revolutionist. 1754 1793 Aust. Maria Louisa, Empress of France, afterwards Duchess of Parma. 1787 Span. Mariana, John, a celebrated historian... 1537 1624 Auser. Marion, Francis, a distinguished officer in the revolution. 1795 Rom. Marius, Caius, a famous general and demagogue.. B. a. 153 B. C. 86 Eng. Marlborough, John Churchill, duke of, an able warrior.. 1650 1722 Fr. Marmont, marshal of France, and traveller Fr. Marmontel, John Francis, a celebrated writer... 1723 1799 Eng. Marryatt, Captain, novelist and traveller... 1847 Eng. Marsdten, oriental traveller and historian.... 1755 1836 Amer. Marsh, James, metaphysician.. 1794 Eng. Marsh, Herbert, bishop of' Peterborough, theological writer. 1758 1839 Fr. Mars, Madenloiselle, actress Amer. Marshall, John, chief justice of U. S., biographer.. 1755 1835 onom. Martial, Marcus Valerius, an epigrammatist.. 40 100 Span. Martinez, de la Rosa, don F., statesman and literateur.. 1786 Ger. Martius, C. F. P. von, botanist and traveller Prus. Martos, Ivan P., sculptor.... 1753 1835 Ital. Martyr, Peter, a reformer and theologian.... 1500 1561 Eng. Mason, John, a divine andl author.... 1706 1763 Eng. Mason, Williarn, a divine and poet.... 1725 1797 Amer. Mason, John M., an eminent divine.. 1770 1829 Fr. Massena, Andrew, one of the ablest of Napoleon's marshals.. 1758 1817 Fr. Masillon, John Baptist, an eloquent divine... 1663 1742. tng. Massinger, Philip, a dramatist..... 1584 1639 Amer. Mather, Cotton, a divine..... 1663 1728 Irish. Maturin, Charles Robert, a divine, dramatist, novelist, and poet. 1782 1825 Eng. Matthews, Charles, actor and humorist. 1776 1835 Fr. MauperLius, Peter L. M., a geometrician and astronomer.. 1698 1759 Fr. Maury, John Sifirein, a cardinal and statesman... 1746 1817 Eng. Mawe, Joseph, a mineralogist..... 1755 1829 Fr. Mazarin, Julius, cardinal, an able statesman... 1602 1661 Mazeppa, John, prince of the Cossacks 1709 Ital. Medici, Lorenzo d', a poet —governor of Florence, and patron of the arts 1448 1492 Ger. Meiners, Christopher, an historian.... 1747 18J0 Ger. Melancthon, Philip, a celebrated reformer... 1497 1560 Gr. MIenander, a conlic poet...B... 342 e. o 298 Ger. Meninski, Francis M., a learned orientalist.. 1623 1698 Dutch. Mercator, Gerard, a geographer... 1512 159-4 Fr. Merimle, Prosper, novelist... 1800 Ital.'Metastasio, Peter B., a celebrated poet.... 1698 178'. Aust. Metternich, Prince, statesman and diplomatist... 1773 Dutch. Meursius, John, an erudite critic.... 1579 1639 Ger. Meyerbeer, musical composer.. 1791 Fr. Mezerai, Francis Eudes de, an historian... 1610 1683 Ital. Mezzolanti, Cardinal, celebrated linguist.... 18-1 Gr. Miaulis, naval commander.... 1772 18pq Ital. Micari, Guiseppe, historian..... 183' Ger. Michaelis, John David, a learned orientalist and critic.. 1717 1791 Fr. Michaud, Joseph, historian... 1839 Fr. Michelet, Jules, historian... 1798 Eng. Middleton, Conyers, a divine and an elegant writer.. 1683 1750 Fr. Mignet, F. A., historian 1796 Port. Miguel, Don, rival of Don Carlos for the throne of Portugal Scot. Mill, Jas., historian of' British India and political economist' 1775 1836 Fr. Millevoye, Charles Hubert, a poet.... 1782 1816 Fr. Millin, Aubin Louis, a naturalist, &c.... 1759 Eng. Millman, Rev. H. H. poet and historian BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 679 NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED F'. Millot, Claude Francis Xavier, historian... 1726 1785 Eng. Mills, Charles, historian.. 1788 1826 _~g'. Milner, Joseph, author of Church History... 1744 1797 r. Miltiades, an illustrious Athenian general.... 2. C89 ~ng. Milton, John, the Homer df Britain 1608 1674 1r. iMirabeau, 11, G. Riquetti, count de, a celebrated eltaracter in the Revolution, and author...... 1749 1791 Span. Miranda, Francis, a revolutionary general. 1750 1816 Aimer. Mitchell, Samuel L., celebrated physician and naturalist.. 176 18.31 Eng. Mitchell, Thomas, classical scholar and critic. 1783 1845 EL. Mibrd, Mary Russell, novelist and essayist Eng. Mitford, William, an historian and philologist... 1734 1827 Mithridates, king of Pontus, a warrior... B.. 123 B. c.;-i Cer. Mitscherlich, E., chemist. 1794 "Sar. Mohammed Ben AbdAl Wahab, Shiek, founderof the sect ofWahabites, f. 1650 Turk. Mohammed All, Pacha of Egypt.... 1769 Ger. Mohs, Frederick, mineralogist.... 4 1839 IF. Moli, M. L. comte. statesman... 1781 Ft. Moleville, Anthony F. de Bertrand, count de, an historian. 17i4 1817 Fr. Moliere, John Baptist, a celebrated dmramatist... 1622 167'3 Fr. Monse, Gaspar, an eminent geomnietrician.. 1746 1l18 EnI. Monk, George, du)e of Albemarle, military officer.. 1608 186; Amer. Monroe, James, a statesman, 5Ith president of the United States. 1759 1831 Fr Monstrelet, Enguerrandl de, a chronicler... 1390 153 Eng. Montagu, Lady MIary Wortley, an elegant writer.. 1690 762 l, ontaigne, Milchael de, an eminent essayist... 1533 1592 Fr. Montebello, John Lannes, duke of; marshal... 1769 1809 Ger. Montecuculi, Ilaymond, a warrior... 1609 1C12 Fr. Montesqu/eu, Charles, baron de, an able writer.. 1689 1755 Amner. Montgomnery, Richard, an intrepid military officer.. 1737 1775 Eng. Montgomery, James, poet.. 1771 Fr. Montholon, comte, secretary and biographer of N'apo]eon. 783 ital. Monti, Vincent, a poet... 1753 1828 Fr. Montmnorenci, Anne de, nmarshal.. 1493 157 Fr. Montpensier, Madame, author of Memoirs, &c.. 1627 1693 Scotch. Moore, Sir John, general... 1761 1809 Eng. More, Sir Thomas, chancellor,.. 1480 1535.sh. Moore, Thomas, poet, biographer, and historian... 178C Eng. More, Hannah, poet, essayist, and moralist... 1744 1833 Fr. Moreau, John Victor, a celebrated general.. 1763 1813 Irish. Morgan, lady Charles, author of novels, travels, &c. Eng. Morier, Jamnes novelist, "HItajji Baba," &c. 1780 Amer. Morris, Robert, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, and a financier 1703 1806 Aimer. Morris, Gouverneur, a distinguishedl statesman.. 1752 1816 Eng. Morrison, Robert, Chinese traveller and philologist.. 1834 Amer. Morse, Jedediah, a geographer and statistical writer.. 1761 1827 Fr. Mortier, marshal of France, killed by Fieschi... 1768 1835 Gr. Moschus, a bucolic poet... B. C. 160 Gec. Mosheim, John Laurence, an ecclesiastical historian.. 1695 1755 Sc'ot. Motherwell, William, poet. Mouradgea, D'Ohason, an Armenian historian.. 1740 1807 Ger. Mozart, John C. W. T., an eminent composer. 1756 1792 Eng. Mudie, Robert, author of various works on Natural History, &c.. 1777 1842 Swiss. Muller, John Von, a celebrated historian... 1752 1809 Ger. Muller, C. 0., historian, archwologist, classic. 1797 1840 Fr. Murat, Joachim, an intrepid marshal, and king of Naples. 1771 1815 Ital. Maratori, Louis Anthony, an historian.. 1672 17150 Irish. Murphy, Arthur, a dramatist and translator.. 1727 1805 Amer. Murray, Lindley, a grammarian.. 1745 1.826 Scotch. Murray, Alexander, a self taught linguist.... 1775 18113.mer. iutrray, William Vans, a statesman... 1761 103 Ehg. Mcurray, John (the elder), eminent publisher.. 1778 18-13 Gr. Musmus, an Athenian poet.... f... 1243 Pers. Nadir Shah, or Thamas Rouli Khan, a warrior and king.. 1688 17417 Scotch. Napier, John, baron, inventor of logarithmns... 1550 1617 Fr. Napoleon I., (Bonaparte,).... 1769 1821 Pers. Narses, a warrior, in the service of Justinian I., the emperor. 567 P)utch. Nassau, prince Maurice of,; an able general.. 1567 1621 680 THE WORLD7S PROGRESS. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. Pers. Nassir Edcldyn, a celebrated astronomer.. 1201 1274 Enlg. Neal, Daniel, author of History of the Puritans, &c.. 1678 174' Ger. Neander, J. W. Augustus, ecclesiastical historian 1789 1850 Fr. Necker, James, an eminent financier and statesman. 1732 1804 Eng. Neele, tleny, a poet and miscellaneous writer.. 1798 128 lEnrr. Nelson, Horatio, viscount, a celebrated admiral... 1758 1805 Roin. Nepos, Cornelius, an historian... C. 30 tnuss. Nesselrode, count Clharles R., statesman and diplomatist. 1755 (e'r. Neuwied, Maxinilian, prince of, traveller in North America, &c. 1782 Eng. Newton, Sir Isaac, the greatest of philosophers... 1642 1727. Newton, Thomaas, a learnedl prlelate. 170-t 1782 En". Newton, John, a Calvinistic divine and writer 1725 1807 Fr. Ney, M1ichael, marshal, " the bravest of the brave" 1769 1815 EnI. Nicholson, William, a writer on natural philosophy and chemistry. 1753 1815 Eng. Nicholson, Peter, architect and practical mechanic Amer. Nicklin, P. H., bookseller and miscellaneous writer.. 1786 1842 Ger. Nicolai, Chris. Fred., a bookseller and author.. 1733 1811 Ger. Niebuhr, Garsten, a celebrated traveller.. 173S 1815 Gee. Niebuhr, B. G., a statesman and historian. 1776 1830 Pol. Nienlcewicz Julius U., mil. com. and author.. 1756 1841 Swe. Nilston, Sven, zoologist. 1787 Fr. Nodier, Charles, novelist. 1783 Eng. Normanby, C. G. Phipps, marquis of, novelist and statesman. 1797 Eng. North, Frederick, lord, prime minister of Geo. III.. 1732 1792 Eng. Northcote, James, artist and biographer. 1746 1837 Eng. Nott, John, a poet and translator. 1751 1826 Eng. Oates, Titus, the infamous pretender of the "Popish Plot". 1619 1705 Eng. Ocleley, Simon, an orientalist.. 1678 1720 Arab. Odenatus, a warrior, the husband of Zenobia. 267 Fr. Odillon-Barrot C. H., statesman. 1791 Ger. Oken, Louist...... 1758 Ger. Olbers, H. W. M., astronomer.. 8410 Eng. Opie, Mrs. Anmelia, writer on morals and education 1771 Gr. Oppian, a poet...... f. 150 Dutch. Orange, William of Nassau, prince of, the founder of the Dutch republic 1533 1534 Span. Orfila, M. J. B., chemist and toxicologist. 1787 Dutch. Origen, one of the fathers of the church.. 185 253 Ena. Orole, Robert, an historian... 1728 1801 L1ug. Ormoud, James Butler, dulke of, a statesman.. 1610 1688 G1. Orpheus, a poet, sometimes styled " the father of poetry" Port. Osorio, Jerome, a philosopher, historian, and theological writer. 1506 1580 Amer. Otis, James, a patriot and statesman. 1725 1772 Amer. Otis, Harrison Gray, statesman and jurist. 1767 1848 Eng. Otway, Thomas, a celebrated dramatist... 1651 1685 Fr. Oudinot, Charles N., marshal of France... 1767 Rom. Ovid, Publius Naso, a poet.. 43 1/ Eng. Owen, John, an eminent divine... 1765 1822 Eng. Paine, Thomas, a political and deistical writer.. 1736 1809 Ven. Paez, military commander, and president ofVenezuela 1787 Ital. Paganini, Nicolo, a famous violinist. 1784 1835 Eng. Paley, William, an eminent divine and author.. 1745 1S05 Fr. Palisset de Montenoy, Charles, a satirist... 1730 1815 Pruss. Pallas, Peter Simon, traveller and naturalist.. 1741 1811 Paoli, Pascal, a Corsican patriot and general.. 1726 1807 Can. Papineau, L. J., politician and " patriot".. 1789 IRom. Papinian, Xrmilius, a civil lawyer. 145 212 Swiss. Paracelsus, A. P. T. B. de 11., an alchemist... 1493 1541 Eng. Paris, Matthew, an historian..... 1259 Scotch. Park, Mungo, a celebrated traveller. 1771 1804 Eng. Parkes, Samuel, a chemist and author. 1759 1825 Ical. Parma, Alexandler Farnese, dulke of, a warrior 15. 92:Eng. Parry, captain Edward, arctic navigator.. 1790 FP. Pascal, Blaize, eminent as a geometrician and writer. 1623 1662 Pruss. Paskewitch, Ivan F., prince and military commander BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 681 NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. Fr. Pasquier, Etienne D., count, chancellor of France. 1767._er. Passow, Francis L. C. F., )hilologist and lexicographer. 1786 1833 Rom. Paterculus, Caius Velleius, an historian.. about B. o. 20 Gr. Pausanias, a topographical writer. f. about 120 Port. Pedro, don, clailnant of the throne of Portugal... 1834 Eng. Peel, sir Robert, statesman.... 1788 16850 Brit. Pelagius, a monk, f;ounder of a sect... 354 ital. Pellico, Silvio, poet and patriot... 1789 Gr. Pelopidas, an illustrious Theban general.. 0. 364 Eng. Penn, William, tile founder and legislator of Pennsylvania.. 1644 1718 Fr. Perefixe, Hardouin de Beaumont de, historian... 1605 1670 Gr. Pericles, an able Athenian orator and statesman.. B.c. 490 B.c. 429 Fr Perrier, M. Casimir, a statesman... 1777 1832 F. Perouse, John F. Galaup, de la, a navigator... 1741 1788 Rom., Persius Flaccus, Aulus, a satirist. 34 62 Swiss, Pestalozzi, Henry, introducer of a new system of education.. 1745 1527 Fr. Peter the Hermit, the first mover of tile Crusades. 1115 RIuss Peter I., the Great, a warrior and statesman... 1672 1725 Eng. Peterborough, Charles Mordaunt, earl of' a warrior. 1658 1735 Petion, Alexander, a mulatto, president of Hayti... 1770 1818 Ital. Petrarch, Francis, one of the four greatest of Italian poets 1304 1374 Fr. Peyronnet, Pierre D., count de, minister of Charles X. and historian 1778 Rom. Phedrus, a fabulist... f. 30 Philip II., king of Macedon, a warrior... B. o. 383 P. o. 936 ng. Phillips, sir Richard, boolkseller and compiler r. Philopmen, a celebrated general... B.o. 253 N. c. 183 Gr. Phocion, an eminent Athenian.. B. o. 400 B. c. 318 Photius, a learned patriarch of Constantinople... 891 Amer. Physic, Philip Syng, M... 1768 1837 Fr. Picard, Louis Benedict, a dramatist and novelist.. 1769 1824 Fr. Pichegru, Charles, an eminent general... 1761 180-4 Amer. Pickering, Timothy, a distinguished statesman. 1746 1829 Amer. Pickering, John, philologist... 1772 1846 Gr. Pindar, the greatest of lyric poets B. c. 522 N. c. 142 Scotch Pinkerton, John, a fertile and eccentric author.. 1758 1826 Amer. Pinckney, William, a distinguished orator and diplomatist. 1765 1822 Span. Pinzon, Vincent Yanez, a navigator, discovered Brazil.. f. 1500 Fr. Piron, Alexis, a poet, dramatist, and wit... 1689 1773 sr. Piisstratus, sovereign of Athens.... C. 527 Amer. Pitkin, Timothy, historian and statistician. 1765 1847 Eng. Pitt, Christopher, a poet and translator.. 1699 1748 Eng. Pitt, William, a celebrated statesman 1759 1806 Dr. Pittacus, of Mitylene, one of the seven sages. B. a. 650 a. c. 570 Span. Pizarro Francis, the conqueror of Pertu... 1475 1541 Gr. Plato, an illustrious philosopher-founder of the academic sect N. c. 430 e. c. 347 Rom. Plautus, a comic poet.... c. 227 B. c. 184 Scotch. Playfair, John, an eminent mathematician and natural philosopher 1749 1819 Roum. Pliny, tle elder, or C. P. Secundus, author of Natural History. 23 79 tom. Pliny, the younger, a warrior and author.. 61 115 Egypt. Plotinus, a Platonic philosopher... 203 270 Gr. Plutarch, a celebrated biographer... 50 120 Fr. Poisson, D. S., mathematician... 1781 Eng, Pole, Reginald, a cardinal and statesman.15.. 00 1558 Fr. Polignac Melchior de, a cardinal and statesman.. 1611 1741 Pr. Polignac,,; A. 8M., prince, minister of Charles X. 1780 Amer. Polk, James K., president of the United States.. 1795 1849 Ital. Polo, Mark, a celebrated Venetian traveller.. 1250 1523 Gr. Polybius, an eminent historian... B.. 205 N. 0. 123 Rom. Pompey, Cneus, a statesman and warrior... B.. 106 a. C. 48 Pot. Poniatowski, Joseph, prince, an able general... 1763 1814 ung. Pool, Matthew, an able divine and author... 1624 1379 Eng- Pope, Alexander, a celebrated poet.. 1688 1744 Porphyry, a Platonic philosopher.... 233 301 Eag. Porson, Richard, an eninent hellenist and critic.. 1759 1.803 Isal. Porta, John Baptist, a natural philosopher. 1540 1616 ug. Porter, Anna Maria, novelist.... 1832 dung. Porter, sir Robert Ker, author of travels, &c.. 1780 1842 ug Porter, Jane, novelist... 1776 1850 Eng. Porteus, Beilby, an eminent prelate... 1731 1808 Eg. Potter, Robert, a divine, poet, and translator... 1721 1804 Russ. Pozzo di Borgo, diplomatist... 1768 1842 Prideaux. IHumphry. a loearned divine. 1648 1724 2 9:'t 682 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BO0RN. DIED. Eng. Priestley, Joseph, an eminent philosopher and writer.. 1733 1804 Eng. Prior, Matthew, a poet and statesman.. 1664 1721 Gr. Proclus, a Platonic philosopher 410 487 Gr. Procopius, an historian.... 410 487 Rom. Propertius. Sextus Aurelius, a poet... B. C. 52 B.C. 12 Egypt. Ptolemy, Claudius, an eminent astronomer and geographer. 70 Ger. Puckler-Muskau, H. L. 1H., prince of, author of travels, &c., 1785 Ger. Puffendorf, Samuel, a publicist and historian. 1632 1694 Ital. Pulci, Louis, a poet... 1432 1417 Amer. Putnam, Israel, a distinguished officer in the revolution 1718 17'90 Or. Pyrrho, a philosopher, founder of the Skeptic sect.. f. 3. c. 300 Gr. Pythagoras, a celebrated philosopher..... 586 B. C. 497 Fr. Quatremere, E. MI., orientalist. 1782 BeIg. Quetelet, L. A., mathematician and statistician. f796 Span. Quevedo De Villegas, Francis, a poet.. 1580 1645 Fr. Quinault, Philip, a lyrical dramatist... 1635 1668 Fr. Quinet, Edgar, literateur.. 1 Span. Quintana, M. J. poet.. 772 Romn. Quinltiiian, Marcus Fabius, a celebrated orator 42 122 Fr. Racine, John, an eminent dramatist.. 16 1699 Eong. Radcliffe, Anne, a celebrated romance writer... 1764 1823 Dan. Rafin C. C., historian and antiquary. 1795 Amer. Raguet, Condy, political economist... 1784 1842 Eng. Raleigh, or Ralegh, sir Walter, " a man illustrious in arms and literature" 1552 161.9 Hind. Rammohun, Roy. philanthropist.. 1776 1833 Scotch. Ramsay, Allan, a poet..... 1685 1758 Amer. Ramsay, David, an historian... 1749 1812 Amer. Randolph, Peyton, first president of Congress. 1723 1775 Amer. Randolph, John, eccentric statesman. 1773 1833 Pruss. Ranke, Leopold, historian... 1795 Fr. RIaoul, Rochette, arche ologist and traveller. 1790 Dan. Raslk, E. C., philologist and lexicographer... 1784 1832 Fr. Raspail, F. V., chemist and radical statesman... 1794 Pruss. Rauch. metaphysician... Pruss. Raumer, Frederick Von, historian and traveller Amer. Rawle, William, jurist...... 1759 1836 Eng. Ray, John, a naturalist and author. 1628 1705 Fr Raynal, William Thomas Francis, an hlistorian and philosopher. 1713 1796 Eng. Reed, Isaac, a critic and editor. 1742 1807 Eng. Rees, Dr. Abraham, editor of an encyclopedia, &c... 1743 1825 Eng. Reeve, Clara, a novelist..... 1723 1803 Fr. Regnard, John Francis, a comic writer.... 1647 170)9 Scotch. Reid, Thomas, a celebrated metaphysician... 1710 1796 Fr. Remusat, J. P. A., historian and linguist... 1788 1832 Eng. Rennie. John, an eminent engineer 1761 1821 Fr. Retz, John F. P. de Gondi, cardinal de, minister of Louis XV.. 1614 1679 Eng. Ricatt, sir Paul, a traveller and historian. 1700 En R. Richardson, SaWluel, an eminent novelist. 1689 1761 F R. Richelieu. A. J.- du Plessis, cardinal and dulke, a statesman. 1585 Ger. Richter, John Paul Fredericl, a novelist, &c... 1763 1825 Span. Riego Y Nunez, Raphael de, a patriot.. 1783 1825 Ital. Rienzi, Nicholas Gabrino de, a political reformer... 1354 Amner. Rittenhouse, David, a philosopher and astronomer.. 1731 1796 Ger. Ritter, Aug. H., history of philosophy.... 1791 Ger. Ritter, Charles, Geographer... 1779 Eng. Robertson, William, a celebrated historian.. 1721 1793 Fr. Robespierre, F. M. J. I., the: "terrorist" of' the Revolution 1759 1794 F R. Rochef;)ucauld, L.iancourt, F. A. i, dulke de la.. 1747 1827 Ft. Rochej.tqlelin, It. de la, a royalist leader... 1773 1794 Amer. Rodgers,.lohn, comrmodore in the American navy 1771 98183 Eng. Rodney, George Brydges, lord, an able admiral.. 1717 1792 lEng. Rogers, Samuel, poet lFr. Roland de la Platriere, J. IM., a revolutionist and author. 1733 1793. Fr. Rollin, Charles, a celebrated historian... 1661 1741 B;IOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 68; NA'TION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. Eng. Romaine, William, a divine and author. 1714 1795 0.om. Romulus, the founder and first king of Rome B. C. 716 Eng. Rooke, sir George, an admiral. 1650 1708 Ronm. Roscius, Quintus, an actor of proverbial talent. B.C. 61 Eng. Roscoe, William, a biographer and miscellaneous writer. 1751 1831 ital. Rosellini, Ippolit.o, author of "Monuments of Egypt," &c.. 1800 Ger. Rosenmiuller, E.F.C., orientalist. 1768 1835 er. Rosseau, John Baptist, a poet... 1670 1741 Fr. Rosseau, Johp James, an eloquent and paradoxical writer. 1712 1778 ital. Rossini, mueical composer. 1792 Ger. Rottec.k, historian. 1775 1840 EnL. Rowe, Nicholas, a poet and dramatist 1673 1718 Amer. Rumford. Benjamin Thompson, count, an officer (in foreign service) and philosopher. 1753 1814 Gce. Rupert, prince, a warrior... 1619 1682 Amer. Rush, Benjamin, an eminent physician and author 1745 1813 Eng. R ussel, lord William, one of the martyrs of liberty. 1641 t683 Eng. Russel, Lady Rachel (wife of the last), author of' Letters. 1723 Eing. Russell, William, an historian... 1746 1794 Fr. Sacy, Sylvester, baron de, orientalist.. 1758 1838 Pers. Sadi, or Saadi, a poet...... 1296 Ital. Saint Real, Cwesar Vichard, abbe de, an historian. 639 1693 ng. Saint Vincent, John Jervis, earl of, admiral... 1734 1823 Saladin, Sutltan of Egypt and Syria, a celebrated warrior. 1137 1193 Eng. Salisbury, Robert Cecil, earl of, a statesman... 1550 1612 Roin. Sallust, Caius Crispus, an historian... f. B. c. 86 B. c. 35 ir. Salmasius, Claudius, a scholar and author... 1588 1653 Fr. Setlvandy, N. A., comte de, statesman... 1795 Fr. Salverte. miscellaneous writer... 1771 1839 Fr. Sand, George (Madame Dudevant), novelist... 1804 Amer. Sanderson, John, lieteteur.... 1785 1844 Amer. Sands, R. C., poet and literateraz.... 1790 1832 iing. Sandwich, Edward Montague. eail of, naval officer... 1623 1672 Fr. Sanson, Nicholas, a geographer and engineer... 1600 1667 Gr. Sappho, a poetess..... o. 606 Ital. Sarpi, Peter, known as father Paul, a patriot and historian. 1552 1623 Fr. Saurin, James, a divine and sermon writer.. 1677 1730 Ger. Savi-ny, Fred. C. von, historian of Roman law. 1779?Oruss. Saxe, Maurice, count de, a celebrated general in the French service 1696 1750 Ger. Saxe-Weimar, Bernard, duke of, a warrior.. 1600 1639 Amer. Say, Thomas, naturalist.... 1737 1834 Ital. Scaliger, Julius CGesar, a learned critic.. 1484 1558 Scantlenberg (real name George Castriot), an Albanian prince and warrior 1404 1467 Ger. Scapula, John, a lexicographer... 1600 Swe. Scheele, Charles William, an eminent chemist.. 1742 1786 Ger. Schelling, F. W. J. von, metaphysician.. 1775 Pruss. Schill, Ferclinand Von, an intrepid and patriotic officer. 1773 1809 Gex. Schiller, John Frederic C., an eminent historian and dramatist. 1759 1805 Ger. Schlegel, A. W. von, critic and essayist. 1767 1845 Ger. Schliermacher, F. D. E., classical philologist and theologian.. 1768 1834 Ger. Schlosser, M. S. F., historian.. 1776 Ger. Schmidt, Michael Ignatius, an historian.... 1736 1794 Ger. Scholl, historian. 1766 1833 Dutch. Schomberg, Armand Frederick, a warrior.. 1619 1690 Ger. Schopenhauer, J. F, novelist... 1770 1838 Dutch. Schrevelius, Cornelius, a lexicographer.... 1615 1667 Ger. Schulembourg, John Matthias, a warrior... 1661 1747 Ger. Schumacher, H. C., astronomer.... 1780 Ger. Schiitz, C. G., critic and literateur... 1747 Amer. Schuyler, Philip, anofficer in the revolution... 1731 1804 Ger. Scioppius, Gaspar, a philologist and grammarian.. 1576 1649 Roin. Sciplo, Publius Cornelius, surnamed Africanus, an able warrior. B. C. 189 Rom. Scipio, 2Emilianus Publius, an able warrior s. c. 128 Scotch. Scott, Michael, a philosopher-supposed magician... 1291 Eng. Scott, Thomas, a divine, and biblical commentator 1747 1821 Scotch. Scott, sir Walter, one of the most eminent, voluminous, and popular writers of miodern times... 1771 1832 Fr. Scribe, A. E., dramatist.... 1791 684 IITHE WVOIRLD'S PROGRESS. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN DIlD.. Fr. Sebastiani, marshal of France, stlatesman. 1775 Eng. Seeker, Thomas, an eminent prelate... 1693 1768 Amer. Sedgwick, Theodore, statesman and political economist.. 1780 1839 Fr. Segur, count ILouis de, a diplomatist and writer.. 1753 1830 Fr. Segur, P. P. de. historian.. Iom. Seneca, Lucius Anneus, a celebrated philosopher, statesman, and moralist, n. o. 2 85 Ger. Sennefelder, inventor of lithography.. 1834 Span. Sepulveda, John Ginez de, an historian 1490 1572 Rorn. Sertorius, Quintus, a warrior B. c. 73 Fr. Sevigne, Mary de, marchioness of, an epistolary writer.. 1.627 1696 Enr. Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, earl of, a statesman 1621 1683 Eng. Shakspeare, William, the greatest of dramatic poets. 1564 1616 Eng. Sharpe, Granville, a philanthropist.. 1734 1813 Eng. Shiaw,'George, a naturalist... 1751 1813 Enog. Shelley, Percy Bysshe, an eminent poet and atheist 1792 1822 Eng. Shenstone, William, a poet... 1714 1763 Eng. Sheridan, Thomas, an actor and author 5725 1788 Eng. Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, a dramatist and orator. 1751 1816 Eng. Sherlock, Thomas, a prelate... 1678 1761 Amer. Sherman, Roger, a patriot and self-taug~ht statesman 1721 1793 Eng. Shovel, sir Cloudesley, an able naval officer 1610 1705 Eng. Siddons, Sarah, the most eminent of tragic actresses 1755 1831 Eng. Sidmouth, viscount (H. Addtlington), statesman. 1757 1844 Eng. Sidney, sir Philip, an accomplished officer and author. 1554 1586 Eng. Sidney, Algernon, a martyr of liberty and an author 1620 1683 Ger. Siebold, Ph. F. Von, botanist and naturalist.. 1796 Eng. Simpson, Thomas, a mathematician.. 1710 1761 Eng. Simpson, Robert, mathematician... 1687 1768 Hind. S1ng, ~I. rajah Runjeet, chief of Lahore and Cashemire.. 1779 1839 Swiss. Sismondi, J. C.'L., historian... 1773 18-12 Ger. Sleidan, John Philipson. an historian... 1506 1556 tng. Sloane, sir Hans, an eminent naturalist. 1660 1752 Eng. Smart,Christopher, a poet and translator 1722 1770 Etg. Steaton, John, an eminent civil engineer. 1724 1792 Scotch. Smellie, William, a naturalist. 1740 1795 Eng. Smith, William, a divine and translator..1711 1787 Scotch. Smith, Adam, a celebrated writer on morals and political economy 1723 1790 Eng. Smith, Charlotte, a poetess. 1749 1806 Eng. Smith, sir Janmes E., botanist and naturalist.. 179 1828 Amer. Smfth, general Samuel, military commander and statesman. 1752 1839 Eng. Smith, rev. Sidney, essayist, critic, and moralist. 1768 1845 Eong. Smith, sir William Sydney, military commander 1764 1840 Eng. Smithson, James, founder of the Smithsonian Institution, United States 1835 Etg. Smollett, Dr. Tobias, a novelist and historian... 1721 1771 Pol. Sobiesli, John III., king of Poland, a warrior.. 1629 1696 tal. Socinus, Faustus, founder of the Socinian sect. 15319 1594 Gr. Socrates, one of the greatest of ancient philosophers B. o c. 470 a. c. 400 Gr. Solon, thie illustrious legislator of Athefis f. n. c. 598 Gr. Sophocles, an eminent tragic poet... o. 495 404 Fr. Souli6, M. F., novelist.. 1800 Fr. Soult, marshal of France, and statesman.1769 Enog. South, Robert, an eminent divine... 1638 Amer. Soutlhard, Samuel L. secretary of the navy and senator of U.S., N.J. 1787 1842 Eng. Southcott, Joanna, a fanatic (her sect not yet extinct). 1750 1814 Eng. Southey, Robert, poet, historian, biographer. 1775 1843 Eng. Spenser, Edmund, an eminent poet. 1553 1598 Eng. Spencer, earl of, statesman. 1758 1835 Amer. Spencer, Ambrose, chiefjustice of New Yorkl. 1765 1848 Span. Spinola, Ambrose, marquis de, a warrior. 1571 1630 Ger. Spurzheim, Dr., a celebrated phrenologist (died at Boston). 1776 1832 Fr. Stael, Madame de, a talented writer... 1693 1750 Eng. Stackhouse, Thomas, a divine and author.. 1680 1752 Fr. Stael-Holstein, Anne L. G., baroness de, an authoress. 1766 1817 Eng. Stanhope, Charles, earl, a politician and inventor. 1753 1816 ]ng. Staithope. lady Hester, eccentric traveller.. 1776 1839 Amer. Starlk,John, a distirliguished officer in the revolution 1728 1822 Irish. Steel, sir Richard, an essayist and dramatist.. 1671 1729 Irish. Sterns, Lawrence, a miscellaneous writer. 1713 1768 Pruss. Steuben, Fred. W. A., baron, who generously aided the American cause 1764 Scotch. Stewart, Dugyald, an eminent philosopher and writer 1753 1828 Amer. Stone, Wo. L., historian of" Six Nations," "Brandt," and "'Redjacket' 1793 1844 Russ. Storch, Ienry F. political economist. 1766 185 BIOGRAPHIICAL INDEX. 685 NATION. NAM'E AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. Amer. Story, Joseph, jurist and writer on jurisprudence.. 1779 1845'ng. Stowell, lord, jurist. 1746 1836 Gr. Strabo, an eminent geographer. 19 Eng. Snraflbod, Thomas WVentworth, earl of, a statesman... 1593 1611 Ger. Strauss, David F., author of skeptical LiLfe of Christ".. 1808 Eng. Stuart, James, an architect and author.. 1713 1788 Scotch. Stuart, Gilbert, an historian... 1742 1786 r. SuIchet, Louis Gabriel, a celebrated marshal.. 1772 1826 Fr. Sue, Eugene, novelist.. 1804 Iom. Suetonius, Tranquillus Caius, an historian. f. 100 tom. Suetonius, Paulnus, a warrior... 37 Dan. Suhm, Peter Frederick, an eminent historian.. 1728 1798 Suidas, a Greek lexicographer. f. about 1000 FPr. Sully, Maximilian de Bethune, a warrior and statesman. 1560 1641 Eng. Surrey, H-Ieny Howard, earl of, a poet. 1515 1547 Russ. Suvaroff, or Suwarrow, prince Alexander, a celebrated and cruel warrior 1730 1800 Swe. Swedenborg, Emanuel, fbunder of a sect. 1689 1772 Irish. Swift, Jonathan, a celebrated satirist.. 1667 1745 Eng. Sydenham, C. W. Poulett, lord, governor-general of Canada, &c. 1793 1841 Riom. Sylla, Lucius Cornelius, a warrior, and a brutal usurper.. c. 137 n.c. 78 Rom. Tacitus, Caius Cornelius, an eminent historian.. 56 135 Fr. Talleyrand, prince, statesman and diplomatist. 754 1838 Fr. Talmna, Francis Joseph, one of the greatest of'actors. 763 1826 Tamerlane, Timur Beg, or Titnour, a celebrated Tartar prince and conqueror 1336 1405 Itat. Tasso, Bernardo, a poet —author of Amadis de Gaul. 1493 1569 Ital. Tasso, Torquato, one of the greatest of Italian poets. 1544 1595 Ger. Tauchnmtz, Karl, an eminent publisher at Leipsic.. 1836 Eng. Taylor, Jeremy, a prelate and eloquent writer... 1613 1667 Eng. Taylor, Thomas, editor of Plate and other classics. 1758 1835 A mer. Taylor, Zachary, maj.-gen. U. S. army, victor in Mexico, president of U. S. 1784 1850 Eng. Telford, Thomias, civil engineer... 1757 1834 Swiss Tell, William, one of the champions of Swiss liberty.. 1354 Eng. Tempsle, sir William, a statesman and writer. 1628 1698 Eng. Tenterden, Charles Abbott, lord, jurist, chiefjustice, K. B. 1762'1832 Eng. Tennyson, Alfired, poet. Rom. Terence, or Terrentius, a comic writer a.c. 192 Tertullian, Q. S. F., one of the most learned of the fathers of the church 160 245 Ger. Thaer, Albert, writer on agriculture. 1752 1828 COr. Thales, one of the seven sages —lbunder of the Ionic school ofphilosophy, a. c. 639 a. c. 543 Gr. Theministocles, an illustrious Athenian.... o. 535 B. C. 470 Fr. Thenard, chemist and statesman. Gr. Theocritus, a pastoral poet...... f. Ca. 285 Rom. Theodosius, Flavius, a Roman emperor and warrior. 346 395 Gr. Theophrastus, a celebrated philosopher... C. 371 r. Thespis, a poet, said to be the inventor of tragedy B. C. 576 Fr. Thibaudeau, A. C., count, historian Fr. Thierry, Jacques N. A., historian... 1795 Fr. Thiers, Adolphe, hisc )rian and statesman. 1797 Ger. Thiersch, F. W., Gree. philologist, &c.. 1784 Eng. Thomson, James, a popular poet.. 1700 1748 Scotch. Thomson, Dr. Thomas, chemist Dan. Thorwaldsen, Albert, sculptor.. 771 1844 Gr. Thucydides, an historian.B. c. 469 B. o. 400 Rom.n Tiberius, Claudius Drusus Nero, a warrior and emperor.. C. 34 37 Rom. Tibullus, Aulus Atbius, an elegiac poet.f B. C. 30 Ger. Tieck, Louis, a poet and novelist. 1773 Len. Tillotson, John, an eminent prelate... 1630 1694 Iind. Tippoo Saib, Sultan of Mysore, India, a warrior 1739 1799 item. Titus, Sabinus Vespasianus Flavius, an emperor, the father of his people 40 81 Eng. Tonline, George, a prelate and writer... 1750 1787 amer. Tomnplkins, Daniel D., vice-president of the United States. 1774 1825 nog. Toole, John Horne, a politician and philologist. 1736 1812. Tooke, WVilliam, a miscellaneous writer.. 1744 1820 Eng. Toplady, Augustus M., an eminent divine... 1740 1778 Irish. Torrens, colonel, novelist and political economist.. 1783 1840 W. Ind. Toussaint I'Ouiverture, negro president of Hayti. 1745 1803 Fr. Tracy, A. L. C. D., comte de,,Writer on education and philosophy 1754 1836 Rom. Trajan, Marcus U. C., an able emperor and warrior.. 52 117 686 THE WVORLD'S PROGRESS. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. Pruss. Trenck, Frederick, baron de, celebrated for his adventures 1726 1794 Dutch. Tromp, Martin HI., a celebratedl adiral... 1597 1653 Amer. Trutmbull, Jonathan, a statesman.... 1809 Amer. Trumbull, John, a poet; born in Connecticut.. 1750 1831 Amer. Trumbull, col. John, statesman and historical painter. 1756 1843 Eng. Tucker, Abraham, a metaphysical writer... 1705 1774 Fr.0 Turenne, Viscount de, an eminent warrior... 1611 1675 Fr. Turgot, Anne Robert James, a statesman.. 1727 1781 Eng. Tyrrell, James, an historian..... 1642 1718 Gr. Tyrtmeus, a poet Scotch. Tytler, William, an historical and miscellaneous writer.. 1711 1792 Scotch. Tytler, Alexander Fraser, an historical and miscellaneous writer. 1747 1813 Span. Ulloa, don Anthony de, a navigator and author 1716 179[: Irish. Usher, James, a learned divine and historian 1580 1656 Fr. Vaillant, Sebastian, an eminent botanist.. 1669 1722 Dutch. Valckenaer, Louis Gaspar, an able philologist and critic 1715 1785 Fr. Valdo, Peter, founder of the sect of Waldenses, f. in 12th century. IRom. Valerius Maximus, an historian.. f. 30 Ital. Valla, Laurence, an eminent philologist.. 1406 1457 Eng. Vancouver. George, a navigator.... 1750 1798 Eng. Vane, Sir Henry, an advocate of republicanism... 1612 1662 Rom. Varro, Marcus T., "the most learned of the Romans".. B.C. 116 B.c. 27 Ger. Vater, John Severinus, an eminent philoldgist.. 1771 1826 Fr. Vauban, S. le P. de, marshal, a military engineer.. 1633 1707 Fr. Vendome, Louis Joseph, dulke of, a warrior... 1654 1712 Fr. Vernet, Horace, historical painter... 1789 Eng. Vernon, Edward, admiral... 1684 1759 Fr. Vertot, Rene IHubert, abbe de, an historian.. 1655 1735 Rom. Vespasian, Titus Flavius, a warrior and emperor. 79 Ital. Vespucius Americus, a navigator whose name was unjustly given to the new world. 1451 1516 Eng. Victoria Alexandrina, queen of Great Britain.. 1819 Ital. Vida, Mark Jerome, a Latin poet 1490 1566 Fr. Villars, Louis Hlector, duke of, an able general... 1653 1734 Fr. Villemain, minister of public instruction, and historian.. 1791 Eng. Vince, Samuel, an eminent mathematician. 1821 Rom. Virgil, or Publius Virgilius Maro, the greatest of the Roman poets. B.c. 70 B J. 19 Fr. Volney, count de, a celebrated writer.... 177 1820 Fr. Voltaire, Francis Marie Arouet de, a celebrated poet, philos., and historian 1694 1778 W Eng. Wakefield, Gil.ert, a scholar and critic.. 1756 1801 Eng. Walker, John, a lexicographer. 1732 1807 Scotch. Wallace, William, a patriot and hero... 1276 1305 Ger. Wallenstein, A. V. E., a celebrated general... 1583 1634 Eng. Waller. sir William, a parliamentary general.. 1597 1668 Eng. Waller, Edmund, an elegant poet.1603 1687 Eng. Walpole, Robert, earl of Olford, a statesman.. 1676 1745 Eng. WValpole, Horace, earl of Orford, an author.. 1718 1797 Eng. Walsingham, sir Francis, a statesman... 1536 1590 Eng, Walton Izaak, an angler and biographer... 1593 1683 Eng. Valton, Brian, a divine and orientalist.. 1600 166' Eng. Warburton, William. an eminent prelate and writer. 1698 1779 Anler. Ward, Artemas, an officer in the revolution. 1748 18(00 Eng. Warren, sir John Borlase, a naval officer.. 1754 1822 Eng. Warton. Joseph, a poet and critic..... 1722 180o Eng. Warton, Thomas, poet and critic.... 1728 1790 Amer. Washington, George, the father of his country.. 1732 1799 Amer. Washington, Bushrod, justice of Supreme Court of the United States 1759 1829 Scotch. Watson, Robert, an historian.. 1730 1780 Eng. Watson, IRichard, an eminent prelate and writer... 1737 1816 Scotch. Watt, James, a celebrated natural philosopher and engineer. 1736 1819 ------- ~ —-~ —------ ----------------- ~~~I~~~~LIJ LY-C V-C BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 687 NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. Scotch. Watt, Robert, a bibliographer.. 1774 1819 Eig. VWatts, Dr. Isaac, a divine, poet, and miscellaneous Wvriter. 1674 1748 Get. seber, Carl Maria Von, an eminent composer.. 1786 1826 Amer. WVebster, Noah, author of English Dictionary.. 1758 1843 Irisx. W/ellesley. narquis of, gov.-gen. of India and lord lieutenant of Ireiand 1760 1.82 hish. Wellington, duke of, military commander and statesman.. 1769 Eng. Wells, Edward, a theologian and scholar.. 1663 1727 Gee. Werner, Abraham Theophilus, a mineralogist... 1750 1817 Gec. e Werner, Fred. L. Z., a poet and dramatist. 1768 18213 Eng. Wesley, John, the founder of the Methodist Society.. 1703 1791 lEnm XVestall, Richard, historical painter... 1765 1837 Amer. WVheaton, Henry, jurist, diplomatist and law commentator. 1785 1848 lns. WVhiston, William, a divine, mathematician, and translator.. 1667 1752 E'i. i Whitby, David, a learned divine... 1638 1726 Elg. White, Henry Kirke, a poet 1785 1806 Amer. White, William, one of the two first bishops of the P. E. church in U.' S. 1747 1836 Esl. Vlhitefield, George, founder of the Calvinistic Methodists.. 1714 1770 En". Wickliffe, or Wiclif, John, the morning star of the reformation. 1324 1384 Ger. Wieland, Christopher M.. an able.and fertile writer.. 1733 1813 Es. Wifien, J. IH., poet and historian.. 1792 1836 Eng. Wilberforce, William, statesman and philanthropist.. 1750 1830 Aioer. Wilde, Richard Hfenry, a poet and literateur. i789 1847 Es. Wilkes, John, a celebrated political character... 1717 1797 Scotch. Wilktie, sir David, historical painter... 1785 1841 Fag. Wilkins, sir Charles, oriental philologist.. 1836 sen. Wiltinson, sir J. G., historian of Egypt and archeologist En'. WVilliams, Helen Maria, a miscellaneous writer.. 1762 1827 Amer. WViliamson, Hugh, physician and historian of North Carolina. 1735 1819 Ames. Wilson, Alexander, a celebrated naturalist... 1766 1813 Eng. Windham, Villiam, a statesman 1750 1810 Amer. Wirt, William, attorney-general of the United Slates, and biographer. 1772 1835 Amner. Wistar, Caspar, an eminent physician and anatomist.. 1761 1818 Amer. XVitherspoon, John, an able divine and patriot. 1722 1794 Amer. Wolcott, Oliver, a patriot-signer of the Declaration of Independence 1727 1797 En". Wolcott, John, known as Peter Pindar, a poet... 1738 1818 En. Wolfe, James, a distinguished general... 1726 1759 ecr. WVolff, John Christian, a philosopher and mathematician.. 1679 1754 Eln" Wollaston. William Hyde, an experimental philosopher. 1766 1828 En". Wolsey, Thomas, cardinal, a celebrated statesman... 1471 1530 Eng. Wordsworth, William, poet... 1770 1850 Ames. Worth, W. J. major-general, United States army... 1794 1849 Eng. Wren, sir Christopher, a celebrated architect.. 1632 1723 Aust. Wurnmser, D. S., field-marshal, Austrian army... 1717 1797 Eng. Wyatt, sir Thomas, poet and statesman... 1503 1540 Eng. Wycherley, William, dramatic poet.. 1640 1715 Eng. Wykeham, lM., bishop of Winchester, statesman and philanthropist 1324 1404 Anser. Wythe, George, an eminent lawyer, statesman and patriot.. 1806 x Fr. Xavier, St. Francis, "Apostle to the Indies"... 1506 1552 Gr. Xenocrates, a philosopher... 406 B. 0. 314 Gr. Xenophenes, a philosopher-founder of the Eleatics. f. Gr. Xenophon, a celebrated philosopher, historian, and general B. o. 446 B. c. 360 Span. Ximenes, Francis, cardinal, an eminent statesman... 1457 1517 Eig. Young, Edward, a poet and miscellaneous writer.. 1681 1765 Eng. Young, Arthur, an agricultural writer. 1741 1820 Eng. Young, Thomas, a physician and philosopher. 1774 1829 Ypsilanti, prince Alexander, a leader in the modern Greek revolution 1792 1828 Span Yriarte, don Thomas de, an eminent poet... 1750 1790 Z Ital. Zaccaria, Francis A., a voluminous writer.. 1714 1795 Gr. Zeno, of Elea, a philosopher..... B.C. 463 Gr. Zeno, the founder of the sect of Stoics.. B.. 362 B. a. 264 688 TIIE WORLD7S PROGRESS. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BOPrN. DIED. Ital. Zeno, Apostolo, an eminent writer 1668 1750 Zenobia, Septimia, queen of Palmyra, a conqueror, and patroness of the arts 30) Swiss. Zimmntermean, John George, a tniscellaneous writer. 1728 1795 Ger. Zimmerman, E. A. W. von. naturalist... 1743 181I5 Ger. Ziazendorf, N. L., count, chief of the Moravians... 1700 1760 Swiss. Zolikofer, G. J., theologian.. 1730 Zoroaster, a famous Eastern philosopher Swiss. Zuingliuis, Ulric, an enlightened reformer.'. 1481 1531 PAINTERS, ENGRAV ERS, SCULPTORS, ETC. THE SMOST EMINENT IN THEIR DEPARTMENTS. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. Gr. Agatharcus, the inventor of perspective scenery in theatres - - Pinter - - -.. 480 Gr. Ageldas - - - clptor - f. B. o. 5th cent. Gr. Agesander (sculptor of "Laocoon and his Children ") - - - Sculptor - B. C. 5th cent. Ital. Albano, Francis (" the painter of the (.;ac,es ")Painter. - 1578 165i6 Ital. Alberti, Leo Baptist, a Florentine - - Pa. Sc. c Archit. 1400 141)0 Ital. Albertinelli, Mariotto - - Painter - - 1520:r. Alcamenes (pupil of' Phidias) S - Sculptor f. B. C. 450 Scotch. Allan, Sir William - P- - - aie - 1781 1850 Amer. Allston, Washington - - - Poet Haistor. Paizter 1779 1843 Ital. Angelo, Michael (Buonarotti), a pre-eminent Pa. Sc.' AArchitect 1474 1563 Ital. Angelo, Michael (Caravaggio) - - Painzter - 1569 1609 Gr. Apelles, the most celebrated of ancient painters Painte - f. B. C. 330 Gr. Apollocdornts, an Athenian - - Painter f. B. c. 4083 Ital. Appiani, of Milan - Painte - 1754 1817 Gr. Aristides, of Thebes - - - Painter f. Bf. c. 240 Fr. Audllan, Gerard, a celebrated - Htsior. EEngraver 1640 1703 Ital. Baccio, Della Porta (cknown as San Marco) -Painter 1469 1517 Eng. Bacon, John - - - Sculptor - 1740 1791) Flem. Ilalen, Henry Van - - - - Painter. 1560 1632 Ital. Bandinelli, Baccio - -.. Sculptor - 1487 1559 Enrg. Banks, Thomas - - - S'zculptor - 1745 1805 Irish. Barry, James - - - Painter - 1741 1805 Ital. Bartolini - -.?sEl raver Ital. Bartolomeo, Fra, di St. Marco - - Painter - 1469 1517 Ital. Batloni, Pompey - - - Paiznter 1708 1787 Eng. Beechy, Sir Win..- - Landscape Paitnter - 1753 1893 Ital. Bella, Stepha~'o Della, a Florentine - tEnraver - 1610 168Flem. Berchem, Nicolas.zEnraver - 1624 1689 Do. Bird, Edlward. - P zter - 1772 1819 Eng. Blake, William, - Painter 4- Esngraver 1757 1826 Dutch. Both, John and Andrew -Painters - 1610 1650 & 56 Fr. Bouldon, Sebastian - - - iainteier 4 Engraver 1616 1671 Swiss. Bourgeoise, Sir Francis (born'in London) Painter - 1756 1815L Eng. Boydell, John (a printseller, and lord mayor of London) - -.. Engraver - 1719 1804 Ital. Bramante D'Urbino, Francis L. (Ist of t. Peter's Church) - - Architect - 1444 1514 1)utch. Brentel, Francis - - - Painter- - f. 1635 T)nutcl. Br ill, Ma!thew - - Painlter - 1550 158:J Flem. Brtuges, John of, or John Van Eyc - Painter - 1370 1441 Itl. Buionarotti, see Angelo. }'tl, Burlnett, Jmes. Lan dsctpe Painter 1788 1816 Ital. Cagliari, Paul (known as Paul Veronese), a celeatel - - - - - Paibter - - 1532 1588 Ital Cagliari, Benedict, Carletto, and Gabriel, brotierts andl sons of Paul. En, Caler.tt, Sir A. W. - - Landscape Painter 1779 1844 Gr. Calliin-chus - - - Sculsptor ~ Arczhitect f. B.c. 540 Ital. Cnttlbiaso. Lucus, a Genoese - Painter 1527 1585 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 689 NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. htal. Canaletto, Anthony, a Venetian -. Landscape Painter - 1697 1718 Ital. Canova, Antonio, Sculptor 1757 1822 lhd. Caravaggio see Angelo. hal. Caracci Lodovico - Painter - 1555 1619 Ital. A- gostino - - Painter - 1588 1601 Iat. Annibale - - - Painter - - 1560 1609 Ital. Carpi, Ugo da, discoverer of the art of printing il Chiaro-oscuro-with three plates-to imi- About 1700 tale dlrawings. 1846 Ft. Casas, Louis, Francis - Pr. Casas, IoutYSv Francis -Pai.nter d Architect - 1756 1827 1 ~~~~~~Painater - I 603 6; Span. Castillo Y Saavedra, Anthony. Pai nter - - 1603 1667 Ital. Cavendone, James - - Fresco Painter - 1577 1606 Ital. Cellini, Benvenuto, a Florentine o B.ngraver d Sculptor 1500 1570 Flem. Champas e, Philip de - Painter - 1604 1674 Gr. Chares P - Painter f. B.c. 300 Eng. Cosway, Richard - Painter 1740 1826 Eng. Chantry, sir Francis Sctlptor 1781 1841 Fr. Chaudet, Anthony Denis Painter - 1763 1810 Ital. Cimabue, Giovanni, a Florentine - Painter -. 1240 1300 Ital. Claude Geld —called Claude Lorraine - Painter 1600 1682 Or. Cleomenes, an Athenian (The Medicean Venus) Scutlptor f.:B.C. 180 Amer. Clevenger -Sculptor 1844 Amer. Cole, Thomas - Land. - Ilist. Painter 1802 1848 Eng. Collins, William - - Land. 4.Fays. Life Pa. 1788 Eng. Constable, John - - - Painter 1776 1837 aT:g. Cooper, Samuel M..iliniatutre Painter 1689 1776 nmer. Copley, John Singleton (born in Boston) - Painter 1737 1815 Ital. Corregio, Ant. (founder of the Lombard school) Painter 1493 1534 Ital. Cortona, Pietro de, a Tuscan - ainter 1596 1669 Fr. Courtois, James (known as 11 Borgognone) Painter 1621 1673 Fr. Couston Nicholas (also his brother William) Scultptor - 1658 1731 Iutch. Cuyp, Jacob G., - - - Landscape 4 Cattle Pa. 1568 1649 Dutch. Cuyp, Albert (son of above) Landscape c~ Cattle Pa. 1606 1667!)utch. Cuyp, Benjamin. flistorical Painter - 1650 Eng. Daniel, Thomas - - Landscape Painter 1840 Ger. Dannecker, John lienry-(Adriadne, &c.). - Sculptor - 1758 1841 Fr. David, James Louis, a celebrated - Painter 1750 1825 Fr. David (Founder of recent French school) - Sculptor - 1780 Fr. Delaroche, Paul. listorical Painter Ger. Denner, Balthaser - Portrait Painter - 1685 1747 Gr. Dinocrates, a Macedonian'(builder of Alexandria, &c.) - Architect - f.. C. 330 Ital. Dolci, Carlo - - Scriptuire Painter 1616 1686 Lal. Domenichino (excelled in expression) P ainter - 1581 1641 Ital. Donatello, or Donato, a Florentine Sculptor - 1383 1466 Dutch. Douw, Gerard.. Faeziliar Life Painter 1613 1674 Fr. Dubufe - - Historical Painter Fr. Duifresnoy, Charles Alphonso - Painter Amer. Dunlap, William - - - Historical Painter - 1766.3er. Durer, Albert (and author) Pa. Eng. Sc. mf Arch. 1471 1528 Ger. Eberhardt - Sculptor Eng. Eginton, Francis (restorer of the art of painting on glass) - - - Painter 1737 1805 Eng Etty, William Hlistorical Painter 1789 2849 Gr. Einompus (fol:,der of school at Sicyon) Painter Dutch. Eyclk, John Van (said to have invented paiiting in oil) - -ainter - 1370 1441 Ens. Flaxman, John - Sculptor 1755 1826 Swiss. Fuseli, Henry (resided in England) - - Painter - 1741 1825 Eng. Gainsborough, Thomnas - Landscape Painter - 1727 1788 Ital. Ghiberti, Laurence, a Florentine - Sculptor 1378 1456 Ing. Gibson.. Sculptor Ital Giordani, Luke (The Proteus of painting) Painter - 1629 1704 Ital. Giorgione, Barbarelli - - Painter 1477 111 Ital. Giotto (one of the earliest modern) Painter, Scalp. 4Aich. 1276 1336 Fr. Giraldon, Francis - Sculptor - 1630 1715 Fr. Girodet-Trioson. Aime Louis - ainter 1767 1824'Fr. Gougon. John (" The French Phidias ") - Sculptor - 1572 Ital. Guercino (real name Francis Barbieri) Painter 1590 1606 Ital. Guido Reni (excelled in beauty of expression and grace) - Painter. 1574 642 690 TILE WORLD'S PROGRESS. NATION. NAIME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. Eng. Harlow, George IIenry - Painter - 1787 1819 Eng. Ilaydon, It. B. Htistorical Painter - 1786 1846 ing. Heath, Cha rieos J-'-en-raer -849 E. Hiiton, William - Isisioricial Painter 1786 1839 Flen. Htobbema. lMyrlerhout - - Lalzdscape Painter - 1611 1699 Enfg. Wogarth, ~illiam - - ainter - 197 1764 Swiss. Ilolbein, Hans - - - Portrait c5 fHistorical Pa. 1498 1514 GeiV. It ollar, Wenceslaus (executed 2400 plates) Engoraver - 1607 1677 Fler. Itonthorst, Gerard (called Gherarda dal Notoe) Painter 1592 i60 D)utch. Iloubracen, Jacob (600 portraits) - - E-_ngraver. 1698 1780 F r. Itoudon (executed statue of Franllin) - ScLdptor 1746 18 Fr. Iouel, John (Picturesque Travels, &c.) - Painter E E.ng'raver' 1736 1813 iier. Inman, Henry - - Portrait ~ Landsc. Pa. 1801 1846 i>idch. Huysum, Johun Van (flowers and fruit) - Painter - 1682 1749 Jones, Inigo - - Architect - 1572 1~59 c, Jodaens, Jacob - - - Painter - 1595 1670 it al. Julio, Romano Painter 4 Architect 1492 1546 Swiss. Kauffman, M. A. Angelica C. (in England) - Poetical Painter. - 1747 187 C -. Kneller, Sir Godlfrey (resided in England) Painter - 1648 1723 rie. ILandseer, Edwin... Animal Historical Pa. )Dutch. Lairesse, Gerard (excelled in expedition) Painzter i' Esngraver 1640 1711 Ftr. Lanmon. C. P. (more eminent as an author of works on the fine arts) - - Painter 1826!one. Lawrence, sir Thomas - - Porirait i' Hst. Painter 1769 1830 IF. Lebrun, Charles (painter to Louis XIV ) Painter 119 1699 Ger. Lely, sir Peter(painter to Charles II. of Englahd) Pnainter 1618 1680 Fc.,e Sieur, Eustace (the French Raphael) - Painster 117 1611 ltr. Leyden, Lucas, Damnmesz - - -.Paitnter En graver 1494 1513 Eng. Liverseege, Ilenry a -Pintter 1803 1832 Gr. Lysippus (made 600 statues) - Sculptor - f I. a. 3-24 Amer. Malbone. Edward. l - - liniatire Paisnter - 1777 1807 0lemr. Matsys, Quintin - - Painter - 1460 1529;al Masaccio - Paintler 1402 1427 Get. Mayer Su - ScUlptor,tal. Mazzuolo, Francis - - - Painter - 1503 1540 CGer. Mlengs, Anthony It. (the Raphael of Germany) Painter 1729 1779 1ir. Mignard, Peter - - - Painter 1610 1695 Swiss. Mind, Gottfried -- Painter 1768 114 Ei-. Morelandt, George - - Painter - 1764 1884 Span. iurillo, Bartholomew S. - Painier - i613 1683 uE. Newton, Gilbert Stuart H istorical Painter 1785 1835 Eng. Nollekins, Joseph -culptor - 1737 1623 En. Northcote, James - - Painter 1746 1831 tEng. Opi, John Painter - 1761 1807 Dutch. Ostad.e Adrian Van (interiors) - Faailiar Life Painter 1610 188 Dutch. Otsde Isaac (winter scena) Paite - 1617 1671 EIg. Owen, VWilliam - - - - Painter - 1769 1825 Fr. Pajou, Augustin - - Sctltor 1730 1809 hal. Palladio, Andrew - A- Architect - 1518 180 Span. Palonmino de Castro Y Velasco, A. A. Paintler I 1653 126 Cr. Parrhasius, of Ephesus Painster f. B. a. 420 Aner. Peale, Charlea W...Histor. 4 Portrait Pa. 174L 1827 Fr. Perrault, Claudius (designed the Front of the Louvre) -... Architect 1613 1689 Ital. Petrutino, Peter (the master of Raphael) -Painter 1446 1524 Swiss. Petitot,.ohn (excelled in enamel) Painter - 1607 1691 Gr. Phidias (the most famous of ancient sculptors) scsletOr - B. O. 498 i. c. 431 Fr. Picart, Bernard - Engraver. 1663 1733 Fr. Pialle, John Baptiste. - clptolr 1714 1783 F. Piles, Roger de (an author and painter) P ainter - - 1635 1709 lil. Piranesi, John Baptiste (16 vols. folio). Engraver 1707 1778 (r. Polycletus (statue of Juno at Argos) Sculptor. C. 430 lai. Pordenone, Regillo da - - Painter - 1584 )uitch. Potter, Paul (tunequalled in anisnal painting) Painter 1625 1654 Fr. Poussin, Nicholas (excelled in landsc. lainting) Painter - 1594 1665 lial. Poussin, Gaspar (Dughet) landscape Painter - - 1613 1675 Gr. Praxiteles iS'culptor - f. B. C. 350 Amer. Pratt, Matthew -. - Painter - - 1734 1805 Ft. Prudhon, of Cluny - Painter - 1760 1823 Fr. Puget, Peter - Sculp. Pa. Arch. 1622 1894 Gr Pythagoras. -Cu-)tor BIOG'RAPI-CAL INDEX. 691 RATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. Ital. Ralphael (real name Sanzio) a pre-eminent Painter - - 1483 1520 Ital. Rembrandt, Paul Painter - 1606 1647,in. Reynolds, sir Joshua - - - Painter - 1723 1792 F. Rolaeld, Philip L. (Hoomer in the Louvre) Sculptor 1746 1816 En. Romney, George - - - Painter - - 1734 1802 iii.l. Rosa, Salvator (scenes of gloom) - Painter - 1614 1673 F n. Rowlandson, Th. (caricature-Dr. Syntax, &c.) Painter et Engraver 1756 1827 iulem. Rubens, Peter Paul, a celebrated - Painter - 1577 1646 uotrch. Runciman, Alexander - Painter - 1736 1785 cl-h. Ituyscdael,Jacob - - Landscape Painter 1636 1684 l).itc. ituysodael, Solomon - - - Painter - 1616 1670 itl"g. Rysbrach, John Michael (works in Westminster Abbey) - - S'cultptor - 1694 1770 [tio. Sanulicheli, Michael - - - Architect - 1484 1559 ill. Sarto, Andrea del-see Vanuzcchi Sal. Scanmozzi, Vincent - Architect - 1550 1616 Ger. Schadow Rudolf - - - Sculptor - 1786 1822 Dutch. Schalklen, Godfrey (candlelight scenes) - Painter. 1643 1706 GCr. Scopas - - - Sclptor -. c. 460 e. c. 353 EnR. Sharp, William - Engraver - - 1740 1824 to. Sherwin, John Keyse - Engraver - 1790U Amer. Smybert, John - - - - Painter 1728 1751 Fiem. Snyders. Francis (landscape and animal) Painter - 1579 1657 Fr. Soufflot, J. G. (church of St.Genevieve at Paris) Architect - - 1714 1781 Dutch. Spaendonck, Gerradvan (flower) - Painter - 1746 1822 Scotch. Strane. Robert - - - Engraver - 1721 1722 lngo. Strutt, Joseph (an author and painter) - Painter 1749 1749 1802 In". Stuart, James (author of the " Antiquities of Athens ") - - - Architect - 1713 1788 Amer. Stuart, Gilbert (pupil of Benjamin West) portrait Painter 1756 1828 Flem. Teniers, David, the elder (pupil of Rubens) Painster - 1582 1649 Flem. Teniers, David, the younger (pupil of Rubens) Painter - - 1610 1694 Dan. Thorwaldsen Albert - - - Sculptor 1772 1844 Gr. Timanthes (contemporary with Parrhasius) Painter f. B. c. 42() Ital. Tintoretto (a Venetian-pupil of Titian) - Painter 1512 1594 Ital. Titian (the greatest painter of Venetian school) Painter - - 1480 1579 Amer. Trumbull, John - - - - istorical Painter - 1756 184 lni. Vanbrughs, sir.Jn. (Blenheim and Castle ttoward)Architect - 1672 1726 Dutch. Vanderrelde. William (marine and battle) - Painter - 1610 1693 Dutch. Vandervelle, the younger - Painter - 1633 1707 IDutch. Vandervelde, Adrian Landscape Painter - 1639 1672 1)utch. Vanderwerf, Adrian - - listorical Painter 1654 1718 Flem. Vandylke, sir Anthony (the greatest of portrait painters) - - - - Portrait Painter - 1598 1641 Ital. Vannucchi, or Andrea del Sarto - - Painter - 1488 1530 Ital. Van Vitelli, Louis, a Neapolitan - - Architect - 1700 1773 Ital. Vasari, Geore (a biographer of artists) - Architect c4 Painter 1512 1574 Sic. Vasi, Joseph, a designer and -. Engraver - 1710 1782 Span. Velasquez, James R. de Sylvia Y Painter 1599 1660 Pr. Vernet, Joseph - - Painter - - 1714 1789 Fr. Vernet, Hlorace - - - istorical Painter Am. Ver Bryck C. - - - - Landscape Painter - 1313 1844 Ital. Verrochio, Andrew (inventor of the method of talring the features in a plaster mould) - Sculpto'r 1422 1488 Ital. Veronese, Paul (see Cagliari) Eng. Vertue, George (500 plates) -. En-?aver - - 1684 1756 Ital. Vienola, James (Caprarola palace and St. Peter's)Architect - 1507 1573 Ital. Vinci, Leonardo da -Painter 1452 1519 Gr. Vitruvius (temp. Augustus) - Architect f. B. C. 30 Ital. Volpato, John - - - - Engraver 1733 1802 Fr. Vouet, Simon, founder of Fr. sch, (temp. Chas. I.) Painter 1582 1649 Fr. WVailly, Charles de - - - Architect 1729 1795 Eng. WVarren, Charles (perfecter of engraving on steel) Eng raver - - 1823 Amer. West, Benjamin - - - Painter - 1733 1820 Scotch. WVilkie, David - - - - Failiar Life Painter 1785 1841 Eng. WVilson, Richard - Landscape Painter - 1713 1782 JEn. Woollet, William -Eng-raver. - 1735 1785 butch. Wouvermans, Philip -.- Painter - 1620 1668 Eng. Wren, Sir Christopher (St. Paul's, &c.) - Architect 1632 1723 Eno. WVyatt, James (Pantheon, Kew Palace, &c.) Architect - 1743 1813 etal. Zablia, Nicholas -. - Architect 1674 1750 6912 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. NATION NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. Gr. Zeuxis, a celebrated ancient - - Painter - B. c. 490 B c. 400 Ger. Zine-ke Ea el Portrait Pa. 1684 1767 Ital. Zuccaro. or Zucchero, Taddeo - Painte - - 1529 156, Ital. Zuccaro, or Zucchero, Frederigo - Painter - 1539 1619 Ital Zuccarelli - - Painter - 1710 1786 TO TIlE WORLD' S PROGRESS. (DECEMBER, 1851.) [In addition to a brief record of the mrore important occurrences and statistics of the years 1850 -and 1851, the followinng pages contain some corrections of errors in the previous editions. Some other inaccuracies have been corrected in the body of the work. In selecting the names for the Biographical Index, it was difficult to draw the line. While it was desirable to include those aames which the general reader would be likely to look for, there was still no space for all those to be found in a biographical dictionary: in endeavoring to condense the list, however, many names were omitted (some from mere oversighlt) which, on a further collation, are now added to -this appendix. It will be obvieus, however, that whatever care and diligence lnay'be bestowed upon a volume of this rkiad, eatire perfectiona and completeness cannot reasonably be expected; and, in acknowledging the gratifying reception so promptly given to the book, the editor begs to say, that he will be greatly obliged by any essential additions or corrections which may be cotributed for future editions.] ADIMINISTRATIONS oP THE UNITED STATES-(p. 152) On the death of President Taylor, July 9, 1850. MILLARD FtLLOIntE, of New-York (Vice-President) became President. He appointed, soou after, the following Cabinet, viz.: Daniel Webster, Massachusetts, Secretary of State.. Thomas Corwin, Ohio Secretary of Treas. Charles M. Conrad, Louisiana, Secretary of War. William A. Grahami, North Carolina, Sec. of the Navy. A. H. H. Stewart, Virginia, Sec. of Interior. Nathan K. Ilall, New-York, Post Master Gen. John J. Crittenden, Kentucky, Attorney General. William I. King, Alabama, was elected Pres't of toe Senate, and became acting Vice Pres't of U. S. Howell Cobb, -eorgia (co tinued in office), Speakes of H. Reps. Linn Boyd, Kentucky, Dec. 18o1. OaMISSIONS on page 152, " FF' ld's P rogess." Hugh S. Legare, S. Carolina, May 9, ded June 2, 43, of Sta John C. Callhousn, S. Carolina, Mlarch 6, 1844, to Mar. 1, 1845 Se of Stat Geo. M. Bibb, Kentucky, June 15, 1844, to Mar. 3, 1845, Sec. of Treas. Win. Willcins, Pennsylvania. Feb. 15, 1844, to Mar. 3, 1845, Sec. of War. Thos. W. Gilmer, Feb. 15, 844, died Feb. 28 1844, Sece of Navy. dohn Y. Mason,'Virginia, [larcb 14, 1844, to Mar. 3, 1_85, 2 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD7S PROGRESS, 1850-51. [AME AFRICA. The British forces defeated with considerable loss in their engagement with the Caffres of South Africa. Dec. 29, 1850. The Caffres attack Fort White, Cape of Good Hope, Jan. 3, 1851, hut are repulsed, with loss of 20 killed. Jan. 7-the Calfres, in their attack on Fort Beaufort, are completely routed, and their chief Hermanus and his son killed. 3000 Caffres attack the colonists near Fort Hare. Jan. 23, but are driven back with loss of 100 killed. Feb. 23d —Col. So merset burns Fort Hamilton, which had been abandoned by the British, killing 90 Caffres, and taking 230 prisoners. J. G. Richardson, the African traveller, dies at Ungurta, six days distance from IKouka, the capital of Bornou, March 4, 1851. ANGLO-SAXONS. It may be assumed, on the most moderate data, that upwards of 51,000.000 of the human race now speak the language of Shaks< peare, Bacon, and Newton. ARCTIC EXPEDITION. Dispatches received by British Government, Sept., 1851, confirming the statement that traces of Sir J. Franklin's party had been discovered, showing that they had passed their first winter, 1845-6. in the bay between Beechey Island and Cape Riley, and that their dep arture had been sudden. The vessels, Advance and Rescune, nobly dispatched by Mr. Grinnell in aid of this expedition in May, 1850, were frequently in conmmunication with the British party, and returned to New-York Oct., 1851. ADVERTISEMENTS. The number of advertisements in the 159 London papers. in 1850, was 891.650, the duty on which at. s. 6d. each. amounted to X66;873 15s. In the 222 provincial papers, 875.631 advertisements; in 102 Irish papers, 236,128; and in the Scottish papers, 249,141. The Times supple-ment, Jan. 23, 1813, contained 1706 advertisements, one page of' which, embracing six columns, yielded ~108. AGRICULTURE, U. S., 1851. The following are the number of farms in several states, as reported in the last census:New- York - 174,234 Maryland - 21,950 Pennsylvania - 127,733 New Jersey - ~ 24,504 Ohio - 146,821 Delaware - 6,225 Indiana - - - 101.973 5Michigan - 34,699 Virinia - 76,794 Wisconsin...062 Illiois- -. - 71,062 Iowa - - - 15;500 Kentucky- 77,290 ALABAMA. Nov., 1851. The governor, in his message, recommends a discriminating tax on all articles from those states that continue slave agitation. The population of this state, 1850, according to census returns, was:-White, 426 515; Free colored, 2,250. Total free, 428,765; Slaves, 342;894. Fed. Rep. Pop. 634;501. ALFRED THE GREAT. A medal commemorative of the 1000th anniversary of this monarch was struck in 1849, with the legend, " Alfied and his children, the British Empire, United States and Anglo-Saxons every where!" ALMANACS. The almanac was canonized as St. Al7rn.chiLs, in the Roman Calendar. —H. JFVharton's Life of' Loeola, 1688. Almllanacs fist printed at Constantinople, Sept., 1806. Regiomantus supposed to be indebtedl for his formula, 1474, to the Persian almanacs. —Eilc/. Wldl/reip. The popular almanac in Shlakspeare's time was that of Leonard Digges. —C. [KAisst. In 1851: Dr. McGowan, laboring in China for the Missionary Union, prepared a philosophical almanac in the language of that country, exhibiting to the Chinese the realities of science, and particularly detailing the principles of ta Magnetic Telegraph. —N. Y. Ezpr'ess. See Wor'ld's Progr'ess, p. 162. liERICAN FLAG. Previous to 17756 the colors used in this country exhibited a snake with 13 rattles, in a crimson ground interlaced with white, by &ST] ADDENDA TO THE WORLDS- PROGRESS 1850-51. 3 some supposed in compliment to France, but more recently by others as representing those in the armorial bearings of Gen. Washington. A description of this flag is given in a London paper, published in 1776. On the 14th June, in the succeeding year, the American Congress " Resolved, that the flag of the 13 Unitad States be 13 stripes, alternate red and white; that the union be 13 stars, white, on a blue field-representing' a new constellation.'" A new " star-spangled banner" made its appearance on the river Thames (London), October, 1851, showing five stars emblematical of the British colonies New South Wales, Victoria (Hong Kong), South Australia, Van Dielman's Land, and West Australia. AMERICAN LITERATURE. The first English work written in America was Sandy's Translation of the Metamorphoses; Dr. W. Vaughan's poem of the Golden Fleece was written about the same time. Jocelyn, who wrote the New EKngland Rarities, and his Two Voya/cges, brought over a version of part of the Psalms, by Quarles, which, if approved by the Minister at Boston, was to have succeeded Sternlhold a nd Hop/ins in the New World. The first work printed was the " Freeeman's Oath," Cambridge, 1639; the second an Almnsaac, calculated for New England. by Pierce. a mariner; and the third "Tie Psalms, newl/rv ta'ed into melte."-Dr. Iolnzes's A1er'icanc Annals. AMUSEMENTS, PUBLIC, New York, April, 1851. Nine Theatres, with audiences nightly of 15,900 Four Minstrel Concerts " " - 2,300 Three Panoramas, " " 600 Nightly audiences at Public Amusements in New-York.............. 1,800 The average nightly receipts, exclusive of Astor Opera House (not obtained), amounted to $5;800. AMUSEMENTS, LONDON. The amount annually expended in London for sight-seeinmg, theatres, &c., is estimated at about fouz? millioans ste'lii.g.-Art j, urnal. ARMY, (STANDING), U. S. A. June, 1850, the regular army of the United States, including 882 commissioned officers, consisted of 10,320 men: distributed, eastern division, in the Atlantic States; western, west of the Alleghanies; and the Pacific division in Oregon and California. Expenses of the war department year ending June 30, 1849, partially including those of the Mexican war, amounted to $17,290,936. ARMIES. EUROPEAN, 1851. Great Britain, 114,451, infantry and cavalry effective; France, 408 000 (exclusive of National Guards. who nunlber over 2;000,000); Russia, 674,000; Austria, 405,000; Prussia, 121,000. which last with Austria, has an effective organization of the Laendwehr', similar to the National Guards of France. ARMORIES, U. S. There are five armories in the United States, viz.: Harper's Ferry, Virginia; Springfield, Massachusetts; Alleghany, Pennsylvania; Washington, District of Columbia; and Watervliet, New-York. For the fiscal year ending January 30, 1850, the manufactory of weapons of war is reported as 28,115 percussion muskets; 2000 percussion cavalry musketoouns; 2;676 percussion rifles; 110,487 flint lock muskets altered to percussion. ASTRONOMY. The planet Uranus, was discovered through observation of the perturbations of Jupiter and Saturn; and similar movements in Uranus led M. Leverrier to determine by calculation the existence of a new planet. This remarkable theoretic conclusion was verified on the night of Sept. 23d, 1846, by M. Galle, at Berlin, the new planet (Neptlesne) being found in the position and with the diameter announced by Leverrier, one of the noblest achievements of modern times. M. Arago calculates the distance of 4 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD S PIROGRESS. 1850-51, [lBAN this planet from the sun at 1,250,000,000 leagues, or about 3,125,000,000 miles Periodic time nearly 166 years. Its volume is about two hundred and thirty times that of the earth. Thus, during the year 1846, the bounds of our solar system have been nearly doubled. The discovery of Neptune marks, in a signal manner, the maturity of astronomical science. The Pa;rtlhenope, a new planet discovered by M. de Gasparis, at Naples, May, 1850; the name of the Victoria, discovered by Mr. Hind in same year, was changed for that of Clio; the Egeria planet, discovered by de Gasparis, at Naples, November, 1850. Another discovered by Mr. G. P. Bond, of Cambridge, United States, August, same year; and one by Dr. Peterson, of Altona, situate near the North Pole. ATTORNEY-GENERAL, U. S. A. Appointed by the President, and is one o:. the members of the Cabinet. He is the legal adviser of the executive government. The first attorney-general of the United States was William Brad.ford, appointed by Washington. 1789. (See AdminListrations.) There are also District Attorneys for the United States, appointed by the President, for the several districts in each State of the Union. In each State there is also an attorney-general of the State; in some States appointed by the governor and legislature, in others elected by the people. AUSTRIA. Ultimatum of the Austrian government delivered at Berlin, No-, 6, 1850, directing that Prnssia evacuate H-esse, dissolve the Erfurt league, &c., which is replied to by the Prussian king signing an order for calling out the whole military force of the monarchy. The Russian ambassador at Vienna, Nov. 11, announces that the continuance of the Russian policy in the electorate will be considered by his government a caensus belli. Protest of France, and remonstrance of Lord Palmerston at Vienna, Dec. 1850, against the proposed extension of the Germanic confederation beyond the Alps. The Austrians complete their military possession of Hamburg, Jan. 31, 1851, and Feb. 2. proclaim their resumption of seignorial rule of the King of Denmarkl. The Emperor establishes a council of the empire by imperial decree, April 1851. The German diet, July 17, in answer to Lord Palmerston's protest against annexing the non-German provinces of Austria to the German Federation, reply " that no foreign interference should be allowed in a purely Germanic question." August 20, the Emperor, by cabinet letters, declares "that his ministers ae responsible to no other political authority than the throne," and the minister-president is directed to take into consideration the possibility of carrying out the constitution of March, 1849. BALLOONS. Mr. Green and the Duke of Brunswick in April 1851, crossed tLe British channel fionz Hastings, and in 5 hours landed safely near Boulogne; greatest altitude mid-channel was 4000 feet. Mr. Green ascended on horseback'fioom Vauxhall, July 1850; since then M. Poitevin has made several ascents e'c-cheval, and in a carriage and pair (July 1851), sometimes acconspanied by his wife, c. —In one ascent he carried up a live ostrich. Lt. Gale (the Mazeppa of the Bowery Theatre) left Bordeaux with his balloon Sept. 18.50. and w\as fosund dead the next morninlg in a field, dreadfully mutilated. Several hazardous ascensions have since been made in France, one by an aeronaut with his head downwards. BALTIMORE,'U. S. A. Population, by the census of 1850, 169,000, being a gain of 66 per cent. in ten years. BANKS, PENNY. These were first instituted at Greenock in Scotland. Of 5,000 deposits the aggregate amount of nearly ~-1,100 gives an average of about 4's. 6d. each. In London and the provincial towns they are becoming very popular. In Whitechapel, 8000 deposits in nine months showed an accumulation of nearly ~2,000 or about 6s. each. BiS] ADDENDA TO THE'WORLD'S PROGRESS 1850-51. 5 BANKS IN THE U. S. 1851. The following tables it is believed exhibit the number, capital and general condition of the Banking interests in this country, to March 1851. No. Bkcs. Circulation.,Specie. Capital. Maine - - - 32 $2,300,000 $424,000 $3,148.000 New Hampshire - 22 1.700,000 150,000 2,205,000 Massachusetts. 102 9,600,000 645,000 16,405,000 Boston 30 6,000,000 2,100,000 21,760.000 Vermont 27 2,300,000 120.000 2,195.000 Rhode Island - 38 1,100.000 130,000 3,037,865 Providence -- 23 1,400,000 130,000 8,159,037 Connecticut 14 5,200,000 880,000 20,949,732 New-York - 152 18,000,000 880,000 20,949,732 New-Yorkl city 28 6.400,000 10,740,000 27,300,330 New Jersey - - - - 25 2,900,000 690,000 3,646,750 Pennsylvania 58 7,000,000 2,500,000 8,009,781 Philadelphia 15 4,130,000 4,000,000 10,518,700 Wisconsin - 1 225 000 Texas - - - 1........ 300,000 Maryland - - 12 1,210,000'400,000 1,997,079 Baltimore - - 12 2,068,000 2,127,000 1,997,079 Iowa - - 1........ 200,000 Mississippi 1....... 100,000 Virginia 35 7,000,000 2,300,000 9,913.100 North Carolina - 19 3,500,000 1,600,000 3,650,000 South Carolina 14 6,090,000 2,200,000 11,431,183 Georgia - 17 1,000,000 1,600,000 5,329,213 Ohio - 57 10,366,000 2,750.000 7,425,171 Indiana - - - 14 3,300,800 1,280,000 2,082,910 Kentucky -. 23 6,680,000 2,680,000 9,180 000 Tennessee - 21 4,000,000 1,500.000 7,165,197 District of Columbia 4 900,000 300,000 1,182,300 Delaware 9 900,600 250,000 1,440,000 Missouri - - - 6 2,600,000 1,900,000 2,258,751 Mtchigan 6 650,000 116,000 1,150,000 Louisiana - 5 4,200,000 7,300,000 13,267,120 Alabama 2........ 200,000 Total- - 863 $120,505,400 $51,446,000 $2.30,897,500 Boston, Banker's Mag. 1851. BENEVOLENT SOCIETIES. The receipts of some of the principal Benevolent Societies of New-York, for the year ending April 30th, 1851, were: Anmerican Tract Society, $310,618 09 Bible " - - - 276,852 53 d" B. C. For. Miss. 8 months, - - - 176,676 83 Home Missionary Society, - - 150,940 25 and Foreimn Christian Union. 11 months, - - 56,265 82 and Foreign Bible Society, 29,648 28 Baptist Home Missionary Society, - 19,252 61 Seaman's Friend Society, - - 22,000 00 Society for Melior. condition of Jews. 11,193 02 New-York State Colonization Society, 22,000 00 Association for Improving the condition of the Poor, 32,327 31, Society, Relief Widows and Orphans of Medical Men, amount of funds, Nov. 1851,. - -10,292 94 $1,118,067 68 BIBLE SOCIETIES. The first that ever existed, was established by some Roman Catholic Prelates, in France in 1774.-Ch/anb stbers's Ed. J1. The British and Foreign Bible Society has distributed during the 45 years ending Jan. 1, 1851, more than twentty-ti/ree millions of copies, in onze hArdred aedff'orty different languages. BISHOPRICS, English Colonial.-Nova Scotia, established 1787; Quebec and Montreal, united 1793; Calcutta, 1814; Barbadoes and Jamaica, 1824; M'adras, 1835; Sidney and Bombay, 1836; Toronto and Newfoundland, 6 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS: 1850-5. [Bit 1839; New Zealand and Jerusalem. 1841: Gibraltar, Antigua. Guiana, and Tasmania, 1842; Fredericton and Colombo, 1845; Newcastle, Adelaide, Melbourne, and Capetown. 1817; Hong-Kong and Prince Rupert's Land, 1849; Lyttleton, 1850. —N. HaEven C/A. Rev. BOOKS, U. S.-The number of volumes published during the year ending June 30th, 1851, is estimated to have been 1,261, forming 1,176 distinct works; which were Novels and Tales, 249 Theological and Religious - 170 Histories and Travels 121 Biographical, 96: Poetry and Hymns, 80 -176 Science, Natural History, &c. -83 Classics, Education, &c. -84 Law, 43; Medicine, 47; Agriculture, 20 110 Practical Mechanics - 18 Arts, Music, and Architecture- 57 Political Economy, Commerce, and Miscellaneous - - 193 Total - 1,261 "Book Trade." BOOKS IMPORTED INTO UNITED STATES for the year ending June 30, 1851:In Hebrew, $74 00 Latin and Greek,.- - 2,027 00 English, - -8341,755 00 Other Languages, --. 115,486 00 Periodicals and Illustrated Newspapers, - - 4,328 00 Periodicals and other workls in course of publication, - 2,861 00 Total, $466,531 00 Books exported during same period, $119,475 00 Asoerican Almswoanac, 1852. BOOKS, GERMAN.-Since the Easter Fair at Leipsic, 1851, not less than 3:860 new books had been published, up to Nov.; and 1150 were then in preparation for issue.-Illus. News. BOOKS, LONDON, 1850 about 4,400 were published, of which the Papal Question furnished 180 ine osne monlth; fiction, 500; law, 250; and travels, 200; the remainder miscellaneous.-Ills.ts. News. BRITISH MUSEUM. The total income for the year 1850, was ~55,686 17s. ld.; and the actual expenditure within the same period, ~47,463 5s. 10ld. BOSTON, U. S. A. Population by the census of 1850, 135,000, being an increase of 42:000, or about 45 per cent. in ten years. BRIDGES. The Suspension Bridge over the Niagara river, near the Falls, coimpleted July 28, 1848. C. E. Ellett was the engineer. The Britannia Tubular Bridge, over the Menai Straits, between Caernarvon and the Isle of Anglesea, completed October, 1850, Mr. Stephenson engineer, at an outlay of nearly ~600;000. A suspension bridge over the Ohio, at Wheeling, span 1010 feet, being 152 feet longer than the Friburg bridge, Switzerland. was completed by Mr. Ellett, 1850. Remington's bridge, at Montgomery, Ala., on the same plan as that he exhibited in London about two years ago, though slight in appearance, is of extraordinary merit for its strength and ingenuity. The floating bridge, for passage of railroad cars across Lake Champlain, went into operation 1st Sept., 1851. BRITAIN, GREAT, AND BRITISH ISLES. The returns of for/si thousand enumerators show the population of this country, in March 1851, to be, males 10,192721; females, 10.743,747, being an increase during the last 50 years of 98 per cent.; the average of annual rate of increase dnuring that period, is 1'37. This amount is exclusive of absent soldiers and sailors, the number of whom is estimated at 167,604. In Scotland, the rate of increase for the -CAR] ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS2 1850-51. 7 half century preceding 1851, is 78 per cent.; present population, 2.865,421. The population in Ireland 6.5156 794, compared with that of 1841, viz., 8.175 124. shows a total decrease of 1.659,330 souls. The returns of the British metropolis, including parts of Middlesex, Surrey and Kent, give a total population of 2,361,640, the preponderance in which is females.-Parliasmentar? Ret'urns. BUILDING (BENEFIT) SOCIETIES. First established at Kircudbright, Scotland, 1815; after 1830 they increased rapidly.-Scratc/tley's Trr1eatise on B. B. Societies. Several have been in successful operation in New-York since 1848. CALCULATING MACHINE. A very superior one exhibited in the Crystal Palace, 1851. by J. A. Staffel, of Warsaw. This extraordinary machine was the effect of tell years undiminished study and application; by it any errors may be corrected and the operator warned of any surplus calculation.-Illqus. News. CALIFORNIA, STATE OF, U. S. A. Constitution ratified by the people, Nov. 13, 1849. The State admitted into the Union by vote of the United States Senate, Aug. 13, 1850, and on Sept. 9, 1850, the California Senators, Dr. Wm. M Gwin and Col. J. C. Fremont, took their seats. The number of emigrants, to California, passing Fort Laramie, and registered to June 20, 1850. are, men, 32.740; women. 494; children, 591; of mules, 6,725; oxen. 21.418; cows, 3.185; horses, 28,798; and wagons, 7,586. The census returns for 1850, indicate a white population of 165.000 and 1.800 colored, making the fractional representative enumeration 74,000 and thus securing a second Representative in Congress.-Darilty Times. First overland party of the season,1851, arrives at Placerville July 17, in 77 days from St. Joseph's. Gov. McDougal issues a proclamation, July 21. against'; Vigilance Committees," calling upon all good citizens to sustain the laws. From Janl. to 31 Oct. 1851, inclusive, the number of vessels at Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and New Orleans, show an evident decrease in the clearances and cargoes for that countrly.-Bostoi Price C~rr'ent. Great fire in San Francisco, Sept. 17, 1850, loss $300.000; more than 200 houses destroyed by fire in Nevada City, estimated loss, $i:300.000. Another fire at San Francisco May. 3, 1851, several lives lost and many injured, 2 500 buildings consumed, and from one to five millions of property destroyed. A fire at Stockton, May 14, total loss $1,500,000. Shock of an eartlhquake felt at San Francisco, May 15. Jenkins hung at San Francisco and the police driven back by the "Vigilance Committee," June 10, 1851. Another fire (the sixth) at San Francisco, June 22. 500 houses burned, and $3,000,000 property consumed. "Jim Stuart" hung at San Francisco. July 11, 1851, being the second execution by the "Vigilance Committee." At Sacramento, Aaug. 21, a prisoner under sentence of death. but reprieved by the Governor, is forcibly executed by the citizens. Aug. 24, Whittaker and McKenzie taken by force fi'om the jailer at San Francisco, and publicly executed by the " Vigilance Committee." Aug. 30, a fire consumes part of Marysville, California. California Fleet.-The whole number of clearancee from the United States for California. in the year 1850, was 565, of which 181 were from New York, and 170 from Boston. CANADA. A memorial for annexation to the United States received, in five hours, the signatures of 300 merchants, land-owners, and professional men, in Montreal, Oct. 10, 1850. CARDINAL WISEMAN, born at Seville, created cardinal January, 1848, public assumption in London, 1850. The operations of the Catholics arising from this creation produced great excitement in England. A London bookseller issued a catalogue of more than 1700 English works on Popery, which he offered for sale.-S'ee Westmislter. 8 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD7S PROGRESS, 1850-51. V CoA CARPETS IN NEW-YORK. Prior to 1760 they were not known, but in the papers of that date Matthew Wilders advertises a variety imported from Scotland.-NIcocah's S. Tihmes. CATHOLICS, 1851. Prelates in the U. States-.Archbishops, 16; Bishops, 85; Vicars Apostolic, 10.-Ai(zi de Religion. The total income received by three Catholic institutions in Low. Canada, was stated by the Montreal Courier, of March, 1851, to be larger than the whole Provincial revenue. Real es;. tate in the Papal dominions is stated at $195.000,000. —I Caltolico C/l'istiano (l altese payper), 1851. The number of Cathllics in the United States is estimated at 1,233,350 (Am. _Alman~ac), while the entire Catholic population of the world, Greek and Roman, is judged by Ungewitter and Dr. Baird to amount to nearly 200,000,000. The great "aggregate meeting" of Roman Catholics from all parts of the United TKingdonm for inauguration of the Catholic Defence Association, held at Dublin, August 19th, 1851. The Duke of Norfolk, whose ancestors for centuries observed the Roman Catholie faith, secedes to the Protestant Church, Sept., 1851. CHICAGO. From the returns of eight of the largest establishments in this city, the business operations for 1851 were:-Cattle slaughtered, 30,800; barrels beef packed, 59;600; barrels tallow, 7,342; hides, 30,800; tons of salt used, 2,023; number of hands employed, 463.-Clvicago T'lib. and IN. Y. Daily Times. CHILI. Suspension of " discriminating duties" upon Chilan vessels determined by U. States Nov. 1, 1850, so long as the equality of maritime imposts is maintained between the two countries. Don Manuel Montt inaugurated President, Sept. 18, 1851, CHINA. The progress of the disturbance in the southern provinces excites serious alarm in the Imperial Court, Pekin, June 23, 1851. CHOLERA appeared on the island of Jamaica, West Indies, in the autumn of 1850, and before the 1st December, more than 6,000 persons had fallen victims. It also appeared in California, Oct. 22, 1850. In the city of Mexico, 2,700 persons died of cholera in four weekls-I- ay and June, 1850. CHURCH OF ENGLAND. Great excitement and agitation in England respecting a dispute on doctrine between the Bishop of Exeter and Rev. Dr. Gorham, one of' his clergy. The Privy Council's decision in favor of the latter, afterwards ratified by the courts, March 8, 1850. According to evidence of l!Mr. Baines before Committee H. Commons, 1851, there were in. Gt. Britain 13,193 places of worship dissenting from the tenets of the Established Church; to which may be added R. Catholic chapels 597, minor sects and Jews 550; making the total of nonconformist churches 14,340. CINCINNATI, the " Queen of the West," had by the census of 1850, a population of 115,590. In 1840, it was 46,3852. Increase, in ten years, 69,208, or about 150 per cent. CLOCKS. Between 200,000 and 300,000 clocks are manufactured annually in the State of Connecticut; the brass works being made by machinery with' mathematical precision. Chauncey Jerome of N. Haven makes upwards of 800 per day, some of which he sells at sixty cents each wholesale, warranted. An astronomical clock exhibited in Crystal Palace, by Dr. Henderson of Liverpool, requires winding up but once in a century. It was conmmenced in 1844, and finished for the Great Exhibition. —llcts. News. COALS. Comparative view of the areas of coal lands, and the production, in 1845, of the six principal producing countries. CO1] ADDENDA TO THE WORLD9S PROGRESS6 1850-51. 9 Square Miles. Tons of Fuel Relative Official estimated Value at the Countries. of Coal For- produced in parts of Places ol_ Production. mation. 1845, 1,000. American Pounds Ster. Dollars. ling. Great Britain... 11,859 31,500,000 642 45,738,000 9,450,000 Belgium........ 518 4,9601077 101 7,689,900 1.660,000 UniJted States... 133,132 4,400,000 89 6,650,000 1,373,963 France......... 1,719 4,14,617 84 7,663,000 1,603, L06 Prussian States. not defined. 3,500,000 70 4,122,945 856,370 Austrian States. " 659,340 14 800,000 165,290 Total....... 49,161,034 1,000 72,663,845 5 5,108,729 COAL FIELDS, 1851. East of the Mississippi, 124,735 square miles; west of ditto, 8,379 square miles. This is all bituminous. The anthracite of Pennsylvania is about 437 square miles. In Europe & Brit. America we find:Great Britain and Ireland, anthracite, - 3,720 sq. miles. r4 "6 bitulninous, - 8,139 " British America, - - 18,000 I Spain, " - - 3,408 France, " - 1,719 " Belgium, " 518 ",Scientific Atmzerican. The very general substitution of coal for wood as fuel, and its employment in the manufacture of iron and in the production of steam and gas, have, of late years, given an amlazing impulse to the trade in this article. Coal was discovered in Mansfield, Massachusetts, about 1835, but the efforts to render the same available were only efficiently applied by the Mansfield Mlining Co.. in 1848, which establishment it is expected will work the mine to much public advantage. The main shaft is 171 feet from the sulface, and four other shafts lead from this, making the entire length 1.100 feet. — Boston Traveller. The amount of Pennsylvania anthracite coal sent to market in 1850 was 3,127,083 tons. Coal-field found at Port Philip, V. D. Land, June, 1851, surpassing any of those in the sister colonies. COAL, GT. BRITAIN. The present home consumption is about thirty-two millions of tons annually: export about six millions. —Alderson's " Courese of Creation." COD FISHERY. The total amount of tonnage employed in the cod fishery of Marblehead, Mass., fiom 1794 to 1850, was 280233,507. Nunmber of vessels rating over fifty tons each, 3147; under fifty tons, 100l7. Vessels lost in 1846, eleven.-. Y. Sane?. COFFEE AND TEA. Value of imported into the United States of America, For the year ending, June 30, 1849: —Coffee, $98.058,352; Teas, 84,071.789. 1850: 1, 93:31; 4,719,232. 1851: ~ 1t,070; 4,798,005. Courier. COINAGE or TTHE U. S. MIN'r AND BRANCHES. for the year ending December 31, 1849. Gold, value $9,007,761; silver, 2 114;950; cop ler $41: 84; total, $11,164,695. The amount of cotitage at Philadelp.ia, 1861., fioni January to November 5 inclusive. was: gold,.$3.1139,131; silver, $246,650; silver three cent pieces, $146 653; colper, 091,988; total, $46,624,22). The California gold depotsited at the Mint during thlat period was $42,512,588.T/'ib w;ne. COMMERCE, INTERNAL, of the United States, 1851. The aggregate value of the lake trade, as appears by returns made tt the btureau of' Topogliaphical Engineers, amounts to the enormous sum of $186,485:269, or more, by $40,000,000, than the whole foreign export trade of the country. The aggre1.*D 10 ADDENDA TO THE WVORLD S PROGRESS, 1850-51. [coT gate tonnage is 203,041 tons, of which 35,904 is foreign. The net value of the commerce of the western rivers is $256:233,820; the value of vessels, $18,661:500. The gross value of the internal commerce of the United State>: may be estimated at $795,654,744. COMMERCIAL TONNAGE, THE, of England is stated at 3,130,000 tons. If so, the United States will stand as the first commercial nation in the world, as her tonnage on the 30th of June, 1850, was as follows: registered tonnage in foreign trade, 1 585.711 tons; vessels in coasting trade, 1,797,824 tons; fishing vessels, 151,918; in whale fishery, 146,016 tons. Total, 3,681,469 tons. CONVENTION of Delegates from Southern States in defence of the slaveholding interest, at Nashville, June 3, 1850; and again November 12, 1850. COPPER. The Connecticut mines are stated by Professor Silliman to extend over thirty miles south of Bristol, and would employ, if thoroughly worked, 30;000 miners. The net profits in 1849 were $120 000; and the yield increases in value every foot the miners proceed. From Lake Superior the shipments of copper, till the close of navigation, 1850, were 2,680,000 lbs. — Awn. Scientific Discover'y. COSTUME, BLOOMER. The male costume was entirely adopted by Miss Webber, an agriculturist of Belgium, in 1850; and a partial modification by Mrs. Bloomer, of Seneca Falls, New-York, in 1851. Attempts have been made for its general adoption, both in this country and in England; but the propriety of female opinion has hitherto been against it. COTTON. First exported from this country to Liverpool in 1784, when eigh. bales were seized by the customs, who disputed its positive shipment from the United States. In 1791 the exports to Great Britain Awere about 2,000,000; the shipments now made exceed 800,000,000 lbs. With the exception of Liverpool, more cotton is shipped from New Orleans to Boston than to any other part of the world. — V. Flax-Cotlton. The quantity received in England from the United States has increased from seventy millions of pounds in 1849, to nearly one hundred and twenty millions in 1850; the former being about 9 per cent. of the whole quantity imported by that country, the latter about 18 per cent.-olorning ECx;press. The ratios of cotton imported by Great Britain in the five years 1844-49 were: America 785. per cent., India 101, Brazil 7, Egypt, 31, West Indies and miscellaneous 0~ per cent. " If we could derive a larger supply than we now do fiom our own colonies, equally good and cheap with that from the United. States, it would be nationally beneficial in many ways." —Comypaion to British Almanac, 1851. The exports of cotton from the United States in 1850 were valued at $72.000.000. The value of entire product of United States cotton goods for year ending June 30, 1851, was $61,859,184. —Herald. COTTON SPINDLES in operation in Europe and America, 1851. The following is the estimated number of spindles in actual operation: Great Britain, 17.500.000; France, 4.300;000; United States, 2,500 000; Zollverein States, 815.000; Russia, 700.000; Switzerlandl, 650.000; Belgium, 420,000; Spain, 300,000; Italy, 300,000. Total, 28,985,000. COTTON MANUFACTURES in the United States. It is estimated that the annual product of all the cotton mills in the United States is 250,000,000 yards, and the consumption of cotton 600,000 bales; 100,000 bales of which are consumed south of the Potomac and in the Western States. The value of this amount of cotton when manufactured, is supposed to be upwards of sixty-seven millions. Convention of cotton planters at Macon, Georgia, October 28, 1851. DEC] ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS, 1850-51. 11 CUBA. Trial of General Lopez and others, engaged in the Cuban expedition, commenced in Circuit Court, New Orleans, December 17. 1850. General Quitman, of Mississippi, arrested by United States Marshal February 3, 1851, on charge of setting on foot a military expedition against Cuba; he issues a paper to the people of Mississippi, resigning his office as Governor. Proclamation by the President United States, April 25, warning all persons within jurisdiction of the States from aiding or engaging in any expedition against Cuba. Arrest of O'Sullivan and others, April 26, on charge of being concerned in a Cuban military expedition then fitting out in New-York. Steamer Pampero, with Lopez and 400 to 500 volunteers, sails from New Orleans, Aug. 3; disembark at Cabanos on the 12th; Col. Crittenden, on his route to join Lopez then in advance, is attacked by 500 Spanish troops and his forces scattered. Lopez having repulsed Gen. Enna, at Las Posas, retreats to the mountains; is taken by bloodhounds on the 29th, and publicly garotted at Havana, September 1. Col. Crittenden puts to sea, but is captured with 50 of his comrades on the 15th Aug.; the whole are carried to Havana and shot the next day. The remaining followers of Lopez, after enduring great privations, are captured or surrender, and all but three or four condemned by the governor to 10 years' labor on the public works in Spain, for which country they are shipped September 1, under escort. Great excitement at New Orleans, Aug. 21, growing out of the above; the Spanish residents attacked, and the Spanish Consul placed in city prison for safety. Mr. J. S. Thrasher, late editor of the "Faro Industrial," arrested at Havana, and after a trial resulting in his conviction, sent to Spain 24th Nov., 1851. The American prisoners in Spain pardoned by the Queen, Dec. 1851. DAGUERREOTYPES. Of the innumerable variety of specimens of this Art, those of the United States are considered superior for brilliancy and execution. It is estimated that not less than 15,000 persons are connected with this Art in the U. States, and that the amount of material annually consumed in their operations exceeds $900,000. The nearest approach to success in Daguerreotypes in natural colors is that of M. Ni6pce the original inventor of the Art-Daguerre having only perfected the discoveries of that gentleman. Daguerre died in Paris, July 1851. Hill's " discoveries " in colored Daguerreotypy decided by a committee of " New York State Daguerreotype Association," 18th Nov. 1851, to be " an unmitigated delusion." DEBTS OF THE STATES IN THE AMERICAN UNION, 1851. In round numbers the debts of the different States for the year 1851, are estimated as follows:Maine, $S50,000; New Hamnpslhire, $76,790; Vermont, none; Massachusetts, $6,000,000; Rthode Island, none; Connecticut., none; New-York, $24,000,000; New Jersey, $67,000; Pennsylva-ia, $40,10,000; Delaware, none; Malryland, $15,000,000; North Carolina, $977,000; South Carolina,. 2,300,000; Georgia, $1,800.000; Florida. none; Alabama, $8,. 900,000; Mississippi, $7,270,000; I,ouisiana, 816,283,000; Texas, $1 1,000,000; Arklansas, $3,S50,000; Tennessee, $3,337,000; Kentucky, $4,497,000; Ohio, $49,000; Indiana, $6,530,000; Illinois, $5,590,565; Michigan, $2,S00,000; Missouri, $156,000; Iowa, 355,0U0; Wisconsin, none; California, $G650,000. DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. In March 1851 the Legislature of North Carolina accepted a Report affirming as a well-ascertained historical fact that the celebrated 1M1ecklerbscrg' Declar-atioe was published in June, 1775,-large portions of which were embodied in Mr. Jefferson's Declaration of the following year. A resolution was passed that the Governor cause to be transmitted the block of marble presented by Lincoln county for the Washington Monument with tihe arms of the State and the following inscription sculptured thereon,-" North Carolina, Declaration of Independence, Mecklenburg, May 20, 1775. 12 ADl)ENDA TO THE WORLD'7 PROGRESS, 1850-51i [ a1E DEMOCRACY of England, France and the United States-Compared. Votes Votes Comntry. Pop, No. Votes. to Countryg Pop, No, Votes. to Pop. Pop. England, 17,000,000 630,721 1 in 26 Great Britain 2,650000 3, in 4 WVales, 850,000 37,924 1 in 23 and Ireland, 1 in Scotland, 2,800,000 72.720 1 in 38 France, 34,000,0o0 250,000 1 in 137" Ireland, 8,000,000 98;006 1 in 81 United States, 20,000,000 2,750;000 1 in 7 DENMARK. Battle of Idstedt, between the Danes and Schleswig-Holsteiners Danes lose 116 killed and 2,373 wounded. lolsteiners retire, but advantage about equal, July 25, 1850. See Germlany, Austcria, &c. The Government of Schleswig-Holstein yields to the Commissioners of the Germanic Confederation, Jan. 10, 1851. The Danish mining operations in Greenland 1851 produced large quantities of copper ore, yielding about sixty per cent. DIAMONDS. The Koh-i-noor, or " Mountain of Lio-ht," valued at. 2,000,005, received in England from India, July, 1850.'The actual value of this Diamond tested by Mr. Jeffrey's tables is ~260,000. It is however exceeded by the famous Portugal Diamond, wreighillg 1,680 carats; this Diamond has never-been cut or polished. and is valued by the Portuguese Government at ~5,644.000! The Durra-i-Noor or Sea of Light, the property of the East India Company, a blue Diamond belonging to the Queen, another in Mr. Hope's collection (177 grs.) with several parti-coloredcl, and a green diamonad' owned by the King of Saxony, are among the most remarkable gems of the present day. Several pink diamonds were exhibited in the " Crystal Palace,") also a Black diamond weighing 350 carats, the property of Mr. Joseph Mayer. DIRECTORY, NEW YORK CITY. The earliest published was in 1786, a small volumie of 82 pages, printed by Shepherd Kollock, Wall street; the names of the individuals and firms include about 900. and occupy 33 pages, the remainder being filled with general statistics of the City, U. S. Government, Post Office regulations, &c. In his address the ]Editor states it was thQi " first Directory ever attempted in this country." The N. Y. hfist. Society possesses a complete set from its first publication to 1851. DOLLAR. This word is said to have originated fiom the following circumzstance. In 1516 a silver mine was discovered at St. Joachim's Thal (or dale' in Bohemia, the proprietor of which issued a number of silver pieces which were called Joachim's Ttatlec; by subsequent corruptions this word became Dolltar, the mtark $ is simply a monog'ram of the letters P. S.-i. e, Peso the Spanish word for Dollar. DRAMATIC FUND ASSOCIATION. This benevolent institution for the relief of decayed or disabled members of the profession, itn this country, wias founded in New York, April 1848. EARTH, ROTATION OF THEL. M. Foucault's public demonstration in Paris, May 1851, of the rotation of the earth, was preceded by a similar exhibition by M. Guyot, Paris, 1836. EDUCATION. General convention of the friends of education in the United States, at Philadelphia, Oct. 19, 1849, and again, Aug. 1850. The report of the Board of Education of New York, for 1851, shows the number of childlres attending the 207 schools in that district, as 107,.363.'Yearly outlay, $274,794; average expense of each child for the scholastic year df 204 days, is $6 86. The London Atheneum in referring to this report states that the governmental cost of each criminal in Great Britain is, from first to last nearly ~400! and nobly endorses that great truth in political economy, * Before the late revolution. At the election in December, 1851. the suffrage was nominally' universal,' and the ntmber of votes was about 8,000,000. ERIA] ADDENDA TO THE WORLD S PROGRESS, 1850-5i. that " The cheapest system of police is education!" Students in New-Yorkl Free Academy, 1851, 382; professors and tutors 17.-F. A Catanlogue (SXe Sc/ools.) Tn the United States there ar.e 217 colleges and professional schools, 120 colleges proper, 43 theological, 17 law, 37 mIedicine. UO the colleges 13 are Baptist, 8 Episcopalian, 13 Methodist. and 11 Roman Catholic. The number of volumes in the diflerent collegiate libraries is 871,800.-Americom Alman2ac. ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. The crude idea was started by Schwenter, a German, in 1636.-Loand. Pdilos. Jourz. In 1684 the celebrated Hoolke presented a communication to the Royal Society, " showing how to communicate onlle's mind at great distances, not by sornd but by sifht!"-Chavsbes.s Iln 1774 Le Sage of Geneva submitted a plan for an electric telegraph, to Fr ederick the Great, as' the monarch best capable of realizing it." Illn I787, Lomond, of Paris, exhibited to Arthur Young" an alphabet of motions" appertaining to an electric telegraph; the distances to he accomplished by which, Young expressly states, " depended solely on the length of the wires." In Jan. 1851, twenly,-two thousand mg'iles of a continuous telegraphic route, extending from Halifax, N. S., to New Orleans, and as far West as Duhbuque, Ioua, was accomplished as follows: Professor Morse's principle, 12 000 miles; Messrs. House and Bain 10,000 miles.-Sciel. Americcan. Dec. 2, 1851, a dispatch of 34 words was sent from New York to New Orleans, a distance of 1,900 miles, and an answer received in Zess than five minuttes; the whole distance traversed being 3,800 miles.-NV. Y. Conmmercial. Bakevwel's copying electric telegraph experimented on, Apr. 1851, gave fac-similes of autographs, at the rate of 120 to 150 letters per minute. The submarine telegraph between Dover and Calais. completed Oct. 17, opened for public use; Nov. 13, 1851. United States brig Dolphin, sailed Oct. 1851, upon her expedition to run a line of soundings for telegraphic purposes across the Atlantic. EMIGRATION to the U. S. A. Passengers arrived in the year ending June 30, 1849, 299,610, of whom 213,736 landed ats New York; in 1850 the number was 315,333, of whom 212 796 landed in New Yorlk. ENGLAND. Resignation of the Russell Ministry Feb. 22, 1851; after several unsuccessful attempts by Lord Stanley to form a cabinet. Lord J. Russell and his colleagues resumed their ministerial functions. Second reading of the prohibited Affinity Marriage Bill, lost in the Iouse of Peers, Feb. 25, by a vote of 16 to 50; Lord Campbell and the Ecclesiastical Bench voting in the majority. Great Exhibition, lMay 1st, which see. Banquet to royal and foreign conumissioners of Great Exhibition, on board American steamer Atlantic at Liverpool, by Mit r. W. Brown, M. P., July 12, 1851. Oath of Abjuration (Jew) Bill, passed by the Commons, is refused a second read-!ng in the House of Lords; July 17, by a majority of 36. July 18, Alderman Salomons, the Jewish member for Greenwich, not permitted to take his seat. (Case in abeyance.) Resignation of Lord Palmierston, Sec. for Foreign Affairs, Dec. 1851. ENVELOPES FOR LETTERS. Delarue's machine in London completes no less than 396,000 daily, the cutting, foldi:g; and gumming, being performed by one single operation.-Illus. N wvs. Dr. Hawres' three machines at Worcester, Mass., complete, count and pack 36,000 per day, and preparations are malcing for a contract of 120,000 daily.- W. Spy. ERIE CANAL ENLARGEMENT. The passage of this bill defeated in the New York Senate April 16, 1851, by the withdrawal and resignation of twelve of the democratic members. The bill passed by new Legislature, 1851. ERIE RAILROAD. This great undertaking, extending from N. Y. city to 14 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD9S PROGRESS; 1850-51. [EXP Dunkirk, 469 miles, was opened by President Fillmore, Mr. Webster, &c., 15th May, 1851. Original charter 1832; cost nearly $20,000,030; first regular journey 19th May, 1851, the whole distance being completed in 17 hours, or nearly 27- miles per hour. EXHIBITION., GREAT, LONDON, opened by the Queen, May 1, closed Oct. 11, 1851. This building, erected for the exhibition of the "World's Industry" in arts, manufactures, &c., covered nearly nineteen acres, being four times the size of' St. Peter's at Rome. It was erected from the designs of Joseph Paxton, almost entirely of glass and iron; the cubic contents of the building were 33:000,000 feet; height of the transept, 108 feet.Total cash receipts fiom privileges, season tickets and visitors, - - ~505,107 Oflwhich $356,808 25 was taken in the is. days. Expenses and appropriations, 355,000 Net profit, ~150,107 Total number of visitors, — 6,201,856 Largest number of admissions on closing day, being at 5 P. M., - 0,000 Number of Exhibitors, - 17,000 Couecil Idedals awardedl to Great Britain,79; Germany, 12; Austria, 4; Belgium,2; Tuscany. 2; Spain, 1; France, 56; United States, 5; Russia, 3; Switzerland, 2; Holland, 1; Rome, 1; and Turkey, 1. Total, 169. Juiry Medals, of which 9 were awarded to U. S., 2,918. The number of letters received by the acting Commlnissioners during their official session was Thirlty-seven Thousand! It is not a little to the honor of the United States that the articles combining the greatest utility were exhibited by American citizens; MeCormic's Reaping Machine being one of the most important and successful. PLOSIONS, FIREs, EARTHQUIa KES, &c. Portuguese frigate, Donna Maria II., of 32 guns, accidentally destroyed by explosion at Macao, China, Oct. 29, 1850, when 188 of the 244 men on board perished. At Fredericton, N.B., near 300 houses destroyed by fire, Nov. 11, 1850. A terrible hurricane at Cape Girardeau, Mo., Nov. 27, 1850, and many of the principal buildings destroyed. Steamer Anglo-Norman, on a pleasure trip, explodes at New Orleans, Dec. 13, 1850, nearly 100 persons killed, wounded and missing. Violent storm, Boston and vicinity, March 17, 18. 19, 1851, unusual rise of tide, and great damage to property on wharves. Earthquake at Valparaiso, South America, April 2, the most violent since that of 1822, few lives lost, but great destruction of property. Great storm on the whole sea-coast of Massachusetts, April 15, 16, 17, greatly exceeding the injuries of the preceding month. The city of Amalfi, and neighboring towns southeast of Naples, visited by a series of shocks by earthquake July 14, and 3,000 persons supposed to have perished. Volcanic eruptions fiom 8 craters, in the mountains of Martinique, West Indies, Aug. 5. Tornado, attended with great injury to buildings, &c., at St. Louis, Mo., Aug. 15; this was preceded by storms and freshets in Iowa and Tennessee. On the 17th great damage to shipping at Castries, St. Ltucia, by an extraordinary commotion of the sea. A destructive tornado passed over Waltham, West Cambridge, and Medford, Mass., Aug. 22, doing much damage in its progress. Same day a violent storm blew down and unroofed buildings, &c., at Tallahassee, Floida. EXPORTS AND IMPORTS, U. S. A. Year ending June 30, 1849, imports. $147,857,439, exports $145,755,820; excess of imports, ~$2101,619. Imports for year ending June 30, 1850, $178,138 318. Yrear ending June 30, 1851, imports $210 000:000, exports $188 000.000; excess of imports $22 000 000. Specie imported same period, $5,000.000; do. exported, chiefly California gold, $29;000,000. The amount of imports in 1850, for articles of dress and personal ornament, was stated by N. Y. Express to be $18,476, 7X68. EXPORTS os GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, 1849, E58,848,042-being an in VRAJ ADDENDA TO THE WORLD S PROGRESS, 1850-51. 15 crease of ~9,902,717 over those of 1848. Of the exports there were:-To British Colonies. X16 594.087; China,:1,445.959; United States of America, ~9;564 909; Cuba, ~733:169; Brazil,;2.067.299; Mexico and Central South America, ~3,757,463. In 1850 the British exports were., to United States, ~14.891,951, and. to forty-four other countries, ~37,847.035; total exports, 1850,~71,367,885.-Pa.l. Retzuris. Imports by Great Britain. 1851, amount exclusive of London was, England, ~6,691,629; Scotland, ~1,951,981; Ireland, ~2,0553925. —Iliis. News. FIRES. At San Francisco, $1,500.000 worth of property destroyed, Dec. 24, 1849 Another at same place, May 4, 1850; 200 buildings, value $4,000,000, destroyed. Another at same place, 300 houses,' &c., value $5,000,000 burnt, June 14, 1850.-See Explosions. FIRE-ANNIHILATORS. The Water Bomb for extinguishing fires, invented by Zachary Greyl, a German, 1721; another by an English chemist, 1823, Phillips's annihilator, experimented with in New York, 1851. Salomon's gas engine exhibited, Cincinnati, Sept. 1851; and one by W. Lay, at Philadelphia, same year. First fire engines in New-York, brought from London, 1713, with hooks and ladders. FLAX-COTTON. M. Claussen's patent, in 1850, for a new preparation of hemnp, under the title of cotton-flax, having excited much attention. extensive pre.parations were made in Great Britain and Ireland, for the cultivation of flax for the new material. A sample of 60 tons manufactured for a Manchester house, 4 flax and i cotton, was considered decidedly successful, when the British Board of Trade agreed to purchase a company's produce of 100,000 acres, at the rate of ~12 per acre. In the western states, and particularly Ohio, the subject excited great interest, as a branch of trade well suited for the agricultural facilities of that district. FLOGGING IN THE NAVY. Bill to abolish it passed the House of Representa.. tives of the United States, 131 to 29, Sept. 19, 1850. Mr. Brodhead of Pennsylvania, presented a petition in Senate, Dec. 17, 1851, praying for " restor..ation of flogging in the United States Navy." FLORIDA, 1851. White population 47,167; free colored 925; slaves, 39,309; total 87,401. Farms in cultivation 4.304; manufacturing establishments producing annually upwards of $500,121. —Ccensus Ret-rn&s. FRANCE, 1849. Nov. 9, M. Poussin, French minister to the U. S., having been dismissed by the American government, sails for France. Nov. 12, trial of the political offenders of June 1848 ends at Versailles; 11 are acquitted, 20 convicted and sentenced-17 to transportation for life, 3 to imprisonment for five years. Nov. 15, Ledru Rollin and 30 other accused persons, absent from trial, are sentenced to transportation for life. 1850, Jan. 1. The President creates his uncle Jerome a marshal of France. April 15, 300 soldiers drowned at Angiers by the fall of a bridge. May 16, the French ambassador recalled from London in consequence of'a difficulty connected with an English claim on Greece. May 31, new electoral law restricting the right of suffrage, passed. June 21, an arrangement with England on the Greek dispute. June 24, dotation bill, giving the President 2,160,000 firancs per ann., passed. Dec. the French government protests, at Vienna, against the proposed extension of the Germanic Confederation beyond the Alps. 1851, Jan. 3, the Ministry resign. Feb. 8, the Presidential Dotation Bill proposing an additional grant of 1,800,000 francs, rejected in the assembly. March 25, Declaration at Honolulu of arrangement of difficulties between the Haiwaian government and the French republic. July 5, report of sub-committee on petitions, for revision 741,011; for revision and prolongation of powers 370,511; for prolongation of powers 12,103; total signatures 1,123,165. July 19, question of 16 ADDENDA'TO T-SE WORiLD'S P1ROGURESS, 1850-51. [GOL revision of French Constitution again taken in Assembly, when the minority was declared 97 less than the three-fourths required by the constitution. Dec. 1, Revolution in France; Louis Napoleon by a coup dl'etat seizes the reins of government, dissolves the National Assembly; declares a state of siege; arrests the Members of the Assembly; constitutes an entire new Ministry. The President proposes the instant restoration of universal suffrage; an immediate election by people and army of a President, to hold office for ten years, to be supported by a council of state, and two houses of Legislature. The revolution creates an intense excitement. Dec. 10, the vote of the army shows a large majorityfor Louis Napoleon. Resistance to the usurpation is shown in various parts of France, but the overwhelming power of the army, and a " state of siege" in 33 departments, crushes all open opposition. Dec. 20, the election, under various controlling influences, results in the confirmation of Louis Napoleon as President for 10 years, by a vote of about seven millions out of eight millions. The French census of 1851 shows a total population of 35;500,000. The number of foreigners domiciled of all nations, exceeds 1,000,000, of which 75,000 are British, or about one-half the British residents previous to the revolution of 1848. GAS. First introduced in UJ. S. in City of Baltimore 1820, and shortly after in Boston, New York and Philadelphia.-Sci. American. Opposed in Italy by the Pope (Gregory XVI.) as " subversive of religion " in suppressing the sale of wax candles for the shrines.- Gas Journal. Water Gas discovered by Lavoisier, circa 1790.-Sci. Amerlican. Paine's Water Gas spokeen of during the last 5 or 6 years, but appears to have been accomplished by the French Chemists. Superior gas from wood and fibrous matter, the discovery of a German. used at the R. R. Depot at Munich, 1851. In 1847 the expense of gas at the London Gen. Post Office was ~3,.047; increased facilities by the Gas Co. gradually reduced the charges in 1850, when the whole amount paid by the Post Office was ~1,485. GEORGIA. Population in 1850 was,-white, 513,083; free colored, 2,586; slaves, 362 966; federal representative pop. 733,448.-Censits Restru-ns. GERMANY. The Archduke John resigns his office as head of the central power at Frankfort, Dec. 20, 1849. The Schleswig-Holsteiners under Gen. Willisen, engage the Danes at Idstedt, in a bloody but indecisive battle, July 25, 1850.The Schleswig-Holsteiners attempt to take Frederickstadt, but are repulsed by the Danes and lose 500 men, Oct. 5, 1850. Difficulties in Hesse-Cassel, between the Elector and his people, in regard to the mode of taxation. Austria and Prussia respectively send armies to the Electorate, to take opposite parts in the struggle; but they are soon after withdrawn, without collision, Sept.-Nov. 1850. GIPSIES. A company from England arrived in Cecil county. M[aryland, in March 1851, bringing with them all their wandering habits and peculiarities. GLOBES, MONSTER. Originally exhibited in Paris 1823, and a more perfect one by M. Gudrin in 1844, which he styled the Giloramna.-Art. JI Wyld's Monster Globe erected in London 1851, employed 300 men nearly 30 days in fitting up the interior.-Ill. News. GOLD. Received from California, in port of New York, 1851, January, $2,S890,903 July, - - 3,094,311 February -. 4,36,471. August, 4,105,689 Mlarch, - - - 1,951,055 September, - 3,237,460 April, - 2,023,119 October - 3,756,241 MIay, - - 2,282,388 Nov. to 21st, - - 5,238,813 June. - - 3,975,355 Gold discovered at Ophir, Bathurst District, Australia, by Mr. IIargreaves, in Feb. 1851; and at Port Philip, in June, same year. One piece weighed 'HUNj ADDENDA TO THE W-ORLD;S PROGRESS, 1850-51. 17 3 lbs. 10 oz.; and Dr. Kerr found in one day over 102 lbs., value ~4000 sterling. The diggings are estimated at 300 miles in extent. Gold mines reported to be discovered in the province of Gerona, Spain, Oct. 1851. Nearly ~e750,000 sterling was raised in London, N\ov. 1851, for California and Australian gold mining operations. GREECE. Lord Palmerston's note to the Greek government, Nov. 1851, produces great sensation at Athens, and the ministerial crisis likely to end in favor of the Russian party. GUN COTTON. Discovered by Prof. Schoenbein, in Germany, 1846, but its practical utility for mining purposes supersedes its use in fire-arms. TUTTA PERCHA. Previous to 1844, the very name of gutta percha was unknown to European commerce. In that year two cwt. was:shipped experimentally from Singapore. The exportation of gutta percha from that port rose in 1845 to 169 piculs (the picul is 1330 lbs.); in 1846, to 5,364; in 1847, to 9,292; and in the first seven months of 1848, to 6,768 piculs. In the first four and a half years of the trade, 21,598 piculs of gutta percha, valued at $274,190, were shipped at Singapore, the whole of which were sent to England, with the exception of 15 piculs to Mauritius, 470 to the continent of Europe, and 922 to the United States. The great variety of articles for domestic use, the ornamental arts, &c., to which this material has been applied, has given employment to thousands not only in the factories of our own and other countries, but also to the gatherers in the Indian Archipelago, with whom it at present constitutes one of their most profitable articles of export. HAMBURGH. Occupied by 4,000 Austrian troops, Jan. 1851. HATS, STRAW. This branch of trade is principally carried on in Massachusetts. At Medfield the value of Bonnets made in 1851 was $134,000; Foxboro' for the same period, $122,000; and in Franklin 160,000. In Boston city alone there are over 300 sewers. HESSIAN FLY. This plague to agriculturists was introduced into this country by the foreign mercenaries on Long Island, 1777, from their baggage or in the forage of their horses. HUMAN RACE. Dr. Pickering enumerates eleven different races, of which the names and numbers, supposing the whole human family to be 900,000;000, are as follows: White, - - 350,000,000 Abyssinian, - 3,000,000 Mongolian,- - 300,000,000 Papuan, 3,000,000 Malayan, 120,000,000 Negrillo, 3,000,000 Telingan, 60 000,000 Australian, 500,000 Negro, 55,000,000 Hottentot, 500,000 Ethiopian, - 5,000,000 Dr. P. supposes that there have been at least two centres whence these different races have been derived, one in Asia and the other in Africa; he does not support the original unity of the races in one parent stem.-See Pickceri'ag's Races of Me2n, 1851. Professor Agassiz contends for a primitive ubiquity, or different types of humanity co-existent in different climes and countries. HUNGARY. The fortress of Comorn surrenders to the Austrians, September 27, 1849. Count Louis Batthyani, late prime minister of Hungary, shot at Pesth, at the sole urgency of Haynaun October 7, 1849. In his visit to London, September, 1850, Haynau was attacked and severely maltreated for his cruelty in the late Hungarian war. General Bem dies at Aleppo, December 9. The Austrian government and the Ottoman Porte, in Feb., 1851, conclude on a general amnesty towards the Hungarian refugees, eight only excepted, amongst whom is Kossuth. Mr. Charles Brace, an American, im - 18 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS, 1850-51. [IRO prisoned in Hungary May 23, on a charge of being an agent of Ujhazy and Cretz, and travelling with revolutionary books, &c., for the purpose of exciting rebellion. The authorities of Pesth. November 15th, forbid the distribution of all foreign journals, including those intended for editors of newspapers, until decision is received as to what papers, &c., shall be admitted. Louis Kossuth, ex-governor of Hungary, after a series of vicissitudes, during which he was nobly protected by the Ottoman Porte, visits England on his route to this country, landing at New-York, December 5, 1851, where, as in England, he was received with every demonstration of friendship and liberality, in return for his great exertions to procure the freedom of his native country. His arrival in New-York was known, per telegraph. at Milwaukie. 1,000 miles distant, in less than fifteen minutes. Great Kossuthprocession, Saturday, December 6th, 1851. This was followed by a public banquet, professional dinners, &c., &c.; Kossuth's semi-official interview with the President at Washington, December 31. He is formally presented to the Senate of the United States, January 5, 1852. ILLINOIS, Population of in 1850 was,-white, 846,104; colored, 5,366; farms in cultivation, 76,208; dwelling-houses, 146,514; manufactories producing annually $500 and upwards, 3,099. —Ce'asies Retalq-ts. INDEX Expurgatory. In 1850 the " Congregation of the Index" ainong other works placed on their pages Professor Vericour's (Cork College) " Historical Annals of Christian Civilization." —Illqste.efted c News. In 1851. D'Harmonville's " Diet. de Dates," 1844, Professor Whateley's': Elements of Logic," and Henry's " Historical Institutions of' Eyptians," were aclded to the list. The last author, however, " made due submission to the Church." —Giornacle di R]oma, April, 1851. INDIA, British. A fourth presidency contemplated by Great Britain, Nov. 1851, and a proposal to remove the seat of government from Calcutta to Lahore. INDIANA, 1850. White population, 9583,634; free colored, 5.100. Total, 988 734. Farms in cultivation, 93,896; manufactories producing anLually $500 and upwards. 4,326. —Census Retle'ns, INDIA RUBBER. The natives of Hindostan were the first to collect this substance, which was introduced into England in 1735, for the purpose of removing pencil marks from paper.-AAt/hev. In 1772 a cubical one-half inch of this substance cost 3s. sterling. Mr. Macintosh, of England, was the first to manufacture the prepared guma for its present innumerable applications. Cuirasses of vulcanized rfibber were introduced in the French army, 1851, and said to be bullet-proof (.) The daily product of India rubber shoes, made in the United States, is calculated at 15,000, at an annual profit of nearly $200 000. —Fasumee' ansd Mtlmcheezsic. INOCULATION. The small-pox was introduced into the United States about 1517; and so late as the year 1769 we find the practice of inoculation prohibited by law in Virginia. IOWA. The population of this territory, according to census returns 1850, was 192 914, and the aggrlegate valuation of taxable property $22,623,334, being an.increase of' $1,114,567 since 1849.-Americav AZlman'ac. IRON, United States, 1851. Aennally. Mine at Saiisbuly, Conn., yields, a3,00i tons. Dutchess and Columbia Co., N. Y., 20,0,00 ER-s x Co., -.15,000" Clinton Co., 3,001) Franlklin Co., -600 " St. Lawrance Co., 2,000 " Value of Iron produced in the U. S., 1835, $6000,000 tF'1 16 1837,.. 7,700,000 -LAN] ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS, 1850-51. 19 The iron ores in Ohio. Kentucky. Tennessee, Illinois, Maryland, and Virginia, from recent inspections, are found to be inexhaustible. —Sci. American. In the Gentleman's Magazine, 1783, is a recommendatory article of cast iron, then in its infancy, which is there said to be " capable of being carried to a great extent." JESUITS. In 1851 this body published in Italy a " Catechissb Filosofio," or dialogue on Monarchical Constitutions, containing instructions for kings, how far they may go with a safe conscience in breaking promises made to their people. —Ediia. Rev. JEWS. Of the original twelve tribes, two only are at present known; the tribes of Judah and Benjamin. The Spanish and Portuguese Jews are the descendants of Judah; the Jews of Germany and Northern Europe are of the tribe of Benjamin -Art JoL/t. Dr. Raphael (lecture N. Y., May, 1851), states that with the exception of Josephus, who wrote in Greek, and M. Jost, who wrote in German, about 1841, the Jewish historians from the first century (A.D.,) to the nineteenth, invariably wrote in the Hebrew language. Dr. Lykins, of the Pottawattamie Reservation, exhibited in the office of Indian Department, Washington, in Dec. 1851, a Jewish fsosntlet, containing portions of the Pentateuch, which he received from Pategwe, a Pottawattamie Indian, in whose family it had been from time immemorial. There were originally two of these indexes of Jewish faith, one of which was irrecoverably lost in crossing a river.-A- at. Intel. This curious discovery may perhaps be considered as strengthening the opinion of the late Major Noah, that the American Indians are descended from the lost tribes of the Jewish people. KAFFIR (oR CAFFRF) WAR, in South Africa, against the British Colonists; Jan., Feb. 1851, several engagements and many lives lost.-See Africa. KENTUCKY. The census returns show the population in 1850 to have been 987,950; of whom 776,713 were firee, and 211,237 slaves. The increase compared with returns of 1840, is, free, 179,143; slaves, 28,979; total, 208.122. The first white man who bDiltt in Kentucky, was James Harrod, in 1774, at Harrod's Station, near the present town of Harrodsburg. KOSSUTH.-See Hungcar/y. LAND OWNERS. It is a remarkable fact, that of all the constitutional states of Europe or America, Great Britain is the country in which the people hold the smallest stake in the soil. Fiance with a population of 32,560,034, has 10,896.682 landed proprietors. or one in three. The United States. with a population of 20 000 000, has 5.000.000 proprietors, or one in four. Belgium, with a population of 5,022,677, has 950 723 proprietors, or one in five. Holland, a commercial and shipping country, with a population of 3,500 000, has 400,000 proprietors, or one in nine. Sweden. with a populatiin of 3:874 203, has 300,000 proprietors, or one in twelve. While Great Britain and Ireland, with a population of 27.041,050, have only 633.421, or one in forty of the population, including freeholders and copyholders, with a direct interest in the soil. LANDS (PUBLIC) OP TuE U. S. A. Within the limits recognized by treaties and cessions (see American Almanac, 1850, p 179), the public lands covered an estimated area of 1,584.000,000 acres. To the 30th Sept. 1849, 146 000 000 acres had been sold, leaving unsold an area of 1,438:000, acres, which land, in large bodies of detached tracts, is found in the several States and Territories above mentioned. The system for surveying and disposing of the public lands was established by the act of 20th iMay, 1785, and has continued to the present time but with slight modifications, viz.; every township of six square miles is to be divided into 36 sections, of one mile square, each 20 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD S PROGRESS; 1850-51. [LIN section generally containing 640 acres. The lands are then proclaimed by the President for sale, at public auction, at not less than $1 25 per acre, and such as hereafter remain unsold may be purchased at private sale at thai rate.-Amee'ican Almanac. Quantity of Public Land sold, and the amnount paid for it, in eaclh Year, fromn 1833 to the Third Quarter of 1850. Years, Acres. Dollars. Years. Acres. Dollars. 1833 3,856,227-56 4,972,284'84 1843 1,605,264-06 2,016,044-3C 1834 4,658,218-71 6.099,981 04 1844 1,754,763-13 2,207,678-04 1835 12.564'478-85 15,999,804- 11 1845 1,843,527-05 2,470,303-17 1836 20,074,870-92 25,167,833-06 1846 2,263,730-81 2,904,637-27 1837 5 601,103-12 7,007,523 04 1847 2,521,305 59 3,296,404 -0 1838 3,414,907-42 4,305,564-64 1848 1,887.553 04 2,621,615-26 1839 4,976,382-87 6,464,556-79 1849 1,329,902-77 1,756,890-42 1840 2,236 889-74 2,789,637-53 1850' 869,082-32 1,129,186-50 1841 1,164,'796-11 1,463,364 - 06 1842 1,129,217-58 1,417,972'06 Total - 73,752,221-65 $94,191,279'21 * Embracing only three quarters of the year. t Total for eighteen years and three quarters. LANGUAGE. Ethnography has furnished conclusive evidence that the family of American languages have had a common origin with those of Asia. The unity of all human language must be considered as establishing an identical unity of all the human races; all dialects must be regarded as dialects of one now lost. —Dr. Ssbyt/'s Unity of tIHnan Races. LAW. The number of Lawyers in the United States, in March 1851, was 21,979, or about one to every fifteen hundred inhabitants.-2aVo ntly Law Magazine. Estimating their average receipts at $1000 per annum, their aggregate income would reach within a fraction of twenty-two niltiozs of dollars. In 1851 there were in New York, 4,740 lawyers; in Pennsylvania, 1,848; in Ohio, 2,031; in Massachusetts, 1,132; in Kentucky, 1,066; and in Georgia, 908.-Living'stons's Law Register. LETTERS. The number of letters transmitted in the following European countries annually, were estimated. in March 1851, as followss:Population. Letters. Pr. Head. England, - - - 29,00,000 320,000,000 11France, - - 36000,(00 108,000,000 3Prussia, - - - 16,500,000 45,000,000 2- 7 Switzerland, -2,408,000 13,600,000 5-6 Austria, 3 7.000,000 23,000,000 0-6 Being rather more than half a letter for each inhabitant of the Austrian dominions. London Watchmanz. Vide P. Oyfce. LIBRARIES in United States, 1851. Professor Jewett, of the Smithsonian Institute, shows the number of libraries to March, 1851, to be 10,640, and the aggregate number of volumes 3,641.765. Of these, Harvard comprises 83,000; Philadelphia and Loganian, 60.000; Congressional, 50,000; Boston Athenteum, 56,000. The aggregate tlunxbey of volumes in 182 of the largest libraries was stated by Mr. Evans, before the select committee, British House of Commons, to be 1,294,000. The Legislature of New-York, in 1851, voted an appropriation of $75,000 for the erection of a State library in the rear of the capitol at Albany. Among the donations to this library is one from Austria of the Pater Noster in upwards of 600 languages and dialects. A large portion of the valuable library of Congress destroyed by fire in the Capitol, Dec., 1851: LINEN. The average annual import of linens into the United States is estimated at about 86,500,000. The only nmanufactory in the United States is that of Mr. Stevens, at Webster, Massachussetts. In 1840 the flax crop in a11 the States north of the Ohio river, and including Maryland, covered some :: AS] AADDEN:DA To THE WORLD'S PrROGRESS 1850-51. 21t four millions of acres, averaging 350 lbs. flax lint per acre; of which about one-third is fit for linen fabric; the remainder, say 1301bs., being available for paper bagging, &c. The excess of profit in the culture of flax compared with cotton, is shown by N. Y. Tribune, April, 1851, to be nearly 50 per cent. LIGHTHOUSES. In July, 1850, the lighthouse establishment of the United States numbered 315 lights in lighthouses, and 40 floating-lights, attended in all by 346 keepers, exhibiting over 3,000 lamps, and supported at an annual expense of $141,153. LITHOGRAPHY. A process for printing in oil by different stones, according to the colors required. was invented by Mr. Kronheim, of Pater noster Row, London, in March, 1851. LOCKS. Mr. Chubb, of London, stated before the Society of Arts in Jan., 1851, that the basis of all security in modern locks is found in the old Egyptian, the original of the patent tumbler lock: —11sustrated News. His lock, however, was picked by the celebrated Mr. Hobbs, of New-York, during the session of the Great Exhibition, 1851. Day and Newell's prove'aintoptic lock, exhibited in the Crystal Palace, is susceptible of 1,307,647,368,000 changes; the time required for effecting the whole of which would consume 13,000,000 years. LOTTERIES. The Maryland Convention of 1851 passed a resolution abolishing all lotteries and their attendant evils, after April, 1859. MANHATTAN. This term, as applied to the island on which the city of NewYork stands, is taken from the name given by the Indians to the original Dutch settlement in 1621, and means'the place where they (the Indians) all got druenk!" MANUFACTURES. The increase of manufacturing industry in Great Britain in sixty years, is shown by the following table of the raw materials used in that kingdom: In 1790. In 1849. Wool, 3,245,352 lbs. 76,756,lS3 lbs. Silk, 1. 253,445 " 6,881,861 - Hemp, 592,306 " 1.061,273 " Flax, - 257,222 " 1,806,786 Cotton, 30,574,374 758,841,650 " See "Cotton,"l &c. MARYLAND. The new Constitution of this State went into operation on 4th July, 1851, and from its general acceptance promises greatly to increase the prosperity of the State. Population by the census of 1850, 582,506, of which 89,800 were slaves. MIASKS. Before the introduction of females on the British stage, masks were used in the representation of female characters, by the male actors who were no longer youthful. —Kight's S'hakspeare. They were also employed by female actors in the early stage of the English drama, and also by women when travelling. Miss Livingston, of New-York, who married Nicholas Bayard, about 1749, when she rode out in cold weather, or went sleighing, wore a black velvet mask, with a silver button or mouthpiece to keep it on. MASSACHUSETTS. The polls, population, and valuation, for the last four decennary terms, are as follows. viz.: Polls. Population. valuation. 1820, - - 125,715 - 523,287 - $153,644,265 1830, 150,691 - 610,408 208,908,107 1840, - 185,908 - - 718,592 - 299,878,327 1850, - - - 245,142 - - 9914,665 597,936,969 The relative increase of polls, population, and property, during the above periods, omitting fractions, is as follows: 22 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS$ 1850-51. [MIET Polls. Population. Valuation. 1820 to 1830, - 28,000 - - 47,000 - $55.000,000 1830 t6 1840, - 35,000 - - 108,000 91000 000 1840 to 1850, - - 57,000 - - 255,000 - - 299,048,666 In this State systematic beggary is unknown. The poor are provided for by law, and for this purpose not less than 204 comfortable alms-houses are sustained at the public charge. The number of persons relieved or supported as paupers, in the year 1850, was 25,981, and of these 12,334 were foreigners, the larger portion being from Ireland. The weekly cost of each pauper in alms-houses was $1'083; out of alms-houses, $0'98. Estimated value of pauper labor in alms-houses, $17,966. Of paupers by reason of idiocy, the number was 969; while that from intemperance in themselves, or through others, was not less than 14,674. Number of public schools in this State, 1850, was 3,878; scholars in summer, 176,344; in winter schools, 194.403. Male teachers, 2,442; female do., 5.985. Average expense each scholar in Massachusetts is nearly $8. Value of public school-houses in 1848 was $2,750,000, of which amount $2.200,000 had been expended since 1838. Criminal prosecutions in 1850 were 3,764, of which the convictions were 1,907. Of the banks in Massachusetts, there are 29 in Boston, and 97 in various parts of the State; cash capital, independent of other resources, $36.925.050; circulation, $17,005.826. The commerce and manufactures of MIass. have advanced 100 per cent. in the last ten years-Am. Al.; the importations more than doubled, and its tonnage has increased more than 50 per cent. The wealth of Boston and its suburbs. in 1840, was $120,000,000; in 1850 it had increased to nearly $270:000,000. The annual value of the boots and shoes manufactured in Massachusetts is estimated at $18,000,000. MEDICINE. The first medical school established in the U. S. was commenced in Philadelphia in 1768; this was closed during the first war with Great Britain. First medical degrees conferred were by King's College, New York, 1769. Thatcher's " Brief Guide on Small Pox and Measles," lass., 1677, was the first medical work published in this country. Inoculation fox small pox introduced by Dr. Z. Boylston of Boston, 1677, having first experimented on his own son; Dr. B. Van Beuren first practised inoculation in New-York. The first recorded post-mortem examination in America was that of Gov. S!oughter, by Dr. Johannes Kutbyl and five other physicians of New-York, in 1691; and the first medical meeting was held in New Brunswick, N. J., 1766.-Lit. WYold. Medical Slztdents,ffall Session, N. Y., 1851. Coll. Physicians atid Surgeons, 197 University of New-York, - 179 N. Y. Mectical College,. - 69 445 Mred. Gaz. At the Female Med. College, Philadelphia, June, 1851, there were forty students. Doctor or Doct'ess Elizabeth Blackwell practises at this present (for females and children) in N. York city. MESMERISM. In 1776, F. A. Mesmer of Germany first made public his doctrine of a subtle fluid produced by planetary influence acting on the nervous system of the animal fiame. Franklin and Dr. Bailly exposed the futility of animal magnetism, which theory. however, has been lately revived, both in this country and Europe. Among others who have made themselves conspicuous in favoring this absurdity, is the celebrated Miss Martineau.Haydn. MIETEORIC Stone falls at Charlotte, N. C., accompanied by explosion; &c., Oct. 31, 1849. METHODISTS. The general "Book Concern" of this body was first estab MtOR] ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS, 1850-51. 23 lished at Philadelphia in 1800,-Ezekiel Cooper, Agent; it was subsequently removed to New-York. The unfortunate dissension between the Northern and Southern Methodist Conferences on the question of Slavery was brought to trial in New-York in May, 1851, and by decision of Judge Nelson, of' U. S. Circuit Court, in Nov. of that year. judgment was given confirming the full right and title of the Southern Conference to their proportion of the profits of the General Book Concern. the value in 1815 being $750,000. The case will be moved to the Superior Court. MEXICO. Gen. Arista inaugurated president of republic of Mexico, Jan. 15, 1851. The initial bouldaory point between Mexico and the U. States, established on the right bank of the Rio Grande, in 32~ 22' north latitude, by the American and Mexican commissioners. and a monument recording same, erected April 24, 1851. Herrera, ex-president of Mexico, dies in that city May 15, 1851. Gen. Carvajal's insurrection in Northern Mexico-his attack on Metanmoras Oct. 20, 1851, MEXICAN WAR with the United States. Mr. Corwin, Sec. of the Treasury, estimates the direct and indirect cost of this war to the U. S. at nearly $300,000 000. MICHIGAN. The population of this state in 1850 was-Whites, 393,156; Free colored, 2,547; Federal Rep. Population, 395,703.-Censors Retuorns. MILITIA, U. S. The Army Register for 1851, gives the aggregate number of the militia force throughout the States as 2,006,456, this does not include Iowa, California, Minnesota, Oregon, Utah, and New Mexico, from which there are no returns. Of the volunteer companies included in the militia returns, New-York city furnishes 170, each of which averages 60 members. MILITARY BOUNTY LAND BIr.L, passed the House of Representatives, U. S. June 25, 1850. It gives 160 acres of land for 12 months' service in the war of 1812. and the Mexican and Indian wars. _M-LI'rARY, U. S. The number of officers, non-commissioned officers, privates, &c., attached to the army of the U. States on 1st January, 1851, was 10,334. MINNESOTA. The first Territorial legislature closes its session of sixty days Nov. 1, 1849. The census returns show the population of this territory in 1850 to be-white, 6,0')8; colored, 839-total, 6.077; farms in cultivation, 157; mannfactories producing annually $500 and upwards, 5. MISSISSIPPI. The literal translation of the aboriginal name is Goreat River; the Indian title is written variously by the early journalists; Marquette spells it " " Missoisssippll;" Hennepin " Miesclhcsipi." Sape is river, running water; the prefix means "great," -bia."-C/ lrist. Rev. The Population of Mississippi in 1850 was: Whites. Slaves. North District, ]70.459 134,508 South " - 29,550 177,060 Totals, - - 300,009 311,568 The Mississippi Legislature in the session of 1850 abolished the commonlaw form of pleadings, for a system similar to that of chancery or civil law, and appointed a special officer for making up the " Mississippi Reports," to the exclusion of all other reporters. These reports are in future to be printed by the State only.-A-w. Almanac. MORMONS. The number of Mormons in England and U. S. early in 1851 was estinmated at 300;000. Twenty-five hundred left the ftbrmer country for Deseret in the spring of that year. —AthenL'ml. In April, 1851. their elders and preachers were gathering converts to their principles in Italy and Switzerland, and especially among the Waldenses; also at Paris. Their '4 ADDENDA TO THE VWOiRLD'S PROGRFESS, 1850-51. [NEW celebrated "Bible," professed to have been delivered to Joe Smith, was really written by Rev. Sol. Spaulding, about 1812, as a supposed history of some ancient mounds in Ashtabula co., Ohio. The MS. is said to have been borrowed by one of the Mormons, who copied it and subsequently printed the same.-Athen. A copy of this " Bible" in the English, French, and Danish languages, was intended for exhibition in the Crystal Palace, 1851. MORTALITY, NEW-YORI. Deaths-4.042 men —3,683 women —6,798 boys, and 5.234 girls —total, 19,755. Greatest mortality in a single month in July when 2,364 persons deceased; lowest in June, when 1,385 died. Deaths in 1850, were 16,978 —increase 1851, 2,777. —N. Y. CoeeerciaZ. MOUNTAINS, FORMATION OF. Prof. Gorini of the University of Lodi, in Oct. 1851, by a remarkable process, illustrated the formation of mountair.3 by melting a secret composition, and allowing it gradually to consolidate, during which process portions continue to ooze up in gradual elevations, forming ranges and chains of hills exactly corresponding in shape with those which are found on the earth.-Len. Tivies. lMUSIC. Jenny Lind, the " Swedish Nightingale/" gave her first concert in America at Castle Garden. New York, 1850. The proceeds of her 100 subsequent concerts in the U. States and Havana, were estimated at $800,000. MURDER. John W. Webster, Professor of Chemistry in Harvard College, executed in Boston for the murder of Dr. Geo. Parkman (Nov. 1849,) August 30, 1850. NATIONAL ACADEMY OF DESIGN, N. Y. Instituted 1826; number of members originally limited to 35; but now increased to 50.-A rt Josr. NAVY, OF THE U. S. The Naval power Sept. 1, 1851, consisted of the Pennsylvania, 120 guns; 10 Ships of line, 74 guns each; the Independence Razee, 54 guns; 12 Frigates of 1st class, 4-1 guns each; 2 Frigates of 2d class, 36 guns each; 21 Sloops of war, 20 guns each; 1 do. 18 guns, and 4 of 16 guns each; 4 Brigs of 10 guns each: 3 Schooners, 4 guns; 5 Steam Frigates, 30 guns (including the Mississippi); the Powhatan-number of guns not returned; 3 Steamers 1st class 7 guns; 3 do. 2d class 8 guns, and 4 do. number of guns not returned, with 5 store Ships and Brigs, 24 guns. NAVY, BRITISH. The Naval force ofthe United Kingdom for 1850, comprised six hundred and seventy-one Ships of war, either in ordinary or commission, varying from two to one hundred and twenty guns each; of this number one hundred and seventy-eight are armed Steamers, of one hundred to three hundred horse-power engines, constructed on the most approved principles for active sea service. This fleet, the largest of any maritime power on the globe, employs in time of peace 85,000 to 50,000 able-bodied seamen, 2,000 strong lads, and 13,000 royal marines. NEW ENGLAND. "In 1630 the whole of New England contained but 300 inhabitants, which, in a century afterwards, had increased to 160.000, and may at this day be given at nearly three millions. The capital of New England, in 1720, contained 12,000 inhabitants; in 1820, 43,000; in 1830, 78,000; and in 1850, 135,000. Boston, in 1789, was proud of two stage coaches, which employed twelve horses; she was prouder still in 1800, of twenty-five stage coaches, which employed one hundred horses; in 1847, these twenty-five coaches had risen into two hundred and fifty coaches and omnibuses, employing one thousand six hundred horses, without taking into account seven railways, which provide, daily, accommodation for 7,000 passengers. The first newspaper published in the colonies, was issued in 1704, i. this same city of Boston, and a third newspaper published in the same town, in 1721, under the title of the New England Cmo'rant, could not maintain itself, though it had very warm advocates, being supported by the Hell-fire Club; -ENv] x ADDENDA To THE WORLD'IS PROGRESS, 1850-51. 25 at this moment there are in Boston sixteen daily news-papers, with a circulation of 36.000 copies, and fifty weekly news-papers with a circulation of 223,000-to say nothing of semi-weekly papers, and semi-monthly papers, and monthly, quarterly, and annual publications.-Extlractfrom Sir tI. fBllwuver's Speech before nT. E'ng. Society, Dec. 22, 1850. NEW HAMPSHIRE. The returns of the 7th census ( [850) show a population of 317,997; in 1810 it was 284,574; gain in 10 years 33,423, beingan increase of nearly 12 per cent. 1850. 1851. Number of School Districts reported, - - 2,167 2,222 Scholars in winter schools, 77,806 73,301 " " seummer " -. - 61,498 58,328 Whole amount raised for District Schools, - - $174517 66 $179,065 46 Increase above preceding year, - - 15,087 28 4,547 80 Number of Banks in N. Hampshire is 22; cash capital independent of other resources, $2,501,000; circulation $2,012,837.-Ams. Allmaisnac. NEW JERSEY. The total free population of this State. according to the 7th census (1850) was 488.562, viz 466.283 white and 22,269 colored; of the old slave population but 119 remaining. The number of' children receiving public instruction in 1851 was 75 245, at the average cost per quarter of $2 10 each pupil. The appropriations and receipts for school purposes was $152,678 62; amount expended $99.560 13; whole available school fund was $377,929 85.-Asma. Almnynac. Transit duties levied upon merchandise and passengers, for the year 1850, and paid into the State Treasury was $75.511 -viz., Delaware & Raritan Canal $20,289; Camden & Amrboy Rail-Road & Transportation Co., $41,421; New Jersey R. R. & Trans'n Co., $13,261. NEWSPAPERS. The newspaper press of a country may be regarded as the surest index to its intellectual condition. The census of' 1850 shows the number of newspapers in the United States to he 2,800, of which 2,000 are published in the firee, and 800 in the slave states. About 850 are Whig; 750 Opposition; 70 Freesoil or anti-slavery; 20 Agricultural; 40 Temperance; 200 Religious; and 870 neutral and miscellaneous. New York state publishes 443 papers; Pennsylvania 328; Massachusetts 212; and Ohio 300. —Cexnsus Retul?'nis. In the Austrian dominions it appears there are but 10 newspapers; 24 in Spain; 20 in Portugal; 30 in. Asia; 14 in Africa (.); 05 in Belgium; 85 in Denmark; 90 in Russia and Poland; 300 in Prussia; and 320 in other Germanic States. Of the London papers it is stated that the daily circulation of the Times, in 1846, was 28.594; other papers 38,999; but in 1850 the Times had run up to 38,019 daily copies, while the circulation of all the other papers was only 24,116. The London Illustrated News, in 1849; rose to a weekly circulation of 69,000. Of the newspapers published in the United Kingcldom, 159 are issued in London; 222 in the English provinces; 110 in Scotland; and 102 in Ireland. The duty paid for the different advertisements in these, in 1850, was ~163,038! In July, 1851, Burgess, an Englishman, issued the first number of a Persian Journal, with all the features of a general newspaper, under the patronage of the prime minister of that country. —N. Y. Tribzne. NEW YORK CITY. The census of 1850 shows a population of 517,849, being an increase in ten years of 205,000, or about 66 per cent; including Brooklyn, Williamsburg, and other suburbs, properly belonging to New York, the entire population was about 700,000.'The manufacturing capital employed in this city, annually, according to the last census, is $105.218 308. Numiber of children in the Public aad Ward schools in 1850, was 105,3878. Dreadful accident in 9th Ward school, Nov. 20, 1851, through a false alarm of fire, when 43 children were killed, and 59 injured; there were 1,800 children in the school at the time of the accident, under the superintendence of 24 teachers 3 2 26 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS, 1850-51. [PAT NEW MEXICO. This Territory, according to the census returns, 1850, has a white population of 61,632; colored 17. Farms in cultivation 3,750; manufactories producing annually $500, and upwards, 20. NEW ORLEANS. Population shown by the census returns, 1850. was 119,285.-Am. Alma. Number of deaths, same year was 7,819, of which 1,389 were by cholera. The St. Charles Hotel destroyed by fire, Mar. 18, 1851. NICARAGUA. General Munoz, ex-minister of war, deposes President Pineda and his cabinet. at Leon; sends them prisoners to Tigre Islands, and elects Albaunaz president. The senate assembles at Grenada, and elects Montenegro president, Aug. 4, 1851. Steamer Prometheus arrives at New York from San Juan, the Atlantic terminus of the Nicaragua route, Aug. 12,1851, then for the first time opened. NORTHWEST PASSAGE. The Investigator and Enterprise, Sir James Ross's vessels, arrive in London, on their return from their fruitless Arctic Expepedition, Nov. 11, 1849. Another expedition, under Captains Collinson and McClure, sails from Woolwich, Jan. 11, 1850. Another, under Capt. Penny and Capt. Stewart, firom Peterhead, April 13, 1850. Another under Capt. Austin, 4 vessels from Greenhithe, May 4, 1850. Another, under Sir John Ross, from Lochyran, May 24, 1850. —See Arctic Expedition. OHIO. The total population of this state in 1850, was 1,980,408; viz., white 1,956; colored 24,300. Farms in cultivation 143.887; manufacturing establishments producing annually over $500,10,550; houses, 336,098. —Cenqs1s Returns. In 1850 the wheat crop of Ohio amounted to 30,000,000 bushels. April, 1851, completed 62 years since the first band of white settlers entered Ohio. OCEANS. Edrisi, the Nubian, writing in the 12th century of the Atlantic, says: " There is no mariner who dares to enter into its deep waters, or if they have done so, keep along its coasts, fearful of departing from them." -Irvi/ng's Columbus. Lieut. Goldsborough (U. S. ship Saratoga), in Dec., 1850, found soundings in the Atlantic 128~ 21' south, at 31 miles; but Sir James Ross in 1848, in lat. 15~ 3' south, long. 260 14', run out 4,600 fathoms, or:nearly 5~ miles, without finding a bottom; this appears to be the greatest depth satisfactorily obtained, In May, 1851, Lieut. Rodgers, U. S. navy, in Gulf Stream, 30 miles S.W. from Key West, sounded at 730 fathoms; but at another point at a depth of 3,000, the line was cut off,': supposed by a swordfish."- Tribuue. The entire surface of the sea is estimated at 150 millions of square miles, the Pacific covering 78 millions, the Atlantic 25 millions, and the Mediterranean one million. The waters of the Mediterranean and the Red Sea are exactly on a level. —'Tibune. Mr. Stephenson (Brit. Ass., 1850), from actual experiment, found the force of the waves is 1: ton per square foot, in the German Ocean; and nearly double that force in the waves of the Atlantic.-Household Words. Dr. Scoresby (Brit. Ass., 1850), stated the height of the waves of the Atlantic, from the trough to the crest, to be 43 feet, and their average velocity a fraction over 32 miles an hour; thus confirming Mr. Scott Russel's observations in 1845. OMNIBUSES, &c. The number licensed to carry passengers, in New-York in the year 1851, was 586; hacks 320.-Marcshal's Retcurus. PARLIAMENT (BRITISH). The House of Commons first meets in the new building at Westminster, May, 1850. Baron Rothschild, a Jew, claims his seat as member elect for London, but his claim is postponed, August 5, 1850. Mllr. Alderman Salomons, Jewish member for Greenwich, refused his seat in the Commons, July 18, 1851, the question still in abeyance. PATENTS., AMERICAN. The number of patents granted by the office at Washington, from 1790 to 1850 inclusive, is 16,296. TOS] ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS1 1850-51. 27 PENCILS. Gessner first describes the "pencil of plumbago, in wooden handles," in 1565. —(Fossils.) Pettus (Fleta Minor) speaks decidedly of pencils " inclosed in fir or cedar," in 1683. M. Cont6, of Paris, made great improvements in 1795. Mordan's " ever-pointed pencil" was patented about 1820. Philip Crabbe, the first manufacturer of lead pencils by machinery, died in his 100th year, in London, May, 1851.-Tribune. PENS, STEEL. The largest factors are Gillott's, of Birmingham, who employ nearly 1,000 hands, for the conversion of 2- tons of steel into 35,000 gross of pens weekly! In 1820-1 the first gross of three-slit pens was sold wholesale for ~7 4s.; in 1851 a superior article could be furnished at 3s. 6d. to 5s per gross, while the commonest pens can be rendered at twopence the gross! Gillott's house exhibited in the Crystal Palace, 1851, a giant pen of thirty-six inches in length, and close to this was a small glazed frame containing 15,840 steel pens, the whole weighing only one ounce. The greatest number of these pens are sent to the United States.-Illuls. Ntews. PENNSYLVANIA. The population exhibited by the 7th census, 1850, was 2,311,681; the banking capital, $18,675.484 14; tax on dividends, $153,877 14; tax on corporation stocks, $70,008 86; ratio of tax, 12; in 1849 the ratio was 14.-Herald. Total revenue for year ending November 30, 1851, was $5,645,678 74; total expenditures during the same period $4,780,667 53. PHILADELPHIA, U. S. A. By the census of 1850 this city and suburbs contains 406,353 inhabitants. Increase in ten years, 148,221, or about 57 per cent. In the city and county there are 258 public schools, with 45,383 children, under the instruction of 81 male and 646 female teachers. The total school expenditure for the year 1850 was $332,433 21, being an average of $6 46 each child. Manufacturing capital of this city in 1850, according to census returns, was $33,000,000, and the annual products $61,000,000. Duties received at custom-house, 1851, Jan. to Nov. inclusive, $3,532,982, against $3,213,031 in corresponding period of' preceding year. —Tribune. PLANK ROADS. The first plank road in Canada was laid down in 1836, and in New-York in 1837. Plank roads in operation, Jan. 1, 1851: Canada. New- York. Number of roads,... 19 Number of miles, - 442 2,106 Average cost per mile, $1,750 $1,833 Total cost, $773,500 $3,860,292 Very nearly four millions of dollars have been expended in New-York upon these roads, and the resulting advantages are immense. The Troy and Lansingburg road pays 10 per cent. dividend, which is generally believed to be the case with all the others, with the exception of the Utica and Burlington, which yields 20 per cent. None of the stocks are in the market. — fKingSf0?rd. POSTAGE, GT. BRITAIN. The gross revenue of the Post Office for the year ending Jan. 5, 1850, was ~2 213,149; the cost of management, ~1,307,248; the net revenue, after deducting charges other than management, was - 840,787. [An ample proof of the advantage of cheap postage.] The number of Money Orders issued was 4,248,891, the representative value, ~8,152,643. The value of commission on the issue was ~70,670; the amount of expenses incurred was ~70,248. The total amount of the charge for packet service in the year was ~;748,296. The value of bank notes, checks, and money orders found in letters returned to the Dead Letter office, for the two years ending 5 Jan., 1851, amounted to 1.245,158 8s. 5d., the whole of which was regularly entered and indexed, and is returnable to the claimant, on proving his title to same. 28 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD S PROGRESS1 185051. EP[ro POPULATION, UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, ViE,: 1850. 1840. Increase per cent. since STATES, TOTAL POPULATION. POPULATION.!840. Whites. Slaves. Whites. Slaves. Whites. Maine -. -'583,088..,- 7501,798 -,.' about 16 pr. ct. New Hampshire - 317,864... 284,574 l " 11 Massachussets - 994,271.... 737.699.. " 35 Connrrecticut 370,6041 309,978 17 " 20 Rhod- Island - 147.555 108,830 5 36', -Vermont 313,466.... 291,948 7... 7 New York - 3,090.022 21-28,621 [ 4 " 28 New Jersey 489;333 222 373,306 974 " 31 Pennsylvania 2,311,681 1,724,033 64 " 34 Ohio - - 977,031 1.... 519,467 3' 24 Michigan - 395.703 212,267 " 86 Wisconsin 304;226.... 30,945 11 " 884 " Indiana 988,734 685.866 3 " 44 Illinois.. 858,298 4761183 331 " 77 " Iowa -. 192,122 43,112.... " 347 " Califbrnia _ 200,000....________________ SLAVE STATES. 1850. 1840. Increase per cent, since DeSTATES. TOTAL POPULATION. TOTAL POPULATION. 1840. creons, Pop. wilites. hi ses. hop Whites. Staves. Total. Whsites. SlR. W. S. Delaware - 91,53 89 246 2,289 78,085 757480 2,605 17 p. ct 19 p. ct..... 14 Dis. Columbia 51,687 48,000 3 687 4 3,71 39,018 4,694 18 " 9 22 Mayani 583.035 492,667 90368 470019 380,282 89,737 24 9 30 " Viriinsa 1 421 081 948,055 473,026 1,239,797 790,810 448,987 15 20 " 5 N. Carolina - 868903580491 88.412 753,419 907,604 7445,817 155 144 17 S. Catolsna 668,469 283 144 384,921 594,398 267,315 327,083 13 " 6 " 18 Geoeiat 878 633 15 669 382.965 691,392; 410,448 280,944 27 " 26 29 Florida - 87,-87' 48,046 39,941 54,47i 28,760 25,717 59 66 " 0 Alabama 771,659 428'765 342 894 590,756 337,224 253,532 31 27 36 Mississippi 5925833 292 434 0300,419 379,651 180,448 195,211 58 62 154 Louisiana 500 763 1269, 956 230.807 352,411 183,959 168,452 42 47 37 Texas- - 187,4031134.057 53,346 Arkansas 209,640 162,658 46,982 97574 77,639 19,935 116 11'I 135 Missouri 682,043 594,621 87,429 383,702 325,462 58.240 77 " 83 " 50 Tennessee -1,002 625 763,164 239,461 829.210 646,151 183.,059 21 " 18 " 31 Kentucky 1,001,496 779,728 221768 779,828 597,570 182,258 29 31 " 20 Territories. Minnesota 6,392 N. Mexico - 61,632 Oregon 20.000 Utah. 25_0001 RECAPITULATION. s~TA~T~s~. Total Free Sves Representative Population. Population. Free States 13,533,328 119 13.533,399 Slave States 6,3193,757 3,175,783 8,299,226 District and Territories - 160,824 3,687 20,087,909 3,179 589 21,832,625 Total free population 20,087,909 Slaves 3,179,589 23,267,498 Ratio of Representation - 93,702' The highest rates of increase in the Free States for the last 10 years were in Wisconsin, 684 per Ct.; Iowa, 347 per et.; Michigan, 86 per ct.; Illinois, 77 per ct. The highest in the Slave States were, in Arkansas, whites, 111 per ct. Missouri, whites, 83 per ct.; Florida, 6 _.Ol] ADDENDA TO THE WORLD S PROGRESS, 1850-51. 29 per ct.; Mississippi, 62 per ct. The highest increase of Slaves was in Arkansas, 135 per et.; Mississippi, 54 per ct.; Missouri, 50 per ct. The lowest rate in the Free States was, in Vermont, 7 per ct.; New Hampshire, 11 per ct. The lowest in the Slave States of whites, was in South Carolina, 6 per ct.; North Carolina, 141 per ct. In North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Arkansas, the Slaves have increased more than the Whites. In all the other States the proportion of Slaves has diminished, especially in Maryland, Virginia, and Kentucky. General oratio of increase of the whole Unsited States. From 1830 to 1840, white, 34'72 -. - Colored, 23-81 " 1840 to 1850 C' 38-20 - - " 26-16 The centre of Representative population in 1790, was 46 miles north and 22 east of Washington, in Baltimore county, Maryland. In 1800, the centre was 64 miles north and 30 west of Washinmton, in Adatnms county, Pennsylvania. In 1820, it was 47 miles north and 71 west of Washing-ton, in Morgan county, Virginia. In 1830, it was 43 miles north and 108 west of Washington, in Marion County, V'irginia. By these calculations, the accuracy of which we see no reason to question, the representative power, in its rapid and accelerated movement westward, has for fifty years kept nearly the same parallel of latitude. In that time it has moved 10 miles south, and 182 miles westward. The advance westward was as follows: From 1790 to 1800 - - 13 miles. I From 1820 to 1830 - - 37 miles. " 1800 to 1810 - - 39 " 1830 to 1840 - 52 " " 1810 to 1820 - - 41 The calculation is that the census of 1850 will show the centre of representative population in the State of Ohio. PHYSICIANS were formerly ecclesiastics. It was during the nunciate of Cardinal d'Etouteville in France, in 1452, that he obtained permission for them to marry. —71Merage. Sir William de Butts, physician to Henry VIII., and mentioned as such by Shakspeare, was paternal ancestor of Mrs. Sherwood, the popular authoress, who died in Sept., 1851. POET-LAUREATE (England). Alfred Tennyson appointed Nov., 1850. POST OFFICE, U. S. A. Year ending June 30, 1849; length of mail routes 167,703 miles; amount of annual transportation, in miles, 42,544.069; gross revenue $4,905,176; net revenue $426.127. In 1850, the length of mail routes was 178,672 miles; revenue $5,552:971; expenditures $5,212,953; of which amount the transportation charges were $2,965,786. The actual receipts during the year ending June 30, 1851, were, $6,786,493 22 Less amount received for Brit. Postages, - 58,626 44 Gross Revenue for the year, - - ~ $6,727,866 78 Being an increase of $999,006 41 over the proper revenues of the preceding year. The ordinary expenditure of the department, year ending June 30, 1851, was $6,024,566 79. Number of post offices in 36 states, and District Columbia in 1837, was 19,604. —P. Mcas. Gen. Report. POST OFFICE, NEW YonR. For the quarter ending Sept. 30, 1851, there were received by steamers and packet ships 577,885 letters and 261,426 papers; despatched by mail per steamer and ship, during same period, papers 305,448; letters 584,038; which latter, added to the daily average correspondence, shows the receipt and transmission of nearly 7 millions of letters by the New Yorkl office, in three months. During same quarter, 5.100 official letters were received, and 3.018 written and despatched. In addition to all this, 637 Dead Letters were sent to the proper office at Washington, containing property of value, gold dust, bank bills, drafts, &c., in amounts varying from $1 to $10,000, a large portion of which were returned to the writers, andt the balance remain subject to the order of the proper owners. Increase of business under the new law is 10 per cent., and about 75 per cent. of all letters are prepaid. Number of' stamps sold to Sept. 30. was 1,475,555. PROTESTANTISM IN U. S. In the year 1800, the Episcopal Church, the oldest in the Union, numbered 320 churches; 260 ministers; 16 000 members; and 7 bishops. In 1850 it had increased fourfold, viz.; churches, 1,560; ministers, 1,504; members,73,000; bishops, 28. The congregation lists in 1850, comprised 1,971 churches; 1,687 ministers; and 197,175 members. The Baptists enumerated 13, 455 churches; 9,018 ministers; and 948,867 members. Pres 30 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 1850-51. [RAy byterians 4 General Assemblies; 65 Synods; 360 Presbyteries; 4,578 ministers; 1,014 students and licentiates; 5.672 churches; and 490,259 members, being an increase of eleven-fold since 1800. The various bodies of Methodists speaking the English language, had, in 1850, 30,000 places of worship; 6,000 regular preachers; 8,000 local preachers; and more than a million and a quarter of members. The Methodist Protestant churches of German origin, have 1,827 regular and 559 local preachers; 5,356 congregations; and 333,000 members. The orthodox Friends had 300 congregations. More than 10,000 places of worship were erected in 1849, and $1,670,150 were paid in voluntary subscriptions to mninisters.-Dr. Baird before Lon. Evan. Soc. To these may be appended the following, viz.:Churches. Ministers. Members. Dutch Reformed, - - - 282 299 33,980 German do. and Lutherans, 1,865 936 233,000 Moravians, - - 22 24 6,000 Unitarians,.- -245 250 30,000 Universalists, - 1,194 700 60,000 Swedenborgians, 42 30 5,000 Dr. Baird estimates the number of Protestants in the world as follows:England. Wales, Scotland and Ireland, -20,000,000 France, Italy, and Switzerland, - 3,000,000 Germany and Holland, - 22,'00,000 Hungary and Poland, more than - 3,000,000 In the Scandinavian countries, 8,500,c00 In Russia, fully 3,000,000 The United States, all of - 19,000,000 British America, including West Indies, about - - - - 2,000,000 Australia, Cape of Good Hope, and British possessions in Asia, Africa, and Polynesia, 500,000 Total, 81,000,000 PRUSSIA. New edict against the press enforced; 37 journals forbidden to pass through the post, June 5, 1850. The treaty of l0mutz announced at Berlin, Dec. 3, 1850. May 31, 1851, Inauguration of Rauch's Colossal Equestrian statue of Frederick the Great, Berlin. In Oct., 1851, the question of the admission of Jews to judicial office, brought to a partial termination by their permission to study law.-Illzts. News. PYRAMIDS. M. Persigny, in his " Destination," &c., " cldes Pyramides," lately published in France, appears to have made the nearest approach to the original design of these structures, viz., that they were intended as a barrier to arrest the progress of the sands from the desert, and thus to preserve the cultivated fields of Egypt from destruction. The great Pyramid at Ghizeit is stated was first opened by the Caliph Al Mamoun, in the expectation of discovering treasure; when the people murmured at their disappointment, he ordered a slum of money to be secretly deposited, which, on its discovery by the laborers, is said to have satisfied their cupidity. RAILWAYS IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, Jan. 1850. In Massachusetts, - - 1,889 miles. In other New England States, -o 914 - 9 In New-York, - 1,892 " In other States, - - - 5,019'~ Total, - - 9,714'* * The estimate on page 154; was erroneous. Railroad Jubilee at Burlington, Vt., celebrating the union by railroad of the waters of the lakes and the Atlantic, June 25, 1850. N. Y. & Erie R. Road opened with appropriate ceremonies, through the entire line, May 14, 1851. The Hudson River R. Road Co., organized March, 1847, road completed, Oct., 1851, at a cost of $6,666,681. RAILWAYS, SOUTH AMERICA. The first Railway in PERU, from Callao to Limp,, six miles, was opened Nov., 1850. PEV] ADDENDA TO THE WORLDIS PROGRESS, 1850-51. 31 RAILWAYS, GREAT BRITAIN. During the year 1849, about 870 miles of new railways were opened in the United Kingdom, viz.: 630 miles in England, 108 in Scotland, and 132 in Ireland. The following table gives the progress of railways since 1844, with the average receipts per mile per week: Years. Miles open. Per mile per week. Yeas. Miles open. Per mile per week. 1844 1,770 ~64 1848 4,178 ~50 1845 2,033 ~67 1849 4,983 ~46 1846 2,498 oi64 1850 6,075 ~44 1847 3,375 ~56 The number of rail-road passengers in England and Wales in 1846, was 35,000,000; in 1850, 53:000,000; total United Kingdom in 1850, 66,000,000.-. Herald. The great Rllssian rail-road, from Moscow to St. Petersburgh, was opened Nov 13, 1851, the distance 420 miles, being run through in 18 hours, 233 miles per hour.-Londoin Paper. RELIGIOUS denominations in the United States, according to returns made 1844 —51, and by estimate. Noasies. Churches. Ministers. Comnmunicants. Roman Catholics, - 1,073 1,081 1,233,350 Protestant Episcopalians, - 1,232 1,497 67,550 Presbyterians, old school, 2,675 2,027 210,306 Presbyteriaus, new school, - 1,579 1,489 140,060 Cuimberland Presbyterians, 480 350 50,000 Other classes of Presbyterians, 530 293 45,500 Dutch Refbormed, - - 282 299 33,980 German Reformed, - 261 273 70,000 Evangelical Lutherans, - 1,604 663 163,000 Moravians, - 22 24 6 000 Methodist Episcopal (North) - 3,984 662,315 Methodist Episcopal (South) Methodist Protestant Chuich, - 740 64,313 Reformed Methodists, - - 75 3,000 Wesleyan Methodists, - - -,600 20,000 German Methodists, (United Bretlhren) 1,800 500 15,000 Allbright Methodists (Evangelical Association) 600 250 15.000 Mennonites, - - - 400 250 58,000 Orthodox Congregationalists, 1,971 1,687. 197,196 Untitarian do. - - 245 250 30,000 Universalists, - 1,194 700 60,000 Swedenborgians, - 42 30 5,000 Regular Baptists, - 8,872 5,509 719,290 Six-Principle Baptists, 21 25 3,586 Seventh-Day Baptists, - 52 43 6,243 Free Will Baptists, - - 1,252 1,082 56 452 Church of God Baptists, 97 128 10,102 Reformed Baptists (Campbellites), - 1,848 848 118,6L8 Christian Baptists (Unitarians), 607 498 3,040 Antimission Baptists, - - - 2023 897 64,738 Am. Aizmanac, 1852. REVENUE, and ExPENDITURES, U. S. A. REVENUE. Year ending, June 30, 1848. 1849. 1850. Customs, - $31.,757,070 $28,346,738 $39,668,686 42 Sale public lands, 3,328,642 1,683,959 1,859,894 25 Miscellaneous sources, - 351,037 1,038,649 1,847,218 33 Loans and balance on hand, 22,957,951 28,742,284 6,230,914 28 Total, - $58,394,700 $59,816,630 $49,606,713 28 EXPENDITURES. Civil List, - - $2,647,955 $2,865,615 $3,042,770 07 Foreign Intercourse, 390,897'7,972,832 4,838,594 76 Miscellaneous, - 2,546,216 3,179,192 6 958,360 24 War Department,t - 27,820,163 17,290.936 9,401,239 16 Department of Interior,.................. 3,400,524 87 Navy, - - - 10,670,416 9,869,818 7,923,313 18 Public Debt,. 15,429,197 16,453,272 7,437,366 41 Total, $58,241,167 $57,631,667 $43,002,268 69 Including the Indemnity to Mexico. t Inc. part of Mexican war. 32 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS, 1]850-51. [iRe Aggregate receipts for fiscal year ending June 30, 1850, with balance in Treasury -.-.- -. $52,312,979 87 Total expenditures to same period, - - 48,005,878 68 Imports for year ending June 30, 1851, - - 215,725,130 00 Of which tliere were in specie, -. 4,967,901 00 REVENUE FROM CUSTOMS, AND EXPENSES OF COLcLECT'ING IT. U. S. A. Wa4Zshington's Administration. Jackson's.ddministsration. Rev. fromn Cus. Ex. of Coll'n. Rev. fomn Cus. Ex. of Coll'n. 1796 *... 12,681,866.... 291,206 1835... 26,091,829... 1,284,997 1797.... 13,000,105.... 343,434 1837... 31,129,275.... 1,397,469 Adamns's Adm.inistr-ation. Van BrT1en's Admlinistration. 1800 16,185,889.... 440,373 1838.... 20,127,988.... 1,514,633 1801.... 20,828.336.... 483,772 1840.... 15332036.... 1,542,319 Jefferson's Adoninistr-ation. 1841.. 20,104,474... 1,483,960 1808.... 11,349,769 565,238 Tyler's Admlinistration. 1809... 11,885,380.... 498,130 1844.... 29,560,530.... 1.807,500 Madison's Admoninistration. 1845.... 31,14.4,244 2'066,033 3815.... 39,012,624... 476,007 Polk's AdzAinizst-ation. 1816.... 33,577,988 819,038 1817.... 28,305,464.... 2099,844 1817.... 22,706,514 782,308 1848.... 33,034,275.... 2,132,636 Ioonsoroe's A dnzinistration. Taylor' s and Fillnore' s 1824.... 25.726.836.... 779,739 Adnzinistraction. 1825.... 3190 3875.... 889,302 1849.... 28,346,738 Adams's Adm.inistration. 1850.... 39,668,686 1827.... 28,191,308 889,818 1828.... 30,187,701.... 932 093 1829... 27,982,947... 1,013,667 REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE (Great Britain), year eiiding Jan. 5, 1850. Revenue,.52,951,748. ExpenditLure, ~50;853,622. RICE. First planted in South Carolina, 1693, and has been grown in that state every year since that period. RIOTS. At Philadelphia, between a set of white' rowdies," called " killers,'" and negroes. Military called out; 4 persons killed; 11 wounded; 4 houses burned, Oct. 10, 1849. Riot at Hoboken. N. J.. between Germans and " short boy" rowdies from N. York, May 26. 1851. Riot at New Orleans in reference to Cuban affairs-the Spanish Consul's house attacked, and also those of the Spanish residents, Aug. 21, 1851. Christiana Treason trial, at Philadelphia, Nov., 1851; Hlanneway and others acqluitted Dec. 11, but the murderers of -Mr. Gorsuch sent to Lancaster for trial. ROMAN CATHOLICS. The appointment by the pope of several R. C. bishops and archbishops in England, causes great excitelllent in that country, and an indignant letter frolm Lord John Russell, the premier, Nov., 1850. A statistical account from the Vicar General's office at Rome, in April. 1851, shows the ecclesiastical body of that city to consist of 34 bishops, 1 240 secular an,-;, 1,892 regular priests, and 1,467 monks. The schools and seminaries under their supervision were 321. —See Eccl, Stales. RtOME. The Council of State at Rome announces a political amnesty, excepting from it, however, the late Triumvirate, the chiefs of the assembly, and the military leaders, and about 13.000 persons supposed to be implicated in the late movements, Sept. 18, 1849. The pope returns to Rome, April 19, 1850. The total population of Rome in April. 1851, was 170,824. —Vicar Gen'ls Office. In 1848 the population numbered 179,000, and a proportional diminution is shown in the returns of the other Roman States. —Herald. In Obt. 1851, a mixed commission of cardinals; prelates, merchants, &c., and simple workmen, was foirmed by the Pope, for the examnination and amendment, where susceptible, of all corporate laws. —FIl2ls. News. RUSSIA. The Russian troops repeatedly defeated by the Circassians, June 1851. RUSSIAN ARMY, 1851. Infantry, 640,384; cavalry, 101,902; artillery, 41,902; adding to the above the engineer staff, the entire force amounts to 810,000 .SHTIA] ADDENDA TO THE WVORLD'S PROGRESS) 1850-51. 33 effective troops. Other accounts, however, place the actual number of military fit for service no higher than 300,000 men, and of these a quarter must be kept in Poland. —Triester Zeiltusq. SAN FRANCISCO, Commerce of. The amount of duties collected at San Francisco, in the quarter ending Sept. 30, 1851, as compared with the corresponding quarter of the year 1850. 1850. 1851. July, - - $143,276 48 $182,396 75 August, - 176,656 00 104,128 00 September, 144,318 00 162,558 19 $464,250 48 $459,082 94 Amount of deposits in September, 1851, on account of unascertained, $72,707 30, being in addition to above. Amount of Bullion reported in manifests at Custom's House was, July, 1851, $3,471,245; August, $3,311,100; Sept., $3,488,171; Total, $10,270,516. Specie brought into the city in freight was, for July, $84,280; August, $61,195; Sept., -55,351. Males. Females. Child'n. Total. Left. Passengers arrived, July,. 1,729 231 134 2,094 1,697 ""!, August, 1,886 348 211 2,445 2,097 ((" " September, - 1,140 140 56 1,336 6,574 Totals, - 5,875 10,368 Excess of Departures, Sept. 30, 1851, 54,493 10,368 SCHOOLS, originally kept in the porches of churches. Even so late as 1624, John Evelyn, then four years old, was taught by " one Frier at the churchporch of Wotton." —E's. Diary. The sraged schools, for the instruction of destitute children in England, originated with John Pounds, a poor cripple and shoemaker at Portsmouth, who, while laboring for his daily sustenance, found time to instruct the vagabond children of his neighborhood. He died, " deplored by all his scholars and their relatives, Jan., 1839." Infant schools originated about 1780, with Oberlin, pastor of Waldbach (Germ.); and in England were first put in operation in 1815, by James Buchanan, one of the masters engaged by Robert Owen at Lanark. Wilderspin's plans were subsequent to the above. — West. Review. Sabbath schools were partially in operation previous to the great effort of Mr. Raikes, through the instrumentality of Miss Walker, a Quaker lady of Tottenham, near London, and the Rev. Mr. Lindsay and wife, of Catterick, Yorkshire. —Nor. of Scot. Gaz. The first S. school in the United States is said to have been established by Mrs. Archibald Lake, in the stockade in Marietta, Ohio, March, 1791. SEWING MACHINES. Invented 1848, and brought to general use by the large tailoring establishments. A machine, with the attention of one girl, will sew six overcoats per day.-Sci. Am. SHANGHAI. The population trading with this Chinese port is between 60,000 000 and 80;000,000. The teas grown here are the finest in the world, and its supplies to foreign countries are about seven-eights of the whole product exported from the empire. The amount sent forward from China in 1850, is given officially as follows: To Russia, 7,000 000 lbs.; France, 2,000 000 lbs.; Holland. 3,000;000 lbs.; Great Britain, 52,000.000 lbs.; and the U. States. 30.000 000 lbs.; the total valuation of which shipments cannot fall far short of $30.000,000. The rich silk fabrics of Suchan are brought to Shanghai, as well as numerous other articles of valuable traffic, all of which may be more readily purchased here than at Canton, which port receives its principal export supplies from the former. The importance of Shanghai as a port of entrance for the American merchant offers incalculeable advantages.-See N. Y. Coterier. 2-,* 34 ADDENDA TO THE WORtLDsS P.OG:RESS 1850-51. [STE SHIPPING, U. S. A. Vessels built and tonnage thereof in the U. S.: year ending June 30, 1849. Ships, 198; brigs, 148; schooners, 623; sloops and canal boats, 370; steamers, 206. Total, 1,5'7. Aggregate tonnage, 3,535 000. Iron cylinder masts first fitted in a Dutch E. Indiamnian at Liverpool, March, 1851. Amount of tonnage of American vessels engaged in foreign trade, for year ending, 30th June, 1850, was entered 2,573 016; cleared. 2:632.788. Fortign tonnage during same period entered, 1,77T5,63; cleared, 1,728 214. Number of vessels built in 1850 was 1 360. their total tonnage 272,218 54-95. In 1851 the total U. S tonnage was 3,772 439, including the whaling vessels, 181,644; vessels built. 1,367. Massachusetts total tonnage engaged in foreign and domestic trade, 694,402; New-York, 1,041i013; Oregon (smallest), 1,063. —. Courier,. The clipper ship; Flying Cloud," Capt, Cressy, left, Tew-York June 2, 1851, and arrived at San Francisco, August 20, making the trip round Cape Horn in the unprecedented short space of 90 days; the shortest passage on record. In three days the F. C. made 992 miles. SLAVE-TRADE. Official returns made to the foreign office in London show that fiom the year 1840 to the year 1848, inclusive, 594 vessels, containing 37,824 slaves, were captured by the British squadron. and 556 of them condemned. It has been estimated by the English statician McQunlen, that tt:e loss sustained by slave-traders in consequence of the captures or presence of African cruisers, from the year 1800 to 1847, was ~30,240;000. SLAVERY, U. S. A. Renewed agitation of this subject caused by the passage and enfoircement of the " Fugitive Slave Bill" (passed by Congress in Aug., 1850). In several instances, the claims for fugitive slaves are resisted or defeated in the Northern States, but without serious collision or bloodshed; Sept., Dec., 1850. By decision of Judge Hoadly, Superior Court, Cin., in Oct., 1851, this law was pronounced as " opposed to the spirit and letter of the Constitution of the U. S." The Boston, Post, of Dec.. 1850. states that the original Fugitive Slave Law was drafted by Geo. Cabot. of Mass., Nov. 1792, and passed unanimously by the Senate on the 18th of Jan'y following, by a majority of 41. A Papal Bull of Dec., 1839, prohibits all traffic in human beings by subjects of Roman Catholic States. — Jade's BLit. Hist. SPAIN. Queen Isabella personally opens the Cortes in the new palace, in the Plaza de Cervantes, Oct. 31, 1850. At Madrid, Nov., 1851, the commissioners for regulating the liberty of the press refuso to assent to the ministerial proposition of seizing newspapers before publication. STAGES. In 1749 there was a daily staoge route between Newark, N. J., and New-York, during the sumrner months only. The number of passengers in one season was considered large at 3.000; the iumber of passengers over the railroad to the saime place was, in 1850, 959,000! STEAM ENGINE. A patent was granted in England in 1618, for a steam-or as it is there designated, a "' fire-engine, for taking ballast out of rivers aiid for raising fresh water." It is supposed to have been an invention brought from Italy, where it is stated to have been anteriorly used. Brancas. an Italian philosopher, published at Rome, in 1629, a book on the subject.Wade's Brit. Hiist, A complete steam-engine, weighing only three fourths of an ounce, and capable of fiull motion, was finished and intended for exhibition at the Crystal Palace by an ingenious mechanic of Saddleworth, Yorkshire. in Feb., 1851. —-1lus. News. The tubular boiler was invented by Col. John Stevens, Hoboken, N. J., 1805. bTEAM NAVIGATION, U. S. A. The steamer Atlantic, 3,500 tons, the first. of the Collins' line, sailed for Liverpool, from New York, April 27, 1850. Steam communication between Philadelphia and Liverpool opened ]by the " City of Glasgow,," arrived at Philadelphia, Jan. 1, 1851. The first steamer SUG] ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS, 1850-51. 35 that ever crossed the Atlantic was the " Savannah," 350 tons, from Savannah, Geo., to Liverpool, which port she reached 20th July, 1819.-Mff'riwade's Corn. Report. The first steamboat that ascended the Mississippi was commanded by Capt. Henry M. Shreeve, who subsequently invented the steam snag-boat; he died in 1851. The number of steamboats on the Western waters in 1850 was estimated at 575, investing a capital of $60 000 000, and employing 15,000 hands. The annual cost to the U. S. government of the Steam Mail Service in 1850. was distributed as follows:-Collins' line, New York and Liverpool, $385,000; Ocean Steam Navigation Company, New York and Bremen, $200,000; do., do., do., do., New York and Havre, $150,000; New York, Havana and New Orleans, $290,000; Panama and Oregon line, $199.000; Charleston and Havana line, $50.000. —Total, $1 274,000. The first steamer on Lake Nicaragua began its trips January, 1851. Duty paid by Cunard steamers at Boston, in 1847, wais 1,.199.971 78; in 1850, $1,322.383 30. Marine Steam Force of Great Britain in 1851 was147 ships, including 3 in Canada, and 32 iron steamers, 11 ranging from 1.547 to 1,980 tons. A discovery in 1851 of a work in the archives of Venice, of a treatise on " Navigation by Fire," by M. Gautier, Mem. Roy. Soc. Paris, shows that the professor's plans for steam navigation were exhibited by him to the Venetian Republic in 1756. STEAMBOAT BUILDING. The annual report on commerce and navigation, gives the following aggregate of the number of steamboats built in the United States since 1824-twenty-five years, in periods of five years each: From 1824 to 1829 - 94 From 1844 to 1849, - - - 960 18234 to 1839, 304 " 1839 to 1844, - - 522 Two-thirds of these were built in the West, one-sixth of theim in Ohio. STEAM AND POWDER EXPLOSIONS. The most fatal accident of this natule in 1849 was that of the steamboat Louisa, at N. O.. Nov. 15. when 60 persons were killed and 92 wounded and missing. During 1850 the number of steamboats lost in the Western waters was 53, arid 64 seriously injured. Nearly 700 persons lost their lives, and $1 500,000 of property was destroyed. Some of the most prominent accidents by explosion in 1850 and 1851, were:DATE. FACTORY OR VESSEL. tVWERE. LIVES 1850. LOST. November 7, Steamer Telegraph, Near Newcastle, Del., 15 10, Ship of war, Volney, Near Brest, 10 23, Am. Sieamer Resolute, New-York, 5'26, Ste. Antoinette Douglas, Tate's Shoals, 30 Am. Steamer Columbus, Off Point Lookout, 7 December 13, Steamer Anglo Norman, New Orleans, o' 17, South America, Near Bayou Sara, 40 18, - Knoxville, New Orleans, 20' 20, Fashion, Near Pittsburgh, many 1851. March 2, - Oregon, Mississippi, 21 Febrtary 23, Ferry-boat (many injured), St. Louis, 15 March 15, Victoria Coalpit, Scotlatnd, 61 " 27, Cotton mill, Stockport, Eng., 14 August 2, Distillery, larrison, Ohio, 15 September 8, Balloon, 1 mile bigh, exploded near London; the 4 passengers providentially escaped without serious injury.'C 21, Steamer Jackson (35 injured), Shawneetown, Ill., 7 " 25, - Brilliant, Bayou Sara, La., many. SUGAR. A hundred years ago the Jesuits brought a few bundles of cane from Hispaniola, and planted them in the second municipality of New Orleans. 36 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD S PRlOGRESS, 1850-51o [UN! In 1759 the first sugar-mill was erected. In 1840 the number of slaves employed in the sugar culture was 148,890, and the product was 119,947 hogsheads, of 1,000 pounds each, and 600,000 gallons of molasses.-JiMobile Register. TEA. Quantity imported into Great Britain in 1849, 53,460,751 lbs. The duty upon it amounted to ~5,471,671. This is an increase of nearly 50 per cent. over the imports of 1840. TELEGRAPH, THE SNAIL. The actuality of telegraphic communication by medium of magnetism in snails, experimentally demonstrated by Prof. Gregory of Edinburgh, May, 1851. TELEGRAPH-see " Electric." TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES. The benevolent influence of these associations may be estimated from the fact that the amount of taxation in the state of New York, in 1850, occasioned by pauperism and crime resulting from intemperance, was nearly $2;600,000, and the amount for the entire Union during that period, and resulting from the evils of intemperance, was over $16,000,000. The daily expenditure in the 5,000 drinking places in New York is calculated at over $40,000.-Mr. Foster's Speech at Tripler Hall, March, 1851.-Father Matthew, the " Apostle of Temperance," after visiting numerous states in the Union during two years, and administering over 600,000 pledges, sailed for Liverpool in steamer Pacific, Nov. 8, 1851. TEXAS. The question of the boundary line between Texas and New Mexico, after much excitement and discussion, is settled by the payment of $10,000,000 by the U. S. to Texas, as indemnity for the territory claimed by New Mexico, Sept., 1850. Population in 1850, 188,403, including 53,346 slaves. TIDES. The highest known are in the Bay of Fundy, Newfoundland, and the Bay of Tonquin, Cochin China. —Q. Rev., 1819. That of the former rises 60 feet; the tide at Chepstowv (Monmouth, Eng.) rises 70 feet. —PIlls. News. That of Baffin's Bay only 4 feet.-Capt. Ross, 1819. Seeds dropped accidently into the sea in the W. Indies, were subsequently found on the shores of the Hebrides. —D/'. Walker to Lord Kames.-See Oceans. TIGRE (Island of), Central America, seized by Mr. Chatfield, British Consul, with an armed force, for the " British Queen," Oct. 17, 1849; but the claim was not enforced, and was settled in the " Nicaragua Treaty," signed at Weashington, by Clayton and Bulwer, June, 1850. TURKEY. Battle between the Turks and Syrians, who had revolted against the Turkish recruiting system-Syrians defeated with loss of 1,000 men, 1850. Explosion on board the Neiri Schevket, line of' battle ship, at Constantinople, 1,000 persons killed, Oct. 23, 1850. UNION MEETINGS. Gov. Quitman of Miss., addresses a disunion meeting with some opposition, at Natchez, Oct 7, 1850. A similar meeting in Yazoo city votes down the resolutions proposed. A convention for amending the constitution of Indiana, assembles at Indianapolis, Oct. 7. A great union meeting at Mobile, Ala., Oct. 8. Convention for amending constitution assembles at Richmond, Va., Oct. 14. A union festival in compliment to Mr. Clay, at Lexington, Ky., Oct. 17. A Woman's Rights convention held in Worcester, Mass., Oct. 23. A great union meeting at Dayton, Ohio, Oct. 26, and an immense meeting for like purpose in New York, Oct. 30. Convention to amend constitution of Maryland, meets in Annapolis, Nov. 4; another at Concord, N. H., for revising constitution of that state, Nov. 6; and one at Manchester, N. H., Nov. 20. A great union meeting at Philadelphia, Nov. 21. One at Bath, Me., Dec. 16. Convention of Delegates from Southern viS] ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS, 1850-51. 37 Rights Association, of S. Carolina, at Charleston, May 8; adjourns after resolving " that with or without co-operation they are for dissolution of the Union!" UTAH TERRITORY OF U. S. A territorial government provided by Congress, Sept. 9, 1850. The territory is bounded on the west by California, north by Oregon, east by the summit of the Rocky Mountains, and south by the parallel of 370 Nt. The act provides the sum of $5,000 for a library. VENEZUELA. Gen. J. G. Monagas elected president for four years, Jan. 20, 1851. VIRGINIA. According to the census returns, the real estate, &c., of Virginia, 1850, was $530,000,000, viz.: —Real estate, $278,000,000; value of slaves, $147,000,000; other personal estate, $105,000,000. The returns further show that nearly 83,000 white persons over the age of 21, can neither read nor write! The new Constitution of this state adopted 1851, in the Illth article has the following clause: "And no person shall have a right to vote who is of unsound mind, or a pauper, or a non-commissioned officer in the service of the United States." Population of 1850, 1,421,081, including 473,026 slaves. WAMPUM. This material as a representative circulating medium, was borrowed by the people of Plymouth, Mass., from the Manhattan Dutch. and was found very profitable in their traffic with the eastern Indians, and subsequently among the colonists generally. Three of the blackbeads and six of the white, were considered as equivalent to a penny; and for convenience' sake, they were strung in lengths of certain value from one penny to 5 shillings, in white; and from twopence to ten shillings in black; as the quantity in circulation increased, the value depreciated and the number of beads to the penny was augmented.-See Hildrethl's U. S. America, 1850. WARS, MODERN. Those of the 17th century, were wars of religion; of the 18th century, of conquests and dynasties; of the 19th, of monarchs against the people.-Berlies Cordres. N. Y. Cone. The actual cost of the late Mexican war is estimated at $300,000,000. The wars of Europe from 1783 to 1815, are estimated at $15,000,000,000. The late Hulngarian war left 25,000 widows, and 80,000 orphans of soldiers, almost entirely without food, shelter, or clothing. WASHINGTON, D. C. Population in 1810, 8,201, in 1820, 13,248, in 1830, 18,827, in 1840, 23;,364, in 1850, about 42,000. WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL ADDRESS. The original MS. was sold at auction in Philadelphia, to a citizen of New York, for $2,300, February 12, 1850. WESTMINSTER, ARcHBP. O0. Nicholas Wiseman, having been created Cardinal by the Pope, is installed as Roman Catholic Archbishop of Westminster, Nov., 1850. This, in addition to Dr. Ullathorne's enthronement as R. C. bishop of Birmingham, in Oct., together with the parcelling out of all England into Roman dioceses, created great excitement, and petitions from every quarter of the United Kingdom were addressed to the Queen and government, praying their resistance to the " monstrous usurpation." WHALE FISHERY. Registered tonnage employed in this branch of commerce, 1850, was 146.016. Fish and sperm oil exported during the year ending June 30, 1850, $1,809,115. The average yield of a polar whale is about 120 barrels oil. WILLIAM TrE CoNQUEROR. Inauguration of the statue of this renowned monarch at Falaise, Normandy, his native place, Oct. 26, 1851. WISCONSIN. The population of this State is shown by the census returns, 38, ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PROGRES87 1850-5 1, [z1'r 1850, to be: white, 304,565; colored, 626; total, 305.191. Farms in cultivation, 20,177; manufactories producing annually $.500, and upwards, 1,273. WOOL. The imports of wool into the U. S. for fiscal year 1850, amounted t$1,681,691; and for same period 1851, 83,833,160. —Couzier. WORSHIP, FORMS OF. The Jews and Quakers wear their hats during worship, Protestants and Catholics remove them.-The Mohammedans wear their turbans, but put off their shoes on entering their mosques, evidently from their Prophet's adoption of many of the Jewish customs.-See Exodus iii, 5. It is particularly worthy of remark that the Mohammedans invariably remove from their persons all jewelry, and articles of adornment previous to the commencement of their prayers. WRECKS, &c. The number of vessels belonging to the U. S. lost during the year ending June, 1848, was 585; value, $2;021,495; value of cargoes, $2,501,771; total number of lives lost in connection with them, 477. The Caleb Grimshaw. Liverpool and N. Y. packet ship, burnt at sea; 60 passengers lost on a raft; 339 rescued by Capt. David Cook of Nova Scotia, Nov. 12, 1849. DATE. NAME OF VESSEL. WHERE. LIVES 180. LOST, January 13, Am. Ship Hottinguer, Wexford rocks, Ire. 13 May 6, - Steamer Commerce, Lake Ontario, 38 " 24, Br. Indiaman, Sulimary, From Bombay, 100 June 2, A barge, Near Neuwerk, Ger. 100' 17, Am. Steamer, Griffith, burnt Off Port Patrick, 50 i 18, Br. Steamer Orion, Lakle Erie, 300 July 18, Brig. Elizabeth, OffFire Island, N. Y. many October 4, Am. bark Isaac Mead, Charleston to N Y. 24 7, Br. ship Provldence, Near Belfast, 19 Nov. 24, Br. Ship Edmund, Near Limerick, 96 " 28, Propeller Helena Sloman, At sea, Hamburgh to N. Y. 1 I Minot's Ledge lighthouse carried away, April 17,'51, and the two assistant keepers drowned. Steamship Union lost on her passage from San Francisco to Panama, July 5,'51; passengers and gold dust saved. YACHTING. The Yacht America, built by Steers of New-York, 204 tons bur., after winning the " cup of all nations" at Cowes, I. of Wight, England, and out-sailing the British yacht Britannia, Aug., 1851, was sold by Messrs Stevens to Capt. Blaquiere for 25,000! YANKEE. The derivation of this word is generally accredited to the Indian pronunciation of the word English, which they render Yengeese.-In NewYork it is applied to the New Englanders; in the South to all the Northeners; and in Europe to all Anglo-Americans.-In a curious book on the Round Towers of Ireland, published some years ago, the origin of the term Yankee-Doodle was said to have been traced to the Persian phrase Yanki dortniael, or': Inhabitants of the New World." Layeald, in his "Nineveh," also mentions Yanhi-d1zbnia as the Persian name of America. —Illus. News. YUCATAN. Intelligence received at New Orleans, Jan. 3, 1851, that a battle between the whites and Indians in Yucatan resulted in the victory of the latter, 300 of the whites being killed. ZINC. Tile Soc. IneduLst. Ncationale in Paris, granted to M. Leclaire, 1846, a medal of gold worth 3000 fiancs, for his substitution of zinc for white lead in the formation of painter's color, the use of which latter has been attended with so much danger to health.-Art Joursnal. White paint prepared from zinc is much used of late in the U. States. and has hitherto been greatly approved. PAINTING. PAINTING. Chronological Table of the most celebrated Painters, arranged in Schools and Ages, fronm the revival of the art, 1600, to the commencement of the Nineteenth Century. (From Bell's Edition of Bredosw's Tables of Usniversal History.) 1. FLORENTINE ScHOOLt.-Style elevated and old, seeking rather to be admired than to please; sometimes gigantic; neglects coloring and grace —1240, Cimlabue; 1726, Giotto; 1211, Andrea Taffi; 1400, Massolino; 1402, Massacio; 1431, Filippo Lippi; 1432, Andrea V'errochlio, Andrea Castagna, Pisanello; 1443, Ghirlandajo; 1445, LEONARDO DA VINCI; 1469, Bartolommeo di San Marco; 1471, Baldassarre Perozzi; 1474, Michael Angelo Bluonarotti; 1484, Dominiro Beccafumni; 1488, Andrea del Sarto; 1493, Jacopo Carrucci da Pontormo; 1496, Del Rosso; 1500, Perino del Vaega; 1509, Daniel da Volterra; 1510, Francesco Salviati; 1510, Giorgio Vasari; 1545, Antonio Tempesta; 1559, Luligi Cardi- 1563, Francesco Vanni; 1578, Matteo Rosselli; 1596, Pietro Berretini, called Pietro da Cortona; 1611, Pietro Testa; 1615, Benvenuto da Garofoli; 1616, Carlo Dolci; 1666, Benedetto Lutti; 1695, Giovan' Geronino Servandoni; 1702, Pompeo Battoni. 2. ROoiAN SCHooL carries invention and design to the highest perfection by the analytical study of the antique and of nature; heads of the most sublime beauty; co'oring and chiaro oscuro less perfect. 1513, Bernardino Pinturichio; 1446, Pietro Perrugino; 1483, Raffael; 1428, G. F Penni; 1492, Giulio Romiano; 15'8, Frederico Barocci; 1529 Talrddeo Zucchero; 1543, Frederico Zuccliero; 1589, Dominico Feti; 1594, Nicholas PoussiN ~ 1598, Giovaie' Lorenzo Bernini; 1599, Andrea Sacchi; 1600, Claude Gelee, called Claud l of Lorraine; 1602, Ceriozzi; 1605, G. B. Salvi, called It Sassoferrato; 1613, Gaspard 12i ghet, called Poussin or Guaspre; 1616, Luigi Scaramuccia; 1617, Francesco RollanelP 1623, Giacinto Branldi; 162:, Filippo Lauri; 1625, Carlo Marattii 1634, Ciro Ferri; 169s Pietro Bianchi; 1728, Raflael Mengs. 3. VENETIAN SCoIOOL. — Faithful imitation of. well-chosen subjects of nature, excellent coloring, admirable effect; design less perfect through the neglected study of the antique; this school is now extinct, 1421, Gentile Beliini; 1431, Andrea Mantegna; 1478, Giorgione; 1477, TITIAN (Tiziano Vecelli da Cadore); 1480, G. A. Regillo; 1485, Sebastiano del Piombo; 1510, Jacopo da Ponte; 1512, J. Robusti, called 11 Tintoretto; 1522, Paolo Farinati; 1522, Andrea Schiavoue; 1528, Geroiiimo Muziano; 1531, Paolo Cagliari; 1535, Giusepype Ponta; 1539, Dario Varotari; 1540, Felice Riccio; 1540, Jacopo Palma (Il Vecchio); 1544, Jac Palma; 1549, Giov. Contarino; 1560, TMaria Tintoretta; 1561, Leonardo Corona; 1586, Tiberio Tineli; 159(), Aless. Varotari; 1600, Aless. Turchi; 1635, Giov. B. Langetti; 1642, Andrea Pozzo; IG56, Franc. Trevisani; 1659, Sebast. Ricci; 1666, Ant. Blalestra; 1672, Rosa Alba Carriera; 1675, Giov. Ant. Pellegrini; 1682, G. B. Piazzetta; 1687, Ant. Canale; 1693, Giov. Bat. Tiepolo; 1699, Giuseppe Nogari. 4. LoInBARD AND BOLOONESO E SCHOOIS. —Correggio, born in Lombardy, not having founded a permanent School, but having been imitated by the painters of Bologna, these two Schools are conjoined. Correggio's distinguished characteristics are a seducing and volIptuous (though perhaps somewhat aflected) grace in his figures and attitudes, and a magic harmony in his coloring. Tibaldi and the Caracci introduce a more elevated character of design, and many of their pupils unite therewith the fine coloring and the graces of Correggio. 1450, Francesco Franco; 149), F. Primaticcio; 1494, CORREGGnIO Antonio Allegri; 1495, Polidori Caldari; 1504, Fr Mazzuoli; 1522, Pellegrino Tibaldi; 1546, Camillo Procaccinii; 1559, M1. Angelo Amerigi, called Carravaggio; 1555, Lodov. Caracci; 1557, Agostino CIaracci; 1561l, Annibaie Caracci; 1560, Bartol. Schidone; 1575, Guido Reni, called Guido; 1576, Lionello Sp1ada; 1577, Aless. Tiarini; 1578, Francesco Alblano; 1580, Giacomo Cavedone; 1581, Dom. Zampieri, called Domenicllino; 1581, Giov. Lanfranco; 1588, Frances Gessi; 15911, G. F. Barbieri; 1597, Lcdov Lana; 1600, Mic. Ang. Colonna; 1606, Grima'di; 1618, Giorg. And. Sivani; 1612, Sinone Cantarini; 16'24, P. Fran. Mola; 1628, Cignani; 1638, P. F. Caroli; 1643, Lodov. Quaini; 1648, Ant. Francescllini; 1654, Guis. del Sole; 1l57, Fer. Galli Babiena; 1665, Guis. Maria Crespi; 1668, Dom. Maria Viani; 1671, Donato Creti; 1674, Giov. P. Zanotti; 1691, G. P. Painiii. (NEAPOLITANS, GENOESE, SPANIARDS. These nations are not regarded as having founded general Schools; their painters are formed on the masters of the great Italian Schools. Neapolitai.-rThe painters of this nation are reproached with being in general somewhat affected. Pietro and Tommaso Stefani, d. 1310; Fil del Tesauro, 1320; 15)00, And. Sabbatani; 1560, Guis, Cesare d'Arpino; 1600, Aniello Falcone; 1603, Mario Nuzzi; 1613, Matteo Petri; 1615, Salvator Reosa; 1631; Luca Giordano; 1657, Fran. Solimene; 1661, Nunzio Ferajoli; 1679, Sebast. Conca; 1693, Carl Corrado. Genoese are often incorrect in design. —14I0, Nich. da Vottri; 1527, Cambiasi; 1544, G. B. Paggi; 1557. Bern. Castelli; 1581, Bernardo Strozzi; 1590, Gio. Carlone; 1616, Benedetto Castiglione; 1625, F. M. Borzoni; 1639, G. B. Gaun!i; 1644, Greg. Ferrari; 1654, Bart. Guidoboni; 1660, Il Molinaretto. Spaniards.-These painters have especially imitated the Venetian School, and often display its brilliant coloring. —1400, Alonso Berragente; 1487, Blaise de Prado; 1519, Mo PAINTING. rales; 1528, Luis de Vargas; 1532, J. F. Ximenez de Navarete; 1550, Pablo de las Rovias; 1589, Josef Ribera; 1599, Don Diego Velasquez de Silva; 1601, Alonso Cano; 1610, Henrique de las Marinas; 1613, Bartolosun Esteban de Murillo; 1617, Franc. Rizzi; 1631, Matias de Torres; 1640, Pedro de Nunez; 1640, Juan de Alfaro; 1651, Juan C. Falco; 1663, P. A Pietri.) 5. GERMAN SCHOOL.-This school having never had a common point of union, bears no general and distinctive character; it produces, in the different styles of painting, rival artists to the great masters of Italy and of the Netherlands. 1297, Th. de Matina; 1357, Theo. de Prague; 1357, N. Wurmser; 1479, Albert Durer; 1492, Lucas Muller; 1498, Hans Holbein; 1515, Lucas Cranach; 1534, Tobias Stimmer; 1550, Christ. Schwartz; 1556, John Van Aachen; 1564, J. Rottenhammer; 1570, J. Lys; 1574, Adam Elzheimer; 1598, Sam. Hofmann; 1600, J. W. Bauer; 1606, Jo. Sandrart; 1611 Ch. Loth; 1616, Govaert Flink; 1618, P. Van der Faes; 1619, J. Spilberg; 1621, Leb. Stopkopt; 1625, J. Lingelback; 1631, J. IHen Roos; 1637, Jos. Warner; 1639, Gasp. Netscher; 1640, Ab. Mignon; 1647, M. S. 118rian; 1648, Godfrey Kneller; 1666, G. P. Ruggendas; 1668, J. R. Huber; 1669, Anna Wr", ser; 1685, Balthasar Denner; 1689, Fr. P. Ferg; 1698, J. E. Riedenger; 1709, Brinkmann; 1712, C. WV. E. Dietrich; 1728, Raffael Mengs; 1730, Solomon Gessner. 6. FLEMISrE OR BELGIC SCHOOL.-This School excels in coloring and in the faithful imitation of nature, but does not always exhibit sufficient nobleness of design; it produces eminent artists in every style; that to which Teniers has affixed his name had its birth in this School; the Academy at Antwerp, the cradle of this School, was founded in 1510, but there was a Society of Painters at Antwerp from the year 1442.-1306, Erbert Van Eylr; 1370, John Van Eyk; 1450, Quentin Messis; 1490, Ber. V. Orley; 1499, J. de Mabuse; 1553, Peter Knock; 1520, Frank Floris; 1534, Mar de Vos; 1536, J. Straden; 1540, F. Porbus; 1546, B. Spranger; 1548, C. Van Mander; 1550. H. Steenwyck; 1555, Denys Calvart 1556, Otto Venius; 1569, P. Van Breughel; 1570, P. Neefs; 1573, S. Frank; 1576, Fr Sneyders; 1577, Peter Paul Rubens; 1580, David Teniers; 1594, James Jordaens; 1599, Anthony Van Dyk; 1602, Phillip de Champagne; 1610, David Teniers; 1613, J. Van Artois; 1618, Gonzales Coques; 1634, Van der Meulen; 1664, Simon Varelst; 1668, G. P. Vanbruggen; 1672, Ab. Breughel; 1742, Henry de Coort. 7. DUTCH SCHOOL. —This School is especially distinguished by an eminent intelligence of the chiaro oscuro; exhibits good coloring, and a faithful imitation of nature in the ninutest details. The style of precious finishing is carried to the highest pitch in this School. 1467, Erasmus; 1.494, Luke of Leyden; 1498, Martin Hemskerk; 1518, An. Moro; 1564, Ab. Bloemart; 1579, Sol. de Brey; 1586, Cornelius Poelenberg; 1596, Leo Brairer; 1600, J. D. de Heein; 1600, John Wynlants; 1606, Albert Cuyp; 1606, Paul Rembrandt van Ryn; 1608, Gerard Terburg; 1610, Adrian Van Ostade; 1613, Gerard Dow; 1615, Gabriel letzu; 1620, Philip Wouvermans; 1624, Nicholas Bergham; 1625, Paul Potter; 1631, Ludolph Bakhuytzen; 1633, W. Van der Velde; 1635, Jac. Ruysdael, Hobbema; 1635, Frail. Mieris; 1636, John Steen; 1637, Van den Eleyden; 1638, Adrian van der Velde; 1640, Karel du Jardin; 1664, John Weenix; 1669, Adrian van der Werf; 1682, John Van Huysum. ENGLISH PAsrNTERS.-Formed in general on the masters of the Flemish and Italian Schools; excel in portraits and landscapes, are unrivalled in water-colors.-1480, Halns Holbein; 1543 F. Zucchero; 1572, Inigo Jones; 1601, P. Oliver; 1609, S. Cooper; 1610, W. Dobson; 1620, Ric. Gibson; 1619, John Greenllill; 1648, Godfrey Kneller; 1660, Lulre Cfradock; 1677, James Thornhill; 1697, William Hogarthl; 1714, Rich Wilson; 1723, Joshua Reynolds; 1727, Thom. Gainsborough; 1733, Sawrey Gillpin; 1734, P. J. de Loutherbourg; 1735, David Allan; 1738, Benjamin West; 1745, James Strutt; 1746, James North. cote; t748, J. F. Nollekins; 1748, Philip Reinagle; 1751, William Hamilton; 1752, Wm. Beechey; 1755, Thom. Stotllhard; 1759, Francis Bourgeoise; 1761, John Opie; 1764, Geo. Morland; 1769, Thomas Lawrence; 1774, Edward Bird; 1776, John Constable; 1786, Will. Hilton; 1787, Geo. H-Ien. Harlow;, Thomas Daniell; 1785, David Wilkie; 1786. R. B. Haydon;, A. W. Calcott; 1789, W. Etty. 8. FRENCH SCHOOL.-The good painters of this School are formed on the model of the different Italian Schools, of which they bear the several characteristics; they are in general more successful in composition and design than in coloring. It is emancipated from the degradation and affected style it assumed after the death of Le Brun by Vien, and become the most numerous and flourishing school of all.-1490, Fran. Primaticcio; 1496, Rosso de Rossi; 1502, J. Cousin; 1582, Simon Vouet; 1594, Nicholas Poussin; 1600, Claude Lorraine; 1600, Le Va'entin; 16t0, James Blanchard; 1607, James Petitot; 1616, Sebastian Bourdon; 1617, Eustachius le Seur; 1619, Charles le Brun;: 1640, Charles de la Fosse; 1644, John Jouvenet; 1657, Joseph Vivien; 1667, Nicho-las Bertin; 16G7, Anth. Rivally; 1684, Ant. Watteau; 1638, Francis Le Moine; 1692, Noel N. Coypel; 1700, Chas. Natoire; 1794, F. Bouchier; 1712, Joseph Vernet; 1716, Vien; 1729, J. B. Deshays; 1756, J. L. David; 1758, Carle Vernet; 1767, A. L. Girodet. AD)DENDA TO THE WORLD)S PROGRESS, 1850-51. 41 ADDITIONS TO THE BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. (INCLUDING ACCIDENTAL OMISSIONS IN THE FORMER EDITIONS.) NTATION, NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. Eng. Adelaide, Queen Dowacer, widow of William IV.. 1850 Eng. Adrian IV. (N. Breakspeare), the only English pope. 1159 Gr. Egineta, Paulus, writer on medicine.. 630 Eng. lEifiic, Abp. Canterbury, author of Anglo Saxon wors.. 1005 Eng. Almon, John, political writer and publisher.. 1738 1805 Ger. Fr. Anne of Austria, wife of Louis XIII. of France. 1604 1666 Amer. Armnlstrong, S. T., book publisher and Lt. Governor of Mass.. 1784 1850 Gr. Armenides, philosopher of the Eclectic School.. 5th c. B c. Gr. Aspasia, celebrated courtesan-cause of the Pelop. war temp. Peiricles. B. c. 450 Amer. Auldubon, John James, traveller and naturalist (b. at New-Orleans) 1780 1851 Eng. Baffin, Wm., navigator-explorer of Baffin's Bay. 1584 Span. Balboa, Vasco Nunez D., one of the first navigators to the W. Indies 1517 Amer. Barron, James, Commod. I. S. Navy.. 1769 1851 Amer. Bartram, William, horticulturist. 1823 Eng. Baskerville, John, celebrated printer, publisher, and type-founder 1706 1775 Fr. Bastide, John F. de, voluminous writer and editor.. 1724 Eng. Bates, William, non-conformist divine, and theol. writer. 1625 1699 amer. Beck, John B., writer on nediciie, botany, &c..... 1794 1851 Ger. Beckmann, John A., author of History of Invenitions. 1739 1811 Eng. Bell, Andrew, D.D., founder of national schools.. 1753 1832 Scotch. Bell. Henry, first successful steam navigator in Europe.. 1767 1830 IHung. Bern, Gen., military commrandler in the war with Austria.. 1851 Jew. Benjamin of Tudela, one of the earliest modern travellers. 1173 ital. Bentivoglio, Guido. cardinal, and historian. 1579 1641 Eng. Benger, Eliz. Ogilvie, biog. of Anne Boleyn, Queen of Scots, &c. 1827 Russ. Behring, or Beering,Vitus, captain in Russian navy who gave name to the "Straits".. 1741 Eng. Behn, Aphra, female dramatist, temps. Charles II. 1689 Eng. Berrington, Joseph, Author of History of Middle Ages.. 1827 Eng. Bicliersteth, (Rev. E.,) author of popular religious works 1850 Eng. Bickerstaff, Isaac, dramatic writer of 18th century Dutch. Bilderdykl, George, poet 1760 Eng. Bingham, George, author of Ecclesiastical History —Christ. Antiq.. 1668 1723 Fr. Blainville, M. de, chemist and naturalist.. 778 1850 En,. Blanchard, Laman, essayist and magazine writer.. 1803 1844 Eng. Bloomfield, E. V., classical scholar, ed. of Museum Criticum 1788 1816 Moor. Boabdil, the last Moorish king of Grenada. about 1495 Eng. Bodley. Sir Thomas, founder of the Bodleian Library 1544 1612 Fr. Bonaparte, N. F. C. J., duke of Reichstadt-only son of Napoleon. 1811 1832 Eng. Boleyn, Anne, second queen of Henry VIII... 1507 1536 Ger. Bos, Lanlbert, Greelk scholar, author of works on Greelk Classics 1670 1717 Eng. Bowles, Rev. W. L., poet. 1761 1850 Fr. Boyer, Abel (Fr. relugee in England), author of Fr. Dictionary. 1664 1729 Amer. Brigham, Amariah, M D., medical writer and philanthropist. 1798 1849 Eng. Brand, J., Author of"' Popular Antiquities"... 1743 1806 Fr. Brinvilliers, Marchioness, notorious poisoner.. 1676 Eng. Brunton, Mary, novelist-" Discipline," &c. 1778 1818 Eng. Bryan, Michael, author of Diet. of Painters.. 1757 1821 Eng. Buckingham, John Sheffield, duke of, military comm'r, poet. 1649 1720 Fr. Burgundy, Charles the Bold, duke of.. f. 1470 Amer. Buckminster, J. S., author of" Sermons," c., o 1784 1812 Eno. Buxton, T. Fowell, leading opponent of the slave trade.. 1787 1845 Polish. Bythner, Victorinus, author of Lyra Prophetica... 1664 Cadmus, fountler of Thebes, introducer of letters.. f. B. c. 1700 Eng. Cacde, Jacl, noted for his rebellion against Heny VI.. f. 1450 Amer. Calhoun,John C., senator ofU. S. folrS. Carolina-ex-Sec. ofState, &c. 1782 1850 Ego. Calamy, Ed., numerous theological works.... 1732 Eng. Cambrlidee, dule of, youlngest son of George III... 1774 1850 Gr. Capo D'Istria, John, Count of, diplomatist-assassirated.. 1780 1831 Fr. Ital. Catharine de'Medici, wife of Henry II. of France... 1503 1589 Eng. Catharine Parr, 6th queen of Henry VII.... 15 1548 Sp. Eng. Catharine of Arragon, 1st queen of Henry VII1.. 1483 1536 Fr. Caulaincourt, A. A. L., Dulke of Vicenzas. 1773 1827 42 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS) 1850-51. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. Ital. Cavallo Tiberius, author of works on nat. phil. in Enllgland. 1749 1809 Eng. Cave. Dr. William, author of " Primitive Christianity" 1637 1713 Ital. Cellini, Benvenuto, Florentine artist, author of Autobiography. 1500 157(' Fr. Chastelleux, F. J., marquis, author of' Travels in America" 1738 Amer. Cogswell, Rev. Wm., D.D., theological and statistical writer. 1788 1850 Eng. Chillingworth, Wm., theologian-author of Religion of Protestants 1644 Rom. Claudianus, Claudius, poet, temp. Emperor Theodosius, Arcadius, &c. 380 Mex. Clavigero, F. S., author of the History of Mexico Clemens, or Clement, of Alexandria, one of the fathers of the church f. 189 Eng. Clinton, Sir Henry, commander-in-chief of British army in Amer. Revol. 1795 Fr. Clovis, first Christian king of France. 511 Gr. Codrus, 17th and last king of Athens.. C. 1069 Eng. Collier, Jeremiah, non-j uring divine, author of Ecc'I History 1650 1726 Amer. Colton, Walter, Rev., author of several books of travel. 1851 Fr. Commines, Philip de, historian, chronicler, statesman, and courtier 1445 1561 Fr. Condorcet, John. A. N. C., marquis of, mathematician and philosopher 1743 1794 Eng. Congreve, Sir Win., inventor of Congreve rockets, &c.. 1772 1828 Amer. Cooper, J. Fenimore, novelist, traveller and historian. 1851 Fr. Corday, Charlotte, the executioner of the sanguinary Marat 1793 Ital. Cosmo I., grand duke of Tuscany, promoter of the arts, &c. 1519 1574 Eng. Coverdale. Miles, one of the earliest English reformers-trans. of the Bible 1509 1580 Eng. Cowper, Wm., earl, lord high chancellor. 1723 Scotch. Crichton, James. an accomplished gentleman-the" admirable Crichton" 1560 1583 Crcesus, 5th and last king of Lydia, famed for his riches, f.. f. B. 557 Eng. Curtis, William, botanist, author of " Flora Londlinensis". 1799 Rom. Curtius Marcus, who devoted himself for his country. B.C. 362 Pers. Cyrus the Great, king of Persia, conqueror of Lydia, Assyria, &c. B. C. 529j Fren. Daguerre, perfecter of the daruerreotype process.. 1789 1851 Amer. Dale, Richard, naval commrander, associate of Paul Jones, &c. 1756 1826 Damon, Pythagorean philosopher, friend of Pythias-in Sicily Eng. Daniel, Samuel, poet-laureate on the death of Spenser, and historian 1562 1619 Fr. Danton, George James, sanguinary revolutionist (guillotined) 1759 1794 Fr. Daru, P. a. n. B., statesman, poet and historian.. 1767 1829 Eng. Davenant, Sir Wm., poet-laureate after Ben Jonson 1606 1668 Amer. Davis, Matthew L., politician, biographer of Burr.. 1766 1850 Fr. Davoust, L. N., duke of Auerstadt, marshal of France. 1770 1823 Amer. Dearborn, H. A. S., Gen., military commander in war of 1812, &c., 1783 1851 Swiss. Delolme, J. L., author of work on English Constitution.. 1745 1806 Eng. Denham, Sir John, poet... 1615 1668 Fr. Denon, D. V., baron de, author of the great work on Egypt 1747 1825 Dutch. Dewitt, John, an enlightened statesman. 1625 1672 Iial. Diodati, John, translator of the Bible into Italian.. 1589 1649 Eng. Dodsley, Robert. bookseller, editor of Old Plays, and author. 1703 1764 Eng. Donne, John, a divine and poet. 1573 1631. Eng. Douce, Francis, antiquarian-" Shakspeare and his Times," &c.. 1834 Amer. Douglas. David B., officer in the war of 1812, engineer, &c. 1793 1849 Eng. Drake, Nathan, essayist-" Mornings in Spring," &c.. 1766 1836 Eng. Drayton, Michael, poet —' Polyolbion," &c. 1563 1631 Eng. Drew, Samuel —" Essay on the Soul," &c... 1765 1833 Scotch. Drunmond, Wm., poet-friend of Ben.Jonson.. 1585 1649~ Eng. Drumnmond, Sir Witlliarn, antiquary —" Origines," &c. 1828 Eng. Dugdale, Sir Wm., antiquary, " Monasticon," &c.. 1605 1686 Swiss. Dumont, Stephen, writer on legislation, &c... 1750 1829 Amer. Dwight, Rev. S. E., biofrapher of Edwards, &c. 1850 Amer. Eaton, WVm., consul at Tunis —distinguished in war with Tripoli 1764 1811 Ger. Eichhorn, John Geo., biblical critic, author of History of Literature 1752 1827 Eng. Ellenborough, lord, chief justice of England. 1748 118i Eng. Elliott, Eben, the Corn-law Rhymer.. 1782 1850 Ger. Eschenberg, J. J — " Manual of Classical Literature". 1743 1820 Fr. Estaing, Chas. Hen., count de, naval comm. in Amer. war. 1793 Eng. Exmouth, Viscount, naval commander-at Algiers, &c. 1757 1833 Rom. Fabius Pictor, the first Roman historian-works not extant f. f... 225 Ital. Facciolati, James, author of Latin Dictionary.. 1682 1769 Eng. Fairfax, Edlward, poet-translator of Tasso,.. 1632 Eng. Falkland, viscount, statesman and soldier in the civil war 1610 1643 Eng. Feltham, Owen, author of" Resolves, Moral," &c., about.. 1678 Ger. Fichte, John Gotlieb, philosopher and metaphysician 1762 1814 Amer. Fitch, John, one of the first experimenters in steam-boats. 1743 1798 Eng. Flamstead, John, astronomer... 1646 1719 Eng. Fletcher, Giles, poet.... 1588 1623 Eng. Fletcher, Phineas, brother of foregoing, poet.. 1582 1650 Fr. Foix, Gaston de, nephew of Louis XII., warrior. 1489 1512 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS1 1850-51. 43 NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. Ital. Foscolo, Ilgo, writer of plays and essays, &c,. 1776 1827 Ital. Francis, Saint, founder of the Franciscan Friars.. 1182 1226 Amer. Fuller, S. Margaret, marchioness d'Ossoli, essayist and critic. 1810 1850 Ger. Fugger, the name of a noble and very wealthy family at Augsburgh 151h and 16th c. Fr. Gay-Lussac, N. F., chemist,... 1778 1850 Eng. Gell, Sir Wm., antiquary —" Pompeiana," and " Rome". 1777 1836 Fr. Goguet, Anth. Y., advocate, author of " Origin of Laws," &c.. f. 1758 Eng. Good, John Mason, medical writer —" Book of Nature," &c. 1764 1827 Scotch. Gordon, lord George, author of the Anti-popery Riots in 1780 1750 1793 Amer. Gore, Christopher, Gov. of Mass., senator of IJ. S... 1758 1827 Scotch. Grahame, James, historian of the United States.. 1790 1842 Fr. Grammont, Philibert, count of, famous wit at court of Chas. II. 1707 Eng. Grenville, Rt. Hon. W. Wyndham, lord, prime minister. 1759 1834 Enog. Hall, Joseph, bishop of Norwich, the Christian Seneca.. 1574 1656 Irish. Hamilton, Anth., count, poet, courtier, and man of letters. 1646 1720 Carth. Hannibal, the Carthaginian general-invader of Italy a. c. 247 B. C. 183 Eng. Harley, Robert, earl of Oxford, statesman, patron of Pope. 1661 1724 Eng. Harris, James, philologist, author of" Ilertmes," &c... 1709 1780 Eng. Hatton, Sir Christopher, lord chancellor for Queen Elizabeth. 1591 Aer. Heinecius, John G., jurist, civilian, pIrof. of philosophy. 1681 1741 Fr. Heloise. or Eloise, celebrated for beauty and wit, and love for Abelard 1101 1164 Fr. Herbelot, Bartholomew d'. learned orientalist... 1625 1695 Mex. Herrera, ex. president of Mexico. 1851 Eng. Herbert, Edward. lord of Cherbury, diplomatist and historian. 1581 1648 Eng. Hill, Aaron, poet... 1750 DEng. Hill, Itev. Rowland, a popular and eccentric preacher. 1744 1833 Gr. Hipparchus, the most eminent of ancient astronomers. f. about 150 B. C. Eng. Hollis, Thos., benefactor of Harvard'College, U. S. A.. 1720 1774 Amer. Holyokle, Edw. A., physician and man of science-lived 101 years 1728 1829 Eng. Home, Sir Everard, author of Comparative Anatomy, &c.. 1756 1832 Amer. Hopkins, Stephen, statesman and jurist-signer of Dec. of Indep. 1707 1785 Amer. Ilopkinson, Francis, political writer-signer of Dec. of lndep.. 1738 1791 Rom. Hortensius, Quintus, eloquent orator and writer.. B. a. 49 Fr. Hoste, Paul, matematician-author of Naval Evolutions. 1652 1700 Eng. Howe, John, non-conformlist divine and theol. writer. 1630 1705 Eng. Howe, Sir Wm., British commander-in-chief in America 1814 Eng. Howell, Jas., author of Familiar Letters 1595 1666'Scotch. Hunter, Wn., anatomist... 1718 1783 Scotch. Hunter, John, anatomist. 1728 1793 Amer. Hunter, W. L., diplomatist and senator 1774 1849 Eng. Huntingdon, Henry of, historian f. 1150 Eng. Huntingdon, Selina, countess of, founder of chapels, schools, &c. 1707 1791 Eng. Hurd, Richard, bishop of Litchfield-philologist and miscel. writer 1720 1808 Amer. Hutchinson, Anne, religious enthusiast-banished from N. E. 1643 Eng. Hutton, Wm., an ingenious self-educated writer.. 1723 1815 Hypatia, a female philosopher of great attainments, in Alexandria 415 Gr. Ignatius, St., eminent father of the Church, and martyr. f. 68 I:enaeus, St., bishop of Lyons, Christian father and martyr 202 Gr. Irene, empress of Constantinople-famous far beauty, talent and crime S03 Span. Isabella of Castile, wife of Ferdinand of Arragon —patron of Columbus 1451 1504 Iamblicus, a philosopher-author of Life of Pythagoras. f. 300 Eng. Jervis, John, earl St. Vincent, admiral-victor off Cape St. Vincent 1734 1823 Eng. John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, warrior, &c.. 13- 1399 Eng. John of Salisbury, bp. of Chartres, latin poet-promoter of literature f. 12th c. Eng. Johnson, Sir Wm.:. British commander in N. America 1774 Amer. Johnson, Richard M., Col. distinguished in war of 1812, V. Pres. U. S. 1780 1850 Fr. Joinville, John Sieur de, statesman and historian... 1228 1318 Amer. Jones, Jacob, commodore in U. S. N.-victor in the " Wasp," &c. 1768 1850 Amer. Judson, Rev. Adoniram, D.D., missionary in Burma 1788 1850 Jugurtha, king of Numidia-conquered andI put to death B.. 106 Justinian I., the Great, emperor of the East-famed for his Code 483 565 Swe. Kalhn, Peter, naturalist-author of travels in America 1715 1779 Fr. Kellermann, Francis C., duke of Valmy, marshal of France. 1735 1820 Eng. Kent. Edward, dulke of, 4th son of Geo. III., father of Q. Victoria 1767 1820 Eng. I(eppel, Augustus, viscount, admiral. 1786 Eng. Kirby, Rev. W., entomologist... 1751 1850 Eng. Know!es, Richard, author of Hist. of the Turks, &c.. 1610 Ger. Korner, Theodore, poet and dramatist... 1788 1813 Fr. Lannes, John, duke of Montebello and marshal of France. 1769 1809 Fr. Larcher, P. H., classical philologist and translator.. 1726 1811 Eng. Latham, John, M.D., ornithologist and antiquarian. 1740 1837 Scotch. Law, John, the originator of the 1" Mississippi Bubble". 1681 1729 44 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS7 1850-51. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. Eng. Lee, Nathaniel, dramatic poet.. 1692 Fr. L'Enclos, Anne or Ninon de, a noted voluptuary. 1616 1705 Eng. Lennox, Charlotte, poet and novelist-born at New-York. 1720 1804 Ire. Leslie, Charles, theological writer.. 1732 Ger. Lessing. Gotthold Ephraim, miscellaneous writer. 1729 1781 Eng. L'Estrange, Sir Robert, polit. and controversial writer.. 1616 1704 Scotch. Leyden, John, poet and oriental scholar... 1775 1821 Leyden, John of,. Eng. Lillo, George, dramatist —" Geo. Barnwell," &c. 1693 1738 Eng. Lilly, Wm., astrologer..... 1602 1681 Scotch. Lindsay, Sir David, poet.. 1490 1557 Amer. Livingston, Brockholst, jurist. 1757 1823 Amer. Livingston, Robt. R., chancellor of the State of N. Y. and diplomatist 1746 1813 Fr. Louis Philippe I., king of the French.. 1850 Span. Loyola, Ignatius, founader of the Jesutits... 1491 1556 Eng. McAdam, John Loudon —Colossus of Roads.. 1756 1836 Amer. McDuffie, Geo., ex-Gov. of S. C., senator of U. S., &c. 1851 EnL. Macauley, Catharine, historian.... 1730 1791 Irish. Maclklin, Charles, actor and dramatist... 1690 1787 RInm. Macrobius, A. A. T., miscellaneous writer... 420 Eng. Madan, Martin, translator of Juvenal. &c... 1726 Irish. Magee, Wm., archb. of Dublin-theological writer. 1765 1831 Fr. Malebranche, Nicholas, priest and philosophical writer. 1638 1715 Fr. Malesherbes. C. W., statesman and author... 1721 1794 Eng. Mandeville, Sir John, traveller.... 1372 Egypt. Manetho. historian..... f.. C. 304. Reom. Manlius, Titus Torquatus, warrior and consul.. f. B. C. 340 Rom. Manlius, Marcus, saved capitol from Gadls B... 383 Scotch. Mansfield, Win. Murray, earl of, chief justice... 1705 1783 Fr. Marceau, F. S. D., general under Napoleon... 1769 1796 Rom. Marcellus, M. Claudius, general against Hannibal 3. C. 209 Ital. Margaret of Anjou, queen of Henry VI. of England.. 1482 Ger. Maria Theresa, empress of Germany.. 1717 1780 Eng. Marlowe, Christopher, poet and drainatist... 1593 Irish. MIartin. Mrs. Bell. novelist-died at New-orlk.. 1850 Eng. Marvel, Andrew, poet and political writer. 1620 1678 Scotch. Mary Stuart, queen of Scots-murdered by Queen Elizabeth 1542 1587 Eng. Maskelyne, Nevil, mathematician and astron.... 1732 1811 Amer. Mather, Increase, D.D., theol. and historian... 1639 1723 Eng. Maurice, Thomas, oriental scholar and historian... 1753 1824 Maximuts Tyrius, philosopher of second century Ital. Medici, Cosmo de, merchant and statesman... 1389 1464 Scotch. Melville, Henry Dundas, viscount-statesnan.. 1740 1811,. Jew. Mendelssohn, Moses-the Socrates of the Jews... 1729 Port. Mendez-Pinto, Ferdinand-lying traveller.. - f. 1550 Amer. Mercer, Hugh, brig'r general in Revolutionary army.. 1777 Ger. MIIesmer, Fred. A., discoverer of animal magnetism.. 1734 1815 Fr. Michaux, Andr6, traveller and botanist —N. A. Sylva. - 1746 1802 Amer. Miller, James, gen. Milit. commander in war of 1812.. 1775 1851., Eng. Miller, Philip, gardener and botanist.... 1691 Lng. Miller, Joseph, witty actor-the Father of Jests 1684 1738 Amer. Miller, Samuel, D.D., historian of" l8th Century" and theologian 1759 1850 Amer. Miller, Win., founder of the "' Millerites," " End of the World" sect 1781 1849 Eng.'Milter, John, Catholic divine and theological writer.. 1752 1826 Minucius-Felix, Marcus, rhetorician.. f. 3d c. Fr. Mirabaud, J. B. de, philosopher and translator. f. 1770 Eng. Monmouth, James, Dulce of, natural son of Charles II.. 1649 1685 Eng. Montagu, Elizabeth, essayist and founder of the Blue Stockings. 1720 1800 Fr. Montespan, Mad. de, mistress of Louis XIV. Mex. Montezumna, emperor of Mexico-conquered by Cortes.. 1520 Fr. Montfaucon, antiquary and critic. 1655 1741 Eng. Montfort, Simnon de, earl of Leicester-founder of the H. of Commons 1265 Fr. Montgolfier, J. E., inventer of air balloons.. 1745 1799 Scotch. Montrose, James Graham, marquis of, royalist general. 16- 1645 Eng. More, HIenry, theological and philosophical writer. 1614 1687 Welsh. Morgan, William, mathematician. 1833 Ger. Munchausen, J. C. F. —proverbial for "stories".. 1797 Assy. Nabonassar, 1st Iing of the Chaldeans... f. B. C. 747 Assy. Nabopolassar, lking of Babylon... f. s. c. 626 Irish. Napier, W. J., lord, naval commander.,. 1787 1834 Eng. Nash, Richard-commonly called Beau Nash. 1674 1761 ier. Nestorius, patriarch of Constantinople-fobunder of Nestorianls 439 ADEDMNDA TO THE WORLD S PROGRESS1 185051L 45 NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIEd. Gr. Nicephorus, Calistus, ecclesiastical historian. 14th c. Gr. Nicephorus, Gregorius, Byzanrina historian. 14th c. Eng. Nichols, John, antiquary and miscellaneous writer 1744 1828 Amer. Noah, Mordecai M., ex-consul to Morocco, editor and politician 1851 Ger. Noheden, G. H., grammarian and misc. writer 1770 1826 Eng. North Fred., lord. premier during Amer. war. 1733 1792 Irish. Nugent, lord, author of Life of Hampden, &c. 1850 Rom. Numa Pompilius, 2d king of Rome. f. B c 714 Eng. Oglethorpe. J. E., general-founder of Georgia.. 1698 1785 Eng. Oldcastle, Sir J., lordCobham.. 1417 Amer. Olin, Stephen, D. D., Pres. Wesleyan Sem., author of Travels in the East, &c.,.... 1851 Irish. O'Keefe, J., dramatist, 1748 1833 Sar- Omar, 3d caliph of the Saracens-founder of the Mosque. 643 Irish. O'Meara, surgeon and biographer of Napoleon... 1778 1836 Fr. Orleans, L. J. P, duke of-" Egalit6' —guillotined. 1747 1793 Scotch. Ossian, ancient Gaelic bard-supposed to have lived in the. 3d c. Egypt. Osymandyas. king of Egypt-about. 1500 D. c. Eng. Overbury, Sir T., poet, &c.-poisoned in the Tower. 1581 1613 Span. Oviedo, J. G., bishop of, author of" Travels in W. Indies" 1540 Ger. Panzer, G. W. F., bibliographer... 1729 1812 Irish. Parnell,.T., poet and divine. 679 1717 Eng. Parr, Thomas-lived 152 years... 1483 1635 Eng. Parr, Samuel, learned divine and philologist.. 1746 1825 ung. Patrick, Simon, learned prelate and theological writer.. 1626 1707 Paul, Sr. Vincent de, missionary ecclesiastic.. 1576 1660 Eng. Pearson, John, bishop ol'f Chester-writer on the Creed, &c.. 1612 1686 Eng. Peele, George, dramatist and poet... 1598 Eng. Penn, Wm., admiral-father of the founder of Pennsylvania. 1621 1670 En-. Pepys, Samuel, secretary to the admiralty, author of " Diary," &c. 1703 Eng. Perceval, Spencer, prime minister-assassinated.. 1762 1812 Eng. Peters, Hugh, eccentric preacher and Roundhead-executed. 1599 1660 Fr. Philidor, Andrew, writer on chliess playing.. 1726 1795 Span. Phillip II., king-married Mary Queen of England-sent the Armada 1556 1598 Eng. Philipps, Ambrose, poet and dramatist... 1749 Jew. Philo Judeus, learned Jewish writer of Alexandria f. A. D. 40 Ital. Piazzi, astronomer. 1746 1826 Swiss. Pictet, Benedict, theological and historical writer.. 1655 1724 Eng. Picton, Sir T., general-killed at Waterloo.. 1815 Eng. Piozzi, IHester L., miscel. writer-friend of Dr. Johnson.. 1739 1821 Eng. Pococl, Dr. E., learned critic and commentator... 1604 1691 Eng. Pocock,.R., learned prelate and traveller.. 1704 1765 Amer. Poinsett, Joel R., statesnmen, diplomatist, and author. 1778 1851 Polycarp, St., Christian father and martyr... 169 Fr. Pompadour,.J. A. P., Marchioness de, mistress of Louis XV.. 1720 1764 Polish. Poniatowsli, Stanislaus Aug., last king of Poland... 1732 1798 Fr. Pradt, AbbeDominique de, political writer.. 1759 1837 Eng. Price, Dr. R., writer on civil liberty... 1723 1791 Eng. Pritchard, J. C., ethnologist — Natural History of Man," 1849 En5r. Prynne,.Wrn., learned lawyer, political writer, and antiquary. 1609 1669 Fr. Psalmanazar, Geo., literary impostor.. 1679 1763 Eng. Purchas, Samnuel, divine-editor of Voyages and Pilgrimages. 1577 1628 Eng. Puttenham, Geo,, poet and critic... 1600 Eng. Pye, H. J., poet-laureate... 1745 1813 Pyrrhus, king of Epirus-one of the greatest warriors of antiquity I. C. 272 Eng. Quarles, Francis, poet-author of" Emblems," &c... 1592 1644 Eng. Quin, James, eminent actor.... 1693 1766 Fr. Rabelais, Fran., wit and satirist. 1483 1553 Eng. Raffles, Sir T. Stamford, author of History of Java.. 1781 1826 Eng. Raikes R., printer-founder of Suntday schools.. 1735 1811 Fr. Rapin de Thoyras, Paul, author of History of England.. 1661 1725 Fr. Reggio, C. N. Oudinot, duce de, marshal of France.. 1767 Reoin. Regulus,M. A., patriotic general and consul... f... 256 Eng. Rennell, Major J., geographer and topographer... 1742 1830 Eng. Repton, Humphrey, landscape gardener and architect.. 1752 1818 Eng. Jew. Ricardo, David, writer on political economy and finance. 1772 1823 Amer. Rich, Obadiah, bibliographer... 1850 Eng. Richard I., Coeur de Lion, king... 1157 1199 Eng. Richard ll. king-killed at Bosworth... 1450 1485 Eng. Richardson, James, traveller in Africa, &c... 151 Eng. Ridley, Nicholas, prelate and protestant martyr.. 1500 1555 Eng. Ritson, Joseph, lawyer, antiquary and editor of poets.. 1752 1803 46 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS, 1850-51. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. SORN. DIED. Scotch. Rob Roy, (Robert Macgregor,) highland fieebooter, about 1733 Fr. Rochambeau, J. B. D., count de, marshal of France.. 1725 1807 Fr, Roland, M. J. P.. madame, martyr to the Revolution. 1754 179[ Eng. Romilly, Sir S., jurist and statesmen.. 1757 1818 Irish. Roscommon, W. D., Earl of, poet and critic... 1663 1684 Scotch. Ruddiman, Thos., critic and grammarian... 1674 1757 Dutch. Ruyter, M. A. de, admiral..... 1607 1679 Eng. Rymer, Thomas, antiquarian and historian (Fcdera).. 1713 Eng. Sacheverell, Henry, divine-impeached for sedition.. 1672 1724 Eng. Sackville, T., Earl of Dorset, poet,. 1536 1608 Eng. Sackcville, Ch., earl of Dorset, wit and poet 1637 1706 Eng. Sadler, Sir Ralph, diplomatist and historian... 1507 1587 Jewish. Sadoc, Rabbi, founder of the sect of Sadducees... f.. 220 Fr. Saint Pierre, Bernardin de-" Paul and Virginia," "Stud. of Nat." &c. 1737 1814 Eng. Sale, George, historian and translator of the Koran.. 1736 Phcen. Sanchoniatho, philosopher and historian... f. B. c. 760 Eng. Savage, Richard, poet.... 1697 1743 Fr. Savary, N., traveller and Oriental scholar.. 1788 Ital. Savonarola, Jerome, monk-famed for zeal and eloquence. 1452 1498 Dan. Saxo Grammaticus, historian.... 1208 Ital. Scala, statesmen and historian of Florence... 1430 1497 Ital. Scaliger, Joseph Justus, critic and historian... 1540 1609 Fr. Scarron, P., comic poet and satirist.... 1610 1660 Ger. Schlegel, Fred., critic and historian.... 1772 1829 Ger. Schwab, Gustav., poet,..... 1792 1850 Ger. Secundus, John, Latin poet. 1511 1536 Eng. Sedley, Sir C., poet.... 1639 1701 Eng. Selden, John, antiquary and historian. 1584 1654 Scotch. Selkirk, John, mariner-the original of " Robinson Crusoe". 1680 Span. Servetus, Michael, polemical writer against Calvin.. 1509 1553 Eng. Seward, Anna, poetess and miscellaneous writer.. 1744 1809 Eng. Shadwell, T., poet laureate..... 1640 1692 Eng. Shirley, James, dramatic writer,.. 1594 1666 Amer. Short, Wm., charge d'affaires to France, Holland and Spain. 1759 1850 Rom. Silius Italicus, Caius, Roman poet... B.. A. D. 74 Sam. Simon Magus, religious impostor... 66 Gr. Simonides, ancient poet.. f. B. C. 450 Eng. Skelton, John, poet-laureate to Henry VIII... 1529 Gr. Socrates, ecclesiastical historian... f. 5th c. Span. Solis, Antonio de, historian of Mexico, &c.. 1610 1686 Eng. Somers, Lord John, chancellor and polit. writer-" Coll. of Tracts' 1650 1716 Eng. Somerville, Wm., poet,..... 1692 1743 Fr. Sorbonne, R. de, divine, founder of the college at Paris. 1201 1274 Fr. Soult, one of Napoleon's marshals, ex-statesman, &c... 1769 1851 Eng. Southern, T., dramatic writer and poet.. 1662 1746 Gr. Sozomen, Herinias, ecclesiastical historian.. 450 Eng. Speed, John, chronologist, historian anti antiquary.. 1555 1629 Eng. Spelman, Sir Henry, historian and antiquary.. 1561 1643 Dutch. Spinoza, Bened., remarkable atheist... 1633 1677 Eng. Stillingfleet, Dr. E., bp. of Worcester and theological writer. 1635 1699 Eng. Stow, John, antiquary and historian... 1525 1605 Eng. Strype, John, divine, biographer and historian.. 1737 Amer. Stuart, Moses, professor, theologian, and philologist.. 1780 1851 Eng. Stukely, Wm., divine and antiquary.... 1687 1765 Ens. Suckling, Sir J., poet and dramatic writer... 1613 1641 Eng. Sylvester, Joshua, poet..... 1563 1618 Eng. Taylor, John-called the 1"Water Poet,".. 1580 1654 Eng. Tenyson, Dr. T., ab'p of Canterbury, polemical writer. 1636 1715 Gr. Theodoret, ecclesiastical historian... 386 457 Eng. Thoresby, Ralph, biographer and antiquary. 1658 1725 Eng. Tickell, Thomas, poet, and writer in the " Spectator".. 1686 1740 Eng. Tindal, Matthew, D. D., polemical divine... 1657 1733 Ital. Tiraboschi, G., historian... 1731 1794 Irish. Tone, Theobold Wolfe, general in the Irish Rebellion.. 1763 1798 Jew. Tudela, Benjamin de, rabbi and traveller.. f. 12th c. Eng. Tusser, Thomas, old English writer and poet. 1580 Eng. Tyndale, Wm., reformer, and first translator of the Bible into English 1500 1536 Eng. Tytler, P. F., historian... 1790 1849 Eng. Tyrwhitt, T., critic and antiquary.. 1730 1786 Fr. Valliere. the duchess de la, mistress of Louis XIV. Eng. Vanbrugh, Sir John, dramatist. 1726 Swiss. Vattel, E. de, jurist and metaphysical writer ("L Law of Nations") 1714 1767 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD S PROGRESS1 1850-51. 47 NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. Span. Vega, Lopez de, dramatic poet... 1562 1635 Ital. Virgil, Polydore, priest and historian.. 1555;r. Voiture, V., poet and miscellaneous writer... 1598 1648 Brit. Vortigern, warrior... 484 Ger. Voss, J. G., historical writer and chronologist.. 1577 1649 Ger. Voss, Isaac, critic and philologist.. 1618 1689 Eng. Warwick, R. Neville, earl of; general antL statesman-" King Maker" 1471 Eng. Waterland, Dr. D., dlvine, anti polemical writer.. 1683 1740 AEng. Wedgewood, J., scientific manufacturer of pottery.. 1731 1795 Eng. Whitehead, Wm., poet-laureate... 1715 1785 Eng. Whiteloclke, Bulstrode, lawyer and statesman. 1605 1676 Eng. Whitgift archb'p, divine, and writer against the Puritans.. 1530 1604 Eng. Wither, George, poet... 1590 1667 Eng. Wood, Anthony h, antiquary and biographer... 1632 1695 Eng. Wotton, Sir H., statesman and poet..., 1568 1639 Eng. Zouch, T., D.D., biographer... 1737 1816 PAINTERS, ENGRAVERS, SCULPTORS, &c. (Additions to list on page 688.) -vATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. Scotch. Allen, Sir William.. Painter.. 1781 1850 Irish. Barker, Robert, inventor of panoramas Painter.. 1740 1806 Ital. Bartolozzi, Francesco... Engraver. 1730 1813 Ger. Bauer, Ferdinand Botanical painter 1826 Ital. Bellini, Giov., founder of the Ven'n School Painte.. 1462 1512 htal. Bernini, Giovanni, L.... Pin'r, Sculp'r Arch't 1598 1680 Eng. Bewick, John, publisher of various works with woodcuts... Wood ezgraver. 1795 Eng. Bone, Henry... Enanel painter. 1755 1834 Dutch. Brill, Paul... Landscarpepaiszter. 1556 1626 Ital. Brunelleschi, Philip, "Pitti Palace" at Flor. Architect.. 1377 1476 ital. Cellini, Benvenuto, Florentine artist —author of Autobiography... 1500 1570 Ital. Cignani, Carlo... Painter.. 1628 1719 Dutch. Cort, Cornelius E. Engraver.. 1536 1578 Ger. Cranach, Lucas, Ensgraver. 1470 1553 Eng. Gibbons, Grinling, famed for carving in oak culptor.. 1721.tal, Guilio, Romano, (see Julio) Fr. Greuze. Jean Baptiste... Painter. 1726 1805 Dutch. Metzu, Gabriel.. Familiar life painter 1615 1669 Dutch. Mieris, Francis..4 ".. 1635 1681 -tal. Morghen, Raphael.. Engraver.. 1758 1833 Dutch. Neefs, Peter,.... Arch'l painter.. 1570 1651 Ital. Pannini, Giov. Paolo. ". 1691 1764 Ital. Piombo, Sebastiano del. P. Painter.. 1485 1547 EnBg. Richardson, Jonathan, writer on art and Painter.. 1665 1745 Fr. Roubilliac, L. F. c Sculptor.. 1762 Fr. Rousseau, James... Painter.. 1630 1693.Pruss. Schadow, J. G. czlptor.. 1764 1850 Ger. Scheffer, Ary,-living.. Painter Ital. Schidtone, Bartolomeo. Painter.. 1560 1616 Eng. Shee, Sir M. A., pres't Royal Academy Painter. 1795 1850 Span. Spagnoletto, Guiseppe Ribera la, - Painter.. 1589 1656 Dutch. Steen, Jan.. Painter.. 1636 1689, er. Sunder, Lucas, (see Cranach)..Engraver Scotch. Thom. Jas.-Tam O'Shanter, &c.. Sculptor. 1850 Eng. Thornhill, Sir.ames... Historicalpainter. 1676 1732 Eng. Turner, J. W. M..Painter. 1851 Dutch. Van der Neer, Arnold... Landscape painter. 1619 1683 Dutch. Van Huysum... Fruit painter. 1682 1749 Fr. Watteau, Antoine.. Painter.. 1684 1721 Eng. Westall, Iichard... Historical painter. 1781 1836 Eng. Wyatt, R. J..culptor.. 1795 1850 ADDENDA TO THE.WORLDS PROGRESS, 1850-51. M U S I. I A N S, (1n addition to those mentioned in the Biographical Inzdex.) NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. Ger. Bach, John Sebastian. Organist and composer. 1685 1750 Eng. Bishop, Henry Rowley-living. Comnposer. 1782 Pr. Boieldieu, Francois Adrllien. Composer. 1775 1834 Eng. Calcott, J. W., musical doctor, author of " Musical Grammar," and.. Com7poser.. 1766 1821 Ital. Corelli, Arcangelo.. Violinist and composer. 1663 171%1 ital. Gemirnani, Francesco.. " 1680 1762 Ital. Giardini, Felice.. "6 1716 1795 Ger. Gluck, Christopher... Composer. 1712 1787 Ital. Jomelli, Nicolai... 1714 1744 Ital. Lully, Giovanni Battista, FViolinist and composer 1634 1687 Ger. Mendelssohn, Felix Bartholdy Composer. 1809 1843 Fr. Mehul, Etienne Henri... 1763 1817 Ital. Paer, Ferdinand.' 1771 1839 Ital. Paesiello, or Paisiello, Giovanni.. ". 1741 1816 Stal. Palestrina. Giovanni Perluigi da.. 1524 1594 Ital. Pergolesi, Giovanni Battista Jesi da " 1707 1737 or'9 Ital. Peri, Jacopo, (see Rimicini, who did not compose the first opera —Peri did) ". 550 1625 Eng. Purcell, Henry.. ". 1658 1695 Stal. Sacchini, Antonio, Maria Gaspardo.'. 1734 1786 Sapio... Tenor vocalist. 1792 1851 Ital. Scarlatti, Atlessandro... Coposer. 1659 1725 Ital. Spentini.. 1780 1861 Ger. Spohr, Louis-still living.. Violinist and coesposer. 1783 Stal. Stradella, Alessandro, about. Vocalist " 1645 1670 Ital. Tartini, Giuseppe... Violinist.. 1692 1770 Eng. Tailis, Thomas... Composer. 16th G. ABBREVIATIONS. Amer. American, Gr. Greek. Pruss. Prussian. Ara. Arabian. Heb. Hebrew. Rom. Roman, Assy. Assyrian. Hind. Hindon. RLuss. Russian. Bab. Babylonian. Ital. Italian. Sam. Samaritan. Bav. Bavarian. Jew. Jewislh. Sar. Sardinian. Car. Carthaginian. Mace. Macetlonian. Span. Spanish. Dan. Danish. Nor. Norman, Swe. Swedish. Eng. English. Pers. Persian. Syr. Syrian. Fr. French. Phen. Phoenician. U. S. A. United States of Her. German, Port. Portuguese IT. S. America.